Social Networks and the Strength of Ties Leanne Rizzo and Hannah Wilson Emporia State University; School

of Library and Information Management Summer 2011

2 Social Networks and the Strength of Ties A social network consists of pairs or groups of people that are linked by relational ties. The nature of relationships can vary from personal, professional, educational, etc., and networks can exist in many formats such as face-to-face or online. Studying social networks and information transfer is useful in assessing and modifying information needs and delivery to provide information professionals with the correct tools to promote the most efficient forms of communication. In 1973, Mark Granovetter contributed to the study of social networks with his theory of the Strength of Weak Ties. Ties can be described as the links that connect pairs or groups within a social network. The strength of a tie is defined as a combination of the amount of time, the emotional intensity, the intimacy (mutual confiding), and the reciprocal services which characterize the tie (Granovetter, 1973). His research has been expanded upon by many scholars and has been studied in several contexts including information diffusion, social mobility, marketing/advertising, and in relation to socioeconomic status. It should be borne in mind that Granovetters work preceded digital networks by some years, and the kinds of relationships he discusses are limited by the usual geographical and temporal constraints of a face-to-face environment (Jones, Ferreday, & Hodgson, 2007, p. 91). Caroline Haythornwaite has contributed to the study of social networks by extending Granovetter's Strength of Weak Ties theory into online and digital networks. Her most significant contributions are her examinations of the social effects of Internet use in everyday life, her introduction of the latent ties theory, and her studies of media multiplexity. This combined bibliography exemplifies research that has been conducted by these two individuals on the topic of strength of ties and social networking and demonstrates how other scholars have analyzed and expanded upon their findings. Haythornthwaite, C. (1996). Social network analysis: An approach and technique for the study of information exchange. Library & Information Science Research, 18(4), 323. doi: 10.1016/S0740-8188(96)90003-1 This article provides a framework of the theory of social networks and defines all of the elements that compose it. It explores patterns of information exchange within social networks. Haythornthwaite refers to individuals, groups, and organizations, which are involved in information exchange relationships as actors. Patterns of information exchange are called social networks with actors as nodes in the network and information exchange relationships as connectors between nodes. The relationship can be between friends, coworkers, kin, etc. It is within this social network approach that information exchange can be studied. By understanding this exchange, information providers can alter routes or connectors to improve access to information. When applied to information studies, the study of social networks measures what kinds of information are exchanged between social groups and relationships. Modes of communication

3 are changing so rapidly that these types of studies must be performed frequently. Data is typically gathered through questionnaires, surveys, and interviews and can reveal who facilitates, controls, or inhibits the flow of information. Haythornthwaite wrote this article in 1996 and although it is dense, it provides a solid foundation for the study of social networks and information exchange. Haythornthwaite, C. (2001). Introduction: The Internet in Everyday Life. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(3), 363-382. doi: 10.1177/00027640121957240 This article discusses how Internet use affects individuals and their social interactions, their access to resources, and their commitment to local community. It analyzes several major studies and research projects to provide overviews and statistics regarding the social consequences and benefits of increased Internet use among individuals and communities. The article provides basic demographic studies to determine who is using the Internet. Next, the article determines what users were using the Internet for. The main use was for communicating over email, followed by using it for general information, browsing, and a myriad of other uses such as hobbies, travel information, playing games, etc. The study goes on to discuss the positive and negative effects of increased Internet use and mental/emotional well-being. The author finds that significant changes occur when an individual uses the Internet for at least five hours per week. Obviously, when people add many hours of Internet use to their lives, they will spend those hours doing less of certain other things. Typically, this means less time is spent watching TV and attending to hobbies such as gardening, shopping and going to bars/socializing. Activities such as eating and sleeping are generally not affected. Time may be stolen from local face-to-face exchanges and given to online friends, outside of the community. The author determines that this could either compromise local social relationships, which in turn may compromise individual well-being, or it could help to fill a void for individuals that feel alienated in face-to-face interactions. The article provides an overview of general findings in the field regarding this topic but doesnt initiate any new theories. At several points in the article, the author mentions that further studies and research will need to be conducted. This and the fact that it was written ten years ago makes for interesting research in exploring how other authors have used this article and how the issue has developed with technology changes and increased access to and use of the Internet. Haythornthwaite, C. (October 01, 2002). Strong, weak, and latent ties and the impact of new media. The Information Society, 18(5), 385-401. doi: 10.1080/01972240290108195 This article explores theories of strong, weak, and latent ties in social networks and the effects of introducing new media into existing networks. It aims to help clarify the contrasting results of the impact of Internet use in every day life, as discussed in Haythornthwaites earlier articles. Strong ties are those we have with friends, family, people we see often, and those with which we feel are similar to ourselves. The strength of strong ties is that they are typically among people that are more willing to work together to share information and resources. Weak ties are those

4 that exist among acquaintances, casual contacts, and people with whom we feel are different from ourselves. The strength of weak ties is that they are likely to be among people that run in different circles and thus, are more likely to have different perspectives to share and provide access to different types of information, resources, and contacts. The use of computer-initiated communication introduces a new type of tie: latent ties. Latent ties are created when a connection has been made online but not yet activated by social interaction. These ties are not initiated by individuals but rather by online community networks or organizations. Latent ties have the potential to graduate to weak ties or even strong ties when an organized network exists. The author suggests that new media should be introduced in a way that will support all types of ties. It must be accessible to all or most participants and fairly simple to use or users may sever ties. Users with strong ties will be more likely to adapt to new media but also more quick to reject it if it doesnt suit their needs. This discussion of new media emphasizes the fact that constant assessment of the strength of ties and the effects of new media will continue to develop. Haythornthwaite, C. (June 2005). Social networks and Internet connectivity effects. Information, Communication & Society, 8(2), 125-147 doi: 10.1080/13691180500146185 In this article, Haythornthwaite attempts to measure the patterns of connectivity among group members in relationship to the types of media they use as a means of communication. Two groups of academic departments were surveyed regarding what types of media they use to communicate and how often they use them. In both studies, she found that strong ties were evident among those that utilized multiple means of communication. She discusses the concept of strength of ties and media mulitplexity. She finds that strongly tied pairs make use of more of the available media. Therefore, tie strength drives media usage. While the number of media used differs by tie strength, what is communicated does not differ by medium. Furthermore, it is the tie that drives the frequency of exchanges, and not whether the exchanges are on or offline or any combination of the two. She also discusses the concept of latent ties. Latent ties exist among online relationships that have never connected in person. In other words, two people may be viewing the same information in an online social setting, which creates a latent tie, but may never actually directly communicate with each another. Latent ties are not converted into weak ties (or even strong ties) until some sort of social interaction occurs between parties. The study of Internet connectivity and strong and weak ties provides insight into how social networks are constructed and maintained. Impacts of new media on social ties have important implications for planning and policy choices in information dissemination within Internet based interfaces of the future. Best, S., & Krueger, B. (2006). Online interactions and social capital. Social Science Computer Review, 24(4), 395-410. doi: 10.1177/0894439306286855

5 This article explores relationships initiated online between people that have never met offline. The authors discuss whether these relationships or encounters produce social capital. The authors find that the level of online interaction with people that met on the Internet displays positive effects in the realm of social capital by creating generalized trust, establishing networks among those with similar interests in previously inaccessible communities, and producing a sense of collectivity and shared identity. The Center for Survey Research Analysis at the University of Connecticut conducted a random telephone survey regarding Internet use in which 705 of 1,006 respondents were Internet users. Respondents were asked to rate their impression of whether people they meet online can be trusted, can be expected to return favors, and can be expected to do what is right using a 1-10 scale. As a whole, respondents felt positive about these aspects of Internet initiated relationships. Most relationships were born out of a similar religious view, ideology, hobby, sports team, or other personal interest, which led to connections among persons that would not have otherwise been able to communicate. Others may argue that the Internet joins mistrusting people that would not feel comfortable communicating face-to-face. The author argues though, that based on the findings in this study, the Internet generally brings together those with similar interests of a trusting nature. The article outlines a positive view of Internet based relationships and is hopeful for the building of new and existing strong and weak ties. Hogan, B., & Quan-Haase, A. (2010). Persistence and change in social media. The Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 30(5), 309-315. doi: 10.1177/0270467610380012 This article begins by observing the fact that it is nearly impossible to fully grasp and assess affects of social media because new tools are developed constantly and existing tools change their capabilities so very rapidly. It is difficult for scholars to track media usage and popularity, as users tend to migrate amongst platforms unpredictably. Rather than trying collecting data and conducting surveys regarding social networking in a specific time and place, the authors attempt to identify trends that are persistent, common, and permanent among platforms, users, and cultures. They argue that by focusing on practices involved in the mainstream uses of social media, it is possible to develop lasting theories and widely applicable findings regarding use and effects of social media. One of the ideas they present in regards to social media is the relationship between public profiles (such as Facebook or Myspace) and death. When a person dies, their profile can hypothetically serve as a relic or artifact that commemorates their death. Also, when a person dies, many times users will create a public and interactive page in remembrance (such as the one created for Michael Jackson). In the past, obituaries and television broadcast served as a oneway informational realm to talk about a persons death. But recently introduced forms of social media allow for two-way interaction in which the public can post their opinions, memories, etc., in an interactive way.

6 They conclude by noting that this article briefly and rather superficially presents ideas about how to understand effects of social media and studies will need to continue to develop alongside technologies. They draw upon many earlier studies of Internet use to form ideas about how to observe trends, understand users, social practices, and cultural patterns. It is a very current way of looking at the theories presented in the past decade about social networking and social media. Bessiere, K., Kiesler, S., Kraut, R., & Boneva, B. (2008). Effects of internet use and social resources on changes in depression. Information, Communication & Society, 11(1), 47-70. doi: 10.1080/13691180701858851 The authors of this article explore the different ways in which people use the Internet and how it might be affecting their levels of depression. They suggest that the ways in which we use the Internet is closely linked with our well-being. Studies find that those that communicate with others frequently have more social resources (networks, social and community ties), lower stress levels, better psychological functioning, and are generally happier. Those that communicate less (lack close relationships or community ties) have lower psychological functioning. A very in-depth research process was conducted in June 2001 and March 2002 among a variety of age groups, ethnicities, and communities. First, randomly telephone dialed respondents were asked to participate in a survey and those that agreed received either a survey in the mail or for those with Internet, an online survey. Respondents were asked about their Internet use and how often they used it to communicate and who they were communicating with. Six months later, those that had participated initially received a follow up survey. According to results regarding Internet use, respondents were primarily using the Internet as a means of communicating with family and friends. Standardized questioning was used to analyze respondents feelings of depression at the time of the first survey and again at the second survey. The study showed that when users communicate online with friends and family, it contributes to positive feelings, less stress, and overall happiness. However, when people use the Internet to meet new people or communicate with those with which they have weak ties, feelings of depression increased. Using the Internet to meet new people can cause users to neglect communications among strong ties in ones life and lead to feelings of loneliness and depression. Ultimately, levels of depression depend on ones existing social support and what they are using the Internet for. Mesch, G., & Talmud, I. (2006). The quality of online and offline relationships: The role of multiplexity and duration of social relationships. Information Society, 22(3), 137-148. doi: 10.1080/01972240600677805 This article explores the quality of online initiated relationships compared to face-to face relationships and argues that the quality of social ties is not only dependent on where friends meet, but also on their social similarity (homophily), multiplexity (which exists when a tie utilizes multiple means of communication within one relationship), and the duration of their friendship. While some argue that computer-mediated communication lacks certain social cues that allow for the exchange of important emotional communication, others assert that online

7 communication provides features that make it easier for people to form strong ties, such as anonymity and ease of finding others with similar interests. A study is conducted among a group of adolescents in Israel to test the perception that computerinitiated friendships are less supportive or meaningful. They asked respondents to state how long they had known each friend within their social network. They were asked how frequently certain topics came up in conversations with friends; the topics ranged from parents, school family, sports, personal problems, music, romance, fashion, etc. Strength of ties was measured by asking respondents to indicate on a 1-5 scale how close they felt to each friend, how much they trusted them, whether they would ask them for help, etc. Next they were asked whether they met each friend face-to-face (school, neighborhood) or online (chat room, email). The study found that generally, online ties seemed to be weaker, less holistic, and less personal in comparison with offline relations. Online relationships tended to be restricted to non-personal topics and were less integrated into everyday life than face-to-face relationships. Miczo, N., Mariani, T., & Donahue, C. (2011). The strength of strong ties: Media multiplexity, communication motives, and the maintenance of geographically close friendships. Communication Reports, 24(1), 12-24. doi: 10.1080/08934215.2011.555322 Media mulitplexity suggests that people who communicate frequently use multiple media to do so. Therefore, those with stronger ties use multiple media. This study examines connections between friendship quality, computer-mediated communication motives, and relational maintenance. The authors conducted a study among 350 undergraduate students taking Communication classes. Participants were asked to report their types of relationships (work, personal, and best friends or acquaintances) and what media they use to maintain them. They found Haythornthwaites theory of media multiplexity to be true; relationships consisting of strong ties generate multiple uses of media. They also found that tie strength effects motives for computer mediated communication. By applying mulitplexity to close relationships, the authors developed a better understanding of how pairs use computer-mediated communication to maintain their friendships. So it can be determined that tie strength affects the number and frequency of multiple forms of communication media. Also, access to forms of media could affect friendships. The authors note that future studies should test Haythornthwaites claim that online and offline behaviors are not necessarily comparable by focusing on the content of information exchanged by pairs in a computer mediated environment, rather than frequency and types of media used.

8 Abeele, M., & Roe, K. (2011). New life, old friends: A cross-cultural comparison of the use of communication technologies in the social life of college freshmen. Young, 19(2), 219-240. doi: 10.1177/110330881001900205 This study explores strength of ties with both Flemish and American college freshman using media as a primary means of communication. The main question they were seeking to explore was whether the use of communication technology would affect the freshmen and their sense of well-being. When freshman enter college outside of their hometown, they are faced with leaving a strong social network of strong ties. Frequent interaction, at least in the beginning, is necessary for maintaining those ties and is initiated through media base communications. The study finds that both for American and Flemish freshmen: calling, texting, instant messaging and emailing more frequently with ones pre-college friends, is associated with a higher sense of belongingness to a strong and supportive social network. The difference between Americans and Flemish was in the medium they used to communicate with their social network back home; Americans called friends and family more frequently while Flemish emailed. Also, they found that communicating with new college friends was more crucial for Americans than Flemish. Overall, the study produced positive views regarding the role of media based communication in the personal lives of college freshmen. Stefanone, M. A., & Gay, G. (March-April, 2008). Structural reproduction of social networks in computer-mediated communication forums. Behaviour & Information Technology, 27(2), 97-106. doi: 10.1080/01449290600802429 This article examines an existing social structure within an educational environment and how social ties are affected when an emergent discussion-board network is added. Thirty-one students enrolled in an undergraduate university course in which they communicated over online discussion-boards, using university issued laptops. When the course was over, the email logs were analyzed to assess relationships based on communication. The authors found that a significant correlation was established in the discussion-board communication among those that had a pre-existing relationship, outside of it. This confirms Haythornthwaites theory of media mulitplexity and suggests that existing relationships have a strong impact on computer-mediated communication. Since the participants in this study were co-located, they still had the opportunities for face-to-face communications. The study is valid because they evaluated the existing relationships among participants before the discussion-board component was integrated into the curriculum. This is what separates the study from previous evaluations in which the online learners did not previously know each other. The authors note that in the future, studies of this nature should continue but with larger and more diverse groups. This study provides favorable data in the realm of computer initiated communication studies.

9 Following section compiled by Leanne Rizzo: Granovetter, M.S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360-1380. This article presented an analysis of interpersonal relationships between groups of people and to elements of social structure that are not normally nor easily defined. The term strength of a tie or interpersonal connection was defined as a combination of the amount of time, the emotional intensity, the intimacy (mutual confiding), and the reciprocal services which characterize the tie (p. 1361). This analysis was then related to social phenomena including diffusion, social mobility, political organization and social cohesion. Perhaps the theory can be best defined in the study of what happens when those people within a given sociological group tells one another a rumor. The evidence proved that information spread from person to person can go a further distance and reach more people when those that are conveying the story are only weakly related as opposed to strongly related. Around the time that this article was written in 1973, Granovetter took a random sample of job changers in various positions in the Boston area. He found that leads on new jobs were passed on to people by other people, ones that only see each other occasionally. This evidence proved that people that are outside of a strong tie may have valid and important information to share with one another due to the fact that they are exposed to different information then the person may normally be. Granovetter found it remarkable that people receive crucial information from individuals whose very existence they have forgotten (p. 1372). This is the primary journal article on Granovetters theory of The Strength of Weak Ties and lays a strong foundation in both introducing and beginning to explore and research this theory. Granovetter mentions that the strength of weak ties is a fragmented theory and lists some other questions that could be explored such as: What is the relationship between strength and degree of specialization of ties, or between strength and hierarchical structure? Should tie strength be developed as a continuous variable? (p. 1378) Granovetter, M. (1983). The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited. Sociological Theory, 1, 201-233. With this paper that revisits the authors original theory, (abbreviated as S W T) Granovetter embellishes on the original hypotheses, attempts to fill in some gaps, and suggests new directions for further research on the topic. Granovetter reiterates the concept that The weak tie between [a person called] Ego and his acquaintance, therefore, becomes not merely a trivial acquaintance tie but rather a crucial bridge between the two densely knit clumps of close friends (p. 202). Again it is mentioned, that strong ties can be deprived of vital information that weak ties are made aware of, especially in regards to employment information. This theory was also studied and researched by others including Langlois, Ericksen, and Yancey (205-206). The S W T also supports the idea that innovative diffusion, i.e. the spreading of cultural or scientific ideas, spreads further and more successfully through weak ties than in strong. Another central topic is the research that was done comparing the S W T in varying socioeconomic groups. It was found that members of lower socioeconomic status were more dependent on strong ties rather than weak. Pool commented by saying, the utility of weak links is a function of the security of the individual, and therefore of his wealth. A highly insecure individual, for example: a peasant who

10 might starve if his crop fails, is under strong pressure to become dependent upon one or a few strongly protective individuals (as cited in Granovetter, p. 211). These researchers and others have been helpful in supporting Granovetters theories. However the author feels that, at this point, the research is incomplete. Another researcher, Friedkin expressed the importance in not merely proving the existence of weak ties. But that its also vital to prove the existence of the information that crosses over the bridges of the weak ties; and furthermore that the information be considered crucial to the sustainability of individuals, groups, and the community (as cited in Granovetter, 228-229). Carpenter, D., Esterling, K., & Lazer, D. (2003). The strength of strong ties. Rationality and Society, 15(4), 411-440. Granovetters theories were studied closely in this paper. It was mentioned that weak ties are held in high regard throughout his theories, as they encourage the spreading of new information that may not have been available (as cited in Carpenter, Esterling, & Lazer, 413). However, these authors contend, in competitive informational environments, information tends to be concentrated in the relatively inefficient strong tie network (p. 413). The authors contend that because there is competition occurring, people are more likely to share important information with people that they trust, rather than with acquaintances. These conditions were established by first designing a model. Then they tested information against it, in the context of national health policy lobbyists. More specifically, one test examined the journey of a single health care policy in various lobbying events in the 1970s. The authors found that the greater the interest among groups in the lobbying event, the greater the average strong tie investments of groups involved in that event (p. 413). Perhaps this can best be described by a lobbyist interviewed in the classic study of Milbrath: you get much better information from people who know you, know what your interests are, and know that they can trust you (as cited in Carpenter, Esterling, & Lazer, p. 415). These authors provide a refreshing look at the other side of the coin of Granovetters S W T theory, i.e. the importance of strong tie networks, and even more importantly a perspective of the context in which theyre examined. Friedkin, N. (1980). A test of structural features of Granovetter's strength of weak ties theory. Social Networks, 2, 411-422. The paper mentions Granovetters idea that bridges are important avenues for information diffusion or the cohesion of different groups. A bridge is defined as a tie between two persons that is the sole path by means of which the two persons (and their direct contacts) are joined in a network (p. 411). It is also discussed that in Granovetters theory, those bridges tend to be weak ties rather than strong ones. This paper puts five of Granovetters hypotheses to the test by researching a social network of faculty biologic scientists in a single university setting. The method used in this research was a mailed questionnaire that asked the subjects to respond to several questions. These questions basically defined the degree of tie that the subject held to members of their departments, as well as other departments. Many of Granovetters hypotheses were found to be supported by Friedkins research including that the contact circles of two scientists tend to overlap more as the strength of the tie between the two scientists increases (p. 415). This is important because people, as in the situation with hearing crucial information regarding job openings, often depend on information that is outside their circle of strong ties.

11 This evidence reiterates the importance of weak ties within ones network. Friedkin also suggests that more empirical research needs to be done regarding some of the details surrounding bridges and weak ties, especially in regards to information diffusion. Goldenberg, J., Libai, B., & Muller, E. (2001). Talk of the network: A complex systems look at the underlying process of word-of-mouth. Marketing Letters, 12(3), 211-223. Though this paper seems to be motivated by advertising research, there are some very intriguing ideas that could be considered for marketing anything. Both strong and weak ties are known to be both important in advertising especially in relation to word-of-mouth (WOM) communication. In fact, this paper discovered that, When personal networks are small, weak ties were found to have a stronger impact on information dissemination than strong ties (p. 211). Brown and Reingen discovered that weak ties, rather than strong ties, were more than likely to initiate significant W-O-M exchanges (as cited in Goldenberg, Libai, and Muller, 213). One of the results of the research is that the influence of weak ties on the speed of information dissemination is at least as strong as the influence of strong ties (p. 217). Therefore, the authors felt that their research provided validation of Granovetters S W T theory. This research outlined the notion that other variables beyond the mere strength or weakness of a tie must be considered i.e. the size of a persons network. Granovetters S W T theory, along with the additional research and variables discussed, can be meaningful to managers, marketers, or anyone at all interested in the diffusion or dissemination of meaningful information. Haythornwaite, C. (2002). Strong, weak, and latent ties and the impact of new media. The Information Society, 18, 385-401. This article argues that social media has two different effects on strong and weak ties, respectively. Haythornwaite presented evidence that groups, which are strongly tied, have used media to support their connections and relationships, and are more inclined to implement new media tools. These groups are also better able to influence others in the group to do so. However, weak ties are more dependent on traditional and established means of communications. Weak ties are also not as motivated to utilize new media, and therefore have less influence on others in the group to do so. This author defines the idea of a latent tie as a tie that has the potential to become something more. She also discusses the idea of a new and varied type of media that has the power and intrigue to strengthen weak tie networks and to create stronger ties where they were only latent ties before. Haythornwaite also discusses earlier theories related to computer-mediated communication (CMC) and the impact that they can have on strong and weak ties. Linear diagrams were implemented to convey the results of studies done to prove these insights, i.e. strong ties are likely to be more robust under conditions of trust than are weak ties (p. 385). This article, though insightful, could be revisited and social media tools such as blogs, facebook, and twitter could be deeply explored and related to its effects on strong, weak and latent interpersonal ties. Jones, C.R., Ferreday, D., & Hodgson, V. (2008). Networked learning a relational approach: Weak and strong ties. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24, 90-102.

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Networked learning can be defined as learners relationships with other learners, tutors, and the resources with which they interact. Other key terms in this paper include communities of practice (CoPs) and computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL). This paper embraces the view that strong and weak ties are not mutually exclusive (p. 91). But instead strong vs. weak ties are relative concepts of interpersonal relations and can coexist in various situations and settings. Bakhtin, defined the term utterance as a sound with an absolute beginning and end (as cited by Jones, Ferreday & Hodgson, 93). Two case studies were implemented and discussed in this paper. Within these studies, the utterances within a network of people were analyzed in regard to the nature of their ties to one another. This being a much more modern paper than Granovetters original from 1973, relies more heavily on social technologys role in interpersonal relations and ones relationship to educational resources. This study also covers Granovetters theory by reviewing that his theory of weak ties allows for the analysis of interaction between groups and for analysis of social activity that was not confined to primary social groups (p. 91). Levin, D.Z., Cross, R. & Abrams, L.C. (2002). The strength of weak ties you can trust: The mediating role of trust in effective knowledge transfer. Manuscript submitted for publication. 1-39. As mentioned in Granovetters S W T theory, people often receive useful knowledge, not only from weak ties, but from strong ties as well. There has been limited research about the details of those relationships. However, this group of authors has tested a model of two-party (dyadic) knowledge exchange and has uncovered some interesting ideas (p. 2). In their model, they tested their subjects using a competence-based i.e. ability trust and a benevolence-based trust (p. 6). In the results of their test, they confirmed Granovetters theory, which states that weak ties can provide helpful information to people, and that they share information that they simply cannot receive from a strong tie network. The third finding was that a competence-based style of trust was more effective than a benevolence-based trust when dealing with the exchange of tacit knowledge, i.e. not written or codified (p. 11). Their findings contain great significance to those professionals that are in the business of managing people. First, its demonstrated that benevolence-based trust consistently matters in knowledge exchange and that competency-based trust matters most when the exchange involves tacit knowledge (p. 25). Secondly, its shown that organizations could stand to benefit in cultivating weak ties along with strong ones. And lastly, its suggested that improving trust in organizations will consequently lead to improving strong and weak ties, which will in turn, encourage the exchange of useful information (p. 25). Liu, W.T., & Duff, R.W. (1972). The strength in weak ties. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(3), 361-366. In this article, it was discussed that Rapaport and Horvaths earlier experiment proved that information transfer or information diffusion would reach a larger number of people when the information was transmitted through weak ties rather than strong ties (as cited in Liu & Duff, 362). However, this article hypothesizes that for information to be diffused through interpersonal

13 groups, there needs to be the presence of heterophilous relationships. These relationships can be described as relationships between people that have varying attributes and beliefs. In fact, according to Rogers and Bhowmik who wrote a paper around the same time, for maximum communication effectiveness, a source and receiver should be homophilous on certain variables and heterophilous on some variables relevant to the situation (as cited in Liu & Duff, p. 361). These intended to prove this hypothesis. They did so by performing a 1969 study in the neighborhoods of Cebu City in the Phillippines. The study was based on women and researching where it was that they received their knowledge about family planning. The results reflected that they received their information about family planning mostly through neighbors, family, birthing attendants, physicians, etc. It was found that the lower class relied more strongly on their neighbors than the middle and upper class women did. This study also found that homophilous communication tends to limit information diffusion. In contrast, heterophilous relationships encouraged the spread of information between members of varying socioeconomic groups. Paniculangara, J., & Pacheco, B.G. (2008). Effects of tie strength and tie valence on consumer word-of-mouth communication and altruistic intentions. Advances in Consumer Research, VIII, 324-325. This paper discussed stated, Among all forms of marketing communication, word-of-mouth (WOM) is possibly one of the most important but also the one least under the control of marketers (p. 324). Drawing from Granovetters S W T theory, Paniculangara and Pacheco took their theory one step further. One of their hypotheses is that people are likely to share altruistic tendencies with people they associate as having a tie with positive valence (324). Valence was described simply by stating that its a tie that is described in terms of positive or negative associations. They tested their hypotheses by testing undergraduates at a large University and fabricating a scenario that involved the student coming across some tickets to a sold-out sporting event. The scenario required the student to decide whether or not to share the tickets with a particular person (one with whom they shared either a tie of positive or negative valence). If they decided not to share the tickets, they were questioned about the cost that they would charge that same person for the tickets. The data strongly suggests that respondents were more likely to transmit information and be altruistic toward individuals with whom they shared strong ties as opposed to weak ties and with one whom they shared a positive versus a negative valenced tie (p. 324). Detailed studies of the significance of tie valence could certainly be researched more fully and layered upon Granovetters original Strength of Weak Ties theory.