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Illuminating The Aura of Nostalgia: Perceptions of Time, Place, and Identity (ANASTASIA PLATOFF)
Illuminating The Aura of Nostalgia: Perceptions of Time, Place, and Identity (ANASTASIA PLATOFF)
IlluminatingtheAuraofNostalgia:PerceptionsofTime,Place,andIdentity
AnastasiaPlatoff
BenningtonCollege
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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IlluminatingtheAuraofNostalgia:PerceptionsofTime,Place,andIdentity
Thepresentinvestigationisformulated,inpart,onthepresuppositionthatones
perceptionofselfcontinuityisthecoreofpersonalidentity,andthatthissenseoftemporal
coherenceisexperienceddiachronicallyandisthuslargelydependentonmemory(Davis,1979
Kandel,2006Lampinenetal.,2004Sedikidesetal.,2008James1890/1950).Nostalgiafits
withinthisframeworkasatransientcognitiveandaffectivestatethatinvolvesremembranceof
vivid,emotionallyladenmemoriesfromoneshistoryitisawaytobringthepastandpresent
intoamentallandscapethatisexemptfromconcernsoftime.Theaimofthisresearchisto
analyzenostalgiaasbothauniversalandparticularexperience,andtosubsequentlyexplorethe
potentialfunctionsofnostalgiaastheyrelatetoperceptionsofselfcontinuityovertime.The
meaningoneascribestoanygivenexperienceofnostalgiawillbeidiosyncratic,butacareful
investigationofwhatcharacterizesnostalgiaasasensoryandcognitive,albeitelusive,
phenomenonwillhelptoclarifyitsinclusiveimplicationsforselfcontinuity.
HistoricalPerceptionsofNostalgia
Thereisnopainsogreatasthememoryofjoyinpresentgrief
Aeschylus
Theconceptofnostalgiahasweatheredalonghistoryoftheoreticaldispute,regarding
bothitsdefinitionalandpsychologicalimplications.Nostalgiaisauniversalexperience,but
becauseitsaffectiveimpactisoftenmarkedbyfeelingsofambivalence,thephenomenonhas
alwaysbeendifficulttoanalyzeinconcreteterms.ThewordnostalgiaisofGreekorigina
nostos
hybridderivedfromthewords algos
and theformermeaningtoreturnhome,the
lattermeaningpainorsuffering.Thus,nostalgia,byitsliteraldefinition,isthesufferingcaused
bythedesiretoreturnhome(Sedikidesetal.,2011).Firstintroducedin1688bySwissphysician
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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JohannesHofer,thetermwasusedinanosologicalsensetodescribetheconditionofchronic
homesickness,particularlyinsoldiers.Thus,thefirstlinguisticuseofnostalgiahad
connotationsofmentaldisease.Bytheendoftheeighteenthcentury,nostalgiahadbecomewell
establishedinmedicaldiscourseasacontagiousandpotentiallyfatalcondition,withamyriadof
somaticsymptomsincluding:convulsions,afunnyemptyfeelinginthestomach,highblood
pressure,andalumpinthethroat(Naqvi,2007).Theknownremedywasrepatriation,but
treatmentsforacutecasesofnostalgiarangedfromthreateningaredhotirontotheabdomen
toadministeringhighdosesofopium(Cointe,1790Larrey,1888).
ByWorldWarII,Westernculturehadbecomeimmersedinthepsychoanalyticfieldand
anadditionaletiologyofnostalgiawasborn.Initiallyformulatedunderthenameofcryptic
nostalgia,thisformofnostalgiahadmanifestsymptomsofinattention,excessiveemotionality,
anddisobedienceconsequencesofamansfailuretorenouncehisinfantileloveforhismother.
(Fodor,1950).Theoriginofthenostalgicafflictionhadevolvedfromapathologicalyearningfor
oneshomeornationduringwartimetotheunconscioushomeofonesconceptionand
libidinalcathexis(i.e.,thewombandthemother,respectively).Ineithercase,thenostalgic
suffererwasdistinguishedbyhisanxious,childishbehaviorthesoldierwasdeemedacoward
ormalingerer,theanalysandacompulsiveneurotic.Theimplicationherewasthathome,the
focalpointofnostalgia,wasafixedplaceinthepastandthat,inthecourseofnormal
development,thisplaceissupposedtobeabandoned.Thepresenceofnostalgia,then,would
suggestthattheprocessofmaturationwasincompletelyexecutedthattherewasafailureof
renunciation,andafailuretoallowtimetomoveforward.
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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Astheconceptofnostalgiacontinuedtodevelopinthepsychiatricdomain,itsdisease
connotationsexperiencedaconcurrentdecline.Forexample,Werman(1977)depictedthe
medicalviewofnostalgiaasobsolete,andinsteadattemptedtoclarifynormalfrom
pathologicalnostalgia,drawingonthemodestamountofpsychiatricliteraturethathadbeen
publishedinthe1950sand1960s.Hisfirstpointofcontentionwastheperennialuseof
nostalgiaasasynonymforhomesicknessacomparisonthatreducednostalgiatointense
feelingsofsadnessandstrangebehavior,andthereforeneglecteditsnuancedcognitiveand
affectivefeatures.Wermanalsoemphasizedthattheubiquityofthenostalgicexperience
indicatesitsnormality,andthatpathologyexistsonlywhennostalgiahasdominatedallfunctions
ofthepsyche.Hethenaddressedtheunwarrantedcomparisonbetweennostalgiaandfantasy.
Theroleoffantasy,inpsychoanalysis,istoreviveanearlyexperienceofgratificationthatcan
substituteforthefulfillmentofapresent,unconsciouswish.Bycontrast,nostalgiacallsfortha
favorablepastexperience,notasasubstituteforawish,butforitself.Whilebothphenomena
involvepositiveremembrance,Werman(1977)notesthatnostalgiadoesnotnecessitateawish,
foritispossibletotreasureapastexperiencewithoutachingtoreturntoit.
Theepidemiologicalinterestinnostalgiaseemsephemeralincomparisontoitsperennial
andwidespreadexistenceasaliterarytheme.Beforetherewasevenawordforit,themotifof
Odyssey
nostalgiareverberatedthroughoutHomers(1921) Odysseus,farfromhiswifeand
homeinIthaca,isdesperatetoreturn.Thisperceivedlossofcentralitycausesadeficitinhis
personalsolidarity.Hegrievesoverthisdistance,buthismemoriesnurturehisvitalityandserve
asacopingagentinhispunishingcircumstances.
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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Oneofthemostpopularandevocativedescriptionsofpersonalnostalgiaistheepisodeof
SwannsWay
themadeleinein ,thefirstvolumeofMarcelProusts(1913)
Remembranceof
ThingsPast
.Inthisillustrationofinvoluntarymemory,thenarratorsitsdownforacupoftea
andpetitemadeleines.Hedipsthecookieintohistea,bringsittohismouth,andhissensesare
flooded:
No sooner had the warm liquid mixed with the crumbs touched my palate than a shudder ran
through me and I stopped, intent upon the extraordinary thing that was happening to me. An
exquisite pleasure had invaded my senses, something isolated, detached, with no suggestion of
its origin. And at once the vicissitudes of life had become indifferent to me, its disasters
innocuous,itsbrevityillusorythisnewsensationhavinghadonmetheeffectwhichlovehasof
this essence was not in meitwasme
filling me with a precious essence or rather [myitalics]...
Whence did it come? What did it mean? How could I seize and apprehend it? ... And suddenly
the memory revealed itself. The taste was that of the little piece of madeleine which onSunday
mornings at Combray ... when I went to say good morning to her in her bedroom, my aunt
Lonie used to give me, dipping it first in her own cup of tea or tisane. The sight of the little
madeleine had recalled nothing to my mind before I tasted it. And all from my cup of tea.
(Proust,1913,p.48)
Thispassageisexceptionallycompellinginitsilluminationofaphenomenonthatis
seldomexperiencedbutalwaysrecognized.WhereasOdysseuswillfullyharnessesnostalgiaasa
meanstosustainhimself,thenarratorinthisinstanceisreflexivelytriggeredbyaformerly
unconsciousrelicofhispersonalhistory.First,hissensoryfacultiesarestruckbysomeproperty
anovelsensation,yetonethatseemstoembodyhistotalperson.Uponsearchingforitssource,a
chapterfromthepasteffortlesslyrelocatesitselfinthepresent,inthenarratorsconscious
memory.Thetasteofthemadeleinebringswithitasenseoftemporalcontinuityitisthesame
madeleinenowasiteverwasand,accordingly,thenarratorofthepastandthenarratorofthe
presentbecomeontologicallyunitedinatransientspacewheretimeappearstobeimmaterial.
Thereisaparadoxinthismeetingofselves.Thememoryofthemadeleineis,likeany
othermemory,fixedinaparticularepisodeofthetemporalpast(Trigg,2007).However,this
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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memoryseemscapableofmovementitemergesfromtheunconsciousandrevealsitselfinthe
consciousminditmigratesfromtherealmofthelosttothatoftherecovered.Nostalgia
maintainsthecentralityofafixedpoint,againstwhichtimeandmemoryrevolve...the
convergenceofhomogeneousspace,togetherwithfeel,sound,andsmelloflostplace,brings
aboutamomentofprecariousequilibrium.(Trigg,2007).Triggsreasoningisembeddedinthe
metaphysical,buthisideasarerelevanttobothneurobiologicalandmorepractical
considerationsofnostalgiaandmemory.
Onanexperientiallevel,thespontaneousrecollectionofadetailedanddiscretememory,
suchasthatofthepetitemadeleine,isshockingtoitshumansubject,andnaturallysparksmany
selfdirectedquestions.Thememoryseemstosurfaceautomatically,buttheinterpretationis
dependentontheconscioussubject.Giventhesensoryexcitationandthenewyetfamiliar
qualityofthememory,itsretrievalandcontentarerecognizedaspersonallyimportantthatis,
ithasselfreferentialimplications.Thus,itwouldbeunderstandableifthesubjectdistinguished
thispastepisodeasasalientfeatureinhisdiachronicidentity,andsubsequentlyincludeditin
whatWilliamJameswoulddeemtheaggregateofthepronounIforwhywouldithavebeen
resurrectedwithsuchaffectivepotencyifitwerenotessentialtotheperson?Thenarratorlived
thispast,andthispastisstillinhimhecanseehimselfinthisplace,justashecanseehimselfin
thepresent.
Thediscursivehistoryofnostalgiaisnotlimitedtoitsprominenceasadiseaseentityand
aliteraryconceptsincethe1970s,nostalgiahasbecomeinfluentialinthefieldsofsociology
andconsumerresearch.Intermsofthelatter,studieshaveconsistentlyrevealedtheadvantages
ofdeployingthenostalgicexperienceasmarketingandadvertisingtool(Holbrook&
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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Schindler,1989).Inthemarketplace,nostalgiamaybeconveyedeitherthroughimplicitor
explicitreferencestoapasterathatthetargetconsumershaveexperienced,orthrough
advertisementsfeaturingnostalgiabasedproductsorstimuli(Havlena&Hovak,1991).The
successofthenostalgiaenterprisewouldsuggestthatpeoplearelookingtoreturntoapastthat
seemsmoreidealthanthepresent.Vintageandretrostyleclothingsongsandimages
evocativeofaspecifictimeorplaceproductsclaimedtohavebeenmadeinanauthentic,
ancestraltraditiontheseareexamplesofobjectsattractivetoapastorientedpublic.Empirical
laboratoryresearchhashelpedconsumerresearchinthiswaysincesociologistshavebegunto
studycommonaspectsofnostalgicreverieinpeopleofacertainage,lifestage,andgeneration,
advertisingexecutiveshavebeenabletocashinonthepublicscurrentappetite.
Forexample,Batcho(1995)foundthatnostalgiahasageneralagepattern,with
adolescents/youngadults(ages18to21)asthegroupthatwillinglyengagesinnostalgiamost
frequently.Theresultsofthisstudyrevealedcommontargetsoftheseyoungadultsnostalgia,
including:notknowingsadorevilthingsnothavingtoworryhavingsomeonetodependon
homeheroesfriendsandthewaypeoplewere.Fromadevelopmentalperspective,these
individualsrepresentthefifthofEriksonseightstagesofpsychosocialdevelopment
Identity
vs.RoleConfusion
(Erikson,1963).Underthepressuretochooseonesrolesinsociety,commit
toalastingideology,andultimatelyfosterastablesenseofidentity,theinclinationtoward
nostalgiaislikelyrelentless.Additionally,thephysicalrelocationtoacollegecampusornew
residencechallengesmanyyoungadultsperceptionsofselfcontinuity.Thesedevelopmental
upheavalsgivethepastanewtenorofmeaning:fortheadolescent,itisthestagebeforethings
becamecomplicatedandbefores/hewasconfrontedwiththeawarenessthatthings
could
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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becomecomplicated.Continuousthreadsoflifessimplicitythenbecomesymbolsofcomfort.
Earlierthisyear,theNickelodeontelevisionnetworkannouncedtheirdecisiontorebroadcast
thebelovedshowsthatyoungadultsweredevotedtoaschildreninthe1990sthisisaprime
exampleofapracticalbusinessexploitationofadolescentsunendingsearchforhalcyon
days.
ContemporaryResearchonNostalgia
Themostdramaticchangeinthediscourseonnostalgiahasbeentherecentsocial
psychologicalresearchthatcollectivelyatteststoitsmultiplicityofpsychologicalbenefits.For
nearlytwocenturies,nostalgiawasclassifiedasmaladaptive.However,withinthelasttenyears,
aprofusionofstudieshavereportedthatnostalgiamayactasabufferorcopingdevicefor
variousstressorsinlife.Forexample,nostalgiahasrecentlybeenclaimedto:counteract
loneliness(Zhouetal.,2010),enableselfcontinuity(Milligan,2003Sedikidesetal.,2008
Davis,1979),aidtheprocessofindividuation(Batchoetal.,2008),functionasanexistential
resource(Routledgeetal.,2011Sedikidesetal.,2004),reinstatemeaninginoneslife
(Wildschutetal.,2006),andserveasarepositoryofsocialconnectedness(Wildschutetal.,
2009).
Inthesecases,nostalgiaissaidtoplaytheroleofamediatorbetweenadesiredpastand
unfavorablepresent.Centraltothisresearchistheimplicitassumptionthatnostalgia,becauseit
isauniversalphenomenon,mustservesomesortofadaptivefunction.Itshouldbenoted,
however,thatthesestudiesareexperimentaland,forthisreason,resultsthatshowconsistency
withanyrespectivehypothesesarebasedonnostalgicmemoriesthathavebeeninduced.Inother
words,theparticipantsinanostalgiacondition(asopposedtoacontrolcondition)have
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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activelysiftedthroughtheirexplicitmemoriestofindananapplicableexperiencetothe
experimentalconditions.Thus,thememoriesthattheseresearchersanalyzearenotnewor
unfamiliartotheparticipantstheyaremostlikelyconscious,recursiveepisodesthathavebeen
frequentlyrehearsedandperhapsevenvocalizedinothersocialsettings.Withthisknowledge,it
maybeinferredthatthenostalgicmemoriesproducedintheexperimentalcontexthaveretained
enoughoftheirinitialemotionalvalencetobetemporallysituatedwithinthefabricofones
autobiographicalmemory.
Themajorityofnewresearchonnostalgiahasbeenconductedbysocialpsychologists
ConstantineSedikidesandTimWildschutandtheircolleaguesattheUniversityofSouthampton
inHampshire,England.Althoughtheircollectivefindingsarevastandintriguing,thestudies
outlinedinthisworkwillbelimitedtothosepertainingtothecentralaimsofthepresent
investigationfirstly,thepursuitofinclusivefactorsinthenostalgicexperience,andsecondly,
theeffectsthesefactorsmayhaveonindividualsperceptionsofselfcontinuityovertime.An
appropriatestartingpointisarecentpaperthathaspropoundedaprototypicalstructureofthe
nostalgicexperience.
Sedikidesetal.(2011)arguethattheevidencesuggestingthatnostalgiaservespositive
psychologicalfunctions,thoughpromising,remainequivocalbecausethemechanismsand
propertiesoftheactualexperiencehavenotbeenadequatelydelineated.Moreover,they
emphasizethefactthattherestillexistsnocoherentdefinitionofnostalgiaonethatgetstothe
substanceofthefeeling,ratherthantheprocess.Toresolvethisproblem,theseresearchers
recruitedagroupof232laypeopletolistallthefeaturesthat,intheiropinion,distinguished
nostalgia.Theythenclassifiedtheseresponsesintoseparateexemplarsofmeaningintotal,35
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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descriptivefeaturesofnostalgiaweregenerated.Fromthis,itwaspossibletoarrangethese
featureshierarchicallyaccordingtotheirfrequency.Amediansplitdeterminedthehighest18
featuresascentraltonostalgiaandthelowest17asperipheralfeatures.Thecentral
featuresrelatedtofond,rosetinted,andpersonallymeaningfulmemoriesofchildhoodand
relationships.Althoughthecentralfeaturesfocusedmainlyonpositiveemotions,theyalso
containedsomerelevantnegativefeelingtones,suchasmissingandlonging.Theperipheral
featureshadfeelingtonesofgriefanddepression.
Thereliabilityofthisprototypewastestedwithanothergroupofparticipants,who
characterizedtheirownnostalgicevents.Theresultsexhibitedaconsensus,withthecentral
featuresofnostalgiaappearingmostfrequentlyinparticipantsnarrativesofexperience.In
athirdstudy,nostalgiawasinducedinacentralprototypegroup,aperipheralprototype
group,andanostalgiceventgroup.Forthetwoformerconditions,theexperimenters
inducednostalgiabypresentingparticipantswithalistofeithercentralorperipheral
features,askingthemtorecallaneventcharacterizedbythosefeatures.Theydidnotusethe
wordnostalgiaintheseconditions.Inthenostalgiceventcondition,theexperimentersasked
participantstoreflectonanostalgicevent.Inlinewiththeirpredictions,participantsreported
higherlevelsofstatenostalgiainthecentralprototypeandnostalgiceventconditions
thanintheperipheralprototypecondition.Additionally,thewordsusedbyparticipantsin
thenostalgiceventconditiontoconveytheirexperiencesmostoftenbelongedtothelist
ofcentralfeatures,andweretypicallyusedpriortoanyperipheralfeatures.Together,these
findingsdemonstratedaprototypicalstructureofnostalgiathatwasfarmorecompatiblewithits
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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Homericmeaningi.e.,asanelicitedsourceofvitalityatatimeofirresolution,ratherthanthe
historicalunderstandingofnostalgiaaspsychologicallydestructive.
Whilethisstudyoutlinessomethematiccontentofthenostalgicexperience,thereare
manyotherfacetsofmeaninginnostalgiathatexistoutsideofitsemotionaltones(e.g.
bittersweetlonging)anditstargetsorobjects(e.g.familyvacations).Forexample,Davis(1979)
hasnotedthat,acrossalltheoriesofnostalgia,thereisagreementthatitissomethinginthe
present
situationthatpromptsreflectionofthepast,andforthisreason,nostalgiatellsusmore
aboutpresentmoodsthanpastrealities(p.10).Withthisviewinmind,anexaminationofthe
farreachingmotifsofnostalgiamaysupportoursearchforthemotivatingforcesbehindits
emergence,and,reciprocally,aninvestigationofthetriggersofnostalgiamayhaveabearingon
thequalitiesthatareconsideredemblematicofthenostalgicexperience.
Inaseriesofstudies,Wildschutandhiscolleaguesperformedcontentanalysesof42
autobiographicalnarrativesonnostalgia.Thiswasafruitfulmethodofcompilingmaterial,forit
didnotrelyonthelaboratorycontext,whichposesmethodologicalconstraintsthatareoften
incompatiblewiththeassessmentofanaturalphenomenon.Whentheauthorsperusedthe
collectionofnarratives,theydiscoveredsomenotable,unifyingelementsamongthe
descriptions.Typically,thesenarrativesfeaturedtheselfastheprotagonist,eitherininteractions
withcloseothersorinmomentousevents,andencompassedmoreexpressionsofpositivethan
negativeaffect(Wildschutetal.,2006).Onenewlydiscernedpatternwasthattheprotagonistsin
thesenarrativesfrequentlyillustratedredemption(asopposedtocontamination)sequences,in
whichtheselfprogressedfromanegativeconditiontoafavorable,triumphantone.Insum,these
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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narrativescharacterizednostalgiaasaselfrelevantandpositiveemotion,commonlycentered
aroundmemoriesofmeaningfulsocialinteractions.
Todeterminethemajortriggersofnostalgia,theauthorssolicitedagroupof172
universitystudentstoprovidedescriptionsoftheconditionsunderwhichnostalgiahasoccurred
foreachoftheminthepast.Theseresultswerethencodedintocategoriesandorganizedby
prevalenceasfollows:negativeaffectsocialinteractionssensoryinputs(e.g.smellsandmusic)
tangibles(e.g.,relics)similareventsinertiapositiveaffectanniversariesandsettings(e.g.
oneshometown).38%oftheparticipantslistedanegativeaffectivestateasaprecipitantof
nostalgiaacategorythatincludeddescriptionsofbothdiscreteaffectivestates(e.g.,lonely)
andgenerally
negativemoods(e.g.,sad).Thisfindingisespeciallyinterestingwhenoneconsiderstheaffective
impactofengaginginnostalgicrecollection.Theauthorsfoundthat,despitenostalgiabeing
triggeredbynegativeaffect,thefinalaffectivestateofparticipantswascharacterizedby
increasedpositivity,positiveselfregard,andaperceivedstrengtheningofsocialbonds.In
contrast,theparticipantsinthecontrolcondition,whowereaskedtorecallanddescribean
ordinaryevent,didnotexperiencetheseshiftsinaffect.
Theauthorsusedtheirobservationstoexplorethebroaderimplicationsofnostalgiaasa
mechanismforpsychologicalwellbeing.Theirresultssuggestthatnostalgicreveriecanprovide
therapeuticbenefitswhenoneisfeelingdisillusionedbypresentcircumstances.Thepositive
augmentationofparticipantsemotions,perceptionsofcontinuity,andfeelingsofsocial
connectednessobservedinthisstudyarepromising,andshouldbeexploredfurtherinfuture
research.
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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WhatMakesNostalgicMemoryDifferent?
Aprincipalquestionthathasyettobeaddressedishownostalgiadiffersfromordinary
recollectionofalivedpast.Althoughthetriggers,content,andfunctionsofnostalgicmemories
havebeenconsidered,theseelementsdonotconveytheparticularfeelingoftheexperience,like
thatwhichwereadinProust.Infact,theexplicittriggersandcontentappeartooccupythe
peripheralregionsofthiscognitiveandemotionalconstellationthatis,untiltheyare
contemplatedandsubsequentlyascribedwithpersonalmeaning.
Aninitialepisodeofnostalgicremembranceisawakenedinvoluntarily,butthereafter
maybeconsciouslyharnessedtosuitaparticularpurpose,suchastorelaythememoryto
anotherpersonorgroup,toreinterpretitsmeaning,ortoassessthedegreeofresemblanceor
incongruitybetweenonesperceivedpastandpresentselves.Butcouldwenotclaimthat
thisistrueforalltypesofmemory?Itisentirelypossibletorecallageneralmemoryofthe
past,communicateittoothers,andawarditaplaceinonesinternalautobiography.Self
relevantmemoriesneednotpromptvisceralreactionstobedeemedpertinenttooneslifestory.
However,inthesemusingsonthesimilaritiesbetweennostalgiaandremembrance,wecansee
thedifferenceswithgreaterclarity.Totakeanappreciativestancetowardcertainpasteventsand
tofeelasenseofsamenessovertimeisincommensuratewithnostalgiaafeelingthatcomprises
thewarmthoffamiliarityandthevestigialpangofloss,whichcoalesceandimbueuswitha
something
nebulousyetdistinctive thatcanonlybesupplementedwithanexplanationoncethe
individualcreatesone.
Memoryisessentialfortheconstructionandmaintenanceofacontinuoussenseof
identityovertime(see,e.g.,James,1950/1890Schacter,1996Wilson&Ross,2003).However,
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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allmemoriesarenotcreatedequal.Studiesincognitionandneurosciencehaveprovideda
tremendousamountofinsightintothenatureofmemorywhat,why,andhowpeopleremember
theirpastsarenolongerinsolublequestionsthatmustbeaddressedwithspeculation.Inthecase
ofnostalgia,weknowthatthisexperiencehascognitiveandaffectivecomponents:thecognitive
functionisemployedintheactofrecallandourperceptionworkstoelaboratetherecollection
(e.g.,whentheeventtookplace,howoldonewas,whowaspresent,andwhatitmeans).The
affectiveelementsofnostalgiadetailhowonefeltduringthispastepisode,aswellashowoneis
feelingatthetimeofrecall.Duetothestrongemotionaltonesandsensoryawarenessthatare
oftenactivated,itisalsoclearthattheneuralmechanismsofnostalgiaaredistinctfromthe
neurologyofothermemoryencoding,storage,andretrievalprocesses.Ourperceptionsof
nostalgicmemorieshaveauniquesalience,andarethusidentifiedinourbrainsasqualitatively
differentfromothermemoriesofthepast.Theoriginofthesedifferenceslieincognitiveand
neurologicalmemorysystems,andthedynamicsofthesecerebralinteractionsarecrucialtoour
understandingoftherelationshipbetweennostalgiaandperceptionsoftemporalcontinuity.
Cognitive,Affective,andMotivationalAspectsofNostalgia
Anumberofvariablesmaybeconsideredwhenreflectingonanostalgicmemory.Atthe
timeofretrieval,wemaynotetheaffectivestateormoodthatwewereinbeforeoratthe
momentthememorywastriggered,aswellashowwefeltduringandafterthisremembrance
occurred.Iftheaffectivestatetransformsuponmemoryrecall,onewillnaturallysearchforthe
reasonbehindthisshiftwhataboutthisspecificmemoryengenderedsuchaprofoundchange?
First,wemaythinkaboutthepossiblemotivesforthisretrieval.WilsonandRoss(2003)
arguethatthereisatwostepprocessinvolvedintherecollectionofautobiographicalmemories:
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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Becausepresentattributesandfeelingsarefrequentlymoreaccessiblethanpastones,
individualsstartthisprocesswithcurrentselfappraisals,e.g.,
HowdoIfeelaboutXtoday?
Next,peopleinvokeimplicittheoriesaboutthestabilityoftheirownattributesandfeelingsto
constructapastthatissimilartoordifferentfromthepresent(Wilson&Ross,2003).This
lattersteptendstoinvolveaconsistencybias,inwhichoneunconsciouslyreshapesthepastto
makeitconsistentwithpresentthoughts,feelings,andbeliefs(Schacter,2003Wilson&Ross,
2002).Studieshaveshowntheinfluentialroleoftheselfintheencodingandretrievalof
episodicmemorieswheninformationisencodedinrelationtoourselves,itisusually
rememberedbetterandretrievedmoreeasilythanothertypesofsemanticmemory(Brown&
Kulik,1977Schacter,2002).
WilliamJames(1890/1950)positedthatperceptionsofcontinuityovertimearenecessary
forindividualstomaintainasenseofcogentidentity.Peoplearemotivatedtofeelandpresent
themselvesasstableandconsistent,andtoberecognizedassuch.Weknowthatcontinuity
cannotexistwithoutchangeprogressionsintime,space,age,anddevelopmentaretheproducts
ofcontinualsuccessionsofchanges.However,becausethesemovementsareslightandoccurin
sequence,weperceivethesechangesascontinuous.Thisisneitheranillusionnoralie,but
ratherthenatureofhumanperception.Exaggerationsorinferencesofcontinuityaregenerally
theproductsofpassive,unconsciousmotivation.Insomecases,recollectionsofthepastare
fabricatedandinaccurate,dependingonthecurrentgoaloneistryingtoaccomplish,butthis
shouldnotbejudgedasanactiveattempttoalterorerasethepast.Instead,hisimplicit
motivationshouldbeviewedasapotentiallyadaptiveforceifanindividualperceivespast
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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attitudesandtraitsasharmoniouswithcurrentones,thisbringsalevelofselfpredictionand
selfpossessiontoanotherwiseincongruousself.
WilsonandRoss(2003)alsodiscussthemotivationforselfenhancement,which
necessitatesaperceptionofchangeovertime:Bydepreciatingtheirformersatisfactionlevels,
individualscreatetheillusionofimprovementeveninthefaceofactualdecline.Withregardto
nostalgia,thislattercritiquemaynotbeapplicable,sinceengaginginnostalgicreverieusually
comprisesanidealizationofthepast.Nevertheless,thefeelingofdiscrepancybetweencurrent
andformerselvescertainlyholdsaninfluentialpositionwhenoneconsiderstheeffectsof
nostalgiaonperceptionsofcontinuity.Formostpeople,recentselvesarediscernedasmore
pertinentandfamiliarthanselvesofadistantpast,whichmaysometimesfeellikestrangers
(WilsonandRoss,2003vanderKolketal.,1991Bell,1997).Thismotivationfordistance,like
themotivationforcloseness,mayserveanadaptivefunction,especiallyasitrelatestotraumaor
majortransitions.Bydissociatingthepastselffromthecurrentself,individualsmitigatethreats
toidentitybyfacilitatingasenseoftemporalandspatialdistancetheymayfeelasthoughtheir
liveshavefollowedatrajectoryofcontinualimprovementduetoorinspiteofcertainchanges.
Inthesemanipulationsofsubjectivefamiliarityanddistance,changesbetweenthepastand
presentcaneitherbejustified(e.g.XmademewhoIamtoday)orestranged(e.g.Thatwasthe
oldme,WhenXhappened,Iwasntmyself).WilsonandRoss(2003)emphasizethatthese
actsofrememberingattendtopersonalbenefit,ratherthanveracity.Theyareactivefunctionsof
identitymaintenance,andthegoalisnottorecapturethetruthofapastevent,buttorevisepast
andpresentappraisals(althoughthetwoarenotmutuallyexclusive).Thebidirectionallink
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
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betweenmemoryandidentityisdemonstratedherecurrentselfviewsinfluencerecollection,
butarealsoinfluencedbywhatandhowweremember.
Inaddressingthequestionofwhyacertainpasteventoccurred,peoplerecognizepast
eventseitherasconnectedtoorseparatedfromtheircurrentidentity,basedpartlyonhowthe
specificmemoryfitspresentselfrepresentations.Additionally,individualsmayeitherdecideto
makesenseofpasteventsandincorporatethemintoabroader,cohesivenarrativeortoleave
theseeventsunexplained,remote,andanomalous.NigroandNeisser(1983)refertothelatter
asobserverorthirdpersonmemory,inwhichindividualsreflectonearlyexperiencesfroma
detachedperspective,seeingthemasobjectivecircumstances.
Theantithesisofthistypeofretrospectionisreferredtoasfieldmemory,whichis
experiencedasthrougheyesoftheindividual.Peoplesfieldmemoriesareoftenmoreemotional
andvividthanobservermemories,soonewouldpresumethatmostnostalgicmemoriesfitinto
thiscategory.Whetheranindividualremembersapasteventfromafieldoranobserver
perspectivedependsonmotivationatthetimeofattemptedrecall(Schacter,1996).Apowerful
stimulusinthepresent,suchasanintenseemotionormeaningfulartifact,willlikelyprovoke
memoriesexperiencedfromafieldposition.Fieldmemoriesareanindicationofenduringtiesto
thepasttheremembererisusingthesameeyestoreminisceonthisepisodeass/hedidwhenthe
eventwasoriginallyexperienced,andtheemotionsofthispastarefeltinthepresent.Inthis
way,thememoryseemstohavepreserveditsauthenticity,aswellasitsassociationwiththe
presentself.
Anothercognitivecomponentofnostalgiarelatestojudgmentandaffectonceanostalgic
memoryhasbeenrecalled.LeboeandAnsons(2006)executedaninvestigationintothecognitive
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
17
rootsofnostalgia,andbasedontheirresults,theyclaimedthatthesubjectiveexperienceof
nostalgiaisamisattributionofpositiveaffectandvividimagerytheyarecausedbytheactof
successfulrecall,butareattributedtothecontentofthememory:Recollectionsthatarerichin
meaningareuniqueintheircapacitytoproduceapositiveaffectiveresponse...mentally
transportapersontosomepriorcircumstance,givingthemthesubjectiveimpressionthatthey
arerelivingthepast(LeboeandAnsons,2006,p.607).
Recollectionswithsuchevocativepoweraregenerallyinfluencedbyperceptual
fluencyatermusedtodescribethespeedandeasewithwhichstimuliarecognitively
processed.Stimulithathavehighfluencywillbequicklyrecognized,conveyingtotheindividual
afeelingoffamiliarity.Thesubsequentperceptionisthatthisstimulusbelongstosomeaspectof
thepersonspast.Evenstimulithatelicitambiguousfeelingsoffamiliaritywillpromptthe
controlledsearchforamemorywithanepisodicrepresentationofthestimulus,inorderto
mitigatethesefeelingsofuncertainty(Jacobyetal.,1985).Oncethisrecollectionrushesinto
consciousness,aburstofpositiveaffectwillaccompanythememoryastheresultofsuccessful
recall.
Ahostofstudieshavedemonstratedthelinksbetweenperceptualcognitiveprocesses
andaffectiveresponse(e.g.Bornstein,1999JacobyKihlstrom,1987LeDoux,2002Schacter,
1996).Oneofthemostgroundbreakingfindings,strikinginitssimilaritytoFreudshypothesis,
hasbeentheobservedexistenceofthecognitivenonconscious.Itisnowwidelyacknowledged
thatsubliminalperceptionandimplicitmemory(whatFreudreferredtoastheunconscious)can
affectmentalfunctionswithoutbeingconsciouslyperceivedorremembered.Forexample,Reber
etal.s(2004)researchonperceptualfluencyandjudgmentsofaestheticbeautyrevealthat
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
18
stimuliwithhighprocessingcapability(i.e.,stimulithatareeasilyprocessedinthebrain)have
anintrinsichedonicmarking,whichnaturallyelicitsaperceptionoffamiliarityandevaluative
judgmentsofpleasantnessandattraction.Visualstimuliwithcertainobjectivefeatures,suchas
symmetry,alargeamountofinformation,figuregroundcontrast,andclarity,areeasily
processedbyindividuals,andhavebeenshowntoresultinaconscious,positiveaffect.Itisnot,
however,theperceptualorprocessingfluencythatfacilitatesthesejudgmentsandpreferences,
sincefluencyisoftenexperiencedwithoutconsciousawareness.Instead,thepositiveaffective
reactiontotheseprocessesiswhattheobserverconsciouslyinterpretsandmisattributestothe
contentoftheobjectitself.
Nostalgicmemoriesareoftenvivid,stronginemotionalvalence,andcontainaspecific
spatiotemporalorientation.Ifthesecontextualelementsremainintactuponrecall,wecanassume
thatmoststimulifornostalgiahaveaninnatehedonicmarkingthatallowsforfluencyin
processingandretrieval.Inthisway,theperceivedsparkoffamiliarityinanobjectorexperience
willprompttheconsciousself,theactiverememberer,totakeupaheuristicsearchforan
episodethatconformswiththefeelingsinducedbythestimulusandsatisfiescurrentself
representations(Bornstein,1999).Whenweperceiveanevent,weactivatefragmentsof
preexistingknowledgestoredinmemorywhenweattendtotheevent,thecorresponding
mentalrepresentationbecomespartofourworkingmemory(Kihlstrom,1992,pp.6768).This
recreationofmemoryparallelsWilsonandRoss(2002)propositionthatmotivatedperceptions
ofspatiotemporalorientation(closenessordistance)haveabidirectionallinkwithmotivated
selfappraisalsofeithercontinuityorchangeovertime.
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
19
Sinceperceptual,processing,andretrievalfluencyareusuallyhighinmemoriesand
artifactsthatinducenostalgia,thisnotonlyexplainsourtendencytoaugmentthepastasmore
favorableandrosetinted,butalsomakesthepreviouslyunaccountablefeelingofwarmth
moreintelligibleasaphenomenon.LeboeandAnsons(2006)argumentmaybetrueinthis
casethatthesepositivefeelingsaremisattributionsofcognitiveefficiencytothecontentofthe
recollection.Additionally,itispossiblethategocentricandconsistencybiasesareconcurrent
forcesinthistypeofretrospection,allowingustorememberthepastinawaythatsupportsour
currentself(Schacter,2002,p.234).
Intheinvestigationofcognitive,affective,andmotivationalmechanismsbehind
nostalgia,wehaveconcretizedsomeoftheelusiveaspectsofthenostalgicexperience.When
presentedintheirtechnicalform,thesetreasured,poignantsensationsareseenastheoutcomes
ofcognitiveerrors.Dothesescientifictruthsdamageourappreciativeimpressionsofnostalgia?
Shouldtheyhavebeenkeptambiguous?Thatisallamatterofsubjectivejudgment.Takinga
favorablestancetowardonespastmaynotalwaysbereflectiveofreality,buttheconstructionof
suchanillusionhasproventobeanadaptivestrategyinitscapacitytoreviveselfrelevant,
temporalassociationsandimproveonespresentaffectivestate.
Itmustalsobeacknowledgedthat,nomatterwhaterrors,biases,andimaginingswe
instillinthememoriesthatmakeusnostalgic,nostalgiaisarealfeelingonethatsatisfiesour
needforatangiblepastthatcaninhabitourpresent.AsT.S.Eliotwrites,thissenseofmobile
historygratifiesnotonlythepastnessofthepast,butofitspresence...asenseofthetimeless
aswellasofthetemporalandofthetimelessandofthetemporaltogether(Eliot,1932,p.21).
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
20
Theabstractpowerofthissensationshouldnotbeoverlooked,norshouldtheformal,technical
meansofitsemergence.
TheNeurobiologyofNostalgia
Emotionalmemoriesaredistinctivelyencoded,consolidated,andactivatedinthebrain,
andthereforeelicituniquesubjectiveexperiencesofthem.Beginninginthe1980s,the
developmentofbrainimagingtechnologyenabledneuroscientiststolookinsidethehumanbrain
andwatchactivityinvariousregionsaspeopleengagedinhighermentalfunctions,suchas
perception,action,language,andplanning(Kandel,2006).Inparticular,twobrainstructures,
locateddeepwithinthecerebralcortex,havebeenshowntoplaycrucialrolesintheprocessing
andregulationofaffectivememories.Thefirstistheamygdala,asmall,almondshaped
formationthatisactivatedattheonsetofemotionalarousal.Theamygdalalearnsandmodulates
theemotionalcontentofevents,sothatthesameemotionallychargedstimuli,ifencountered
again,willimplicitlyprompttheappropriatebehavioralandaffectiveresponses.
Thesecondsignificantformation,locatednexttotheamygdala,isthehippocampus.This
structureisconcernedwiththedetailsofepisodicmemory,includingthespatialandtemporal
contextinwhichtheeventoccurred.Thehippocampusisalsoinfluentialinconvertingshort
termmemoriestolongtermmemories,aprocessknownaslongtermpotentiation,which
developsthroughmechanismsofprolongedsynapticplasticityandtransmission(Kandel,2006).
Thishippocampalprocessmarkscommonsemanticfeaturesamongdifferentepisodessothat
theyareidentifiedandgroupedinourmemorythroughassociativelinks.
Amygdalahippocampalinteractionshavebeendemonstratedtosupporttheenhancement
ofepisodicmemoryforemotionallysignificantevents(Andersonetal.,2006).Inturn,greater
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
21
recollectionforemotionaleventscausesthemtobemorerichlyexperiencedinmemory(Todd&
Anderson,2009).Whiletheamygdalaisresponsibleforprocessingandstrengtheningthegeneral
affectivetoneoftheinitialeventandmoderatingtheemotionalresponsetoitssubsequent
retrievals(aformofprocedurallearning),thehippocampusrecordsthecontextualelementsand
mnemonicfeaturesthatcorrespondwiththisglobalemotionalrepresentation,buildinga
localizedneuralsubstrateforemotionalbehaviorthatcanbeidentifiedbytheindividualand
expressedasdeclarativeknowledge.
Earlymodelsofaffectiveneuroscienceunderstoodemotionasaninstinctivelyelicited
responsetotheconsciousperceptionofamomentouscircumstance.Thisconsciousrecognition
wasthoughttotriggerunconscious,reflexive,andautonomicreactionsinthebody(Kandel,
2006).Inhisseminalandhighlydebatedpaper,WhatisEmotion?,WilliamJames(1884)
challengedthisprevailinghypothesis,arguingthatthephysiologicalexpressionofemotion
precedesanyassociatedcognitiveexperience.Thisprinciplebecamethebasisforwhatisknown
resultfrom
astheJamesLangetheory,whichadvancesthenotionthatemotions aphysiological
reaction(e.g.anincreaseordecreaseinbloodpressure,heartrate,andmusculartension)toan
emotionalstimulus,ratherthantheotherwayaround.Inthisprocess,sensationsareturnedinto
perceptions,thoughts,andmemories(Dalgleish,2004).
Theautobiographicaleventsthatlingerinourmemorypossessapotentaffectivevalence,
firstactivatedatthetimeoftheevent,whichwasencodedandreceivedprolongedstrengthening
overtime.Uponevocation,thesememoriescontinuetoberichlyexperienced,bothcognitively
andphysiologically.Therepresentationofamemoryinthebrainotherwiseknownasthe
engramhasapowerfulinfluenceonhowwesubjectivelyexperiencememoriesofalivedpast.
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
22
DanielSchacter(1996)haseloquentlydefinedtheengramanditsfunctions:
Engrams are the transient or enduring changes in our brains that result from
encoding an experience the brain records an event by strengthening the
connections between groups of neurons that participate in encoding the
experience. A typical incident in our everyday lives consists of numerous sights,
sounds, actions, and words. Different areas of the brain analyze these varied
aspects of an event. As a result, neurons in the different regions become more
strongly connected to one another. Thenewpatternofconnectionsconstitutesthe
brains record oftheevent:theengram...Thesepatternsofconnectionshavethe
potential to enter awareness, tocontributetoexplicitrememberingundertheright
circumstances, but at any one instant most of them lie dormant (Schacter, 1996,
pp.5859).
Whethertheemergenceofnostalgiaisdeliberateorspontaneous,thenavigationthrough
associatedgroupsofneuronsthatallowforretrievaloftherespectiveepisodeproceedsina
similarway.Returningourthoughtstotheepisodeofthemadeleine,itwasnotedthatthecookie
actedasthesensorystimulusandretrievalcue,provokingachainreactionofcognitiveand
affectiveprocesses,whichbeganwithphysiologicalexcitation,followedbyavivid
reexperiencingofthepast,andendedwithajudgmentoftheepisodeassalient.
Amomentofrecollectioninvolvesconcomitantworkingsfromperceptual,sensory,
affective,motivational,andcognitivenetworksinthenervoussystem.Thedramaticflashof
involuntaryremembrancearisesfromthemutuallyenhancingeffectsofgreatersympathetic
arousal,amygdalarecruitment,increasedattention,andamplifiedperceptualprocessing,known
togetherasmotivatedattention(Todd&Anderson,2009,p.1).Amygdalaactivityfacilitates
theinductionandexpressionofhippocampallongtermpotentiation.Thus,thedegreeof
amygdalaarousalcorrelateswiththeeaseofsubsequentrecall,whichmayexplainwhynostalgic
memoriesremaindetailed,evocative,andeasilyretrievedaftertheirfirstrecollection(Ochsner,
2000McGaugh,2004).
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
23
Theneurobiologyofemotionalmemoryclarifiesthequestionofwhytheseartifacts,
places,andscenesscarcelyleaveus,whensomanyotheraspectsofourpastsseemtodecayor
becomemutedovertime.Althoughtheinitialimpactofanostalgicepisodeisusuallycontext
and/orstatedependent,indicativeofassociativeretrievalprocesses,deliberatereminiscenceisa
laboredactofstrategicretrieval,whichoftendrawsfrommnemonicsencodedatthetimeofthe
episodesoccurrence.Visualimagerymnemonicsi.e.,forminganimageandconnectingittoa
mentallocationoranaffectivestatecontributetothelucidityandeaseofrecollectionand
cultivateathreadofsemanticselfknowledgethatweavesautobiographicalmemoriestogether
(Schacter,1996).Weareintermittentlyconfrontedwiththeknowledgeofourownforgotten
paststhepeople,topography,beliefs,andimagesofourhistoriesbecomemarkedlyuncertain.
Bycontrast,theobjectsofournostalgiadonotappeartosufferthisfatetheseemotive
memoriesremainbrightandredolentofourenduringidentities,owinginparttothewaysour
brainsrespondstothesefragmentsofexperienceandlinksthemtogether.
Bythispoint,wehaveexploredvariousphenomenologicalfacetsofnostalgia.Another
vitalcomponentofthisanalysis,whichhasbeenmentionedbutnotexplicitlyaddressed,isthe
socialdimensionofthenostalgicexperience.StudiesfromBatcho(1995),Sedikidesetal.
(2011),andWildschutetal.(2006)haveillustratedthesocialfeaturesthatexistinthethematic
contentofnostalgicmemoriestheseinvestigatorsobservedthatmostnostalgicmemories
comprisetherememberedpresenceoffriends,family,andlovedones.However,thisresearch
hasnotexaminednostalgiaasacollectiveorinteractiveengagement.Whenwethinkabouttime,
place,heritage,andmemory,thecollectivepasthasnolesssignificancethanthepersonal.In
contextsofrendezvousandritual,suchasweddings,funerals,andhighschoolreunions,the
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
24
membersofatimeorplacebasedcollectiverehashsharedmemoriestonotethesimilaritiesand
differencesbetweenthemutualpastandpersonalpresent.
Theprivate,reflectivepastispredicatedontheexistenceofapastsharedbyones
communitypersonalhistoryisimprintedwiththeassociations,symbols,andvaluesinherited
andcreatedbythecultureofwhichoneispart.Socialupheavalsaffectthepersonandthegroup,
whichposesamultifariousthreattoselfcontinuitywecommonlyrelyoncertainothersto
reassureourperceptionsofcontinuousidentity,totellusthatwearethesame,thatwehavent
changed,thatwearestillourselves.However,inatimeofculturaldisruption,individuals
areconfrontedwithakindofdiscontinuitythattranscendspersonalconcerns.Nostalgiain
thesecircumstancescanbeinfusedwiththeemotionsofthousandsofpeople,allofwhom
haveliterallyandsymbolicallylosttheirpersonal,cultural,andnationalhomes.Isitpossible
forcollectivenostalgiatoprovidesolaceincasesofsuchfracturedcontinuity?Ifnot,what
implicationsdothesebreacheshaveforindividualandcollectiveperceptionsofidentity?
CollectiveNostalgia:ReconstructingTimeandPlaceWithMemory
Icantthrowabridgebetweenthepresentandthepast,andtherefore[I]cantmake
timemove(EvaHoffman,1989,pp.116117).
Tosomeextent,individualscansealpastexperiencesthroughoverdeterminismwemay
deducethatXoccurredasadirectresultofhowwewererearedbyourcaregivers,our
enculturationandacquisitionofknowledge,andahostofotherbiographicaleventsthatpreceded
andeffectuallycausedX(e.g.Robinson,1977).Weimposeorderonourlivesbysituating
meaningfulexperienceswithinaspatialandtemporalframeworkofcausality,creatingamental
landscapeofcontinuitybetweenthoughts,feelings,andactions.Wereifyandshelterthese
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
25
sacredspacesfromtheforcesoffragmentationsothatwemayfeelasthoughtheyareensured
againstpotentialloss.Thepretenseoforderthatwecreateforourselveshasamajorcaveatin
thatwebecomeheedlesstounbiddenchance.Theunknowabletherealmthatweareeternally
incapableofreachingcaninfiltrateourconditionalnetworksofselfunderstandingand
suddenlyundothetiesofidentitythatwebelievedweresecure.Precipitantsofsuchdisturbance
mayexistonanindividualandacollectivescale,buttheresultingprivationsofthelatterare
oftenofgreaterconsequence.
Withinacultureespeciallyonethatfacesprejudicethesharedcategoriesof
understandingthatseemimmutable,suchaslanguage,symbolism,legacy,andtopography,can
beerodedbythehandsofcommandingforces.Whensubjugatedorotherwisevictimizedgroups
ofpeopleareforcedtoreconstructtheirlivesfromthefragmentsofruin,thesurroundingsocial
frameworkshapestheremembrance,communication,andinterpretationoftheselosses.The
collectivepastmaytransformintomemoriesthatbecomerepressed,haunted,idealized,or
publiclysilenced.Apfelbaum(2000)maintainsthatvictimsneedtotelltheirstorieswithina
widersocialforuminordertomakesenseoftheirlivedtraumaticevents.Otherwise,these
memoriesareentombed,receivingnolegitimationexceptwhensharedwithfellowsufferers,
whichengendersadissociationbetweenindividualsprivateandpubliclives.
Nostalgiathatsubsumespersonalexperiencewithinanindividualsfallenculturalmilieu
andhistoryembodiesakindoftranspersonalremembranceastrivetoconvalesceanow
indivisibleduoofcollectiveandpersonalselfhood.Onecouldexpectthatthistypeofnostalgiais
mostinfluentialandenlighteningwhensharedwithothers,especiallythosewhohave
experiencedthesameloss.Inalllikelihood,individualswithindisruptedcollectivesarestirred
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
26
byasimilarfeelingofnostalgia,fortheypossessthesameacuteperceptionofthetemporal,
spatial,collective,andpersonaldiscontinuitiesthathavebrokenallpastnotionsofcoherence.
Collectiveuprootinghassweepingimplicationsforidentity,andApfelbaumarguesthat
theattempttorationalizethecausesbehindsucheventsisanineffectualapproachto
psychologicalrecovery.Instead,shebelievesweneedatheoreticalframeworkthatrealizes
theimportanceofsocioculturalcontextsandthefactthatpeopleareenmeshedingenealogical
filiationsasmembersofafamilyhistory,aswellasinabroadersocietyshistoryandits
changingrepresentations(Apfelbaum,2000,p.1010).Withoutapublicoutletforexpression,
silencebecomesinevitableasspeechisrenderedimpossible.Consequently,thechildrenoffuture
generationsarebornbereftoftheirorigins,butarenonethelessforcedtobeartheweightofa
culturalpastthatisabstract,misapprehended,orunintelligible.Anarrativeofpersonal
experience,framedwithinasubstantive,collectivechronicle,isparamountforvictimsandtheir
childrentoreclaimthepast.Initself,thepastdoesnotmakethepresentmeaningfulitisthe
internallyrecognized,collectivelyunderstood,andopenlyexpressedrepresentationofthepast
thatbringsmeaningtothepresent.Apluralityofvoices,publiclyacknowledgedand
memorialized...canbeabeneficialtriggerforadelayedmorning,aswellasfora
reconstructionofbrokenidentities(Apfelbaum,2000,p.1011).
~~~
Inthesunsetofdissolution,everythingisilluminatedbytheauraofnostalgia
(MilanKundera,1984,p.4)
Theexperienceofnostalgia,wehavelearned,isbothuniversalandparticular.The
universalityofthefeelings,thoughts,events,andplacesthatfilluswithnostalgiashouldnotbe
interpretedasadenialofdifferences.Wemaypossessarationalunderstandingofthenostalgic
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
27
memoriesthatourfriendsandfamilyholdasmeaningfultracesofidentity,becausewe
feeling
understandandappreciatethepeoplewhoviewthemassuch.However,the ofnostalgia,
thecruxoftheexperience,isparticulartotheindividualandreliesonthewarmsenseof
familiaritythatarisesfromtherecollectionofalivedandlivinghistory.Inreadingfictionand
poetry,wecanlocateevocativepassagesthatremindusofhownostalgiaisaphenomenonof
samenessanddifference.Proustsepisodeofthemadeleinecapturestheuniversalinthe
particularwesimultaneouslyknowanddonotknowtheessenceofthisexperience.
Similarly,thenatureofcontinuityencompassesthedualityofsamenessanddifference.
Atonemomentanindividualmayrecognizehis/herunitytheunbrokenconduitofidentity,
carryingexperiencesthatcanbebeperceivedastemporallyfixedpointsonatrajectoryoras
symbolicofthetrajectoryitself.Inthisunitedwhole,werecognizethedifferencesinitsparts,
forcontinuitycannotberealizedwithoutthepreliminaryawarenessofitsexistenceasa
frameworkthatconstantlyassimilateschangeovertime.Withnostalgia,weuncoverthis
principleofcontinuitythroughmemory:inlookingbackonabeforebeforeautonomy,
see
beforesuffering,beforediscernment,beforewrongdoing,we theinnocenceofwhatwasand
feel
nowisnot,andalso theinnocencethathassurvivedwithinus.Wecanrecapturethe
samenesswithinthedifference:thisisourenigmaticabilitytomaketimemove.
Thephenomenologicalexplanationsofnostalgiathathavebeengarneredthroughoutthis
workarenotintendedtocapturethenatureoftheexperience,forsuchanambitionwouldbe
fruitless.Themattersaddressedinthisexplorationofnostalgiaaremeanttoillustratethe
flexibilityofourrelationshipwithtimeandplaceandhow,throughmemory,ournostalgiafor
thatwhichislostcanbeassuagedbyoursymbolicreturnhome.
ILLUMINATINGTHEAURAOFNOSTALGIA
28
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