SocialPsychology AttitudeFormation attitudesaredefinedasenduringsystemsofbeliefsthatcanbeexaminedonthreedifferentlevels: cognitive(howwethinkorreasonthroughanattitude) emotional(howwefeelregardinganattitude) behavioral(howweactonanattitude) OriginsofAttitudes researchhasindicatedthereareseveralwaysinwhichweacquireattitudes oneofourearliestagentsofattitudeformationareourparents,laterfollowedbyourpeersand themedia fourmajorsourcesofattitudeformationare: classicalconditioning:associatingbehaviorsandattitudesas"good"or"bad"(i.e.it'sgoodto tellthetruth,it'sbadtosteal) operantconditioning:beingrewardedorpunishedforbehaviorandattitudes(i.e.

es(i.e.being praisedfortellingthetruthorbeingpunishedforstealingsomething) cognitiveappraisals:weighinglogicalargumentsindeterminingyourattitude observationallearning:learningattitudesthroughpeerbehaviorandthemedia AttitudesandPersuasion mereexposureeffectthemoresomeoneisexposedtoanattitude,themorethatpersonwilllikeit (e.g.buyingthenamebranditembecauseyouveseenlotsofcommercialsforit) centralroutepersuasiondeeplyprocessingamessagescontent(e.g.whydoyoulikethis particularproduct) peripheralroutepersuasiondealswithotheraspectsratherthanthecontent(e.g.likingthe spokespersonforaproduct) Persuasion persuasionisanattempttochangeaperson'sattitudes researchhasindicatedthereareseveralkeycomponentsthatmakemessagesmorepersuasive, thepersuasivecommunicatorandthepersuadedaudience. PersuasiveMessage thepersuasivemessagehasseveralvariables: familiarity:messagesaremorepersuasiveifwearefamiliarwiththeproductorinformation repetition:themoreamessageisrepeated(especiallyifitiscomplex),themorepersuasiveit is twosidedarguments:bothsidestoanargumentarepresented emotionalappeals:commercials,especially,aremorepersuasiveiftheyappealtotheemotions argumentsthatruncountertothecommunicator'sinterests:messagesthatseemtogoagainst theinterestsofthepersonspeakingtendtobemorepersuasive PersuasiveCommunicator thepersuasivecommunicatorstendsto: showexpertise betrustworthy beattractive besimilartotheaudience comefromhealthprofessions researchhasindicatedthatwhenfoodandmusicareaddedtomessages,theirpersuasiveness increases.

PersuadedAudience thepersuadedaudiencetendstohavetwocharacteristics: lowselfesteem:lowsenseofselfworth highsocialanxiety:ahighneedtofitintosociety ComplianceStrategies footinthedooreffectaftergettingsomeonetoagreetoasmallrequestyoufollowupwitha largerrequest footinthefaceeffectafterhavingsomeonedenyalargerequest,youfollowupwithasmaller request normsofreciprocityafterdoingsomethingniceforsomeone,youexpectthemtoreciprocate LeonFestinger:CognitiveDissonance thetheoryofcognitivedissonanceisproposedbyLeonFestinger Festingerstatesthatwhenwehavetwocontradictorybeliefswefeelanxiety forexample,weknowhowtofixourcarbutwebringittoamechanictofixwewillattemptto reduceouranxiety,calleddissonancereduction,bycomingupwithareasonforouractions wemightjustifythemechanicworkingonourcarbecausewe"don'thavethepropertools"or "don'thavethetimetofixit" cognitivedissonancealsooccurswhenourthoughtsandbehaviorsareinconsistent apersonknowssmokingcigarettesisbadforhishealthbutsmokesthemanyway;hemay rationalizethisbysaying"he'snotsmokingthatmuch"or"evidenceiscontradictoryonthe effectsofsmokingonhealth" cognitivedissonancealsooperatesontheideathat"yougetwhatyoupayfor" thethinkingthatsomethingthatcostsmoremustbeofhigherqualityexplainsthis theideabehindthisisthemoreyoumustgiveupforsomething(money)themorevaluableit mustbe(higherquality) patronsatamoviematineewillmorelikelyratethemovieasmoderatelyentertainingwhereas patronsataneveningperformancewillrateitsignificantlyhigherorlowerbecausethey'vepaid moreforthemovie BalanceTheory balancetheoryisalsousedtoexplainourattitudesandanxietyrelatedtopeopleweknow.There arethreepossiblestatesinbalancetheory: balance:whensomeonewelikeholdsthesameattitudesaswedo imbalance:whensomeonewelikeholdsacontradictoryattitudetoours nonbalance:whensomeonewedon'tlikeholdsacontradictoryattitudetoours InGroup/OutGroupDynamics Ingroupandoutgroupdynamicsaretiedtodiscrimination Peopletendtoseemembersoftheirowngroup(ingroup)asmorediversethanmembersofother groups(outgroup) Outgrouphomogeneityoutgroupmembersareseenasessentiallyallthesame Ingroupbiaspeopleprefermembersoftheirowngroup;theyseethemselvesasbasicallygood people InterpersonalAttraction studiesconductedamongcollegestudentshaveindicatedthatthenumberonethingmaleslook forinalongterminterpersonalrelationshipislooks thenumberonethingfemaleslookforispersonality proximity,orthephysicalclosenessofonepersontoanother,isthemostimportantcharacteristic, accordingtoresearch

OtherFactorsinAttraction thereareseveralotherfactorsinvolvedininterpersonalattraction: attitudinalsimilarity:researchsuggestswearemoreattractedtopeoplewhosharethesame attitudesaswedo the"RomeoandJuliet"effect:earlyinarelationship,parentaldisapprovalcanactuallyintensify feelingsofinterpersonalattraction propinquity:attractionislikelytodevelopbetweenpeopleincloseproximitybecausetheywill seemoreoftheotherperson'sinnerqualities playinghardtoget:playinghardtogetisactuallyseenasanundesirableattitude;devotional behavior,orchannelingattentiontoonlyoneperson,isseenasmostdesirable BodyLanguage bodylanguagehasbeenstudiedwithvaryingresults mostresearchindicatesthattheeyescanexpresswhensomeoneispayingattentionorlying crossedarmsandlegscanbesignsofdefensiveness rapportingistheunconsciousactofmirroringthebodypostureofsomeoneyou'retalkingto;if youcrossyourarms,thepersontalkingtoyoumaydothesamething PersonalSpace personalspaceistheimaginaryareawekeeparoundourselvestobecomfortableinvaryingsocial situations therearefourlevelstopersonalspace: intimatedistance:contactto18inches,thespacewereserveforintimaciesandlovedones personaldistance:18inchesto4feet,thespacewehavearoundusinmostsocialsettingsat school(e.g.thedistancebetweenastudentandthestudentsittingnexttothem) socialdistance:4to7feet,thespacewehavearounduswhenwe'reoutinpublicplaces,like themall publicdistance:7feetandgreater,thespacebetweenusandperformersatpublicevents(e.g. concerts,lectures) researchhadindicatedtherearebothculturalandgenderdifferencesintheparametersof personalspace AttributionTheory dispositional(orperson)attributionattributingactionstopersonalfactors situationalattributionattributingactionstoexternalorenvironmentalfactors stableattributionconditionsthatarealwayspresent unstableattributionconditionsthatarenotstableandmaybeoccasionalorintermittent thesemaybecombined: situationstableaclassisconsideredhard personunstableaclassmatemayhavegottenagoodgradeonanexambecausetheystudied extrahardforit attributiontheoryexamineshowweattributethesourceofouractions defensiveattributionisthetendencytoattributeoursuccessestoourownefforts (dispositional)andourfailurestoexternalfactors(situational) fundamentalattributionerroristhetendencyofpeopletooveremphasizepersonalcausesfor otherpeoplesbehavior(dispositional)andunderemphasizepersonalcausesfortheirown behavior(dispositional) fundamentalattributionerrorislesslikelytooccurincollectivistculturesthaninindividualist cultures AdditionalFactorsinAttributionTheory falseconsensuseffectthetendencytooverestimatethenumberofpeoplewhoagreewithyou selfservingbiasthetendencytotakemorecreditforgoodresultsthanbadresults

justworldbiasthetendencytobelievethatgoodthingshappentogoodpeopleandbadthings happentobadpeople theassumptionisthatbadthingshappeningtopeoplearedeservedbecausetheymustbebad people HaroldKelley believespeoplemakeattributionsbasedonthreekindsofinformation consistencyhowanindividualactsinthesamesituationovertime importantindeterminingwhethertomakeastableorunstableattribution distinctivenesshowthesituationtheindividualisplacedinisdifferentfrommorecommon situations consensushowsimilarotherswouldrespondinthesamesituation importantindeterminingwhethertomakeadispositionalorsituationalattribution AttributionandPrejudice basedonattributiontheory,individualsmaydeveloppreconceivedideasaboutsomeoneelse thismayaffectthewaytheyvieworacttowardtheotherperson theseexpectationsmaycauseindividualstochangethewaytheyact theselffulfillingprophesyisthischangeinbehaviorduetotheinfluenceofhowothersviewthe individual Stereotypes stereotypesaredefinedasacollectionofideassomeonehasaboutanotherindividualorgroup thatinfluenceshowtheyinteractwiththem stereotypescanbebothpositiveandnegative cognitivepsychologistsbelievestereotypesareschematawedevelopregardinggroups PrejudiceandDiscrimination prejudiceisdefinedasanunwarranted,usuallynegativeattitudetowardagroup stereotypingcanleadtoprejudice ethnocentrismthebeliefthatonesowncultureisbetterthanothers discriminationactingononesprejudice individualsseetheirowngroup(ingroup)asbeingmorediversethanothergroups(outgroups) calledoutgrouphomogeneity individualswillprefermembersoftheirowngroupsthanthoseofothergroupscalledingroup bias individualsmayexercisetwodifferenttypesofaggressivebehaviorsinresponsetoprejudiceand discrimination instrumentalaggressiondirectedtosecuresomepurposeorparticularend hostileaggressionhasnotclearobjective therearevarioustheoriesabouttheoriginsofaggression: Freudlinkedtothethanatos Sociobiologistsanadaptationtocertaincircumstances Frustrationaggressiontheoryaresponsetoincreasedfrustration Sociallearningexposuretoaggressionfostersaggression ReducingPrejudiceandDiscrimination contacttheorycontactbetweeningroupsandoutgroupswillinevitablyreduceanimosity typicallybothgroupsworkonacommongoalthathascommonbenefitstoallcalleda subordinategoal thisisthetheorybehindmostcooperativelearningactivitiesinschoolsandbusinesses

SolomonAsch:Conformity thetwolandmarkstudiesonconformityandobediencewereconductedbyAschandMilgram, respectively. conformityisdefinedasvoluntarilyyieldingtosocialnorms,evenattheexpenseofone'sown preferences SolomonAschconductedanexperimentinwhichsubjectswereaskedtocomparethelengthsof lines confederates,orsubjectsinontheexperiment,purposelygavewronganswerstoseeifthetest subjectswouldconform severalvariablesthatwouldincreasethelikelihoodthatthesubjectswouldconformwerefound: subjectswouldconformuptotheadditionoffourconfederates;afterthattheincidenceof conformitystayedaboutthesame theserialposition(whentheywereaskedtheiranswer)mattered,theclosertothebeginning ofthegroupwouldyieldlessconformitythanbeingaskedtowardtheendofthegroup ifconfederateswereunanimousintheiranswers,moreconformitywouldtakeplace;ifone confederateprovidedadifferentanswer,morenonconformitywouldtakeplace themoreambiguouswastaskwas,themorelikelyconformitywouldtakeplace ifthesubjecthaslowselfesteemorfeltnotascompetentasothersinthegroup,more conformitywouldtakeplace StanleyMilgram:ObediencetoAuthority obedienceisdefinedasachangeinbehaviorinresponsetoacommandfromanotherperson, typicallyanauthorityfigure StanleyMilgramconductedanexperimenttotestasubject'slikelihoodtoobeyanauthorityfigure Milgramaskedstudentsdodeliverelectricshockstosubjectswhoansweredincorrectlyona seriesofquestions theywereflipswitchesonamechanicalboxthatindicatedeachsubsequentswitchdelivereda slightlyhighershock thelastfewswitchesindicatedthatthevoltagewassevere hefoundthat65%ofthesubjectswouldobeyhisrequeststoshockthesubjectsintheotherroom (who,ofcourse,weinontheexperimentasconfederatesandwerenotgettingshocked) severalvariableswereidentifiedbeforeMilgramwasforcedtoshutdownthishighly controversialexperiment wearemorelikelytoobeywhen weperceivethefigurerequestingweobeyasanauthority wearefarremovedfromthepersonweareinflictingpainon(e.g.it'seasiertobreakupwith someoneoverthephone) theactissharedbyothers(diffusionofresponsibility) theauthorityfigureispresent(e.g.whenMr.Sisman'scomesouttochecktoseeifpeople outsideareworking) GroupBehavior socialfacilitationhasbeenseeningroupbehavior wetendtospeedupouractionswhenothersarepresent runnerstendtorunfasteringroupsthanindividually animalsrunninginpacksthentorunfasterthanindividually socialloafingoccurswhenthepresenceofothersslowsdownouractions evaluationapprehensionisthefearthatothersareevaluatingourbehaviors themostcommoninstanceofthisisfearofpublicspeakingbecauseothersarefocusingonthe mistakesandmannerismswemakeratherthanthecontentofourspeech

groupthinkthetendencyofgroupstomakebaddecisionsbecauseindividualmembersaresilent abouttheirreservations highlycohesivegroupsmakingriskydecisionsaremostsusceptibletothis ingroupdecisionmaking,polarizationtendstooccur thismeansthatgroupswilltendtoeithermakeextremelycautiousorextremelyrisky decisions,whereasindividualsactingalonewilltendtobemuchmoreconservativeintheir decisionmaking morelikelythannot,groupswilltendtopursuetheriskiercourse;thisiscalledriskyshift thereasonthisoccursiscalleddiffusionofresponsibility,ortheideathatresponsibilityis sharedbythegroupratherthanjustoneindividual ingroups,individualscangetsocaughtupinthe"groupmentality"thattheycanloseasenseof selfandpersonalresponsibility;thisiscalleddeindividuation highlycohesivegroupsmakingriskydecisionsaremostsusceptibletothis PhilipZimbardofamousprisonexperimentdealtwithdeindividuationbutalsotheeffectsofroles andthesituation thestudywasconductedatStanfordUniversitystudentsroleplayedguardsorprisoners theexperimenthadtobeendedearlybecauseofthecrueltreatmentbytheguards LeadershipStyles therearebasicallythreetypesofleadershipstyle: autocraticisastyleinwhichthegroupleadermakesallthedecisions democraticisastyleinwhichmembersofthegroupprovideinputtotheleaderinmaking decisions,oftenbasedonmajorityvote laissezfaireisastyleinwhichthegroupisallowedtopursuewhatevercourseitwants;there isageneralabsenceofautocraticordemocraticleadership TypesofPower leadersinagroupcanwieldoneormoreoffivetypesofpower: expertpoweroccurswhentheleaderisperceivedasanexpertinthefield legitimatepoweroccurswhentheleaderhasonofficialpositionthatgiveshimorher statutoryorperceivepower referentpoweroccurswhenaleaderiswelllikedbythegroup rewardpoweroccurswhentheleadercanbestowbenefitsorrewardstogroupmembers coercivepoweroccurswhentheleadercanpunishgroupmembers AltruisticBehavior the1964rapeandmurderofKittyGenovese,wherenearly40peoplewitnessedwhatwas happeningyetnoonecalledthepolice,haspromptedsocialpsychologiststounderstandthe parametersofhelpingbehavior witnessesoftheGenovesekillinginNewYorksaidtheydidn'tresponsebecause: theythoughtsomeoneelsewouldgetinvolved theydidn'twanttogetinvolved ProsocialBehavior:TheHelper researchindicatesthefollowingregardinghelpingbehavior: thehelper:wetypicallyhelpwhen... weareinagoodmood wehaveempathyforthevictim weareNOThighlymasculine(highlymasculinehelpersfearpotentialembarrassmentifthey can'tsuccessfullyhelp) wefeelassenseofpersonalresponsibility wepossessthebehavioralcompetencytohelp

thevictim:Individualsaremorelikelytobehelpediftheyare... female attractive alone similartothehelper situationaldeterminants:Wearemorelikelytohelpif... wefullyunderstandwhatweareseeing therearenootherbystandersaround weareacquaintedwiththevictim theenvironmentisfamiliartothehelper EnvironmentalPsychology variousstudiesontheeffectsofnoisehavebeenconductedonchildrenwholiveinthelanding patternsofmajorairportsandonthelowerlevelsoftenementhousingalongbusystreetsincities resultsindicatethatthesechildrensufferfrom: morestress morehearingloss deficitsinlearningandmemoryability studiesdoneatloudclubsanddiscoshaveshownthatwhennoiselevelsexceed80decibels, feelingsofinterpersonalattractionstarttodecreaseandcoupleincreasethespacebetweenthem JohnCalhoun:DensityandCrowding JohnCalhounisknownbestforhisstudiesondensityandcrowding hecreateda"ratuniverse"inwhichratswereallowedtoreproduceuntiltheircontainer,or "universe"becamecrowded henotedseveralformsofaberrantbehavior: mortalityraterose thefamilystructurebrokedown packsofdelinquentmaleratswouldterrorizeothersinthecontainer CrowdinginHumanEnvironments studiesofdensityandcrowdinghavealsobeenconductedinhumanenvironments prisonersatcrowdedprisonsshowhigherbloodpressure,ahighermortalityrateandmore mentaldisorders studentsincrowdedcollegedormitoriesshowlesssatisfactionwiththeirroommateandtendto withdrawmorefromsocialinteraction thetriplingeffecthasalsobeenobservedinsomedormroomsituations;whenthreestudents roomtogether,afriendshipcandevelopbetweentwoofthemandtheirthirdwillfeelostracized orleftout researchoncitydwellershasfoundthattheytendtoshakehandsless,theydonothelpstrangers andtheytendtoplanahead,especiallywhenwalking,toavoidpotentialdangers Industrial/OrganizationalPsychology EltonMayoconductedthefirstexperimentsduringthe1920stodetermineifincreasingthe lightingintheWesternElectricHawthorneplantwouldincreaseproductivity resultsindicatedanychangesinthelighting,highorlow,increasedproductivity,butnot becauseofthelighting workersknewtheywerebeingobservedandincreasedtheirproductivityasaresultofbeing watched theHawthorneeffectistheprinciplethatpeoplewillaltertheirbehaviorbecauseofresearchers attentionandnotnecessarilybecauseofanytreatmentcondition

furtherresearchhasadvancedtheunderstandingofworkorganizations.Resultsofstudieshave found: workerswhoemployavarietyofskillsonthejobaremorelikelytoviewtheirjobsas meaningful,showincreasedmotivationandhavemoresatisfactionwiththeirjob workerswhoaremoreautonomousperceivetheirjobsasentailingmoreresponsibilityand producehigherqualitywork small,cohesiveworkgroupsaremoreproductivethanlarge,impersonalonesemployers havemovedfromassemblyline workerstoautonomousworkgroupswhoproduceanentireunitthishasledtogreater workersatisfaction,higherqualityoutputanddecreasedabsenteeism researchoncommunicationandresponsibilityhavefound: centralizedcommunicationschemesworkbetterinsolvingsimpleproblemswhilesolving complexproblemsrequireslesscentralizationwithmembersfreelycommunicatingamong themselves assigningkeydecisionstoworkgroupsimprovessatisfactionwiththeoutcomeandtheir membershipinthegroup increasingthenumberofpeoplewhoparticipateindecisionmakingdoesnotleadto increasedproductivity

APCheck APstudentsinpsychologyshouldbeabletodothefollowing: Applyattributiontheorytoexplainmotives(e.g.fundamentalattributionerror,selfservingbias). Describethestructureandfunctionofdifferentkindsofgroupbehavior(e.g.deindividuation, grouppolarization). Explainhowindividualsrespondtoexpectationsofothers,includinggroupthink,conformity,and obediencetoauthority. Discussattitudesandhowtheychange(e.g.centralroutetopersuasion). Predicttheimpactofthepresenceofothersonindividualbehavior(e.g.bystandereffect,social facilitation). Describeprocessesthatcontributetodifferentialtreatmentofgroupmembers(e.g.ingroup/out groupdynamics,ethnocentrism,prejudice). Articulatetheimpactofsocialandculturalcategories(e.g.gender,race,ethnicity)onselfconcept andrelationswithothers(pp.743748). Anticipatetheimpactofbehavioronaselffulfillingprophecy. Describethevariablesthatcontributetoaltruism,aggression,andattraction. Discussattitudeformationandchange,includingpersuasionstrategiesandcognitivedissonance. Identifyimportantfiguresinsocialpsychology(e.g.SolomonAsch,LeonFestinger,Stanley Milgram,PhilipZimbardo.