Engineers Reference Handbook

ABRASIVES
Section
Belts, Coils & Sheets Carbide Burrs Diamond Burrs Fibre Discs Flap Discs & Grinding Discs Grinding Wheels Hand Pads Mounted Points Spindle Mounted
2-3 4-6 7 8 9 10 - 18 19 20 - 27 28 - 30
ABRASIVES
1
ABRASIVES
Belts, Coils & Sheets
File Belts
Suitable for a wide range of power tools. Aluminium oxide designed for a wide range of materials including metal, steel, aluminium and non-ferrous metals. Common sizes available: 6 x 330mm, 13 x 610mm, 20 x 480mm and 20 x 520mm. (Many other sizes available)
Portable Sander Belts

Resin bond aluminium oxide sanding belts are designed for industrial applications. Durability combined with flexibility ensures a long life and first class performance. Suitable for wood and metal work. Common sizes available: 75 x 553mm and 100 x 610mm (Many other sizes available)
Linishing Belts
Resin bond aluminium oxide finishing belts are designed for industrial applications. Durability combined with flexibility ensures a long life and first class performance. Designed for a wide range of materials such as wood, steel, aluminium and non-ferrous metals. Common sizes available: 100mm x 915mm, 50mm x 1520mm, 25mm x 1065mm, 50mm x 1065mm, and 150mm x 1090mm. (Many other sizes available) Belt Max (type m/min File 2,500 Sander 1,000 Linisher 500 2
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Belts, Coils & Sheets
ABRASIVES
Coils and Sheets Aluminium Oxide Cloth

Superflex aluminium oxide is resin bonded over resin on a very flexible J-weight blue twill cloth. Moisture resistant and electrostatically coated for polishing flat and contoured surfaces in most materials. Available in: 25, 38 and 50mm wide x 50mtr coils and 230 x 280mm sheets.
Wet or Dry Silicon Carbide Paper

Waterproof-resin bonded to paper suitable for wet and dry production polishing and finishing of a wide range of materials including metals, plastics, paint work, ceramics etc. Available in: 230 x 280mm sheets. Al-Oxide Mean Grade Equivalent Sil-Carbide Diameter Grit No. m Emery Garnet Glass P12 1,815 P16 1,324 P20 1,000 P24 764 4 P30 642 3 P36 538 21/2 P40 425 3 11/2 S2 P50 336 21/2 1 1/2 P60 269 2 M2 P80 201 11/2 0 P100 162 1 2/0 F2 P120 125 F 3/0 11/2 P150 100 FF 4/0 1 P180 82 5/0 1/2 P220 68 O 6/0 O P240 58.52.0 7/0 OO P280 52.22.0 8/0 P320 46.21.5 9/0 P360 40.51.5 1.5 P400 35.0 P500 30.21.5 P600 25.81.0 P800 21.81.0 P1000 18.31.0 P1200 15.31.0 P1500 12.61.0 P2000 10.30.8 P2500 8.40.5 3
Emery Cloth
Blue twill emery cloth is glue bonded to a very flexible J-weight blue twill cloth. Suitable for general purpose, light workshop use. Available in: 25, 38 and 50mm wide x 50mtr coils and 230 x 280mm sheets.
Orbital Sanding Sheets

Industrial aluminium oxide sanding paper is glue bonded and suitable for use with hand sanding blocks and orbital sanders. Available in: 1 /3 sheets (93 x 230mm) and 1/2 sheets (115 x 280mm).
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ABRASIVES
Carbide Burrs
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut - For use on softer nonferrous and plastic materials. ie. aluminium, fibreglass, plastics, hard rubber and zinc alloy.
Cut 6 - Double Cut - Crosscut and double

cut to improve control and chipbreaks. Manufactured from high grade tungsten carbide for general purpose use.
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
- Fast stock removal and improved control and reduced chips for use on hard materials, i.e. steel alloy 50RC, 60RC, carbon & cast iron Cut 3 - Rapid Cut Head Size CylindricalxL End Cutting (mm) All sizes are 3 x 12* nominal. Sizes 3 x 14* marked * are Cut 6 - Double Cut 6 x 15* 3mm shank, all 6 x 16 others are 6mm 6 x 19 shank. 8 x 19 10 x 19 13 x 25 16 x 25 19 x 25 Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Cylindrical Plain End

All sizes are nominal. Sizes marked * are 3mm shank, all others are 6mm shank.
Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 14* 4 x 13* 6 x 13* 6 x 16 6 x 19 8 x 19 10 x 19 13 x 25 16 x 25 19 x 25 Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 14* 6 x 13* 6 x 16 6 x 19 8 x 19 10 x 19 11 x 25 13 x 25 16 x 25 19 x 25
Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Cylindrical Ball Nosed

Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
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Carbide Burrs
ABRASIVES Cut 3 - Rapid Cut
Round Tree
Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 13* 6 x 16 6 x 19 10 x 19 13 x 25 16 x 25 19 x 32 Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 6* 8 x 19 13 x 32 16 x 36 Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 13* 6 x 13* 10 x 19 13 x 19 13 x 25 16 x 25 Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 3* 5 x 4* 6x5 8x6 10 x 8 11 x 10 13 x 11 16 x 14 19 x 16 Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 6* 6 x 10* 10 x 16 13 x 22 16 x 25 19 x 25
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 6 - Double Cut
Flame Shape
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 6 - Double Cut
Pointed Tree
Ball Shape
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Oval
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
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ABRASIVES
Carbide Burrs Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 11* 6 x 13* 6 x 19 10 x 16 13 x 22 16 x 25 Head Size xL (mm) 3 x 13* 5 x 13* 6 x 12 6 x 16 8 x 22 10 x 27 13 x 28 16 x 30 19 x 38 Head Size xL (mm) 3x4 10 x 8 16 x 14 Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Head Size xL (mm) 6x3 10 x 5 13 x 6 Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Head Size xL (mm) 6x8 19 x 16 Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 6 - Double Cut
Conical
Conical 14
Cut 6 - Double Cut
Conical 60
Cut 9 - Chipbreaker
Conical 90
Inverted Cone
Diameter of Burr 3mm 4mm 6mm

6
Speed Range RPM 40 - 80,000 35 - 60,000 30 - 60,000
Diameter of Burr 9mm 12mm 20mm
Speed Range RPM 25 - 40,000 20 - 40,000 15 - 25,000
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Diamond Burrs
ABRASIVES
Diamond Coated Burrs

3mm shank. Overall length 45mm. Diamond grip mesh is 120/140. Suitable for precision grinding of carbide, gems, ceramics, tough alloys, cermets, tool steels etc. Recommended operating speeds 15,000 ~ 30,000 RPM.
Cylindrical
Head Dia. xL (mm) 1.5 x 9 2.0 x 10 2.5 x 10 3.0 x 10 4.0 x 10 5.0 x 10
Cylindrical Ball Nosed

Head Dia. xL (mm) 1.5 x 9 2.0 x 10 2.5 x 10 3.0 x 10 4.0 x 10 5.0 x 10
Pointed Tree
Head Dia. xL (mm) 2.0 x 9 3.0 x 9 4.0 x 10 5.0 x 10
Round Tree
Head Dia. xL (mm) 2.0 x 10 3.0 x 10 3.3 x 10 3.3 x 10
Conical
Included Head Dia. Angle x Length 70 10 2 x 12 3 x 15
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ABRASIVES
Fibre Discs Disc Dia. (mm) 100 115 127 178 Max rpm 12,400 11,000 10,000 7,000
Aluminium Oxide Fibre Discs

Resin fibre backed sanding discs are designed for a wide range of industrial applications. High speed penetration of tough and high tensile materials combined with long disc life and optimum flexibility ensure these sanding discs give first class performance every time. Recommended for use with all portable grinders and sanders. Available in: 100mm Diameter x 16mm Bore, 115mm Diameter x 22mm Bore, 127mm Diameter x 22mm Bore, 178mm Diameter x 22mm Bore.
Adhesive Backed Discs

Adhesive backed aluminium oxide paper discs require no tools to change, when the abrasive becomes worn or a different grit is needed, just peel off and apply a fresh disc, reducing machine downtime and therefore increasing productivity. Available in 150mm diameter.
Velcro backed Sanding Discs

Velcro backed aluminium oxide, resin bonded over resin and need no tools to change. Suitable for wood, plastics, ceramics etc. 100% of sanding disc can be used, material removal rate is therefore increased. Can be repeatedly removed and re-applied again and again. Unaffected by dust or moisture. Available in: 115, 127 & 152mm Diameter with no Holes, 115mm Diameter with 8 Holes, 152mm Diameter with 6 Holes. Also available in delta shape. Disc Dia. (mm) 100 127 152 Max rpm 12,400 12,000 12,000
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Flap Discs & Grinding Discs
ABRASIVES Disc Dia. (mm) 100 115 127 178 Max rpm 15,300 13,300 12,000 8,600
Flap Discs
High performance alternative to sanding discs. Have the advantage over depressed centre grinding discs on light gauge sheet metal where surface finish is important. Overlapped abrasive strips slowly wear away revealing fresh abrasive, ensuring the disc always cuts effectively, reducing clogging, provides constant finish throughout disc life, generates less noise and heat - less blueing. No backing pads needed - fits directly onto machine. Safe to use at 80m/s on any grinder. Tested at 150m/s and approved by the German Grinding Wheel Authority (DSA). Available in two grades and two types of backing. Aluminium Oxide Grade - Aluminium Backed (General Purpose). Zirconium Grade - Aluminium Backed (For Stainless Steel). Aluminium Oxide Grade - Glass Fibre Backed (General Purpose - Non-Scratch). Zirconium Grade - Glass Fibre Backed (For Stainless Steel - Non-Scratch).
Depressed Centre and Flat Reinforced Grinding Discs

Manufactured to assure operator safety and optimum performance. For use with all portable grinders/cut-off machines. Always wear safety gloves, eye, ear, and respiratory protection. Cutting discs are not to be used for free hand cutting, wet grinding or general grinding. Always read the safety instructions and recommendations. Depressed Centre Cutting & Grinding Discs Grade A30 For general purpose use on metals. Grade R30 For use on stainless steel. Grade X24 Special, for use on cast iron. Flat Reinforced Cutting Discs Grade A30/A24 For general purpose use on metals. Grade C24 For use on stone and non-ferrous materials.
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Disc Dia. (mm) 100 115 127 178 230 305 355
Max rpm 15,000 13,300 12,000 8,600 6,600 5,100 4,400
ABRASIVES
Grinding Wheels
How a Grinding Wheel is Defined

Any grinding wheel is defined by three specific pieces of information: (1) The Wheel Size Wheel size is the measure of the overall diameter, wheel thickness and hole diameter quoted in mm: Diameter (D) x Thickness (T) x Bore (B) Diameter and thickness are usually represented as nominal dimensions but the bore size is given to two decimal places. (2) The Shape and Minor Dimensions Grinding wheels are available in a vast range of shapes. Below are several examples of International Standard Shapes:
D T B D E T
D J
T B D P U F T B D J T
W D W
B T T E D K B J
W
U D K W
D K T E U B J
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B J
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Grinding Wheels (3) Designation The specification of a grinding wheel is given by the designation mark which is made up of six basic parts:
ABRASIVES
How a Grinding Wheel is Defined (continued)
ALUMINIUM OXIDE Friable White Pink Ruby Pink Regular Rubernite Mixtures
Abrasive Type
Grain Size COARSE
Grade SOFT E F H I MEDIUM J
Bond Type
WA 41A 46A 48A
8 10 14 16 20 24 MEDIUM 30 36
VITRIFIED
V
RESINOID B RUBBER R SHELLAC E
A
RA MA (WA+A)
K
L M HARD N O P Q R VERY HARD S T U V W X Y Z
46
SILICON CARBIDE Regular *Black C BC 60 80 100 120 150 FINE 180 220 240 280 VERY FINE 320 400 500 600
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ABRASIVES
Grinding Wheels
Abrasive Types Regular Aluminium Oxide

Tough form of aluminium oxide which contains 3% titanium oxide. Further oxidation of the titanium oxide occurs at temperatures above 1250C causing the colour to change from the usual brown to a grey-blue. Suitable for grinding high tensile strength materials.
White Aluminium Oxide

Produces wheels with high friability (the ability to fracture, exposing sharp cutting edges) due to the highly refined aluminium oxide containing over 99% pure alumina. Suitable for precision grinding hardened or HSS materials.
Semi-Friable Aluminium Oxide

Produces wheels using an abrasive with friability, toughness and free cutting characteristics. With good form holding and a high degree of versatility making 48A abrasive suitable for cylindrical, centreless, crankshaft and angle head grinding.
Pink Aluminium Oxide

Produces wheels that have highly refined aluminium oxide containing less than 0.3% of chromium oxide. A pink colour wheel, tougher and less friable than white abrasive while still retaining free cutting properties. Suitable for grinding high alloyed tool steels especially when a cooler grinding action is required.
Rubenite Aluminium Oxide

High performance aluminium oxide abrasive used on shank mounted points and wheels. With free cutting characteristics. Suitable for general purpose grinding of steels and most metals.
Silicon Carbide
Wheels that are harder than aluminium oxide type abrasives but brittle. Suitable for grinding low tensile strength materials such as cast iron, non-ferrous metals and non-metallic materials. Silicon carbide is available in three varieties with very similar physical properties. They are distinguished by colour; dark green (DC) the most commonly used, black silicon carbide (BC) is for roughing operations and light green carbide (GC) for specific applications. 12
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Grinding Wheels
ABRASIVES
Abrasive Mixtures Grain Size
By mixing different types of abrasives a large range of wheels can be produced with very different characteristics to meet specific needs. The grain or grit size is important for determining a wheels ability to produce the required surface finish and stock removal. Grain size is denoted by a number which increases as grain sizes decrease, i.e. 10 grit, grain size = 2.00mm, 60 grit, grain size = 0.25mm. Standard sizes are used for all wheels in Europe as specified in the European Standards laid down by FEPA (Federation of European Producers of Abrasive Products). A wheel will have the following characteristics as the grit size is made progressively finer: It will cut more slowly. It will produce a finer surface finish. It will be more resistant to dressing by the component being ground. It will be more likely to produce chatter marks if the grade is too hard. The minimum form radius that can be ground will decrease. A coarser grit wheel will act in the following way: It will be freer cutting. It will produce a coarser surface finish. It will be less resistant to dressing by the workpiece. The minimum form radius that can be ground will increase.
Bond Type
Vitrified Bond These wheels have a porous structure of abrasive particles bonded together by bridges of glass or similar vitreous material. Other fusible materials are used in formulating bonds to produce a wide range of structures each with its own characteristics. The wheels are kiln fired at temperatures exceeding 1000, because of this they are unaffected by heat generated during normal grinding processes. Suitable for precision grinding due to their high rigidity, they can be fractured by mechanical forces. Organic Bonds Organic bonds such as resinoid, rubber and shellac are cured at relatively low temperatures, when compared to vitrified bonds. Their resistance to mechanical forces can be affected by the heat generated when grinding causing the wheel to wear quickly or fracture easily. This can be altered by controlling the heat resistance of the bond. Resinoid Bond Based on thermosetting phenolic resin, to which fillers maybe added to improve the mechanical properties of the wheel. As these wheels are tougher and less rigid than vitrified wheels, they are suitable for heavy stock removal. They also produce finer finish. Rubber Bond Rubber bonded wheels are suitable for grinding operations where a fine finish is necessary and on wet cutting off operations where a high degree of accuracy and quality of cut are required. Used for most centreless control wheels. Shellac Bond These wheels are cool cutting and produce very fine finishes. this makes them particularly suitable for applications with minimal heat generation or for grinding very soft materials such as copper.
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ABRASIVES
Grinding Wheels
Special Treatments
For particular applications it has been found beneficial to impregnate some wheels with special additives. Sulphur is most commonly used for the impregnation of vitrified wheels, this prevents wheel loading in applications where it is difficult to apply grinding fluid to the point of contact, particularly with a large contact area. Impregnating wax into the wheel allows it to be used for the dry grinding of very soft materials to avoid loading of the wheel face. Treating the wheel with resin enables a wheel to withstand severe grinding conditions.
Grade
Grade is not a measurement of abrasive hardness it is a measurement of the bonding strength of a wheel which effects both the hardness and the way in which it it loses abrasive grains when grinding. It is an indication of the durability/hardness of the wheel against wear. As it is possible to bond a very hard abrasive to a very soft wheel which will make the wheel more free cutting and fast wearing but if the bond strength is increased the wheel will become harder. The grade of a grinding wheel is denoted by letters of the alphabet ranging from E very soft to Z for the hardest. This indicates the relationship of one wheel to the next in a particular group. Softer grade wheels will appear to have an open structure as there is a higher proportion of open pores due to a decrease of bonding type, when compared to harder wheel. Soft wheels should not be confused with open structure wheels.
Wear Characteristics
Soft: Hard: Free cutting. Wears more quickly. Produces slightly coarser surface finish. Will cut and wear more slowly. Resistant to dressing by the component being ground. Produces a good surface finish.
Structure
The structure of a wheel defines how closely packed the abrasive grains are. The openness or closeness of the wheel is denoted numerically 1 or 2 for close grain and up to 15 or more for open grain structures
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Grinding Wheels
ABRASIVES
Handling
All grinding wheels can be easily damaged by mishandling that results in the wheel being subjected to any shock loading. This can occur by inadvertently dropping, knocking or banging against any other object. Any grinding wheel subjected to such mishandling should be carefully examined for signs of damage. If in doubt do not use.
Storage
Small wheels up to 80mm diameter, together with cones, plugs, mounted points and wheels should be stored in suitable bins, drawer or boxes to prevent damage. Type 2 cylinder wheels, type 6 straight cups wheels, type 12 dish wheels and type 13 saucer wheels should normally be stacked on flat sides with cushioning material between them. Thick rim and hard grade cylinder and straight cup wheels should be stored on their periphery as for plain wheels. Soft grade, straight cup wheels and type 11 taper cut wheels, should be stored base to base and rim to rim to prevent chipping of edges and cracking of walls. Thin plain wheels, such as cut-off wheels or saw sharpening wheels should be stacked on a flat surface of steel, or similar rigid material. Other plain or shaped wheels, are best supported on their periphery in racks. The racks should provide cushioned, two point cradle support to prevent the wheels from rolling.
Plain Wheels Cylindrical cups Profile wheels
Cup Wheels
Flat cutting-off wheel
Plates
Thin wall & soft cylinders separators (blotters) Thick hard cylinders
Large plain wheels Large centreless wheel
Medium size plain wheels
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ABRASIVES
Grinding Wheels
Storage Conditions
During storage, grinding wheels must not be subjected to: Humidity, water or other liquids. Freezing temperatures. Any temperature low enough to cause the formation of condensation.
Shelf Life of Resinoid, Rubber and Shellac Boned Wheels

Organically bonded wheels which are stored for a long time may have the outer edges affected by oxidation. These wheels should not be stored for more than two years. If there is any doubt contact the manufacturer.
Ring Test
The ring test can be performed to indicate if a wheel is cracked. The wheel is lightly tapped with a light non-metallic implement. If a clear note is emitted the wheel is not cracked, if it is cracked a dull note is emitted as the crack dampens the sound. The ring test is dependant on the interpretation by the inspector and is primarily for vitrified bond wheels. To perform the ring test: A light non-metallic implement is used to gently tap the wheel about 45 each side of the vertical centre line and about 25 to 50mm from the outer edge as indicated in the diagram.
45 45 45
45
Floor Tap here
Rotate the wheel 45 and repeat the test. Large, thick wheels may be given the ring test by striking on the outer edge rather than the side. A sound, undamaged wheel will omit a clear note. If cracked, there will be a dull note and the wheel should not be used.
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Grinding Wheels
ABRASIVES
Safety
The storage, movement and use of grinding wheels are governed by stringent safety standards, the points below are a brief check list to serve as a reminder of those standards involved in the storage, movement and use of grinding wheels. 1. Grinding wheels should always be stored and handled carefully. Storage areas should be dry and free from large temperature variations. As prolonged storage of wheels may adversely affect their condition, wheels should be used within two years of purchase. 2. The shape, size & specification of wheel should always be appropriate for the job it is to be used on. 3. Before mounting the grinding wheel, it must be examined for any visual indication of damage. A ring test must be carried out on vitrified wheels. 4. Grinding wheels must only be mounted by a trained person who has been certified as competent to mount abrasive wheels. 5. Most wheels require side plates and compressible washers for mounting to transfer the driving forces from the machine spindle to the grinding wheel. 6. Wheels must always be a good fit on the spindle. Wheels which are too tight a fit should not be mounted. 7. After mounting or remounting a grinding wheel onto a machine. Stand well clear and allow the wheel to run free for a short period of time. Always treat a remounted wheel as a new wheel. 8. The initial speed of the wheel at full diameter should not exceed the maximum operating speed (MOS) specified for that wheel. Protective clothing and e y e protection, or face shields, must be worn at all times in an area where grinding is in progress.
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ABRASIVES
Grinding Wheels
Trouble Shooting
Listed below are common problems that may be encountered during grinding operations. The problem, possible cause and remedy actions are shown. There may be more than one cause to a particular problem, and several suggested remedies in some cases.
Problems Chatter Marks Likely Cause Machine vibration Wheel out of balance Wheel out of true Wheel mounting insecure Workpiece centre loose Wheel too soft Coolant dirty Spiral marks Finish too coarse Dressing techniques Wheel too coarse Wheel too soft Metal pickup on wheel Wheel not holding form Burning on diameter Wheel too soft Wheel too coarse Wheel too hard Remedy Check for wear in machine bearings Balance wheel Re-dress wheel Tighten wheel mounting Adjust centres Use finer dresser, Decrease workspeed, Use harder wheel Replace coolant Check filtration Check diamond is sharp and secure, Check dress is parallel Use fine, slow traverse dress, Use finer grit wheel Decrease Workspeed Use harder grade wheel Dress more frequently, Use more open, softer grade wheel Decrease workspeed, Use harder grade wheel Use finer grit wheel Increase workspeed Use softer grade wheel, Use more free cutting abrasive Relief dress wheel sides Increase coolant flow to contact point Clean and lubricate centres Check alignment Use steadies Decrease workspeed Dress with slow, fine traverse Keep 1/3 to 1/2 wheel width in contact during grinding Increase work speed, Use coarser dresser, Use softer grade wheel Check centres and chuck centralisation Increase workspeed, Use coarse dress, Use softer grade wheel
Surface scratches
Burning on shoulders
Wheel sides rubbing shoulder Coolant shortage Dirt in centre holes Workpiece mis-aligned Workpiece flexing Excess wheel wear Wheel allowed to traverse beyond end of workpiece Wheel too hard Workpiece misaligned
Workpiece not parallel
Workpiece not round
Wheel not cutting
Wheel glazing
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Hand Pads
ABRASIVES
Fibre Hand Pads

A range of non-woven fibre hand pads for cleaning, blending and finishing applications. Size: 155 x 225mm. White Non-abrasive: For removal of oxides & coatings, overspray on glass and brightwork, cleaning glass, ceramics, rubber and alloy wheels. Produces a scratch free finish. Grey XX-Fine: Silicon Carbide. For light finishing on all materials, for keying of lacquer when making spot repairs, fading of basecoat and clear coat system repairs. Green X-Fine: Aluminium Silicate. A general purpose conformable hand pad which gives a slightly coarser finish than the maroon hand pad. For polishing, cleaning, finishing, removing corrosion and surface preparation Maroon Fine: Aluminium Oxide. General purpose hand pad for cleaning and light finishing of stainless steel, finishing wood, sateening brass and aluminium, light oxide removal, surface preparation prior to painting It can also be used for lacquer de-nibbing and matt finishing on solid surfaces. Black Medium: Silicon Carbide. For medium to coarse finishing and blending & matching stainless steel, de-burring wood, preparing paint and surface finishes Brown Coarse: Aluminium Oxide. Heaviest duty pad in the range. For blending and matching stainless steel, removing scale & corrosion, cleaning rust, light deburring of sheet metal edges to improve handling.
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ABRASIVES
Mounted Points
Mounted Points and Wheels

Suitable for portable die and straight hand grinders. All points are aluminium oxide with rubeniteTM as standard. Used for all general purpose grinding and deburring on steels and most metals. Also available as silicon carbide grade suitable for stone/non-ferrous grinding. Maximum speeds are quoted assuming that collet to back of point does not exceed 12.7mm (1/2) and are for guidance only. See Page 11 and 12 for grade explanation.
A Shape
Shank Diameter 6mm Shape Grade Diameter Length Max. rpm A1 RA46 20mm 63mm 20,000 A2 RA46 25mm 32mm 38,000 A3 RA46 25mm 70mm 16,000 A4 RA46 32mm 32mm 30,000 A5 RA46 20mm 28mm 45,000
Shape Grade Diameter Length Max. rpm
A6 RA46 19mm 28mm 39,000
A8 RA46 21mm 45mm 20,000
A11 RA46 21mm 50mm 20,000
A12 RA46 18mm 32mm 48,000
A13 RA46 28mm 28mm 34,000
Shape Grade Diameter Length Max. rpm 20
A14 RA60 18mm 22mm 55,000
A15 RA80 6mm 27mm 55,000

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A21 RA60 25mm 25mm 34,000
A22 RA60 19mm 16mm 51,000
A23 RA60 19mm 25mm 39,000
Mounted Points
ABRASIVES
A Shape (continued)
Shank Diameter 6mm
A24 RA80 6mm 20mm 70,000
A25 RA60 25mm 25mm 35,000
A26 RA60 16mm 16mm 60,000
A31 RA46 35mm 25mm 25,000
A32 RA46 25mm 16mm 38,000
A33 RA46 25mm 13mm 38,000
A34 RA46 38mm 9mm 25,000
A35 RA46 25mm 10mm 38,000
A36 RA80 40mm 10mm 23,000
A37 RA80 32mm 6mm 30,000
A38 RA60 25mm 25mm 35,000

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A39 RA60 19mm 19mm 47,000 21
ABRASIVES
Mounted Points
B Shape
Shank Diameter 3mm
B41 RA80 16mm 16mm 34,000
B42 RA80 13mm 19mm 33,000
B43 RA100 6mm 8mm 80,000
B44 RA100 6mm 10mm 68,000
B45 RA100 5mm 8mm 100,000
B46 RA120 3mm 8mm 100,000
B47 RA120 3mm 4mm 100,000
B51 RA80 12mm 19mm 45,000
B52 RA80 10mm 20mm 45,000
B53 RA100 8mm 16mm 60,000
B54 RA100 6mm 13mm 60,000
B55 RA100 3mm 6mm 100,000
B61 RA80 19mm 8mm 38,000
B62 RA80 13mm 10mm 41,000
B63 RA100 6mm 5mm 92,000
B64 RA120 6mm 2mm 100,000
B65 RA120 3mm 3mm 100,000
B70 RA120 19mm 3mm 50,000
B71 RA120 16mm 2.4mm 60,000
B73 RA120 13mm 3mm 73,000
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Mounted Points
ABRASIVES
B Shape (continued)
Shank Diameter 3mm
B81 RA120 19mm 9mm 50,000
B82 RA120 13mm 6mm 76,000
B83 RA120 10mm 5mm 87,000
B84 RA120 8mm 5mm 100,000
B91 RA120 13mm 16mm 34,000
B92 RA120 6mm 6mm 81,000
B93 RA120 5mm 5mm 100,000
B94 RA120 4.5mm 2.5mm 100,000
B95 RA100 3mm 5mm 100,000
B96 RA100 3mm 6mm 100,000
B97 RA100 3mm 10mm 100,000
B101 RA100 16mm 18mm 33,000
B102 RA180 16mm 13mm 44,000
B103 RA80 16mm 5mm 61,000
B104 RA100 8mm 10mm 68,000
B105 RA120 6mm 6mm 100,000
B106 RA100 3mm 3mm 100,000
B111 RA100 12mm 18mm 33,000
B112 RA120 10mm 13mm 45,000
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B113 RA80 6mm 6mm 70,000 23
ABRASIVES
Mounted Points
B Shape (continued)
Shank Diameter 3mm
B114 RA80 6mm 10mm 68,000
B115 RA100 2.5mm 3mm 100,000
B121 RA120 13mm 13mm 45,000
B122 RA120 10mm 10mm 61,000
B123 RA80 5mm 5mm 100,000
B124 RA120 3mm 3mm 100,000
B131 RA80 13mm 13mm 34,000
B132 RA80 10mm 13mm 45,000
B135 RA120 6mm 13mm 60,000
W Shape
Shank Dia. 3mm
W142 RA120 2.5mm 6mm 100,000
W143 RA120 3mm 3mm 100,000
W144 RA100 3mm 6mm 100,000
W145 RA80 3mm 10mm 100,000
W146 RA80 3mm 13mm 100,000
W147 RA120 4mm 0.8mm 100,000
W149 RA120 4mm 6mm 100,000
W151 RA120 5mm 3mm 100,000
W152 RA100 5mm 6mm 100,000
W153 A120 5mm 10mm 80,000
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Mounted Points
ABRASIVES
W Shape (continued)
Shank Dia. 3mm
W154 RA80 5mm 13mm 70,000
W158 RA120 6mm 3mm 90,000
W159 RA100 6mm 5mm 92,000
W160 RA80 6mm 6mm 81,000
W162 RA80 6mm 10mm 68,000
W163 RA80 6mm 13mm 60,000
W164 RA80 6mm 20mm 55,000
W167 RA60 8mm 6mm 60,000
W170 RA60 8mm 13mm 40,000
W171 RA60 8mm 19mm 36,000
W173 RA80 10mm 3mm 70,000
W174 RA60 10mm 6mm 60,000
W175 RA60 10mm 10mm 50,000
W176 RA60 10mm 13mm 45,000
W177 RA60 10mm 20mm 33,000
W178 RA60 10mm 25mm 26,000
W179 RA60 10mm 32mm 25,000

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W182 RA60 13mm 3mm 70,000
W183 RA80 13mm 6mm 70,000
W184 RA80 13mm 10mm 70,000 25
ABRASIVES
Mounted Points
W Shape (continued)
Shank Dia. 6mm except W200 = 3mm
W185 RA60 13mm 13mm 34,500
W186 RA60 13mm 20mm 51,000
W187 RA60 13mm 25mm 40,500
W188 RA60 13mm 38mm 30,370
W191 RA80 16mm 3mm 61,120
W192 RA80 16mm 6mm 61,000
W193 RA60 16mm 10mm 61,000
W194 RA60 16mm 13mm 56,000
W195 RA60 16mm 19mm 46,000
W196 RA60 16mm 25mm 32,000
W197 RA60 16mm 50mm 21,000
W200 RA80 20mm 3mm 50,000
W201 RA60 20mm 6mm 40,000
W202 RA60 20mm 10mm 30,000
W203 RA60 20mm 13mm 25,000
W204 RA60 19mm 19mm 42,000
W205 RA36 20mm 25mm 34,000

CROMWELL
W208 RA46 20mm 50mm 18,000
W211 RA80 22mm 3mm 43,000
W212 RA60 22mm 6mm 33,000
Mounted Points
ABRASIVES
W Shape (contiued)
Shank Diameter 6mm except W244 = 10mm
W215 RA80 25mm 3mm 38,000
W216 RA46 25mm 6mm 38,000
W217 RA46 25mm 10mm 38,000
W218 RA80 25mm 13mm 38,000
W219 RA46 25mm 19mm 35,000
W220 RA46 25mm 25mm 25,000
W222 RA46 25mm 50mm 15,900
W225 RA46 32mm 6mm 30,000
W226 RA46 32mm 9.5mm 30,000
W227 RA46 32mm 13mm 30,000
W230 RA46 32mm 32mm 20,000
W236 RA46 38mm 13mm 25,000
W238 RA46 38mm 38mm 15,000
W242 RA46 50mm 25mm 11,000
W244 RA46 50mm 50mm 11,000 27
CROMWELL
ABRASIVES
Spindle Mounted
Flap Wheels
Shaft mounted flap wheels can be used in portable air or electric power tools, including tyre buffers, flexible shafts and hand drills. Manufactured from highest quality industrial cloth. Used for a wide range of applications such as removal of rust, cleaning up welds and sanding wood prior to painting. Available sizes (diameter x height) 30 x 10mm, 30 x 15mm, 40 x 15mm, 40 x 20mm, 40 x 25mm, 40 x 30mm, 50 x 10mm, 50 x 15mm, 50 x 20mm, 50 x 25mm, 50 x 30mm 60 x 20mm, 60 x 25mm, 60 x 30mm, 60 x 40mm, 60 x 50mm, 80 x 20mm, 80 x 25mm, 80 x 30mm, 80 x 40mm, and 80mm x 50mm,
Wheel Dia. 30mm 40mm 50mm 60mm 80mm
Max rpm 20,400 15,300 12,300 10,200 7,700
Cartridge Rolls
Spirally wound aluminium oxide cloth roll that constantly wears in use exposing new abrasive. Used for weld flash removal, deburring, blending and polishing applications. Available in two types, straight and taper.
Roll Dia. 12mm 19mm 25mm 28
Max rpm 22,000 18,000 10,000
Spindle Mounted
ABRASIVES
Sanding Bands/Drums
Aluminium oxide spiral wound with tear resistant backing fabric. For grinding and finishing edges, profiles, welded joints, most metals etc. For use with power tools. Grades P60 = Coarse. P80 = Medium. P150 = Fine. Available sizes: - (Diameter x Width) 10 x 10, 10 x 20, 13 x 10, 13 x 25, 15 x 10, 15 x 30, 19 x 25, 22 x 20, 25 x 25, 30 x 20, 38 x 30, 38 x 25, 45 x 30, 51 x 25, 60 x 30, 75 x 30 and 100 x 40mm. Max Operating Speeds (Peripheral=25m/sec) Sanding Band/Drum Holders Suitable for use with chucks/collets on all portable power and air tools. For use with spiral bound abrasive sanding bands. Self expanding when in use for a secure grip on the band. Band Dia. 10mm 13mm 15mm 19mm 22mm 25mm 30mm 38mm 45mm 51mm 60mm 75mm 100mm Max (rpm) 47,500 36,500 31,500 25,000 21,500 19,000 15,800 12,500 10,500 9,300 7,900 6,300 4,700
Band Rotation (Holder Stationary)
Spindle Rotation During Use (Holder Expands)
29
ABRASIVES
Spindle Mounted
Screw Fitting Discs

For general use including blending welds and removing machining marks. Also suitable for use on mild contours as well as flat surfaces. Quick change screw fitting ensures that the disc is always perfectly centred without adhesive, moving parts or centre screw damage to the workpiece. Higher speeds can be attained resulting in faster stock removal reduced man-hours and increased productivity. Available in 2 abrasive types, aluminium oxide for general purpose use and zirconia alumina for grinding and finishing of stainless steels. Available in 25mm, 38mm, 50mm, 75mm and 100mm diameters for the abrasive discs. Also available in a surface preparation material that is designed for smoothing surfaces prior to painting, removing rust, oxides, imperfections and blending out grit disc marks to produce fine finishes on metal.
Disc Dia. 25mm 38mm 50mm 75mm
Max rpm 25,000 22,000 20,000 18,000
30
ASSEMBLY
Section
Eyebolts Geometrical Tolerancing Hole & Shaft Tolerances Screw & Hole Sizes Spanner & Key Clearances Tightening Torques
32 - 36 37 38 - 39 40 41 42
A S S E M B LY
31
ASSEMBLY
Eyebolts
BS4278 covers three types of eyebolt, namely collared eyebolts, eyebolts with link, and dynamo eyebolts. Dynamo eyebolts are intended for vertical loading only, whereas the other two types of eyebolt can be used at inclined angles. Collar eyebolts are intended for permanent attachment to heavy items which may need to be lifted; they will normally be fitted in pairs for use with shackles and a two-leg sling. It is important that pairs of collar eyebolts should be carefully fitted. The eyebolt with link is intended for general lifting purposes. It should be used in place of the collar eyebolt whenever the loading cannot be confined to a single point. It may be loaded in any direction to its full rating provided that the angle of the load to the axis of its screw thread does not exceed 15. At greater inclinations the load must be reduced, but shorter link lengths and larger screw threads allow these loads for inclined lifting to be about double those for the collar eyebolt. The Dynamo eyebolt is intended for vertical lifting only; loading out of the vertical by even 5 over stress the screw thread. Dynamo eyebolts must be lifted only in circumstances where the need to ensure accurately vertical loadings is thoroughly appreciated and habitually observed; in all other circumstances the collar eyebolt or the eyebolt with link must be used. The inspecting authorities, manufacturers and users of eyebolts have expressed serious concern about the possibility of an accident being caused by eyebolts with metric threads being screwed inadvertently into tapped holes having a BSW or UNC thread; or visa versa. Leaving aside force fits the following thread sizes, for example, could be wrongly matched with a risk that the eyebolt could pull-out below its design load e.g. 3/4 BSW or UNC eyebolt could fit in M20 hole. ISO Metric Coarse Eyebolt Hole M20 M24 M24 M30 M30 BSW Eyebolt
3/4 7/8
UNC Hole 1 11/4 Eyebolt

3/4 7/8
11/8 -
11/8 -
Hole 1 11/4
The possibility of mixing threads has always existed but has been accentuated by the change to metric. Users are urged to take steps to avoid threads being mixed and in particular it is suggested that all tapped holes be identified with marks identical to those specified for eyebolts. i.e. Metric: BSW: UNC with symbols as large as possible.
32
Eyebolts
ASSEMBLY
Correct Fitting of Eyebolts

Contact Between Collar and Seating The underside of the collar of every eyebolt and the seating onto which it is screwed down must be in firm contact over the whole perimeter, otherwise any non-axial loading will be liable to over stress the screw thread. Correct Fitting of Pairs of Collar Eyebolts The plane of the eye of each of a pair of collar eyebolts must not be inclined to the plane containing the axis of the two eyebolts by more than 5. If at first fitting this condition is not fulfiled, it is to be achieved by machining the underside of the collar, care being taken to preserve accurate perpendicularity to the axis. The load applied to a collar eyebolt must always lie in the plane of the eye. When two pairs of eyebolts are fitted to a single item, it is recommended that they be used with two-leg slings and a spreader bar and in all cases precise instructions as to the proper method of lifting should always be available and clearly understood prior to lifting taking place. Correct and Incorrect Methods of Slicing
Correct
Correct
LOAD
LOAD Load
Incorrect
Incorrect
LOAD Load
LOAD Load
The correct methods are permissible for eyebolts with collars (as shown), and also for eyebolts with links. They are not correct for dynamo eyebolts, which are designed for vertical lift only. 33
ASSEMBLY
Eyebolts
F
Collared Eyebolts
E.Dia. J G D K H J. Rad. Thread Size A B. Dia.
Safe Working Load (Vertical) 0.32 0.63 1.25 2.00 3.20 A Metric Thread M12 M16 M20 M24 M30
L. Rad.
L. Rad.
K. Rad.
C. DIa.
B 22 29 40 52 65
C 15 20 27 35 44
D 7 10 14 17 22
E 15 20 27 35 44
F 9 12 16 21 26
G 20 26 36 46 58
H 18 23 32 40 51
J 1 1 1 2 2
K 3 3 5 6 7
L 9 12 16 21 26
Note: Eyebolts with smaller thread than M12 are unsuitable for normal lifting purposes. Maximum recommended working loads for Collar eyebolts when used in pairs for inclined loading conditions.
W
Safe working load (Single eyebolt vertical) Metric tonne force 1.25 2.00 3.20 Reduction factor Maximum load W to be lifted by a pair of eyebolts when the angle between the sling leg is 0 < < 30 30 < < 60 60 < < 90 tonne f. tonne f. tonne f. 1.60 1.00 0.63 2.50 1.60 1.00 4.00 2.50 1.60 0.63 0.40 0.25
34
Eyebolts
ASSEMBLY
Linked Eyebolts
Bd Ld
F L Rad. J D K H Thread Size A B DIa.

Safe Working Load (Vertical) 0.80 1.25 2.00 A Metric Thread M20 M24 M30
J Rad.
C Rad.
Link
J 1 1 2
K 4 5 6
Bd
Ld
39 24 47 26 60 37
9 12 11 14 14 18
20 27 23 32 30 41
14 12 13 16 14 15 21 18 19
24 53 29 63 37 80
Maximum recommended working loads for Eyebolts with links when used in pairs for inclined loading conditions.
W
Safe working load (Single eyebolt vertical) Metric tonne force 1.25 2.00 Reduction factor Maximum load W to be lifted by a pair of eyebolts when the angle between the sling leg is 0 < < 30 30 < < 60 60 < < 90 tonne f. tonne f. tonne f. 2.50 2.00 1.60 4.00 3.20 2.50 1.00 0.80 0.63
35
ASSEMBLY
Eyebolts
Dynamo Eyebolts
F E. Dia.
G D K H Thread Size A
B. Dia.
Safe Working Load (Vertical) 0.32 0.63 1.25 2.00 3.20
A M12 M16 M20 M24 M30
B 17 23 32 40 51
D 5 6 9 12 14
E 22 29 40 51 64
F 9 11 15 19 24
G 27 34 47 60 76
H 18 23 32 40 51
K 3 3 5 6 7
Dynamo Eyebolts are to be used only for direct lift. If fitted in pairs in groups a spreader frame must always be used.
36
Geometrical Tolerancing
ASSEMBLY
Tolerances
The following extracts have been taken from BS 308 : 1990, for further explanation the full standard should be consulted. Geometric tolerancing defines relationships between different features on a component. For example, squareness, roundness, parallelism, flatness or concentricity can be defined in two ways: (a) Dependency where the limits are intended to exercise control over the form of the feature as well as the size. (b) Independency, where the limits of size are intended to exercise control over the size of the feature only and not over its form.
Tolerance Feature and Datum Feature

Datum Letter Tolerance Squareness Means: Squareness to within 1 minute to feature A Symbol of tolerance characteristic Tolerance value Datum letter Means: must be parallel to feature B to within 0.02mm Tolerance feature
0.02
Datum letter
Surface finish
Datum triangle Datum feature
Symbols and Their Meanings

Straightness Perpendicularity (Squareness) Circular Run out Co-axiality/ Concentricity Roundness (Circularity) Flatness
Total run out
Parallelism
Angularity
Cylindricity
Position
Surface finish
Profile of a Line Profile of a Surface
At Maximum Material Condition Diameter
Projected Tolerance Zone
6 A1
Datum Target
Basic 50 Dimension
Reference (50) Dimension
Target Point Dimension not to Scale
Conical Taper Number of Times/Places
Slope
Square (Shape)
15
8X
Radius
37
ASSEMBLY
H11
Hole & Shaft Tolerances
Clearance Fits
Diagram to scale for 25mm Dia.
Holes H9 H9 H8 H7 H7
0
g6 f7 e9 Shafts h6
d10
c11
Nom Sizes Over To

mm 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 mm 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500
Tolerance H11 c11

0.001 +60 0 +75 0 +90 0 +110 0 +130 0 +160 0 +160 0 +190 0 +190 0 +220 0 +220 0 +250 0 +250 0 +250 0 +290 0 +290 0 +290 0 +320 0 +320 0 +360 0 +360 0 +400 0 +400 0 0.001 -60 -120 -70 -145 -80 -170 -95 -205 -110 -240 -120 -280 -130 -290 -140 -330 -150 -340 -170 -390 -180 -400 -200 -450 -210 -460 -230 -480 -240 -530 -260 -550 -280 -570 -300 -620 -330 -650 -360 -720 -400 -760 -440 -840 -480 -860
Tolerance H9 d10
Tolerance H9 e9
Tolerance H8 f7
Tolerance H7 e8
Tolerance H7 g6
Tolerance H7 h6
0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 +25 -20 +25 -14 +14 -6 +10 -14 +10 -2 +10 -6 0 -60 0 -39 0 -16 0 -28 0 -8 0 0 +30 -30 +30 -20 +18 -10 +12 -20 +12 -4 +12 -8 0 -78 0 -50 0 -22 0 -38 0 -12 0 0 +36 -40 +36 -25 +22 -13 +15 -25 +15 -5 +15 -9 0 -98 0 -61 0 -28 0 -47 0 -14 0 0 +43 -50 +43 -32 +27 -16 +18 -32 +18 -6 +18 -11 0 -120 0 -75 0 -34 0 -59 0 -17 0 0 +52 -65 +52 -40 +33 -20 +21 -40 +21 -7 +21 -13 0 -149 0 -92 0 -41 0 -73 0 -20 0 0 +62 0 +74 0 +87 0 -80 -180 -100 -220 -120 -260 +62 0 +74 0 +87 0 -50 -112 -60 -134 -72 -159 +39 0 +46 0 +54 0 -25 -50 -30 -60 -36 -71 +25 0 +30 0 +35 0 -50 -89 -60 -106 -72 -126 +25 0 +30 0 +35 0 -9 -25 -10 -29 -12 -34 +25 0 +30 0 +35 0 -16 0 -19 0 -22 0
+100 -145 0 -305
+100 0
-84 -185
+63 0
-43 -83
-40 0
-85 -148
-40 0
-14 -39
+40 0
-25 0
+115 -170 0 -355
+115 0
-100 -215
+72 0
-50 -96
+46 0
-100 -172
+46 0
-15 -44
+46 0
-29 0
+130 -190 0 -400 +140 -210 0 -440 +155 -230 0 -480
+130 0 +140 0 +155 0
-110 -240 -125 -265 -135 -290
+81 0 +89 0 +97 0
-56 -108 -62 -119 -68 -131
+52 0 +57 0 -63 0
-110 -191 -125 -214 -135 -232
+52 0 +57 0 +63 0
-17 -49 -18 54 -20 -60
+54 0 +57 0 +63 0
-32 0 -36 0 -40 0
38
Hole & Shaft Tolerances
ASSEMBLY
Holes Shafts n6
Transition Fits
Diagram to scale for 25mm Dia.
+ 0
H7
k6
H7
Interference Fits
+ 0
Nom Sizes Over mm 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 To mm 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 225 250 280 315 355 400 450 500
+52 0 +36 +4 +52 0 +66 +34 +52 0 +88 +56 +46 0 +33 +4 +46 0 +60 +31 +46 0 +79 +50 +40 0 +28 +3 +40 0 +52 +27 +40 0 +68 +43
s6
p6 H7 H7
Tolerance H7 0.001
+10 0 +12 0 +15 0 +18 0 +21 0 +25 0
Tolerance H7 0.001
+10 0 +12 0 +15 0 +18 0 +21 0 +25 0
Tolerance H7 0.001
+10 0 +12 0 +15 0 +18 0 +21 0 +25 0
Tolerance H7 0.001
+10 0 +12 0 +15 0 +18 0 +21 0 +25 0 +30 0 +30 0 +35 0 +35 0 +40 0 +40 0 +40 0 +46 0 +46 0 +46 0 +52 0 +52 0 +57 0 +57 0 +63 0 +63 0
k6 0.001
+6 0 +9 +1 +10 +1 +12 +1 +15 +2 +18 +2
n6 0.001
+10 +4 +16 +8 +19 +10 +23 +12 +28 +15 +33 +17
p6 0.001
+12 +6 +20 +12 +24 +15 +29 +18 +35 +22 +42 +26
s6 0.001
+20 +14 +27 +19 +32 +23 +39 +28 +48 +35 +59 +43 +72 +53 +78 +59 +93 +71 +101 +79 +117 +92 +125 +100 +133 +108 +151 +122 +159 +130 +169 +140 +190 +158 +202 +170 +226 +190 +244 +208 +272 +232 +292 +252
+30 0
+21 +2
+30 0
+39 +20
+30 0
+51 +32
+35 0
+25 +3
+35 0
+45 +23
+35 0
+59 +37
+57 0
+40 +4
+57 0
+73 +37
+57 0
+98 +62
+63 0
+45 +5
+63 0
+80 +40
-63 0
+108 +68
39
ASSEMBLY
Thread Size Thread Pitch Tap Drill BS3643 Class 6G Clearance Hole BS4186 d4 Med. Fit d1 M3 0.5 2.5 M4 0.7 3.3
Screw & Hole Sizes (Metric)

M5 0.8 4.2 M6 1 5 M8 1.25 6.8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 1.5 8.5 1.75 10.2 2 14 2.5 17.5 3 21 3.5 26.5
d4
3.4
4.5
5.5
6.6
11
14
18
22
26
33
d5
SI A/F x K DP d3 d5 d1 t1 t2 d3 d4 CHEESE HD.
h2
6 5.5 2.5 1.3 3 3.4 2 2.5 9 7 0.5 5.5 2.4 3.2
8 7 3 2 4 4.6 2.6 3 10 9 0.8 7 3.2 4.2
10 8.5 4 2.7 5 5.7 3.3 3.5 11 10 1 8 4 5.2
11 10 5 3.3 6 6.8 3.9 4.7 13 12.5 1.6 10 5 6.5
15 13 6 4.3 8 9 5 5.5 18 17 1.6 13 6.5 8.3 5 6.8
18 16 8 5.5 10 11 6 6.5 23 21 2 17 8
20 18 10 6.6 12 13
26 24 14 8.8 16
32 30 17
40 36 19
48 45 22
d3
h1
51 K h1 t1 h2 t2 D
10.7 12.9 20 24 30 32
17.5 21.5 25.5
26 24 2.5 19 10
32 30 3 24 13 16 8 11
40 37 3 30 16
48 44 4 36 19
60 56 4 46 24 29 12 17
d1
d6
D 0.1 v1 w d6 v2 S2 A/F d4 j1 e m2 m1
w S2 m1 v1 m2
10.2 12.5 6 8.2 7 9.5
19.5 23.5 9 10
d1 FOR UNEVEN SURFACES d8 90 d7 L1
v2 e J1 d7 d8 L1 6.4 2 6.7 5.8 1.9 2 6.3 5.2 1.5 8.1 2.8 9 7.8 2.5 2.5 9.0 8.0 2.5 9.2 3.5 11.5 4
12.5 14.5
15 5.5
19.6 21.9 27.7 34.6 41.6 53.1 7 8 10 13 15 19
11.2 13.4 17.9 22.4 26.9 33.6 40.3 9.8 3.1 3 11.7 15.7 19.7 23.7 29.7 35.6 3.7 4 5 5 6.2 6 7.4 8 8.8 10 10.2 12
S3 A/F
d1 d8 L2
S3 d7 d8 L2
10.0 12.0 17.0 20.0 8.9 2.5 10.9 15.4 17.8 3.1 4.3 4.7
d4
HOLE PITCH TOLERANCE FOR TOLERANCES. FROM TENON, DOWEL, SPIGOT, ETC. HALVE TOLERANCES SHOWN
0.15 0.15 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5
STEEL
t4 t5 t6
3 5 8 4.5 6.5 9.5 6 8 11
4 5.5 9 6 7.5 11 8 9.5 13
5 7 11 7.5 9.5 13.5 10 12 16
6 8 12 9 11 15 12 14 18
8 10 16 12 14 20 16 18 24
10 14 20 15 19 25 20 24 30
12 16 22 18 22 28 24 28 34
16 20 26 24 28 34 32 36 42
20 25 32 30 35 42 40 45 52
24 32 40 36 44 52 48 56 64
30 36 45 45 51 60 60 66 75
t6
BRONZE ALUM.
t4 t5
t4 t5 t6 t4 t5 t6
MINIMUM SCREW LENGTH & TAPPING DEPTHS
40
Spanner & Key Clearances

S
ASSEMBLY
S
T R2
R1
d d1
For Single End, Double End & Ring Spanners

Thread M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 Across Flats - S 7 8 10 13 17 19 24 30 36 46 T 8 9 10 12 15 17 21 25 30 38 R1 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 63 70 R2 2.5 2.5 4 4 6 6 10 10 16 16
For Hex. Box Spanner

Across Flats - S 6 7 8 10 13 17 19 24 30 36
S h
d 11 11.5 13 16 20.5 26 28.5 34.5 42 50
d1 15 15 18 18 26 28 33 40 48 58
min 60
Note: These are minimum clearance for Hexagon Keys. Make sure screw can be assembled.
For Hexagon Key

Thread M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 Across h Flats - S 2.5 26 3 30 4 37 5 42 6 49 8 57 10 65 14 88 17 100 19 115 22 135
d d1
For Square Box Spanner

Flats - S 6 8 10 13 17 22 d 12 16 20 24 34 42 d1 15 18 22 28 40 48 41
ASSEMBLY
Tightening Torques
Cap Head Screws: ISO Metric Threads

Nominal Nominal Recommended Tightening Torque Nominal Included Load Size Wrench Size mm A/Flats mm lbf in lbf ft Nm lb f kN M3 2.5 21 2.4 936 4.16 M4 3.0 49 5.5 1632 7.26 M5 4.0 99 11.2 2640 11.74 M6 5.0 168 14 19.0 3744 16.65 M8 6.0 407 34 46.0 6804 30.27 M10 8.0 67 91.2 10788 47.99 M12 10.0 117 159.1 15684 69.77 M16 14.0 291 394.8 29196 129.87 M20 17.0 568 770.3 45576 202.73 M24 19.0 982 1331.8 65652 292.03
Countersunk Head Screws: ISO Threads

Nominal Nominal Recommended Tightening Torque Nominal Included Load Size Wrench Size mm A/Flats mm lbf in lbf ft Nm lb f kN M3 2.0 18 2.0 625 2.8 M4 2.5 35 4.0 937 4.2 M5 3.0 58 6.6 1236 5.5 M6 4.0 142 12 16.0 2500 11.1 M8 5.0 274 23 31.0 3630 16.1 M10 6.0 39 53.0 4964 22.1 M12 8.0 94 127.0 9913 44.1 M16 10.0 182 247.0 14460 64.3 M20 12.0 270 365.0 17094 76.0
Button Head Screws: ISO Metric Threads

Nominal Nominal Recommended Tightening Torque Nominal Included Load Size Wrench Size mm A/Flats mm lbf in lbf ft Nm lb f kN M3 2.0 18 2.0 681 3.0 M4 2.5 35 4.0 1020 4.5 M5 3.0 58 6.6 1350 6.0 M6 4.0 142 12 16.0 2725 12.1 M8 5.0 23 31.0 3960 17.6 M10 6.0 39 53.0 5416 24.1 M12 8.0 94 127.0 10814 48.1
N.B. The tightening torque values for countersunk head and button head screws are restricted by the related wrench key size.
42
CONVERSIONS
Section
Fraction-Millimetre-Gauge-Inch Indexable Inserts: ANSI to ISO Spanner & Socket Sizes Surface Finish Tensile Strength & Hardness Weights & Measures
44 - 49 50 - 51 52 - 55 56 - 57 58 - 61 62 - 64
CONVERSIONS
43
CONVERSIONS
Fraction
Millimetre
Gauge
Inch
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch .30 .0118 .32 .0126 .343 80 .0135 .35 .0138 .368 79 .0145 .38 .0150 1/64 .397 .0156 .40 .0157 .406 78 .0160 .42 .0165 .45 .0177 .457 77 .0180 .48 .0189 .50 .0197 .508 76 .0200 .52 .0205 .533 75 .0210 .55 .0217 .572 74 .0225 .58 .0228 .60 .0236 .610 73 .0240 .62 .0244 .635 72 .0250 .65 .0256 .660 71 .0260 .68 .0268 .70 .0276 .711 70 .0280 .72 .0283 .742 69 .0292 .75 .0295 .78 .0307 .787 68 .0310 1/32 .794 .0312 .80 .0315 .813 67 .0320 .82 .0323 .838 66 .0330 .85 .0335 .88 .0346 .889 65 .0350 .90 .0354 .914 64 .0360 .92 .0362 .940 63 .0370 .95 .0374 .965 62 .0380 .98 .0386 .991 61 .0390 1.00 .0394 1.016 60 .0400 1.041 59 .0410 1.05 .0413 44
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch 1.067 58 .0420 1.092 57 .0430 1.10 .0433 1.15 .0453 1.181 56 .0465 3/64 1.191 .0469 1.20 .0472 1.25 .0492 1.30 .0512 1.321 55 .0520 1.35 .0531 1.397 54 .0550 1.40 .0551 1.45 .0571 1.50 .0591 1.511 53 .0595 1.55 .0610 1/16 1.588 .0625 1.60 .0630 1.613 52 .0635 1.65 .0650 1.70 .0669 1.702 51 .0670 1.75 .0689 1.778 50 .0700 1.80 .0709 1.85 .0728 1.854 49 .0730 1.90 .0748 1.930 48 .0760 1.95 .0768 5/64 1.984 .0781 1.994 47 .0785 2.00 .0787 2.05 .0807 2.057 46 .0810 2.083 45 .0820 2.10 .0827 2.15 .0846 2.184 44 .0860 2.20 .0866 2.25 .0886 2.261 43 .0890 2.30 .0906 2.35 .0925 2.375 42 .0935 3/32 2.381 .0938 2.40 .0945 2.438 41 .0960 2.45 .0965 2.489 40 .0980 2.50 .0984 2.527 39 .0995 2.55 .1004
Fraction
Millimetre
Gauge
Inch
CONVERSIONS
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch 2.578 38 .1015 2.60 .1024 2.642 37 .1040 2.65 .1043 2.70 .1063 2.705 36 .1065 2.75 .1083 7/64 2.778 .1094 2.794 35 .1100 2.80 .1102 2.819 34 .1110 2.85 .1122 2.870 33 .1130 2.90 .1142 2.946 32 .1160 2.95 .1161 3.00 .1181 3.048 31 .1200 3.10 .1220 1/8 3.175 .1250 3.20 .1260 3.25 .1280 3.264 30 .1285 3.30 .1299 3.40 .1339 3.454 29 .1360 3.50 .1378 3.569 28 .1405 9/64 3.572 .1406 3.60 .1417 3.658 27 .1440 3.70 .1457 3.734 26 .1470 3.75 .1476 3.797 25 .1495 3.80 .1496 3.861 24 .1520 3.90 .1535 3.912 23 .1540 5/32 3.969 .1562 3.988 22 .1570 4.00 .1575 4.039 21 .1590 4.089 20 .1610 4.10 .1614 4.20 .1654 4.216 19 .1660 4.25 .1673 4.30 .1693 4.305 18 .1695 11/64 4.366 .1719 4.394 17 .1730 4.40 .1732 4.496 16 .1770
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch 4.50 .1772 4.572 15 .1800 4.60 .1811 4.623 14 .1820 4.70 13 .1850 4.75 .1870 3/16 4.762 .1875 4.80 12 .1890 4.851 11 .1910 4.90 .1929 4.915 10 .1935 4.978 9 .1960 5.00 .1969 5.055 8 .1990 5.10 .2008 5.105 7 .2010 13/64 5.159 .2031 5.182 6 .2040 5.20 .2047 5.220 5 .2055 5.25 .2067 5.30 .2087 5.309 4 .2090 5.40 .2126 5.410 3 .2130 5.50 .2165 7/32 5.556 .2188 5.60 .2205 5.613 2 .2210 5.70 .2244 5.75 .2264 5.791 1 .2280 5.80 .2283 5.90 .2323 5.944 A .2340 15/64 5.953 .2344 6.00 .2362 6.045 B .2380 6.10 .2402 6.147 C .2420 6.20 .2441 6.248 D .2460 6.25 .2461 6.30 .2480 1/4 6.350 E .2500 6.40 .2520 6.50 .2559 6.528 F .2570 6.60 .2598 6.629 G .2610 6.70 .2638 17/64 6.747 .2656 6.75 .2657 6.756 H .2660 45
CONVERSIONS
Fraction
Millimetre
Gauge
Inch
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch 6.80 .2677 6.90 .2717 6.909 I .2720 7.00 .2756 7.036 J .2770 7.10 .2795 7.137 K .2810 9/32 7.144 .2812 7.20 .2835 7.25 .2854 7.30 .2874 7.366 L .2900 7.40 .2913 7.493 M .2950 7.50 .2953 19/64 7.541 .2969 7.60 .2992 7.671 N .3020 7.70 .3031 7.75 .3051 7.80 .3071 7.90 .3110 5/16 7.938 .3125 8.00 .3150 8.026 O .3160 8.10 .3189 8.20 .3228 8.204 P .3230 8.25 .3248 8.30 .3268 21/64 8.334 .3281 8.40 .3307 8.433 Q .3320 8.50 .3346 8.60 .3386 8.611 R .3390 8.70 .3425 11/32 8.731 .3438 8.75 .3445 8.80 .3465 8.839 S .3480 8.90 .3504 9.00 .3543 9.093 T .3580 9.10 .3583 23/64 9.128 .3594 9.20 .3622 9.25 .3642 9.30 .3661 9.347 U .3680 9.40 .3701 9.50 .3740 3/8 9.525 .3750 9.576 V .3770 46
Fraction Millimetre Gauge Inch 9.6 .3780 9.7 .3819 9.75 .3839 9.8 .3858 9.804 W .3860 9.9 .3898 25/64 9.922 .3906 10.00 .3937 10.084 X .3970 10.1 .3976 10.2 .4016 10.25 .4035 10.262 Y .4040 10.3 .4055 13/32 10.319 .4062 10.4 .4094 10.490 Z .4130 10.5 .4134 10.6 .4173 10.7 .4213 27/64 10.716 .4219 10.75 .4232 10.8 .4252 10.9 .4291 11.00 .4331 11.1 .4370 7/16 11.112 .4375 11.2 .4409 11.25 .4429 11.3 .4449 11.4 .4488 11.5 .4528 29/64 11.509 .4531 11.6 .4567 11.7 .4606 11.75 .4626 11.8 .4646 11.9 .4685 15/32 11.906 .4688 12.00 .4724 12.1 .4764 12.2 .4803 12.25 .4823 12.3 .4843 31/64 12.303 .4844 12.4 .4882 12.5 .4921 12.6 .4691 1/2 12.7 .5000 12.75 .5020 12.8 .5039 12.9 .5079 13.00 .5118 33/64 13.097 .5156
Fraction Fraction
Millimetre
Gauge
Inch
CONVERSIONS Millimetre 20.25 20.422 20.50 20.638 20.75 21.00 21.034 21.25 21.431 21.50 21.75 21.828 22.00 22.225 22.25 22.50 22.622 22.75 23.00 23.019 23.25 23.416 23.50 23.75 23.812 24.00 24.209 24.25 24.50 24.606 24.75 25.00 25.003 25.25 25.400 25.50 25.75 25.797 26.00 26.194 26.25 26.50 26.591 26.75 26.988 27.00 27.25 27.384 27.50 27.75 27.781 28.00 28.178 28.25 Inch .7972 .8040 .8071 .8125 .8169 .8268 .8281 .8366 .8438 .8465 .8563 .8594 .8661 .8750 .8760 .8858 .8906 .8957 .9055 .9062 .9154 .9219 .9252 .9350 .9375 .9449 .9531 .9547 .9646 .9688 .9744 .9843 .9844 .9941 1.0000 1.0039 1.0138 1.0156 1.0236 1.0312 1.0335 1.0433 1.0469 1.0531 1.0625 1.0630 1.0728 1.0781 1.0827 1.0925 1.0938 1.1024 1.1094 1.1122 47
17/32
35/64
9/16 37/64
19/32 39/64
5/8
41/64 21/32
43/64 11/16
45/64
23/32 47/64
3/4 49/64
25/32 51/64
Millimetre 13.10 13.20 13.25 13.30 13.40 13.494 13.50 13.60 13.70 13.75 13.80 13.891 13.90 14.00 14.25 14.288 14.50 14.684 14.75 15.00 15.081 15.25 15.478 15.50 15.75 15.875 16.00 16.25 16.272 16.50 16.669 16.75 17.00 17.066 17.25 17.462 17.50 17.75 17.859 18.00 18.25 18.256 18.50 18.653 18.75 19.00 19.050 19.25 19.447 19.50 19.75 19.844 20.00 20.241
Inch .5157 .5197 .5217 .5236 .5276 .5312 .5315 .5354 .5394 .5413 .5433 .5469 .5472 .5512 .5610 .5625 .5709 .5781 .5807 .5906 .5938 .6004 .6094 .6102 .6201 .6250 .6299 .6398 .6406 .6496 .6562 .6594 .6693 .6719 .6791 .6875 .6890 .6988 .7031 .7087 .7185 .7188 .7283 .7344 .7382 .7480 .7500 .7579 .7656 .7677 .7776 .7812 .7874 .7969
Fraction
13/16
53/64 27/32
55/64 7/8
57/64
29/32 59/64
15/16 61/64
31/32
63/64
1 11/64 11/32 13/64 11/16 15/64 13/32 17/64
CONVERSIONS Fraction 11/8 19/64 15/32 111/64 13/16 113/64 17/32 115/64 11/4 117/64 19/32 119/64 15/16 121/64 111/32 123/64 13/8 125/64 113/32 127/64 17/16 129/64 115/32 131/64 11/2 133/64 48 Millimetre 28.50 28.575 28.75 28.972 29.00 29.25 29.369 29.50 29.75 29.766 30.00 30.162 30.25 30.50 30.559 30.75 30.956 31.00 31.25 31.353 31.50 31.75 32.00 32.147 32.50 32.544 32.766 32.941 33.00 33.338 33.50 33.734 34.00 34.131 34.50 34.528 34.925 35.00 35.322 35.50 35.719 36.00 36.116 36.50 36.512 36.909 37.00 37.306 37.50 37.703 38.00 38.100 38.497 38.50
Fraction Inch 1.1220 1.1250 1.1319 1.1406 1.1417 1.1516 1.1562 1.1614 1.1713 1.1719 1.1811 1.1875 1.1909 1.2008 1.2031 1.2106 1.2188 1.2205 1.2303 1.2344 1.2402 1.2500 1.2598 1.2656 1.2795 1.2812 1.2900 1.2969 1.2992 1.3125 1.3189 1.3281 1.3386 1.3438 1.3583 1.3594 1.3750 1.3780 1.3906 1.3976 1.4062 1.4173 1.4219 1.4370 1.4375 1.4531 1.4567 1.4688 1.4764 1.4844 1.4961 1.5000 1.5156 1.5157
Millimetre
Gauge
Inch
Fraction 117/32 135/64 19/16 137/64 119/32 139/64 15/8 141/64 121/32 143/64 111/16 145/64 123/32 147/64 13/4 149/64 125/32 151/64 113/16 153/64 127/32 155/64 17/8 157/64 129/32 159/64 115/16 161/64 131/32 163/64
Millimetre 38.894 39.00 39.291 39.50 39.688 40.00 40.084 40.481 40.50 40.878 41.00 41.275 41.50 41.672 42.00 42.069 42.466 42.50 42.862 43.00 43.259 43.50 43.656 44.00 44.053 44.450 44.50 44.847 45.00 45.244 45.50 45.641 46.00 46.038 46.434 46.50 46.831 47.00 47.228 47.50 47.625 48.00 48.022 48.419 48.50 48.816 49.00 49.212 49.50 49.609 50.00 50.006 50.403 50.50
Inch 1.5312 1.5354 1.5469 1.5551 1.5625 1.5748 1.5781 1.5938 1.5945 1.6094 1.6142 1.6250 1.6339 1.6406 1.6535 1.6562 1.6719 1.6732 1.6875 1.6929 1.7031 1.7126 1.7188 1.7323 1.7344 1.7500 1.7520 1.7656 1.7717 1.7812 1.7913 1.7969 1.8110 1.8125 1.8281 1.8307 1.8438 1.8504 1.8594 1.8701 1.8750 1.8898 1.8906 1.9062 1.9094 1.9219 1.9291 1.9375 1.9488 1.9531 1.9685 1.9688 1.9844 1.9882
Fraction Fraction 2 21/32 21/16 23/32 21/8 25/32 23/16 27/32 21/4 29/32 25/16 211/32 23/8 213/32 27/16 215/32 21/2 217/32 29/16 219/32 25/8 221/32 211/16 223/32 23/4 225/32 213/16 227/32 27/8 229/32
Millimetre
Gauge
Inch
CONVERSIONS Millimetre 74.612 75.00 75.406 76.00 76.200 76.994 77.00 77.788 78.00 78.581 79.00 79.375 80.00 80.169 80.962 81.00 81.756 82.00 82.550 83.00 83.344 84.00 84.138 84.931 85.00 85.725 86.00 86.519 87.00 87.312 88.00 88.106 88.900 89.00 90.00 90.488 91.00 92.00 92.075 93.00 93.662 94.00 95.00 95.250 96.00 96.838 97.00 98.00 98.425 99.00 100.00 100.012 101.600 Inch 2.9375 2.9528 2.9688 2.9921 3.0000 3.0312 3.0315 3.0625 3.0709 3.0938 3.1102 3.1250 3.1496 3.1562 3.1875 3.1890 3.2188 3.2283 3.2500 3.2677 3.2812 3.3071 3.3125 3.3438 3.3465 3.3750 3.3858 3.4062 3.4252 3.4375 3.4646 3.4688 3.5000 3.5039 3.5433 3.5625 3.5827 3.6220 3.6250 3.6614 3.6875 3.7008 3.7402 3.7500 3.7795 3.8125 3.8189 3.8583 3.8750 3.8976 3.9370 3.9375 4.0000 49
Millimetre 50.800 51.00 51.594 52.00 52.388 53.00 53.181 53.975 54.00 54.769 55.00 55.562 56.00 56.356 57.00 57.150 57.944 58.00 58.738 59.00 59.531 60.00 60.325 61.00 61.119 61.912 62.00 62.706 63.00 63.500 64.00 64.294 65.00 65.088 65.881 66.00 66.675 67.00 67.469 68.00 68.262 69.00 69.056 69.850 70.00 70.644 71.00 71.438 72.00 72.231 73.00 73.025 73.819 74.00
Inch 2.0000 2.0079 2.0312 2.0472 2.0625 2.0866 2.0938 2.1250 2.1260 2.1562 2.1654 2.1875 2.2047 2.2188 2.2441 2.2500 2.2812 2.2835 2.3125 2.3228 2.3438 2.3622 2.3750 2.4016 2.4062 2.4375 2.4409 2.4688 2.4803 2.5000 2.5197 2.5312 2.5591 2.5625 2.5938 2.5984 2.6250 2.6378 2.6562 2.6772 2.6875 2.7165 2.7188 2.7500 2.7559 2.7812 2.7953 2.8125 2.8346 2.8438 2.8740 2.8750 2.9062 2.9134
Fraction 215/16 231/32 3 31/32 31/16 33/32 31/8 35/32 33/16 37/32 31/4 39/32 35/16 311/32 33/8 313/32 37/16 315/32 31/2 39/16 35/8 311/16 33/4 313/16 37/8 315/16 4
CONVERSIONS
Indexable Inserts
ANSI to ISO Parallelogram
Parallelogram Negative
CNMA & CNMG ANSI D T R 4 3 2 4 3 3 6 4 3 6 4 4 L 12 12 19 19 ISO T 04 04 06 06 R 08 12 12 16
Square Negative
SNMA, SNMM & SNMG ANSI ISO D T R L T R 3 2 2 09 03 08 4 3 1 12 04 04 4 3 2 12 04 08 4 3 3 12 04 12 6 4 3 19 06 12 6 4 4 19 06 16 8 5 6 25 07 24 8 6 6 25 09 24
Negative
Square Negative
SNUN & SNGN ANSI D T R 3 2 1 3 2 2 4 2 1 4 2 2 4 2 3 4 3 1 4 3 2 4 3 3 5 3 3 6 3 2 6 3 3 6 3 4 8 4 6 SPUN & SPGN ANSI D T R 3 2 1 3 2 2 4 2 1 4 2 2 4 2 3 5 3 2 5 3 3 6 3 2 6 3 3 6 3 4 50 L 09 09 12 12 12 12 12 12 15 19 19 19 25 ISO T 03 03 03 03 03 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 06 R 04 08 04 08 12 04 08 12 12 08 12 16 24
Square
Square Positive
L 09 09 12 12 12 15 15 19 19 19 ISO T 03 03 03 03 03 04 04 04 04 04 Positive R 04 08 04 08 12 08 12 08 12 16
Indexable Inserts Triangular
ANSI to ISO
CONVERSIONS
Triangular Negative
TNMA, TNMM & TNMG D 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 ANSI T 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 6 R 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 3 4 6 L 11 16 16 16 22 22 22 27 27 33 ISO T 03 03 03 03 04 04 04 06 06 09 R 08 04 08 12 08 12 16 12 16 24
Negative
Triangular Negative
TNUN & TNGN D 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 ANSI T 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 R 1 2 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 L 11 11 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 22 22 22 ISO T 03 03 03 03 03 03 04 04 04 04 04 04 R 04 08 04 08 12 16 08 12 16 08 12 16
Positive
Triangular Positive
TPUN & TPGN D 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 ANSI T 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 R 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 L 11 11 16 16 16 22 22 22 ISO T 03 03 03 03 03 04 04 04 R 04 08 04 08 12 08 12 16 51
CONVERSIONS
52
Head Size
(Spanner Size, Across Flats)
Thread Size
Head Size
(Spanner Size, Across Flats) Unified Standard Normal Heavy Series Series
Thread Size
UN
ANSI B 18.2.1 - 1972 Nuts Hex Flat Heavy Hex Hex Flat Jam Bolt Hex Jam Heavy Hex Screw Hex Slotted Heavy Hex Thick Structural Slotted Hex Bolt Castle Bolts & Screws Heavy Square Heavy Hex Flat Heavy Hex Flat Jam Heavy Hex Heavy Hex Jam Heavy Hex Slotted
Head Size
(Across Flats)
Thread Size (Spanner Size)
BS
mm
German (BRD) metric according to DIN and ISO
France NFE 27-311 (69) 27-411 (69)
Sweden S M S Metric 2164 - for DIN 1967 6914 2175 - 6915 1971
AF
Inch Decimal
mm Equivalent
Square Bolt Hex Bolt Hex Cap Screw (Finished Hex Bolt) Lag Screw
Inch Decimal Square Nut
mm Equivalent
BA & BSF BSW
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
2 2.3 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 5 Alt 6 7 8 8 Alt 10 KFZ 10
2 & 2.2 2.5 3 & 3.5
5/32
0.1562 0.1875 0.2187 0.2500 0.2812 0.3125 0.3438 0.3750 0.4062 0.4375 0.5000 0.5625 0.5938 0.6250 0.6875
3.97 4.76 5.56 6.35 7.14 7.94 8.73 9.52 10.32 11.11 12.70 14.29 15.08 15.88 17.46 No. 10
3/16 7/32 1/4
3 3.5 4 5
4 & 4.5 5
9/32
5/16 11/32 3/8
6 7 8
6 7 8
13/32 7/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
0.152 3.86 0.172 4.37 0.193 4.90 0.220 5.59 0.248 6.30 0.256 6.50 0.282 7.16 0.297 7.54 0.324 8.23 0.340 8.64 0.365 9.27 0.413 10.49 0.445 11.30 0.525 13.34
8BA 7BA 6BA 5BA 4BA 1/16W 3BA 3/32W 2BA 1/8W 1BA 0BA 3/16W
1/4W 5/16W
Spanner & Socket Sizes
(3/16) (7/32)
1/4
1/2 9/16 19/32 5/8
5/16 3/8
1/4 5/16
5/16 3/8
5/16 3/8
1/4 5/16 5/16
5/16
0.600 15.24
7/16 3/8 7/16 7/16 3/8 3/8
3/8
10
10
11/16
Head Size
Thread Size
Head Size
Thread Size
UN
Head Size
(Across Flats)
BS Spanner & Socket Sizes
mm
France NFE 27-311 (69) 27-411 (69)
AF
Inch Decimal
mm Equivalent
mm Equivalent
BSW
0.710 18.03
BA & BSF BSW
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 30 32
3/8W
7/16
12
12
12
3/4 25/32 13/16
14 16
14 16
14 16
12
7/8
0.7500 0.7812 0.8125 0.8750
19.05 19.84 20.64 22.22
1/2
7/16
1/2
1/2
7/16
7/16
9/16 1/2
9/16 1/2 9/16 1/2
1/2
0.820 20.83 0.920 23.37
7/16W 1/2W
1/2
9/16
15/16
1 18 18 18 16 18 20 22 20 22 20 22 20
1.1/16
0.9375 23.81 1.0000 25.40 1.0625 26.99 1.1250 1.1875 1.2500 1.3125 1.3750 1.4375 1.5000 1.6250 28.58 30.16 31.75 33.34 34.92 36.51 38.10 41.28
5/8
5/8
5/8
9/16 5/8
1.010 25.65
5/8 5/8 5/8
9/16W 5/8W 11/16W 3/4W 13/16W 7/8W
5/8
CONVERSIONS
1.100 27.94 1.1/8 1.3/16 1.1/4 1.5/16 1.3/8 1.7/16 1.1/2 1.5/8
3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
( 11/16)
3/4
1.200 30.48
3/4 7/8 7/8 3/4 7/8 3/4
1.300 33.02 1.390 35.31

7/8
7/8
( 15/16) 1.
36 38 41
24 27
24 27
24 27
22 24
7/8
7/8
1. 1.
1. 1.
1. 1.
1.
1.480 37.59
53
CONVERSIONS
54
Head Size
Thread Size
Head Size
Thread Size
UN
Head Size
(Across Flats)
BS
mm
France NFE 27-311 (69) 27-411 (69)
AF
Inch Decimal
mm Equivalent
mm Equivalent
BSW
1.670 42.42
BA & BSF BSW
46 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
30 33 36 39 42 45 48 52 56 60
30 33 36 39 42 45 48 52 56 60
30 33 36 39 42 45 48 52 56 60
27
111/16 1.3/4 4113/16 17/8 2 21/16 3/16 2 21/4 23/8 27/16 29/16 25/8 23/4 213/16 215/16 3 31/8 33/8 31/2
1.6875 1.7500 1.8125 1.8750 2.0000 2.0625 2.1875 2.2500 2.3750 2.4375 2.5625 2.6250 2.7500 2.8125 2.9375 3.0000 3.1250 3.3750 3.5000
42.86 44.45 46.04 47.62 50.80 52.39 55.56 57.15 60.32 61.91 65.09 66.68 69.85 71.44 74.61 76.20 79.38 85.72 88.90
11/8 11/8 11/4 11/4 13/8 13/8 11/2 11/2
11/8 11/8 11/4 11/4 13/8 13/8 11/2 11/2 15/8 15/8
11/8 11/8 11/4 11/4 13/8 13/8 11/2 11/2 15/8 13/4 17/8 2 21/4
11/8
1W
11/8
11/4 13/8 11/2
1.860 47.24 2.050 52.07 2.220 56.39 2.410 61.21 2.580 65.53 2.760 70.10
11/8W 11/4W 13/8W 11/2W 15/8W 13/4W
11/4 13/8
11/2 15/8 13/4 2
13/4 13/4
13/4 13/4 17/8 17/8
2 2 21/4 21/4
2 2 21/4 21/4
76.70 3.150 80.01 3.550 90.17
17/8W 2W
21/4 21/2
Head Size
Thread Size
Head Size
Thread Size
UN
Head Size
(Across Flats)
BS
mm
France Sweden S M S Metric NFE 27-311 2164 - for DIN 1967 6914 (69) 27-411 2175 - 6915 1971 (69)
AF
Inch Decimal
mm Equivalent
mm Equivalent
BA & BSF BSW
95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170
64 68 72 76 80 85
64 68 72 76 80 85
64 68 72 76 80 85
33/4 3.7500 95.25 37/8 3.8750 98.42 41/8 41/4 41/2 45/8 47/8 5 51/4 53/8 55/8 53/4 6 61/8 4.1250 104.78 4.2500 107.95 4.5000 114.30 4.6250 117.48 4.8750 123.82 5.0000 127.00 5.2500 133.35 5.3750 136.52 5.6250 142.88 5.7500 146.05 6.0000 152.40 6.1250 155.58
21/2
21/2 21/2 21/2 3.890 98.81 23/4 3 31/4 31/2
23/4 23/4 3. 3.
23/4 2.3/4 3. 3. 31/4 31/2 33/4 4. 31/4 31/2 31/2 33/4 33/4 4. 4. 3. 23/4
4.180 106.17 4.530 115.06 4.850 123.19 5.180 131.57 5.550 140.97
CONVERSIONS
90 95
90 95
90 95
33/4 4
100 100 100 105 105 105 110 110 110 115 115 115 120 120 120
6.380 162.05
41/2
55
CONVERSIONS
Surface Finish
There are various methods used to measure surface texture. The surface finish chart (below) shows the most common standards used, to enable a comparison to be made between one scale and another. The chart on the facing page illustrates the range of surface finishes that may be expected from the various manufacturing processes shown.
Metric Units m Peak to Centre Valley & Line 10 Point Average Height Rt Rz Ra Inch Units in Root Centre Mean Line Square Average Rs Ra Number System ISO RI302 GOST 2789 Roughness Grade Number Class Number Triangle System DIN 3141 Range Number 1 2 3 4
0.040 0.050 0.063 0.080 0.100 0.125 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.32 0.40 0.50 0.63 0.80 1.00 1.25 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.2 4.0 5.0 6.3 7.1 8.0 10.0 12.5 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 56
0.008 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.025 0.032 0.040 0.050 0.063 0.080 0.100 0.125 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.32 0.40 0.50 0.63 0.80 1.00 1.25 1.6 2.0 2.0 3.2 4.0 5.0 6.3 8.0 10.0 12.5 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100
0.35 0.44 0.55 0.70 0.89 1.11 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.4 5.5 7.0 8.9 11.1 14 18 22 28 35 44 55 70 89 111 140 180 220 280 350 440 550 700 890 1110 1400 1800 2200 2800 3500 4400
0.32 0.40 0.50 0.63 0.80 1.00 1.25 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.2 4.0 5.0 6.3 8.0 10.0 12.5 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3200 4000
N0 N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8
14 b 14 a 13 c 13 b 13 a 12 c 12 b 12 a 11 c 11 b 11 a 10 c 10 b 10 a 9c 9b 9a 8c 8b 8a 7c 7b 7a 6c 6b 6a
5 N9 4 N10

3 N11 2 N12 1 N13

Surface Finish Process

25 50 12.5
CONVERSIONS Roughness Value Ra (m)

6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.025 0.05 0.0125
Metal Cutting Flame cutting Snagging Sawing Planing, shaping Drilling Chemical milling Electro-discharge machining Milling Broaching Reaming Boring, turning Barrel finishing Electrolytic grinding Roller burnishing Grinding Honing Polishing Lapping Superfinishing Metal Forming Sandcasting Hot rolling Forging Permanent mould casting Investment casting Extruding Cold rolling, drawing Die casting
Key: Common Application Uncommon Application 57
CONVERSIONS hbar N/mm2 1 10 2 20 3 30 4 40 5 50 6 60 7 70 8 80 9 90 10 100 11 110 12 120 13 130 14 140 15 150 16 160 17 170 18 180 19 190 20 200 21 210 22 220 23 230 24 240 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 58 tonf/in2 0.647 1.295 1.942 2.590 3.237 3.885 4.532 5.180 5.827 6.475 7.122 7.770 8.417 9.065 9.712 10.360 11.010 11.650 12.300 12.950 13.600 14.240 14.890 15.540 lbf/in2 kgf/mm2 hbar N/mm2 1,450 1.02 41 410 2,900 2.04 42 420 4,350 3.06 43 430 5,800 4.08 44 440 7,250 5.10 45 450 8,700 6.12 46 460 10,150 7.14 47 470 11,600 8.16 48 480 13,050 9.18 49 490 14,500 10.20 50 500 15,950 11.22 51 510 17,400 12.24 52 520 18,850 13.26 53 530 20,300 14.28 54 540 21,750 15.30 55 550 23,200 16.32 56 560 24,650 17.33 57 570 26,100 18.35 58 580 27,550 19.37 59 590 29,000 20.39 60 600 30,450 21.41 61 610 31,900 22.43 62 620 33,350 23.45 63 630 34,800 24.47 64 640 36,250 25.49 65 650 37,700 26.51 66 660 39,150 27.53 67 670 40,600 28.55 68 680 69 690 42,050 29.57 70 700 43,500 30.59 31.61 32.63 33.65 34.67 35.69 36.71 37.73 38.75 39.77 40.79 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800
Tensile Strength tonf/in2 26.55 27.19 27.84 28.49 29.14 29.78 30.43 31.08 31.73 32.37 33.02 33.67 34.32 34.96 35.61 36.26 36.91 37.55 38.20 38.85 39.50 40.14 40.79 41.44 42.09 42.74 43.38 lbf/in2 59,450 60,900 62,350 63,800 65,250 66,700 68,150 69,600 71,050 72,500 73,950 75,400 76,850 78,300 79,750 81,200 82,650 84,100 85,550 87,000 88,450 89,900 91,350 92,800 kgf/mm2 41.81 42.83 43.85 44.87 45.89 46.91 47.93 48.95 49.97 50.99 52.00 53.02 54.04 55.06 56.08 57.10 58.12 59.14 60.16 61.18 62.20 63.22 64.24 65.26
250 16.190 260 16.830 270 17.480 280 18.130 290 18.780 300 19.420
94,250 66.28 95,700 67.30 97,150 68.32
44.02 98,600 69.34 44.68 100,050 70.36 45.32 101,500 71.38 45.97 103,000 72.40 46.62 104,400 73.42 47.27 105,900 74.44 47.91 107,300 75.46 48.56 108,800 76.48 49.21 110,200 77.50 49.86 50.50 51.15 51.80 111,700 113,100 114,600 116,000 78.52 79.54 80.56 81.58
310 20.070 44,950 320 20.720 46,400 330 21.370 47,850 340 22.010 49,300 350 22.660 50,750 360 23.310 52,200 370 380 390 400 23.960 24.600 25.250 25.900 53,650 55,100 56,550 58,000
Tensile Strength (continued) hbar 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 N/mm2 810 820 830 840 850 860 870 880 890 900 910 920 930 940 950 960 970 980 990 1000 1010 1020 1030 1040 1050 1060 1070 1080 1090 1100 tonf/in2 52.45 53.09 53.74 54.39 55.04 55.68 56.33 56.98 57.63 58.27 58.92 59.57 60.22 60.86 61.51 62.16 62.80 63.45 64.10 64.75 65.37 66.04 66.69 67.34 67.99 68.63 69.28 69.93 70.58 71.22 lbf/in2 117,500 118,900 120,400 121,800 123,300 124,700 126,200 127,600 129,100 130,500 132,000 133,400 134,900 136,300 137,800 139,200 140,700 142,100 143,600 145,000 146,500 147,900 149,400 150,800 152,300 153,700 155,200 156,600 158,100 159,500 kgf/mm2 82.60 83.62 84.64 85.65 86.67 87.69 88.71 89.73 90.75 91.77 92.79 93.81 94.83 95.85 96.87 97.89 98.91 99.93 101.00 102.00 103.00 104.00 105.00 106.00 107.10 108.10 109.10 110.10 111.10 112.20 hbar 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 N/mm2 1210 1220 1230 1240 1250 1260 1270 1280 1290 1300 1310 1320 1330 1340 1350 1360 1370 1380 1390 1400 1410 1420 1430 1440 1450 1460 1470 1480 1490 1500
CONVERSIONS tonf/in2 78.35 78.99 79.64 80.29 80.93 81.58 82.23 82.88 83.53 84.17 84.82 85.47 86.12 86.76 87.41 88.06 88.71 89.35 90.00 90.65 91.30 91.94 92.59 93.24 93.89 94.53 95.18 95.83 96.48 97.12 lbf/in2 175,500 176,900 178,400 179,800 181,300 182,800 184,200 185,700 187,100 186,600 190,000 191,500 192,900 194,400 195,800 197,300 198,700 200,200 201,600 203,100 204,500 206,000 207,400 208,900 210,300 211,800 213,200 214,700 216,100 217,600 kgf/mm2 123.4 124.4 125.4 126.4 127.5 128.5 129.5 130.5 131.5 132.6 133.6 134.6 135.6 136.6 137.7 138.7 139.7 140.7 141.7 142.8 143.8 144.8 145.8 146.8 147.9 148.9 149.9 150.9 151.9 153.0
111 1110 112 1120 113 1130 114 1140 115 1150 116 1160 117 118 119 120 1170 1180 1190 1200
71.87 161,000 113.20 72.52 162,400 114.20 73.17 163,900 115.20 73.81 165,300 116.20 74.46 166,800 117.30 75.11 168,200 118.30 75.76 76.40 77.05 77.70 169,700 171,100 172,600 174,000 117.30 120.30 121.30 122.40
151 1510 152 1520 153 1530
97.77 219,000 154.0 98.42 220,500 155.0 99.07 221,900 156.0
154 1540 99.71 223,400 157.0 155 1550 100.40 224,800 158.1 156 1560 101.00 226,300 159.1 157 158 159 160 1570 1580 1590 1600 101.70 102.30 103.00 103.60 227,700 229,200 230,600 232,100 160.1 161.1 162.1 163.2 59
CONVERSIONS hbar 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 N/mm2 1610 1620 1630 1640 1650 1660 1670 1680 1690 1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 tonf/in2 104.2 104.9 105.5 106.2 106.8 107.5 108.1 108.8 109.4 110.1 110.7 111.4 112.0 112.7 113.3 114.0 114.6 115.3 115.9 116.5 117.2 117.8 118.5 119.1 lbf/in2 233,500 235,000 236,400 237,900 239,300 240,800 242,200 243,700 245,100 246,600 248,000 249,500 250,900 252,400 253,800 255,300 256,700 258,200 259,600 261,100 262,500 264,000 265,400 266,900 kgf/mm2 164.2 165.2 166.2 167.2 168.3 169.3 170.3 171.3 172.3 173.3 174.4 175.4 176.4 177.4 178.4 179.5 180.5 181.5 182.5 183.5 184.6 185.6 186.6 187.6
Tensile Strength (continued) hbar 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 N/mm2 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100 2110 2120 2130 2140 2150 2160 2170 2180 2190 2200 2210 2220 2230 2240 tonf/in2 130.1 130.8 131.4 132.1 132.7 133.4 134.0 134.7 135.3 136.0 136.6 137.3 137.9 138.6 139.2 139.9 140.5 141.2 141.8 142.4 143.1 143.7 144.4 145.0 lbf/in2 291,500 293,000 294,400 295,900 297,300 298,800 300,200 301,700 303,100 304,600 306,000 307,500 308,900 310,400 311,800 313,300 314,700 316,200 317,600 319,100 320,500 322,000 323,400 324,900 kgf/mm2 205.0 206.0 207.0 208.0 209.0 210.1 211.1 212.1 213.1 214.1 215.2 216.2 217.2 218.2 219.2 220.3 221.3 222.3 223.3 224.3 225.4 226.4 227.4 228.4
185 1850 119.8 268,300 188.6 186 1860 120.4 269,800 189.7 187 1870 121.1 271,200 190.7 188 1880 121.7 272,700 191.7 189 1890 122.4 274,100 192.7 190 1900 123.0 275,600 193.7 191 1910 123.7 277,000 194.8 192 1920 124.3 278,500 195.8 193 1930 125.0 279,900 196.8 194 1940 125.6 281,400 197.8 195 1950 126.3 282,800 198.8 196 1960 126.9 284,300 199.9 197 198 199 200 60 1970 1980 1990 2000 127.6 128.2 128.9 129.5 285,700 287,200 288,600 290,100 200.9 201.9 202.9 203.9
225 2250 145.7 326, 300 229.4 226 2260 146.3 327,800 230.5 227 2270 147.0 329,200 231.5 228 2280 147.6 330,700 232.5 229 2290 148.3 332,100 233.5 230 2300 148.9 333,600 234.5 231 2310 149.6 335,000 235.6 232 2320 150.2 336,500 236.6 233 2330 150.9 337,900 237.6 234 2340 151.5 339,400 238.6 235 2350 152.2 340,800 239.6 236 2360 152.8 342,300 240.6 237 238 239 240 2370 2380 2390 2400 153.5 154.1 154.8 155.4 343,700 345,200 346,600 348,100 241.7 242.7 243.7 244.7
Tensile Strength & Hardness Tensile Strength

Newtons per Tons per Brinell Sq.mm Square HB (N/mm2) Inch
CONVERSIONS Tensile Strength Hardness

Rockwell (B) Vickers C Shore
Hardness
Rockwell (B) Vickers C Shore
Newtons per Tons per Brinell Sq.mm Square HB (N/mm2) Inch
415 450 480 510 545 575 610 640 675 705 740 770 800 835 865 900 930 965 995 1030 1060 1095 1125 1155 1190 1220 1255 1290 1320 1350 1385 1420 1455 1485 1520
27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 60 62 64 66 68 71 73 75 77 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
124 133 143 152 162 171 181 190 199 209 219 228 238 247 257 266 276 285 295 304 314 323 333 342 352 361 371 380 390 399 409 418 428 437 447
(71.2) (75.0) (78.7) (81.7) (85.0) (87.1) (89.5) (91.5) (93.5) (95.0) (96.7) (98.1) (99.5) 24.0 25.6 27.1 28.5 29.8 31.0 32.2 33.3 34.4 35.5 36.6 37.7 38.8 39.8 40.8 41.8 42.7 43.6 44.5 45.3 46.1 46.9
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470
30 31.5 33 33.5 35.5 37 39 40 42 43 44.5 45.5 46.5 48 49 49.5 50 52 53 53.5 54.5 55 56.5 57.5 58 59 60.5 61 62.5 63
1555 1595 1630 1665 1700 1740 1775 1810 1845 1880 1920 1955 1995 2030 2070 2105 2145 2180
100 102 104 107 109 112 115 117 119 121 121 126 129 131 134 136 138 141
47.7 48.4 49.1 49.8 50.5 51.1 51.7 52.3 53.0 53.6 54.1 54.7 55.2 55.7 56.3 56.8 57.3 57.8 58.3 58.8 59.2 59.7 60.1 61.0 61.8 62.5 63.3 64.0 64.7 65.3 65.9 66.4 67.0 67.5 68.0
480 490 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 690 700 720 740 760 780 800 820 840 860 880 900 920 940
64 65 66 66.5 67 68 69 70 71 72 74 75 75.5 76.5 77 78.5 79 80 81 81.5 82.5 83 84 85.5 87 88 89.25 90.5 91.5 93 93.5 94.5 95.5 96 97
Tensile Strength Conversions N/mm2 Kg/mm2 N/mm2 hbar N/mm2 lbf/in2 N/mm2 Ton f/in To To To To To To To To Kg/mm2 N/mm2 hbar N/mm2 lbf/in2 N/mm2 Ton f/in N/mm2 x x x x x x x x 10.197 .098068 .1 10. .000145 6896.55 .064749 15.444 61
CONVERSIONS
C = Centigrade F = Fahrenheit ft = Feet g = Gram gal = UK Gallon hp = Horse Power in = Inch K = Kelvin kg = Kilogram km = Kilometre Kw = Kilowatt l = Litre
Weights & Measures

lb = Pound mm = Millimetre mtr = Metre oz = Ounce pt = UK Pint yd = Yard
To Convert From Imperial F F ft ft2 ft3 ft-lbs ft-tons gal gal/ft2 grains/gal hp in in2 in2 in3 in-tons lb lb/ft lb/ft2 lb/ft3 lb/gall lb/in2 (PSI) lb/in2 (PSI) lb/in2 (PSI) lb/mile lb/yd lb/yd3 nautical mile miles miles2 oz pt tons tons/ft tons/ft2 tons/in2 tons/in2 tons/yd tons/yd2 tons/yd3 yd yd2 yd3 62
To Metric C K mtr mtr2 mtr3 kg-m tonne-mtr ltr ltr/m2 gm/ltr kw mm cm2 mm2 cm3 (cc) kg-m kg kg/m kg/m2 kg/m3 kg/ltr kg/cm2 kg/mm2 kg/mtr2 kg/km kg/m kg/m3 km km km2 g ltr tonnes (1000kg) kg/m tonnes/m2 kg/mm2 n/mm2 kg/m tonnes/m2 tonnes/m3 mtr mtr2 mtr3
Multiply By C=(F -32) x 5/9 K=C + 271.3 0.3048 0.092903 0.028317 0.13826 0.3097 4.54609 48.905 0.01425 0.7457 25.40 6.4516 645.16 16.3871 25.8 0.45360 1.488 4.883 15.020 0.09983 0.07037 0.0007037 703.7 0.2818 0.496 0.5933 1.8532 1.60934 2.58999 28.3495 0.568261 1.01605 3333.33 10.936 1.575 15.444 1111.11 1.215 1.329 0.9144 0.836127 0.764555
Weights & Measures

C = Centigrade F = Fahrenheit ft = Feet g = Gram gal = UK Gallon hp = Horse Power in = Inch K = Kelvin kg = Kilogram km = Kilometre Kw = Kilowatt l = Litre
CONVERSIONS
lb = Pound mm = Millimetre mtr = Metre oz = Ounce pt = UK Pint yd = Yard
To Convert From Metric C K cm2 cm3 (cc) g gm/ltr kg kg/cm2 kg/km kg/ltr kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m kg/m2 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/mm2 kg/mm2 kg/mtr2 kg-m kg-m km km km2 kw ltr ltr ltr/m2 mm mm2 mtr mtr mtr2 mtr2 mtr3 mtr3 N/mm2 tonne-m tonnes (1000kg) tonnes/m2 tonnes/m2 tonnes/m3
To Imperial F F in2 in3 oz grains/gal lb lb/in2 (PSI) lb/mile lb/gal lb/ft lb/yd tons/ft tons/yd lb/ft2 lb/ft3 lb/yd3 lb/in2 (PSI) tons/in2 lb/in2 (PSI) in-tons ft-lbs nautical miles miles miles2 hp gal pt gall/ft2 in in2 yd ft yd2 ft2 yd3 ft3 tons/in2 ft-tons tons tons/ft2 tons/yd2 tons/yd3
Multiply By F=(Cx9/5)+32 F=(K-271.3)x1.8+32 0.155 0.06102 0.035274 70.156 2.2046 14.223 3.548 10.022 0.672 2.016 0.0003 0.0009 0.2048 0.0624 1.686 1421.06 0.635 0.00142 0.03875 7.233 0.5396 0.62137 0.38610 1.341 0.21997 1.75975 0.0204 0.03937 0.00155 1.09361 3.28084 1.19599 10.76391 1.30795 35.31467 0.06475 3.229 0.9842 0.0914 0.823 0.752 63
CONVERSIONS
Metric Weight
10 Milligrams ................1 Centigram 10 Centigrams ..............1 Decigram 10 Decigrams................1 Gram 10 Grams ........................1 Decagram 10 Decagram .................1 Hectogram 10 Hectograms.............1 Kilogram 10 Kilograms .................1 Myriagram
Weights & Measures

Metric Length
10 Millimetres .................1 Centimetre 10 Centimetres ..............1 Decimetre 10 Decimetres ................1 Metre 10 Meters..........................1 Decametre 10 Decametres ..............1 Hectometre 10 Hectometres ..............1 Kilometre 10 Kilometres .................1 Myriametre 1 Metre ............................1.094 Yds, 39.371in Metric Capacity 10 Millilitres .....................1 Centilitre 10 Centilitres ...................1 Decilitre 10 Decilitres ....................1 Litre 10 Litres .............................1 Decalitre 10 Decalitres ...................1 Hectolitre 10 Hectolitres .................1 Kilolitre 4 Inches...............................1 Hand 7.92 Inches........................1 Link 9 Inches...............................1 Span 12 Inches ............................1 Foot 18 Inches ............................1 Cubit 30 Inches ............................1 Pace 3 Feet ...................................1 Yard 37.2 Inches........................1 Scottish Ell 45 Inches ............................1 English Ell 5 Feet ...................................1 Geometrical Pace 6 Feet ...................................1 Fathom 51/2 Yards............................1 Pole 4 Poles .................................1 Chain 100 Links............................1 Chain 10 Chains ...........................1 Furlong 220 Yards ...........................1 Furlong 608 Feet..............................1 Cable 8 Furlongs ...........................1 Mile (land) 10 Cables ...........................1 Nautical Mile 1 Nautical Mile..................1.1515 land Miles 1 Knot...................................1 Nautical Mile 3 Miles (land) ....................1 League
Metric Surface Area

1 sqmtr .............................1 Centiare 10 Centiares ..................1 Deciare 10 Deciares....................1 Are 10 Ares .............................1 Dekare 10 Dekares.....................1 Hectare 100 Hectares ................1 Sq. km
Imperial Weight (Avoirdupois)

16 Drams..........................1 Ounce (4371/2 Grains Troy) 16 Ounces........................1 Pound (lb) 1(7000 Grains Troy) 14 Pounds ........................1 Stone 28 Pounds ........................1 Quarter 100 Pounds .....................1 Cental 4 Quarters ........................1 Hundredweight (cwt) (112 LBS) 2000 Pounds ..................1 Short Ton 20 cwt.................................1 Ton (2240lbs) Avoirdupois pounds are greater than Troy in the proportion of 17 to 14 approx; Troy ounces are greater than Avoirdupois in the proportion of 79 to 72 approx.
Troy Weight
24 Grains ..........................1 Pennyweight 20 Pennyweight ..............1 Ounce (480 Grains) 12 Ounces........................1 lb (5760 Grains) Diamonds and Pearls are weighed by Carats, of 4 grains each (equal to 3.2 Troy grains). The Troy ounce is equal to 150 Diamond Carats. Gold, when pure, is 24 Carats fine; if it contains one part alloy it is said to be 23 Carats, and so on.
Apothecaries Weight
Used for Dispensing Drugs, etc. 20 Grains..............................1 Scruple 3 Scruples ............................1 Dram 8 Drams ................................1 Ounce 12 Ounces ...........................1 Pound
Decimal Capacity
Pints ..............Gallon 1......................0.125 8......................1.000 16...................2.000 Cub.Ft. ................Litres 0.0200 ...............0.568 0.1604 ...............4.544 0.3208 ...............9.082
Apothecaries Fluid Measure

60 Minims ............................1 Dram 8 Drams ................................1 Ounce 20 Ounces ...........................1 Pint 8 Pints....................................1 Gallon
Imperial Surface Area

144 Sq. inches.....................1 Sq. foot 9 Sq. feet ...............................1 Sq. yard 301/4 Sq. yards.....................1 Sq. pole 40 Sq. poles .........................1 Rood 4 Roods ..................................1 Acre 640 Acres ..............................1 Square mile 7.92 inches is equal to one hundredth of a Gunters Chain (22 yards) which is (was) commonly used by surveyors. An Engineers link is equal to 12 inches and a chain is therefore 331/3 yards (100feet)
Imperial Capacity
Used for Liquids and Dry Goods 4 Gills .....................................1 Pint 2 Pints....................................1 Quart 4 Quarts ................................1 Gallon 2 Gallons ..............................1 Peck 4 Pecks..................................1 Bushel 8 Bushels .............................1 Quarter 5 Quarters ............................1 Load 36 Bushels ..........................1 Chaldron A bushel of wheat on an average weighs 60lbs; of barley, 47 lbs; of oats, 40 lbs. The gallon contains 10lbs avoirdupois of distilled water.
Imperial Cubic Capacity

1728 CubicInches ...............1 Cubic Foot 27 Cubic Feet .......................1 Cubic Yard 5 Cubic Feet..........................1 Barrel Bulk 40 Cubic Feet .......................1 Ton Shipping 40 Cubic Feet .......................1 Load Hard Timber 50 Cubic Feet .......................1 Load Foreign Fir
Imperial Length
3 Barleycorns ..................1 Inch 3 Inches.............................1 Palm
64
DATA
Section
Average Adult Dimensions 66 Cutting Formulae & Abbreviations Jig Boring Coordinates Sines & Cosines 70 Tangents & Cotangents 72 Trigonometry Formulae
67 68 69 71 73 74
D ATA
65
DATA
Average Adult Dimensions
Dimensions are based on the average adult figure. Easier loading and unloading, wider clearances and ease of handling are assured when utilising these proportions in your design.
460 155 240 280 660 380
230 180 285 1750 890
1525 740 920 455 635
180
815 610 100 180 765 865 100
180 280 460
455 1100 100 180
765
2135
1370 180 100 280 300 235
765
66
Average Adult Dimensions

1830
DATA
180 460
2135
765
1145
1370
920 535
355
1070 255
1095
1905
100
920 280
610 330
560
230 890
285 740 920 455 635
1525
180
200
67
DATA
Cutting Formulae & Abbreviations Cutting Speed (v) x 1000mm x Diameter () Revs/Min (n) x x Diameter () 1000mm Revs/Min (n) x No. of Teeth (z) x Feed Tooth (Sz)
Cutting Formulae
Revs/Min (n) = Cutting Speed (v) = M/Min Table Feed (u) = mm/Min Feed/Rev (sn) = or
No. of Teeth (z) x Feed/Tooth (sz)mm Table Feed (u) mm/Min Revs/Min (n) Feed/Tooth (sz) = Feed/Rev (sn) mm No of Teeth (z) or Table Feed (u) mm/Min Revs/Min (n) x No. of Teeth (z) Time Taken (Tt) Mins = Distance Travelled/Revs/Min (n) Feed/Rev (sn)
Annotational Abbreviations
.Abbreviations
or Symbol Standard Meaning Abbreviations or Symbol Standard Meaning
a aa ar B b D d d, etc. D h6 d h6 EB ET f H h K L l l1 etc. M n PM 68
Depth of Cut Axial-Depth of Cut Radial Depth of Cut Width/Depth Diameter - Primary (Cutting) Diameter - Secondary Diameter with Specified Tolerance (Shank) Width of Cut (Grooving) Depth of Cut (Grooving) Offset Cutting Width Height Offset Cutting Line Length - Primary (Overall) Length - Secondary Groove Width No. of Revolutions/Minute Boring Depth
R s1 sn sz t SFPM
Radius Width of Cut Feed per Rev Feed per Tooth Speed, Surface Feet per Minute (see also v cutting speed) Thickness Time Taken Threads/Teeth per Inch Feed per Minute Cutting Speed Meters/Minute Width of Cut Head Length Number of Teeth Rake Angle Angle of Inclination Diameter 3.14159 (approx. 22/7)
T Tt TPI u v vf W X Z
Jig Boring Coordinates
DATA
3 Hole
B A
8 Hole
C B D
A = 0.25000 B = 0.43301 C = 0.86603
A = 0.27059 B = 0.27059 C = 0.46194 D = 0.19134
A G
9 Hole
E H A
5 Hole
C B A
A = 0.18164 B = 0.55902 C = 0.40451 D = 0.29389

B C
A = 0.46985 B = 0.17101 C = 0.26201 D = 0.21985 E = 0.38302 F = 0.32139 G = 0.17101 H = 0.29620
6 Hole
C B A C F H
10 Hole
E D B A
A = 0.43301 B = 0.25000 C = 0.50000
A = 0.29389 B = 0.09549 C = 0.18164 D = 0.25000 E = 0.15451
11 Hole
K L
7 Hole
E C B D
A = 0.27052 B = 0.33922 C = 0.45049 D = 0.21694 E = 0.31175 F = 0.39092
A D E B C
A = 0.47975 B = 0.14087 C = 0.23700 D = 0.15231 E = 0.11704 F = 0.25627 G = 0.42063 H = 0.27032 K = 0.18449 L = 0.21291
B A
12 Hole
A = 0.22415 B = 0.12941 C = 0.48296 D = 0.12941 E = 0.25882
8 Hole
A = 0.35355 B = 0.14645
B A D A C B
The constants in the table are multiplied by the diameter of the bolthole pitch circle to obtain the longitudinal and lateral adjustments of the right-angle slides of the jig borer, when boring equally spaced holes. Holes can be located by right-angular measurements, or an auxiliary rotary table which is more direct. A rotary table enables holes to be spaced by precise angular movements after adjustments to the required radius. 69
DATA SINE Degrees

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
Sines & Cosines 0 Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) 10 20 30 40 50

.002909 .020361 .037806 .055241 .072658 .090053 .107421 .124756 .142053 .159307 .176512 .193664 .210756 .227784 .244743 .261628 .278432 .295152 .311782 .328317 .344752 .361082 .377302 .393407 .409392 .425253 .440984 .456580 .472038 .487352 .502517 .517529 .532384 .547076 .561602 .575957 .590136 .604136 .617951 .631578 .645013 .658252 .671289 .684123 .696748 .005818 .023269 .040713 .058145 .075559 .092950 .110313 .127642 .144932 .162178 .179375 .196517 .213599 .230616 .247563 .264434 .281225 .297930 .314545 .331063 .347481 .363793 .379994 .396080 .412045 .427884 .443593 .459166 .474600 .489890 .505030 .520016 .534844 .549509 .564007 .578332 .592482 .606451 .620235 .633831 .647233 .660439 .673443 .686242 .698832 .008727 .026177 .043619 .061049 .078459 .095846 .113203 .130526 .147809 .165048 .182236 .199368 .216440 .233445 .250380 .267238 .284015 .300706 .317305 .333807 .350207 .366501 .382683 .398749 .414693 .430511 .446198 .461749 .477159 .492424 .507538 .522499 .537300 .551937 .566406 .580703 .594823 .608761 .622515 .636078 .649448 .662620 .675590 .688355 .700909 .011635 .029085 .046525 .063952 .081359 .098741 .116093 .133410 .150686 .167916 .185095 .202218 .219279 .236273 .253195 .270040 .286803 .303479 .320062 .336547 .352931 .369206 .385369 .401415 .417338 .433135 .448799 .464327 .479713 .494953 .510043 .524977 .539751 .554360 .568801 .583069 .597159 .611067 .624789 .638320 .651657 .664796 .677732 .690462 .702981 .014544 .031992 .049431 .066854 .084258 .101635 .118982 .136292 .153561 .170783 .187953 .205065 .222116 .239098 .256008 .272840 .289589 .306249 .322816 .339285 .355651 .371908 .388052 .404078 .419980 .435755 .451397 .466901 .482263 .497479 .512543 .527450 .542197 .556779 .571191 .585429 .599489 .613367 .627057 .640557 .653861 .666966 .679868 .692563 .705047
60
.017452 .034899 .052336 .069756 .087156 .104528 .121869 .139173 .156434 .173648 .190809 .207912 .224951 .241922 .258819 .275637 .292372 .309017 .325568 .342020 .358368 .374607 .390731 .406737 .422618 .438371 .453990 .469472 .484810 .500000 .515038 .529919 .544639 .559193 .573576 .587785 .601815 .615661 .629320 .642788 .656059 .669131 .681998 .694658 .707107 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45
0 .017452 .034899 .052336 .069756 .087156 .104528 .121869 .139173 .156434 .173648 .190809 .207912 .224951 .241922 .258819 .275637 .292372 .309017 .325568 .342020 .358368 .374607 .390731 .406737 .422618 .438371 .453990 .469472 .484810 .500000 .515038 .529919 .544639 .559193 .573576 .587785 .601815 .615661 .629320 .642788 .656059 .669131 .681998 .694658
60 70
50 40 30 20 10 Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree)
Degrees COSINE
Sines & Cosines SINE Degrees

45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
DATA 60
.719340 .731354 .743145 .754710 .766044 .777146 .788011 .798636 .809017 .819152 .829038 .838671 .848048 .857167 .866025 .874620 .882948 .891007 .898794 .906308 .913545 .920505 .927184 .933580 .939693 .945519 .951057 .956305 .961262 .965926 .970296 .974370 .978148 .981627 .984808 .987688 .990268 .992546 .994522 .996195 .997564 .998630 .999391 .999848 1 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0
.707107 .719340 .731354 .743145 .754710 .766044 .777146 .788011 .798636 .809017 .819152 .829038 .838671 .848048 .857167 .866025 .874620 .882948 .891007 .898794 .906308 .913545 .920505 .927184 .933580 .939693 .945519 .951057 .956305 .961262 .965926 .970296 .974370 .978148 .981627 .984808 .987688 .990268 .992546 .994522 .996195 .997564 .998630 .999391 .999848
Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) 10 20 30 40 50

.709161 .721357 .733334 .745088 .756615 .767911 .778973 .789798 .800383 .810723 .820817 .830661 .840251 .849586 .858662 .867476 .876026 .884309 .892323 .900065 .907533 .914725 .921638 .928270 .934619 .940684 .946462 .951951 .957151 .962059 .966675 .970995 .975020 .978748 .982178 .985309 .988139 .990669 .992896 .994822 .996444 .997763 .998778 .999488 .999894 .711209 .723369 .735309 .747025 .758514 .769771 .780794 .791579 .802123 .812423 .822475 .832277 .841825 .851117 .860149 .868920 .877425 .885664 .893633 .901329 .908751 .915896 .922762 .929348 .935650 .941666 .947397 .952838 .957990 .962849 .967415 .971687 .975662 .979341 .982721 .985801 .988582 .991061 .993238 .995113 .996685 .997953 .998917 .999577 .999932 .713250 .725374 .737277 .748956 .760406 .771625 .782608 .793353 .803857 .814116 .824126 .833886 .843391 .852640 .861629 .870356 .878817 .887011 .894934 .902585 .909961 .917060 .923880 .930418 .936672 .942641 .948324 .953717 .958820 .963630 .968148 .972370 .976296 .979925 .983255 .986286 .989016 .991445 .993572 .995396 .996917 .998135 .999048 .999657 .999962 .715286 .727374 .739239 .750880 .762292 .773472 .784416 .795121 .805584 .815801 .825770 .835488 .844951 .854156 .863102 .871784 .880201 .888350 .896229 .903834 .911164 .918216 .924989 .931480 .937687 .943609 .949243 .954588 .959642 .964404 .968872 .973045 .976921 .980500 .983781 .986762 .989442 .991820 .993897 .995671 .997141 .998308 .999171 .999729 .999983 .717316 .729367 .741195 .752798 .764171 .775312 .786217 .796882 .807304 .817480 .827407 .837083 .846503 .855665 .864567 .873206 .881578 .889682 .897515 .905075 .912358 .919364 .926090 .932534 .938694 .944568 .950154 .955450 .960456 .965169 .969588 .973712 .977539 .981068 .984298 .987229 .989859 .992187 .994214 .995937 .997357 .998473 .999285 .999793 .999996
60
Degrees COSINE 71
DATA TAN Degrees

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
Tangents & Cotangents 0 Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) 10 20 30 40 50

.002909 .020365 .037834 .055325 .072851 .090421 .108046 .125738 .143508 .161368 .179328 .197401 .215599 .233934 .252420 .271069 .289896 .308914 .328139 .347585 .367268 .387205 .407414 .427912 .448719 .469854 .491339 .513195 .535446 .558118 .581235 .604827 .628921 .653551 .678749 .704551 .730996 .758125 .785981 .814612 .844069 .874407 .905685 .937968 .971326 .005818 .023275 .040747 .058243 .075775 .093354 .110990 .128694 .146478 .164354 .182332 .200425 .218645 .237004 .255516 .274194 .293052 .312104 .331364 .350848 .370573 .390554 .410810 .431358 .452218 .473410 .494955 .516875 .539195 .561939 .585134 .608807 .632988 .657710 .683007 .708913 .735469 .762716 .790697 .819463 .849062 .879553 .910994 .943451 .976996 .008727 .026186 .043661 .061163 .078702 .096289 .113936 .131652 .149451 .167343 .185339 .203452 .221695 .240079 .258618 .277325 .296213 .315299 .334595 .354119 .373885 .393910 .414214 .434812 .455726 .476976 .498582 .520567 .542956 .565773 .589045 .612801 .637070 .661886 .687281 .713293 .739961 .767327 .795436 .824336 .854081 .884725 .916331 .948965 .982697 .011636 .029097 .046576 .064083 .081629 .099226 .116883 .134613 .152426 .170334 .188349 .206483 .224748 .243157 .261723 .280460 .299380 .318500 .337833 .357396 .377204 .397275 .417626 .438276 .459244 .480551 .502219 .524270 .546728 .569619 .592970 .616809 .641167 .666077 .691572 .717691 .744472 .771959 .800196 .829234 .859124 .889924 .921697 .954508 .988432 .014545 .032009 .049491 .067004 .084558 .102164 .119833 .137576 .155404 .173329 .191363 .209518 .227806 .246241 .264834 .283600 .302553 .321707 .341077 .360679 .380530 .400646 .421046 .441748 .462771 .484137 .505867 .527984 .550513 .573478 .596908 .620832 .645280 .670284 .695881 .722108 .749003 .776612 .804979 .834155 .864193 .895151 .927091 .960083 .994199
60
.017455 .034921 .052408 .069927 .087489 .105104 .122785 .140541 .158384 .176327 .194380 .212557 .230868 .249328 .267949 .286745 .305731 .324920 .344328 .363970 .383864 .404026 .424475 .445229 .466308 .487733 .509525 .531709 .554309 .577350 .600861 .624869 .649408 .674509 .700208 .726543 .753554 .781286 .809784 .839100 .869287 .900404 .932515 .965689 1 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45
0 .017455 .034921 .052408 .069927 .087489 .105104 .122785 .140541 .158384 .176327 .194380 .212557 .230868 .249328 .267949 .286745 .305731 .324920 .344328 .363970 .383864 .404026 .424475 .445229 .466308 .487733 .509525 .531709 .554309 .577350 .600861 .624869 .649408 .674509 .700208 .726543 .753554 .781286 .809784 .839100 .869287 .900404 .932515 .965689
60 72
Degrees COTAN
Tangents & Cotangents TAN Degrees

45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
DATA 60
1.03553 1.07237 1.11061 1.15037 1.19175 1.23490 1.27994 1.32704 1.37638 1.42815 1.48256 1.53986 1.60033 1.66428 1.73205 1.80405 1.88073 1.96261 2.05030 2.14451 2.24604 2.35585 2.47509 2.60509 2.74748 2.90421 3.07768 3.27085 3.48741 3.73205 4.01078 4.33148 4.70463 5.14455 5.67128 6.31375 7.11537 8.14435 9.51436 11.4301 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0
1 1.03553 1.07237 1.11061 1.15037 1.19175 1.23490 1.27994 1.32704 1.37638 1.42815 1.48256 1.53986 1.60033 1.66428 1.73205 1.80405 1.88073 1.96261 2.05030 2.14451 2.24604 2.35585 2.47509 2.60509 2.74748 2.90421 3.07768 3.27085 3.48741 3.73205 4.01078 4.33148 4.70463 5.14455 5.67128 6.31375 7.11537 8.14435 9.51436 11.4301 14.3007 19.0811 28.6363 57.2900
Minutes of Arc (60 Minutes = 1 Degree) 10 20 30 40 50

1.00583 1.04158 1.07864 1.11713 1.15715 1.19882 1.24227 1.28764 1.33511 1.38484 1.43703 1.49190 1.54972 1.61074 1.67530 1.74375 1.81649 1.89400 1.97681 2.06553 2.16090 2.26374 2.37504 2.49597 2.62791 2.77254 2.93189 3.10842 3.30521 3.52609 3.77595 4.06107 4.38969 4.77286 5.22566 5.76937 6.43484 7.26873 8.34496 9.78817 11.8262 14.9244 20.2056 31.2416 68.7501 1.01170 1.04766 1.08496 1.12369 1.16398 1.20593 1.24969 1.29541 1.34323 1.39336 1.44598 1.50133 1.55966 1.62125 1.68643 1.75556 1.82906 1.90741 1.99116 2.08094 2.17749 2.28167 2.39449 2.51715 2.65109 2.79802 2.96004 3.13972 3.34023 3.56557 3.82083 4.11256 4.44942 4.84300 5.30928 5.87080 6.56055 7.42871 8.55555 10.0780 12.2505 15.6048 21.4704 34.3678 85.9398 1.01761 1.05378 1.09131 1.13029 1.17085 1.21310 1.25717 1.30323 1.35142 1.40195 1.45501 1.51084 1.56969 1.63185 1.69766 1.76749 1.84177 1.92098 2.00569 2.09654 2.19430 2.29984 2.41421 2.53865 2.67462 2.82391 2.98868 3.17159 3.37594 3.60588 3.86671 4.16530 4.51071 4.91516 5.39552 5.97576 6.69116 7.59575 8.77689 10.3854 12.7062 16.3499 22.9038 38.1885 114.589 1.02355 1.05994 1.09770 1.13694 1.17777 1.22031 1.26471 1.31110 1.35968 1.41061 1.46411 1.52043 1.57981 1.64256 1.70901 1.77955 1.85462 1.93470 2.02039 2.11233 2.21132 2.31826 2.43422 2.56046 2.69853 2.85023 3.01783 3.20406 3.41236 3.64705 3.91364 4.21933 4.57363 4.98940 5.48451 6.08444 6.82694 7.77035 9.00983 10.7119 13.1969 17.1693 24.5418 42.9641 171.885 1.02952 1.06613 1.10414 1.14363 1.18474 1.22758 1.27230 1.31904 1.36800 1.41934 1.47330 1.53010 1.59002 1.65337 1.72047 1.79174 1.86760 1.94858 2.03526 2.12832 2.22857 2.33693 2.45451 2.58261 2.72281 2.87700 3.04749 3.23714 3.44951 3.68909 3.96165 4.27471 4.63825 5.06584 5.57638 6.19703 6.96823 7.95302 9.25530 11.0594 13.7267 18.0750 26.4316 49.1039 343.774
60
Degrees COTAN 73
DATA
Trigonometry Formulae Solution Call the known side a, the angle opposite it A, and the other known angle B. C = 180 - (A + B) Area = a x b x SIN C 2 b = a x SIN B c = a x SIN C SIN A SIN A Call the known side a and b, and the known angle between them C. a x SIN C B = 180 - (A + C) Tan A = b - (a x COS C) c = a x SIN C Area = a x b x SIN C SIN A 2 Side c can also be found by: c = a2 + b2 - (2ab x COS C) Call the known angle A, the side opposite it a, and the other known side b. C = 180 - (A + B) SIN B = b x SIN A a c = a x SIN C Area = a x b x SIN C SIN A 2 Call the sides a, b and c, and the angles opposite them, A, B and C. 2 2 2 C = 180 - (A + B) COS A = b + c - a 2bc SIN B = b x SIN A a Area = a x b x SIN C 2
Solution of Oblique Triangles

Data Known One Side & Two A Angles
b c B a C
Two Sides & the Included Angle

A b C a B c
Two Sides & the Opposite Angle

b C a
A c B
All Three Sides

A b C a B c
Solution of Right Angled Triangles

a = Hypotenuse b = Perpendicular c = Base
C a b 90 A c B Side a & Angle B Side a & Angle C Side b & Angle B Side b & Angle C Side c & Angle B Side c & Angle C
Data Known
Sides a & b c = a2 - b2 Sides a & c Sides b & c b = a2 - c2 a = b 2 + c2
Solution
SIN B = b a SIN C = c a TAN B = b c C = 90 - B B = 90 - C C = 90 - B
b = a x SIN B c = a x COS B C = 90 - B b = a x COS C c = a x SIN C B = 90 - C b SIN B b a= COS C c a= COS B c a= SIN C a= c = b x COT B C = 90 - B c = b x TAN C B = 90 - C b = c x TAN B C = 90 - B b = c x COT C B = 90 - C
TAN B = b c b SINE B = a c COS B = a 74
COTAN B = c b COSEC B = a b SEC B = a c
MACHINING
Section
Drilling 76 Milling 78 Reaming 84 Sawing 86 Tapping Thread Milling Turning 92 Types of Wear on a Carbide Insert Lubricant Selection
77 83 85 89 90 91 - 96 97 98
MACHINING
75
MACHINING
Drilling
HSS Drilling Feeds & Speeds

Group Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed m/min Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength HSS HSS-CO HSS + TiN machineability HB HRC N/mm2 Min Max Min Max Min Max Mild, soft and free <400 28 32 34 38 Feed Range
1.1 machining non-alloy <130 1.2 1.3

low carbon steels Non-alloy, case hardening, Structural <200 and low to medium carbon steels Non alloy, plain and medium <260 carbon steels and castings Generally low to medium alloy <260 steels and castings Medium to high alloy steels, tool >260 steels and castings <340 Heat treated high alloy steels and castings Soft and general easy to machine Ferritic and Martensitic stainless steels and castings >340 <450 Carbon Steel
Med. to Heavy
<700
25
28
30
34
Medium
<26
<850
20
25
23
28
25
30
Medium
1.4
Alloy Steel
<26 >26 <36 >36 <48
<850 >850 <1200 >1200 <1500
22
28
25
30
30
34
Medium
1.5 1.6
16
20
18
22
20
24
Medium
12
16
14
18
15
19
Medium
2.1
Stainless Steel
<230
<20
<800
14
18
20
24
Med. to Heavy
2.2
2.3
Medium strength and reasonable to machine <290 Austenitic stainless steels and castings Hard and difficult to machine. Ferritic and Austenitic <340 (duplex) stainless steels and castings Grey cast iron Hardness - soft to medium Grey cast iron Hardness medium to hard Malleable and Nodular irons soft to medium Malleable and Nodular irons medium to hard Pure Titanium (also pure Nickel) Titanium alloys of a medium and hard nature Titanium of a hard and very hard nature <180 >180 <300 <220 >220 <300
<30
<1000
10
12
13
16
Medium
<36
<1200
10
Medium
3.1
Cast Iron
28
32
30
35
34
38
Medium
3.2 3.3 3.4
20
25
24
28
28
34
Med. to Light
24
28
28
32
30
36
Medium
16
20
18
22
20
24
Med. to Light
4.1
Titanium
<700
35
40
Med. to Heavy
4.2 4.3
<900
SPECIALIST DRILLS REQUIRED i.e. Heavy Duty Cobalt Drills
>900 <1250
76
Drilling
MACHINING
HSS Drilling Feeds & Speeds (continued)

Group Materials Hardness Tensile Cutting Speed m/min Colour defines similar Brinell Rockwell Strength HSS HSS-CO HSS + TiN machineability HB HRC N/mm2 Min Max Min Max Min Max Heat resistant super alloys including iron based high temperature alloys Heat resistant super alloys Cobalt or Nickel based of a medium to hard nature to machine Heat resistant super alloys Cobalt or Nickel based, of a medium hard or very hard to machine Copper Brass (Alpha - long chip) Brass (Beta - short chip) and soft Bronze High strength Bronze Unalloyed: Aluminium, Magnesium & Zinc Aluminium alloys less than 5% Si Magnesium & Zinc alloys (long chip) Aluminium alloys 5% to 10% Si Aluminium alloys above 10% Si (short chip) Feed Range
5.1
High Temp. Alloys
<500
5.2
<900
SPECIALIST DRILLS REQUIRED i.e. Heavy Duty Cobalt Drills
5.3
9001200
6.1
Copper
<500 <800
30 30
45 45
40 -
55 -
Medium Medium
6.2 6.3 6.4
<800
20
40
Medium
<1200
15
30
Med. to Heavy
Aluminium & Magnesium
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
<150
35
40
40
50
Med. to Heavy
150-300 35
40
40
50
Med. to Heavy
200-500 200500
25
30
30
40
Med. to Heavy
20
25
25
30
Med. to Heavy Material Factor K 1.3 1.4 1.9 1.9 2.7 3.4 1.9 2.3 2.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.4 2.0 2.7
Power Requirements for Drilling The formulae stated give an estimate of power and thrust values in drilling. Power in KW: 1.25 x D2 x K x N x (0.056 + 1.5F) 100,000
*
Group
Materials
Hardness
Steel
Stainless Steel
To convert KW to HP multiply by 1.341 Thrust in Newtons 11.4 x K x D x (100F)*

D = Dia of drill (mm) *where: K = Material factor N = Speed (RPM) F = Feed (mm/rev)
Cast Iron
Titanium
1.1 130HB 1.2 200HB 1.3 260HB 1.4 260HB 1.5 260HB 260HB-340 1.6 340HB 2.1 230HB 2.2 290HB 2.3 340HB 3.1 180HB 3.2 180HB 300 3.3 220HB 3.4 220HB 300 4.1 700N/mm2 4.2 900N/mm2 4.3 900-1250N/mm2
77
MACHINING
Milling
HSS Milling Cutter Feed Rates

Slotting, Ball Nose Slotting & Die Sinking Heavy Profiling Light Profiling
Slotting Cutting Diameter Feed/Tooth (mm) (mm) Min Max 1-3 4-5 6-8 10 - 12 16 - 20 22 - 25 28 - 30 32 - 40 Above 40 0.004 0.011 0.024 0.040 0.070 0.100 0.130 0.160 0.004 0.018 0.030 0.060 0.100 0.130 0.160 0.180 -
Heavy Profiling Feed/Tooth (mm) Min 0.001 0.003 0.010 0.016 0.032 0.050 0.055 0.066 0.066 Max 0.003 0.004 0.016 0.024 0.050 0.055 0.070 0.074 0.074
Light Profiling Feed/Tooth (mm) Min 0.003 0.005 0.020 0.032 0.064 0.100 0.112 0.136 0.136 Max 0.006 0.008 0.032 0.048 0.100 0.110 0.140 0.148 0.148
Based on Short Series Slot Drill
Based on Regular Series End Mills
For longer series, reduce feed rate by 50% Useful Formulae Spindle Speed ( = 3.142): Revs/min = Cutting Speed (M/min) x 1000 (mm) ( x Cutting Diameter [mm]) Cutting Speed = Revs/min x x Cutter Diameter (mm) 1000 (mm) Table Feed: Feed (mm/min) = Feed/Tooth (mm) x No. of Teeth x Revs/min Feed/Tooth (mm) = Table Feed (mm/min) (No. of Teeth x Revs/min)
78
Milling
MACHINING
HSS Milling Cutter Feed Rates (continued)

Roughing Cutters - HSS-E, HSS-E + TiCN, & ESM - END MILLS (4 & 6 FLUTE)
Slotting, Ball Nose Slotting & Die Sinking Heavy Profiling Light Profiling
Cutting Diameter (mm) 6-8 10 - 12 16 - 20 25 - 30 Above 30
Slotting Feed/Tooth (mm) Min 0.008 0.020 0.040 0.050 0.065 Max 0.015 0.030 0.050 0.060 0.070
Heavy Profiling Feed/Tooth (mm) Min 0.011 0.035 0.060 0.080 0.120 Max 0.025 0.050 0.080 0.0100 0.130
Light Profiling Feed/Tooth (mm) Min 0.016 0.040 0.080 0.0100 0.130 Max 0.030 0.060 0.100 0.120 0.140
Based on regular series ripper cut for longer series, reduce feed rate by 50% Coarse Pitch Coarse Pitch For aluminium & light alloys. Use factor of up to 3.5 x recommended Feed/Tooth. Normal Pitch For most materials. General use. Fine Pitch For increased tool life, use on high tensile or harder materials - tool steels, Titanium & Nickel alloys. Use Mid to low Feed recommendation. Common Problems and Suggested Corrective Action
Teeth Chipping Decrease Feed Increase Speed Edge Cratering Decrease Feed Decrease Speed Change Coolant Change Cutter Material 2 3 4 Built up Edge Increase Feed Increase Speed Change Coolant Poor Finish Decrease Feed Increase Speed Cutter Concentricity Improve Stability Corrective Action - Order of Priority Chatter/ Vibration Improve Stability Cutter Concentricity Change Cutter Geometry
Normal Pitch
Fine Pitch
Cutter Wear Increase Feed Decrease Speed Change Cutter Geometry Change Cutter Material 1
79
MACHINING
Milling
HSS Milling Cutter Speeds

HSS-E 8% Cobalt For high productivity HSS-E 10% Cobalt PM For high productivity and consistent performance, even after re-grind HSSE-E + TiCN Combining HSS-E and Titanium Carbon Nitride coating for higher cutting speeds and prolonged tool life
Group
Materials Colour defines similar machineability Mild, soft and free machining low carbon steels
Hardness Cutting Speed (M/min) Tensile Brinell Rockwell Strength N/mm2 HSS-E HSS-E 10% HSS-E+TiCN HB HRC <130 <400 32 - 36 40 - 60 74 - 78
1.1
Carbon
1.2
Non-alloy, case hardening, structural and low to medium carbon steels
<200
<700
32 - 36
40 - 60
74 - 78
1.3
Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon steels and castings
<260
<26
<850
25 - 30
32 - 40
58 - 65
1.4
Alloy
Generally low to medium alloy steels and castings
<260
<26
<850
20 - 24
28 - 35
48 - 52
1.5
Medium to high alloy steels, tool steels and steels castings
>260 <340
>26 <48
>850 <1200
20 - 24
28 - 35
48 - 52
1.6
Heat treated high alloy steels and castings
>340 <450
>36 <48
>1200 <1500
12 - 14
16 - 25
30 - 36
2.1
Stainless Steels
Soft and generally easy to machine Ferritic and Martensitic stainless steels and castings
<230
<20
<800
16 - 25
25 - 32
32 - 40
2.2
Medium strength and reasonable to machine Austenitic stainless steels and castings
<290
<30
<1000
12 - 18
20 - 28
28 - 36
2.3 80
Hard and generally difficult to machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) stainless steels and castings
<340
<36
<1200
7 - 13
15 - 20
18 - 22
Milling
MACHINING
For high productivity For high productivity and consistent performance, even after re-grind Combining HSS-E and Titanium Carbon Nitride coating for higher cutting speeds and prolonged tool life
Hardness Cutting Speed (M/min) Tensile Brinell Rockwell Strength N/mm2 HSS-E HSS-E 10% HSS-E+TiCN HB HRC <180 30 - 35 40 - 50 54 - 62
HSS Milling Cutter Speeds (continued)

HSS-E 8% Cobalt HSS-E 10% Cobalt PM HSSE-E + TiCN
Group
Materials Colour defines similar machineability Grey cast iron Hardness - soft to medium
3.1
Cast Iron
3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1
Grey cast iron Hardness - medium to hard
>180 <300
22 - 26
35 - 38
40 - 48
Malleable and Nodular irons soft to medium
<220
20 - 25
30 - 35
36 - 45
Malleable and Nodular irons - medium to hard
>220 <300
18 - 22
25 - 34
32 - 40
Pure Titanium (also pure Nickel)
<700
25 - 30
32 - 38
Titanium
4.2
Titanium alloys of a medium and hard nature
<900
7 - 10
10 - 15
4.3
Titanium alloys of a hard and very hard nature
>900 <1250
3-5
6 - 12
5.1
High Temp. Alloys
Heat resistant super alloys including Iron based high temperature alloys.
<500
8 - 12
10 - 16
14 - 18
5.2
Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or Nickel based, medium to hard nature.
<900
5 - 10
6 - 12
9 - 15
5.3
Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or Nickel based, hard or very hard nature to machine
>900 <1200
3-5
4-6
5-9
6.1 6.2
Copper
Copper
<500
80 - 120
Brass (Alpha - long chip)
<800
80 - 120
6.3 6.4
Brass (Beta - short chip) & soft Bronze
<800
60 - 100
High strength bronze
<1200
30 - 35
54 - 62
81
MACHINING
Milling
Solid Carbide Milling Cutter Feeds & Speeds
Group
Materials Colour defines similar machineability Mild, soft and free machining low carbon steels
Hardness Tensile Cutting End Mill Diameter Feed Per Tooth (mm) Brinell Rockwell Strength Speed N/mm2 (M/min) <6mm <12mm <25mm HB HRC <130 <400 110 - 160 0.005 - 0.038 - 0.076 0.038 0.076 0.180
1.1
Carbon
1.2
Non-alloy, case hardening, structural and low to medium carbon steels
<200
<700
60 - 120 0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 0.025 0.050 0.155
1.3
Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon steels and castings
<260
<26
<850
65 - 100 0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 0.025 0.050 0.155
1.4
Alloy
Generally low to medium alloy steels and castings
<260
<26
<850
50 - 80
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 0.025 0.050 0.145
1.5
Medium to high alloy steels, tool steels and steels castings
>260 <340
>26 <48
>850 <1200
50 - 80
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 0.025 0.050 0.125
1.6
Heat treated high alloy steels and castings
>340 <450
>36 <48
>1200 <1500
30 - 70 0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 7 - 35 0.013 0.025 0.076 (<50HRC) 0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 0.025 0.050 0.150
2.1
Stainless Steels
Soft and generally easy to machine Ferritic and Martensitic stainless steels and castings
<230
<20
<800
45 - 70
2.2
Medium strength and reasonable to machine Austenitic stainless steels and castings
<290
<30
<1000
35 - 50
0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 0.013 0.025 0.130
2.3 82
Hard and generally difficult to machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) stainless steels and castings
<340
<36
<1200
25 - 35
0.005 - 0.010 - 0.018 0.010 0.018 0.100
Milling
MACHINING
Solid Carbide Milling Cutter Feeds & Speeds (continued)

Group Materials Colour defines similar machineability Grey cast iron Hardness - soft to medium Hardness Tensile Cutting End Mill Diameter Feed Per Tooth (mm) Brinell Rockwell Strength Speed N/mm2 (M/min) <6mm <12mm <25mm HB HRC <180 60 - 150 0.013 - 0.050 - 0.076 0.050 0.076 0.200
3.1
Cast Iron
3.2
Grey cast iron Hardness - medium to hard
>180 <300
45 - 90
0.008 - 0.020 - 0.050 0.020 0.050 0.010
3.3
Malleable and Nodular irons soft to medium
<220
40 - 85
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.075 0.025 0.075 0.180
3.4
Malleable and Nodular irons - medium to hard
>220 <300
24 - 120 0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 0.025 0.050 0.155
4.1
Titanium
Pure Titanium (also pure Nickel)
<700
60 - 80
4.2
<900
35 - 50
0.005 - 0.025 - 0.050 0.025 0.050 0.150
4.3
<1250
25 - 35
0.005 - 0.013 - 0.025 0.013 0.025 0.100
5.1
High Temp. Alloys
Heat resistant super alloys including Iron based high temperature alloys.
<500
60 - 90
0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.50
5.2
Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or Nickel based, medium to hard nature.
<900
30 - 60
0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.50
5.3
Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or Nickel based, hard or very hard nature to machine
<1200
24 - 40
0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.50
6.1 6.2
Copper
Copper
<500
90 - 150
0.013 0.020 0.050 0.050 - 0.050 - 0.155
<800
70 - 110 0.013 - 0.020 - 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.155
6.3
<800
60 - 100 0.013 - 0.050 - 0.075 0.050 0.075 0.125
6.4
<1200
45 - 70
0.005 - 0.015 - 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.050
83
MACHINING
Reaming
HSS Reamer Feeds & Speeds

Group Materials Colour defines similar machineability Mild, soft and free machining low carbon steels Non-alloy, case hardening, structural and low to medium carbon steels Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon steels and castings Generally low to medium alloy steels and castings Medium to high alloy steels, tool steels and steels castings Heat treated high alloy steels and castings Hardness Feed mm/rev Tensile Cutting Brinell Rockwell Strength Reamer Diameter Speed 2 HB HRC N/mm 3 to 6 6 to 12 12 to 25 Over 25 M/min <130 <400 -
1.1
Carbon
1.2
<200
<700
.1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .66 .64 - 1.0 40 - 70
1.3
<260
<26
<850
1.4
Alloy
<260
<26
<850
1.5
>260 <340
>26 <48
>850 <1200 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 20 - 50
1.6
>340 <450
>36 <48
>1200 <1500
2.1
Stainless Steels
Soft and generally easy to machine Ferritic <230 and Martensitic stainless steels and castings Medium strength and reasonable to machine Austenitic stainless steels and castings Hard and generally difficult to machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) stainless steels and castings Grey cast iron Hardness soft to medium Grey cast iron Hardness medium to hard Malleable and Nodular irons soft to medium Malleable and Nodular irons medium to hard
<20
<800
.1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 30 - 50
2.2
<290
<30
<1000 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 20 - 40
2.3
<340
<36
<1200 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0
5 - 20
3.1
<180
.1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 60 - 100
Cast Iron
3.2
>180 <300
.05 - .1 .1 - .2
.2 - .4
.4 - .64
30 - 60
3.3
<220
.1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64 .64 - 1.0 60 - 90
3.4
>220 <300
.05 - .1 .1 - .2
.2 - .4
.4 - .64
30 - 60
84
Reaming
MACHINING
HSS Reamer Feeds & Speeds (continued)

Group Materials Colour defines similar machineability Pure Titanium (also pure Nickel) Hardness Feed mm/rev Tensile Cutting Brinell Rockwell Strength Reamer Diameter Speed 2 HB HRC N/mm 3 to 6 6 to 12 12 to 25 Over 25 M/min <700 .15 - .25 .25 - .4 .4 - .8 .64 - 1.0 150 - 200
4.1
Titanium
4.2
<900
.1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64
.64 - 1.0
35 - 50
4.3
>900 <1250
5.1
High Temp. Alloys
Heat resistant super alloys including iron based high temperature alloys
<500
5.2
Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or Nickel based, medium to hard nature
<900
.1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64
.64 - 1.0
5 - 15
5.3
Heat resistant super alloys, Cobalt or Nickel based, hard/very hard nature
>900
6.1 6.2
Copper
Copper
<500 .15 - .25 .25 - .4
.4 - .8
.8 - 1.25
50 - 75
<800 .15 - .25 .25 - .4
.4 - .8
.8 - 1.25 125 - 200
6.3 6.4 7.1

<800
<1200 .1 - .15 .15 - .3 .3 - .64
.64 - 1.0
50 - 75
Unalloyed: Aluminium, Magnesium & Zinc
<150
7.2
Aluminium alloys less than 5% Si Magnesium & Zinc Alloys (long chip)
>150 <300
.15 - .25 .25 - .4
.4 - .8
.64 - 1.0 150 - 300
7.3 7.4
Aluminium alloys 5% to 10% Si Aluminium alloys above 10% Si (short chip)
>200 <500 >200 <500
85
MACHINING
Sawing
Bandsaw Feed & Speed
For best performance, cutting pressure should be adjusted for each different job. Generally, soft materials suit high cutting speed and light feed, hard materials suit low speed and heavy feed. If cutting speed is too high the teeth cannot bite the work material and rub the surface causing friction and dulling of the band. If cutting speed is too low the process will become uneconomical. The speeds advised in the Speed & Tooth Form Tables will generally give the best results. The following is a general guide. 1. Pressure should be evenly applied. The blade should not be forced, especially at the start of a cut, this will shorten band life and cause defective work. 2. On long straight cuts moderate pressure should be used in order to achieve the highest accuracy. 3. Feed pressures which are too heavy will also cause the machine to chatter and vibrate. Swarf usually shows whether the feed needs to be adjusted. 1. A free cut curl indicates ideal feed pressure, optimum cutting time and longest band life, 2. Discoloured swarf indicates too much feed. This will cause teeth breakage and the band to wear out rapidly, due to overheating. 3. Fine powdery swarf indicates too little feed pressure, causing the teeth to rub the surface of the work instead of cutting it.
Coolant
It is always advisable to use coolant when cutting metal using a bandsaw, the exception being cast iron which should be cut dry There are many soluble oils and light cutting oils available for this purpose. When cutting aluminium the use of paraffin or beeswax is recommended.
Running-In
A running-in' period should be observed for each blade. The teeth on a new blade are exceptionally keen at the cutting edge and can be damaged if care and attention is not taken at the start of their life. Feed and speed should be reduced (especially feed) to allow the tooth point to be gradually honed in. The 'running in' period should extend to 200 sq cm. (30 sq ins) of material sawn. During this period the feed and speed should be increased gradually up to the optimum cutting rate
Tensioning
Too much band tensioning results in premature fatigue and breakage, it will also damage machine wheels and bearings. Too little tensioning will result in bad cutting, chipped teeth, band jamming in cut. Correct tensioning is, therefore, vital to ensure best usage. Various types of machine have individual requirements. Reference should be made to the manufacturer's manual for detailed advice. In general, the band should be tensioned that it does not slip when working, adjustment may be necessary from time to time to compensate for band stretch in use. Remember, however, that the tension should only ever be relieved when the machine is not in operation Life of bi-metal blades can be greatly increased by resharpening the teeth. The high speed steel tooth tips have uniform hardness and structure throughout their full working depth. The teeth are effectively restored to their original state by re-sharpening. In order to maintain the blades condition it should be frequently monitored - Deterioration in cutting time or accuracy of cut indicates that it is time to consider re-sharpening. A well maintained blade that does not suffer deterioration of tooth set can be resharpened upto 3 times. 86
Re-sharpening
Sawing
MACHINING
Bi-Metal Bandsaw Speeds & Tooth Forms
Group
Materials Colour defines similar machineability General purpose steels, mild and structural Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon steels and castings Alloy steels, generally low to medium steels and castings Medium to high alloy steels, tool steels and steel castings
Hardness Tensile Work Material Brinell Rockwell Strength Thickness HB HRC N/mm2 (mm) up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150 up to 25 25 - 75 75 - 150 Over 150
Cutting Speed M/min 85 - 130 75 - 110 60 - 100 60 - 90 50 - 100 45 - 75 40 - 70 35 - 60 65 - 95 45 - 75 40 - 70 35 - 50 60 - 90 55 - 75 45 - 70 35 - 45 50 - 80 50 - 75 40 - 65 35 - 60 30 - 80 25 - 45 20 - 40 15 - 35 45 - 80 40 - 65 35 - 55 30 - 45 35 - 70 30 - 60 25 - 45 20 - 35 75 - 150 65 - 135 55 - 110 40 - 110 60 - 125 50 - 110 45 - 90 30 - 75
Tooth Form 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 4R - 3R 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 3H 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 4R - 3H 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 4R - 3H 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 4R - 3H 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 4R - 3H 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 4R - 3H 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 4R - 3H 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 3H 10R 8R - 6R 6R - 4R 3H
Carbon
1.1 to 1.2
<200
<700
1.3
<260
<26
<850
1.4
<260
<26
<850
Alloy
1.5
>260 <340
>26 <36
>850 <1200
1.6 Stainless 2.1 to 2.3 3.1 to 3.2 3.3 to 3.4 6.1 to 6.3 7.1 to 7.4
Heat treated high alloy steels and castings Stainless steels, free machine and austenitic
>340 <450
>36 <48
>1200 <1500
<290
<30
<1000
Grey Cast Iron
<300
Cast Iron
S.G. Iron nodular and malleable
<300
Copper
Non ferrous metals brass, copper and bronze
<800
Aluminium
Aluminium alloys zinc and magnesium
<50
87
MACHINING
Sawing
Carbon Bandsaw Speeds & Tooth Forms
Group
Hardness Tensile Work Material Brinell Rockwell Strength Thickness HB HRC N/mm2 (mm) up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100 up to 6 6 - 13 13 - 50 50 - 100
Cutting Speed M/min 55 55 50 45 45 45 30 25 40 40 30 20 35 35 30 20 30 30 20 15 30 30 20 15 30 30 35 20 25 25 20 15 75 75 50 30 150 150 100 50
Tooth Form 32R - 24R 18R - 24R 10R - 8R 6R 6R 14R - 10R 8R 6R 32R - 18R 14R 10R 8R 32R - 18R 14R 10R 8R 32R - 18R 14R 10R 8R 32R - 18R 18R 10R 8R 8R 18R 14R 10R 18R 14R 10R 8R 24R - 18R 14H - 16H 6H 3H 24R - 18R 14H - 16H 6H 3H
Carbon
1.1 to 1.2
<200
<700
1.3
<260
<26
<850
1.4
<260
<26
<850
Alloy
1.5
>260 <340
>26 <36
>850 <1200
>340 <450
>36 <48
>1200 <1500
<290
<30
<1000
Grey Cast Iron
<300
Cast Iron
<300
Copper
<800
Aluminium
Aluminium alloys, zinc and magnesium
<50
88
Sawing
MACHINING
Powersaw & Hacksaw Speeds & TPI
Group
Hardness Tensile Cutting Brinell Rockwell Strength Speed HB HRC N/mm2 M/min
Cuts Per Min
Bar Diameter Or Similar Shapes <10 10-40 40-80 >80 mm mm mm mm Recommended TPI 14 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
Carbon
1.1 to 1.2
<200
<700
25 - 35 70 - 90
1.3
<260
<26
<850
20 - 30 50 - 70
14
10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
1.4
<260
<26
<850
20 - 30 50 - 70
14
10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
Alloy
1.5
>260 <340
>26 <36
>850 <1200
18 - 28 40 - 60
14
10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
>340 <450
>36 <48
>1200 <1500
15 - 25 30 - 45
14
10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
<290
<30
<1000
10 - 25 40 - 60
14
10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
Grey Cast Iron
<300
30 - 40 70 - 90
14
10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
Cast Iron
<300
30 - 40 70 - 90
14
10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
Copper
<800
40 - 60 80 - 115
14
10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
Aluminium
Aluminium alloys, zinc and magnesium
<50
40 - 60 80 - 115 14 - 10 10 - 6 6 - 4 4 - 3
89
MACHINING
Tapping
Production Tapping Speeds

Group Materials Colour defines similar machineability Mild Steel Case Hardening & Structural Steel Medium Carbon Steel Low Alloy Steel Medium to High Alloy Steel Heat Treated Steel Free Machining Stainless Medium Strength Austenitic Stainless Difficult to Machine, Duplex Stainless Grey Cast Iron - Soft Grey Cast Iron - Hard Malleable & Nodular Iron Malleable & Nodular Iron - Hard Unalloyed Aluminium Zinc - Magnesium Aluminium Alloy less than 5% Si Aluminium Alloy 5% to 10% Si Aluminium Alloy above 10% Si Hardness Tensile Cutting Brinell Rockwell Strength Speed HB HRC N/mm2 M/min <130 <200 <260 <260 260 340 340 450 <230 <290 <340 <180 180 300 <220 200 300 <26 <26 26 36 36 48 <20 <30 <36 <400 <700 <850 <850 850 1200 1200 1500 <800 <1000 <1200 <150 150 300 200 500 200 500 15 - 20 15 - 20 15 - 20 10 - 15 6 - 10 4-6 8 - 10 6-8 4-6 18 - 25 Blind & Through Hole 15 - 18 8 - 12 Through Hole 4-6 20 - 25 17 - 22 15 - 20 12 - 15 Blind & Straight Flute Through Hole (for Cast Irons) Spiral Point Straight Flute Through Hole Blind Hole Spiral Point Spiral Flute Through Hole Blind Hole Spiral Point Spiral Flute Various Through Hole Blind Hole Straight Flute Spiral Point Spiral Flute Hole Type Tap Type
1.1
Carbon Alloy Stainless Steels Cast Iron Aluminium
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
Blind & Through Hole
Fluteless
Power Requirements For Taps Many factors are involved when considering power requirements for a particular application. Factors such as the choice of tap design, tapping drill size, depth of threaded hole, lubricant and tapping speed all play a part in determining these requirements. To estimate the power requirements for varying percentage thread depths, the following general formula and constants may be used: 90
Tapping Power (KW) = C x D x p2 x N x K 10000 HP = KW x 1.341 Where D = Thread Diameter (mm) p = Pitch (mm) N = Spindle speed RPM K = Material Factor Constant C = A constant based on % thread depth, as follows: C % Thread Depth 0.231 60 0.326 75 0.433 80
Thread Milling
MACHINING
Thread Milling Method

To obtain the best performance from thread mills, it is recommended that the smallest thread mill possible be used, taking into account the required pitch and thread depth into consideration. ROUGH THE DIAMETERS TO CORRECT SIZE PRIOR TO THREADING. An additional allowance of 0,1 to 0,2mm on diameter is necessary in order to machine a perfect thread form. Example: Internal threading Drill tapping size 8,50 M10 Drill thread mill size 8,30/8,40 External threading Turn die size 10,00 M10 turn thread mill size 10,10/10,20
1. Initial position of the thread mill.
4. Helical interpolation of pitch value.
2. Quick approach to bottom position. 5. Helical clearance interpolation. 3. Helical move to start position on the workpiece 6. Clearance above the workpiece.
91
MACHINING
Turning
Brazed Tool Feeds & Speeds
Group 1.1 to 1.2
Materials Hardness Tensile Colour defines Brinell Rockwell Strength similar machineability N/mm2 HB HRC General purpose steels, mild steel & <200 structural steel Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon steels and castings <700
Roughing Cutting Feed Speed mm/rev M/min 90-180 0.25-2.0 P30/P40 Grade
Finishing Cutting Feed Speed mm/rev Min 150-180 0.1-0.3 P30 Grade
Carbon
1.3
<260
<26
<850
75-130 0.25-2.0 P30/P40 Grade
30-170 0.1-0.3 P30 Grade
Alloy Steels, 1.4 generally low to medium <260 steels and castings Medium to high alloy steels, tool steels & steel castings Heat treated high alloy steels and castings Stainless steels, free machining & austenitic Alloy >260 <340
<26
<850
80-180 0.2-2.0 P30/P40 Grade
180-400 0.05-0.3 P30 Grade
1.5
>26 <36
>850 <1200
50-95 0.25-2.0 P30/P40 Grade
100-140 0.1-0.3 P30 Grade
1.6 St/Steel
>340
>36
>1200
50-90 0.2-1.5 P30/P40 Grade 50-100 0.2-1.0 P30/P40 Grade 55-105 0.2-1.0 K20 Grade 80-120 0.2-1.0 K20 Grade
90-130 0.05-0.2 P30 Grade 80-120 0.05-0.3 P30 Grade 90.130 0.05-0.3 K20 Grade 120-150 0.05-0.3 K20 Grade
2.1 to 2.3 3.1 to 3.2 3.3 to 3.4 6.1 to 6.3 7.1 to 7.4
<290
<30
<1000
Cast Iron
Grey Cast Iron
<300
S.G. Iron Nodular iron & Malleable Iron Non ferrous metals brass, copper, bronze Aluminium alloys zinc & magnesium
<300
Copper
<800
120-180 0.2-1.3 K20 Grade
150-300 0.05-0.3 K20 Grade
Aluminium
<50
<300
0.2-1.3
<300
0.05-0.3
K20 Grade
K20 Grade
92
Turning
MACHINING
ISO PMK Calculator

Group 1: Carbon & Alloy Steels Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Material Group Description of Material Group Mild, soft and free machining non-alloy, low carbon steels. Non-alloy, case hardening, structural and low to medium carbon steels. Non-alloy, plain and medium carbon steels and castings. BS 970 1988 230Mo7 & 050A12 060A35, En & Other Standards En1 & En2 En3B Leadloy 6, 14, 32, 43 Brinell Hardness HB up to 130 Rockwell Hardness HRC Tensile Strength N/mm2 up to 400
Carbon Steels
1.1
1.2
up to 200
up to 700
1.3
080M46 &
En8 9, 10, 43
up to 260
up to 26
up to 850
1.4
1.5
1.6
17, 19 708M40/42, En16, En31, Generally low to (RS) 817M40, medium alloy steels 534 A99, BM2, 34 40B, 351, and cast steels. 36, S2-10-1-8 BT42 (soft) En24, 25, Medium to high alloy BO1, BM2, 26(T.U.V.) steels, tool steels and BT42, 826M40 S95, S97, S98 steel castings. & 830M31 (annealed) Heat treated high En25, 26, BO1, 826M40 alloy steels and 27(W.X.Z.) & 830M31 castings. S97, S98(H&T)
up to 260
up to 26
up to 850
Alloy Steels
from 260 upto 340 from 340 up to 450
from 26 up to 36 from 36 up to 48
from 850 up to 1200 from 1200 up to 1500
Question 2 - What type of machining operation?

Turning Operation Groups 1.1 to 1.6 Depth of Cut (mm) Groups 1.1 - 1.2 - 1.3 Cutting Speed (m/min) Group 1.4 - 1.5 Cutting Speed (m/min) Group 1.6 Cutting Speed (m/min) Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) P01 - P10 Fine Finishing 0.2 to 0.5 350-500 250-400 100-250 P05 - P15 General Finishing 0.5 to 2.0 250-400 150-250 100-200 P10 - P25 Light Roughing 1.0 to 4.0 150-250 120-220 100-180 0.2 to 0.5 P20 - P40 Medium Roughing 3.0 to 6.0 100-180 80-150 80-140 0.4 to 1.0 P35 - P50 Heavy Roughing 4.0 to 12.0 100-150 80-140 70-120 1.0 & over
0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3
Group 2: Stainless Steels. Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?

Material Group Description of Material Group BS 970 1988 303 S21 416 S37 431 829 304 S15 321 S17 316 L 320 S12 En & Other Standards En56 En57 En60 En80 En58AM En58J 316 Brinell Hardness HB up to 230 Rockwell Hardness HRC up to 20 Tensile Strength N/mm2 up to 800
Stainless Steels
Soft and generally easy 2.1 to machine Ferritic and Martensitic stainless steels and castings. Medium strength and reasonable to machine Austentic (duplex) stainless steels and castings. Hard and generally difficult to machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) stainless steel castings.
2.2
up to 290
up to 30
up to 1000
2.3
317 S16 310
Duplex Alloys
up to 340
up to 36
up to 1200

Turning Operation Groups 2.1 to 2.3 Depth of Cut (mm) Group 2.1 Cutting Speed (m/min) Group 2.2 Cutting Speed (m/min) Group 2.3 Cutting Speed (m/min) Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) M10 Fine Finishing 0.2 to 0.5 200-290 180-220 120-150 M10 - M15 General Finishing 0.5 to 2.0 180-250 150-210 100-130 M10 - M20 Light Roughing 1.0 to 4.0 150-250 120-200 80-100 0.2 to 0.5 M20 - M30 Medium Roughing 3.0 to 6.0 120-180 90-160 60-80 0.4 to 1.0 1.0 & over M30 - M40 Heavy Roughing 4.0 to 12.0 90-150 70-110
0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3
93
MACHINING
Turning
ISO PMK Calculator (continued)

Group 3: Cast Iron Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Material Group Description of Material Group Grey cast iron Hardness - soft to medium Grey cast iron. Hardness - medium to hard B.S. Standards Other Standards Brinell Hardness HB
Grey Cast Iron
3.1
Grade 150 Grade 400
Grey Cast Iron Soft
up to 180
3.2
Grade 200 Grade 400
Grey Cast Iron Hard
from 180 to 300
Malleable Cast Iron
3.3
Malleable & Nodular Irons
420/12, P440/7, 700/2, 30g/72
S.G. Iron, Mehanite Black & White Heart
up to 220
3.4
Malleable & Nodular Irons
420/12, P440/7, 700/2, 30g/72
S.G. Iron, Mehanite Black & White Heart
from 220 to 300 max

Turning Operation Groups 3.1 to 3.4 Depth of Cut (mm) Groups 3.1 - 3.2 Cutting Speed m/min Groups 3.3 - 3.4 Cutting Speed m/min Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) K01 - K10 Fine Finishing 0.2 to 0.5 200-300 180-200 K05 - K15 General Finishing 0.5 to 2.0 175-280 160-270 K10 - K25 Light Roughing 1.00 to 4.0 150-250 130-250 0.2 to 0.5 K20 - K35 Medium Roughing 3.00 to 6.0 130-220 100-180 0.4 to 1.0 K20 - K40 Heavy Roughing 4.0 to 12.0 80-180 90-150 1.0 & over
0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3
Group 4: Titanium & Alloys Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?

Material Group Description of Material Group Pure Titanium (also pure Nickel). B.S. Standards Other Standards Tensile Strength N/mm2
4.1
TA1 to 9
Ti 99.0
up to 700
Titanium
4.2
TA10 to 14, TA17, TA28
Ti - 2AL
fup to 900
4.3
Titanium alloys of a hard and very hard
TA10 to 13, TA28
Ti AL
from 900 up to 1250

Turning Operation Groups 4.1 to 4.3 Depth of Cut (mm) Group 4.1 Cutting Speed m/min Group 4.2 Cutting Speed m/min Group 4.3 Cutting Speed m/min Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) K01 - K10 Fine Finishing 0.2 to 0.5 130-190 50-70 K05 - K15 General Finishing 0.5 to 2.0 95-130 40-60 K10 - K20 Light Roughing 1.0 to 4.0 60-100 20-50 K20 - K40 Medium Roughing 3.0 to 6.0 50-90 20-40
Discuss individual applications with your local Cromwell Tools Company 0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 0.5 0.4 to 1.0
94
Turning
MACHINING

Group 5: High Temperature Alloys Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Material Group Description of Material Group Heat resistantsuper alloys including Iron based high temperature alloys. B.S. Standards Other Standards Tensile Strength N/mm2
5.1
NA 11 NA 12 BS 3468 AUS 104
Nickel 200 Nickel 270 Ni Resist 2B
up to 500
Titanium
5.2
Heat resistantsuper alloys, Cobalt or Nickel based of a medium to hard nature, to machine. Heat resistantsuper alloys, Cobalt or Nickel based of a hard nature, to machine.
HR203 3027 - 76
Nimonic 75, Hastelloy C Monel 400, Inconel 600, Haynes Alloys 263
up to 900
5.3
HR8 HR401, 601
Inconel 718, Waspalloy, Nimonic 80, Rene 41
from 900 up to 1200

Turning Operation Groups 5.1 to 5.3 Depth of Cut (mm) Group 5.1 Cutting Speed m/min Group 5.2 Cutting Speed m/min Group 5.3 Cutting Speed m/min Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) K01 - K10 Fine Finishing 0.2 to 0.5 15-50 15-50 15-50 0.05 to 0.15 K05 - K15 General Finishing 0.5 to 2.0 15-45 15-45 15-45 0.1 to 0.3 K10 - K20 Light Roughing 1.0 to 4.0 15-45 15-45 15-45 0.2 to 0.5 K20 - K40 Medium Roughing 3.0 to 6.0 15-45 15-45 15-45 0.4 to 1.0
Group 6: Copper & Copper Alloys Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Material Group Description of Material Group Copper Brass (Alpha - long chip) to hard Brass (Beta - short chip) Nodular Irons High Strength Bronze B.S. Standards Other Standards Brinell Hardness HB up to 500
6.1
C101
Commercially pure Admiralty Brass Muntz Red Brass Manganese Bronze Naval Brass
Titanium
6.2
CZ108, CZ106
up to 800
6.3
CZ120, CZ109, PB104
up to 800
6.4
AB1 type
Ampco 18, Ampco 26
up to 1200

Turning Operation Groups 6.1 to 6.4 Depth of Cut (mm) Groups 6.1 - 6.2 Cutting Speed m/min Groups 6.3 - 6.4 Cutting Speed m/min Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) K01 - K10 Fine Finishing 0.2 to 0.5 400-800 250-350 K05 - K15 General Finishing 0.5 to 2.0 400-700 300-450 K10 - K25 Light Roughing 1.00 to 4.0 200-400 180-250 0.2 to 0.5 K20 - K35 Medium Roughing 3.00 to 6.0 200-300 150-230 0.4 to 1.0 K20 - K40 Heavy Roughing 4.0 to 12.0 180-250 130-200 1.0 & over
0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3
95
MACHINING
Turning

Group 7: Aluminium, Magnesium, Zinc & their Alloys Question 1 - What type of material is be machined?
Material Group Description of Material Group Unalloyed: Aluminium, Magnesium & ZInc B.S. Standards EN & Other Standards Tensile Strength N/mm2 up to 150
7.1
LMO, 1B (1050A)
Magnesium extruded aluminium
7.2
Aluminium alloys less than 5% Si Magnesium & ZInc alloys (long chip)
CZ108, CZ106
Admiralty Brass Muntz Red Brass
up to 800
7.3
Aluminium alloy 5% to 10% Si
LM2, 4, 16, 18, 21, 22, 2, 25, 26, 27 L109
Silicon aluminium
from 200 up to 500
7.4
Aluminium alloys above 10% Si (short-chip) Reinforced aluminium alloys
LM6, 12, 13, 20, 28, 29, 30
High silicon aluminium
from 200 up to 500

Turning Operation Groups 7.1 to 7.4 Depth of Cut (mm) Groups 7.1 - 7.3 Cutting Speed m/min Group 7.4 Cutting Speed m/min Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) K01 - K10 Fine Finishing 0.2 to 0.5 600-800 500-700 K05 - K15 General Finishing 0.5 to 2.0 500-700 400-600 K10 - K25 Light Roughing 1.00 to 4.0 500-700 300-600 0.2 to 0.5 K20 - K35 Medium Roughing 3.00 to 6.0 500-700 300-600 0.4 to 1.0 K20 - K40 Heavy Roughing 4.0 to 12.0 500-700 300-600 1.0 & over
0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3
Group 8: Plastics & Non-Metallic Materials Question 1 - What type of material is to be machined?
Material Group Description of Material Group Thermoplastic B.S. Standards En & Other Standards
Plastics & Non Metallic
8.1
Polystyrene, nylon, PVC cellulose acetate & nitrate
Nylon, Holstalen, Makrolon
8.2 Thermo-setting plastics
Ebonite, Bakelite
Bakelite, Pertinax
8.3
Reinforced plastics & composite materials
Kevlar Printed Circuit Board Tufnol
CFK, GFK, AFK

Turning Operation Groups 8.1 to 8.3 Depth of Cut (mm) Group 8.1 Cutting Speed (m/min) Group 8.2 Cutting Speed (m/min) Group 8.3 Cutting Speed (m/min) Feed per Rev. (mm per rev) K10 Fine Finishing 0.2 to 0.5 120-400 120-400 120-400 General Finishing 0.5 to 2.0 100-350 100-350 100-350 Light Roughing 1.0 to 4.0 100-350 100-350 100-350 0.2 to 0.5 Medium Roughing 3.0 to 6.0 100-300 100-300 100-300 0.4 to 1.0 K15 Heavy Roughing 4.0 to 12.0 100-250 100-250 100-250 1.0 & over
0.05 to 0.15 0.1 to 0.3
96
Types of Wear on a Carbide Insert
MACHINING
Type of Wear
Flank Crater Plastic Notching Thermal Chipping Edge Built Up Wear Wear Deformation Cracking (Frittering) Fracture Edge Possible Solution Increase Speed Decrease Speed
Increase Feed Decrease Feed Make Tool More Rigid Select Harder More Wear Resistant Grade Select Harder More Wear Resistant Grade
Machine
Select Tougher Grade Inserts Select Grade with Harder Coating Select Chip Breaker with Higher Angle or Sharper Edge 97
MACHINING
Lubricant Selection
Lubricants
The selection of the most appropriate cutting lubricant will increase the efficiency of cutting tools, the following is a guide:
l = EXCELLENT = ACCEPTABLE
Note: When Fluteless Tapping, a coolant with an Extreme Pressure Additive is recommended. Dilution Guidelines
Soluble Oil Soluble Oil with Extreme Pressure Additive High Oil Soluble Semi-synthetic Material See Pages 100 - 101 for Full Material Descriptions Steel Synthetic Semi-synthetic with Extreme Pressure Additive Chlorinated Sulphurised & other specialised oils
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
l l
l l l l l l
l l
l l l l l l

Stainless Steel Cast Iron
2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2
l l l
l l l l

3.3 3.4 Titanium 4.1 4.2 4.3 Nickel 5.1 5.2 5.3 Copper 6.1 6.2 6.3 Aluminium Magnesium 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Synthetic Materials 8.1 8.2 8.3
6.4
l l l l l l
l l l l l l l l
l l l l l l l l l l l
l l l l l l l l
l l
Specific dilution rates should all derive from a mid-range start point, i.e. 20/40 - 1 = 30 - 1 Mineral Soluble Cutting Fluid General Purpose. For a wide range of machine tools & materials: 20 - 1 Long Life. For cost effective machining: 20/40 - 1 Extreme Pressure Long Life Soluble cutting fluid: 20/40 - 1 Extreme Pressure High Performance for heavy duty operations on difficult to machine steels & alloys: 20/40 - 1 Semi - Synthetic Cutting & Grinding Fluid General Purpose. Versatile enabling rationalisation throughout the workshop: 40/50 - 1 Extreme Pressure Chlorine Free: 20/40- 1 Extreme Pressure Long Life . Offers good clarity, ideal where visibility is important: 20/45-1 Extreme Pressure Long Life High Performance Chlorine Free: 20/40 - 1 Specialist Cutting Fluid High Performance Long Life for use with Aluminium and Alloys: 15/25 - 1 Long life Semi-Synthetic with good clarity for high production machine tools: 30/40 -1
l l
l l l l l l
98
Air Blast
Group
MATERIALS
Section
Machining Groups Metal & Alloy Properties Periodic Table Steels - Comparative Specifications
100 - 101 102 - 107 108 - 109 110 - 116
M AT E R I A L S
99
MATERIALS
Group Materials
Colour defines similar machineability
Machining Groups
BS970: 1955 En1 En2 En3 En6 En14 En32 En202 En8 En9 En16 En19 En34 En36 En40 En351 En31 En24T En25T En26T BD2 En24Y En25Y En26Y En24 En25 En26 En24 En25 En26 DIN ISO C22 C15 C10 C15 22Mn 6 28Mn 6 Ck30 C55 45S20 Ck40 14NiCr14 34CrMo4 42CrMo4 32CrMo12 39CrMoV 13 9 AISI/SAE 1016 1020 1015 1016 1030 1330 1524 1040 1055 1139 3415 4137 4140 4142 4615 52100 H13 4340 P20 D2 Hardness
Brinell Rockwell HB HRC
BS970: 1991
Tensile Strength
N/mm2
1.1
Carbon
Leaded Steels. Mild, soft and 070M20 free machining 080M15 non-alloy low 230M07 carbon steels Non-alloy, case 150M19 hardening structural and 210M15 low to medium 214M15 carbon steels Non-alloy, plain 070M55 and medium 080M40 carbon steels 212A42 and castings 226M44 605M36 Generally low 606M36 635M15 to medium alloy steels, 655M13 tool steels and 665M17 castings 708M40 722M24 Medium to 817M40 high alloy steels, tool 826M31 steels and 826M40 castings Heat treated 826M31 high alloy 826M40 steels and 230M31 castings Hardened Tool Steels 826M31 826M40 230M31 826M31 826M40 230M31 403S17 430S17 416S21 416S41 420S29 431S29 441S49
1.0402 1.1141 1.1141 1.1160 1.1170 1.1178 1.0535 1.0727 1.1186 1.5752 1.7220 1.7225 1.7361 1.8523
<130
<400
1.2
<200
<700
1.3
<260 <26
<850
1.4
<260 <26
<850
1.5
Alloy
40CrNiMo 1.6565 -6 1.6743 32NiCrMo -10 4 32NiCrMo 1.6743 -10 4 1.6745 40NiCrMo -10 5 32NiCrMo 1.6743 -10 4 1.6745 40NiCrMo -10 5 32NiCrMo 1.6743 -10 4 1.6745 40NiCrMo -10 5
260340
2636
850 1200
1.6 1.7 1.8
340450 -
3645 4555 5570
1200 1500 1420 1800
Hardened Tool Steels Soft and generally easy to machine Ferritic and Martensitic stainless steels and castings Medium strength and reasonable to machine Austenitic stainless steels and castings Hard and generally difficult to machine Ferritic and Austenitic (duplex) stainless steels and castings
>1800
2.1
En56B En56Am En57 En60 En56A
1.4005 X12CrS 13 1.4006 X10Cr 13 1.4016 X6Cr 17 1.4021 X20Cr 13
410S 416 416Se 420 430 431Se
<230 <20
<800
Stainless Steels
2.2
303S31 303S42 316S11
En58AM En58J En80
1.4305 X10CrNiS -18 9 1.4404 XCrNiMo
303 303Se 316L
<290 <30
<1000
2.3
Zenon 100* (Non-BS)
X12CrNi 1.4568 17/7
301 Ferralium 17/7PH 17/4PH Crucible 301
<340 <36
<1200
100
Machining Groups
Group Materials
Colour defines similar machineability
MATERIALS
DIN GG10, GG40 GG25, GG40 GGG40, GGG70 GTS45-06, GTW45-07 GGG40, GGG70 GT45-06, GTW45-07 Ti99.8 AISI/SAE ASTM A48 class 20, 40 ASTM A48 class 40, 60 ASTM A220 grade 40010, ASTM A602 grade M45041 ASTM A220 grade 90001, ASTM A602 grade M8501 ASTM B348/4, ASTMB 367/C1, ASTM B265/2 Brinell HB <180 >180 <300 <220 Tensile N/mm2 -
BS Grade 150, Grade 400 Grade 200, Grade 400 420/12,P440/7, 700/2, 30g/72 S.G. iron, mehanite, black & white heart 420/12, P440/7 700/2 30g/72 S.G. S.G. iron, mehanite, black & white heart TA1 to 9 Ti99.0
3.1
Cast Iron
3.2 3.3 3.4
Grey cast iron Hardness - soft to medium Grey cast iron Hardness medium to hard Malleable and Nodular irons soft to medium Malleable and Nodular irons Medium to hard Pure Titanium, Pure Nickel
>220 <300 -
Titanium & Nickel
4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1
<700 >500 <900 >900 <1250
5.2
5.3 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
Aluminium Magnesium
Titanium alloys of Ta10 to 14, TiAl6V4, a medium and TA17, TA28 AMS4929 TiAl5Sn2 hard nature Ti-2Al Titanium alloys of TA10 to 13, TA28 TiAl6V4, AMS4929, a hard and very TiAl6V5Sn, Ti-A AMS4971 hard nature TiAl4Mo4Sn2 Heat Resistant NA11, NA12 BS super alloys 3468-AUS 104 Nickel 200, Nickel 200, including iron Nickel 200, Nickel 270 based, high Nickel 230 Nickel 270, Ni99.6 temperature, Ni Resist 2B alloys Heat resistant HR203, 3027-67 super alloys, Nimonic 75, Nimonic 75, Nimonic 75, Cobalt or Nickel Hastelloy C, Monel 400, Monel 400, based, of medium Monel 400, Hastelloy C, Hastelloy C, to hard nature to Inconel 600 Inconel Inconel 600 machine Haynes Alloys, 263 Heat resistant HR8 super alloys, H401, 601 Inconel 718, Inconel 718, 625 Cobalt or Nickel Inconel 718, Waspalloy based, or very Waspalloy Nimonic 80 Nimonic 80A hard nature to Nimonic 80, machine Rene 41 BS 2873, -C101, Copper -C102, -C103 E-Cu57, SE-Cu 101 SAE CAI22 Commercially pure CZ180, CZ106 SAE 74B Brass Admiralty SAE 74C (Alpha - long chip) Muntz RedBrass CuZn37, CuZn28 Brass SAE 79C Brass CZ120, CZ109 CuZn39Pb2, E 88 (Beta - short chip) PB104, Manganese CuZn40, CuSn8, SAE CA 327 & soft Bronze Bronze, Naval Brass CuSn6Zn SAE 43 High strength AB1, Ampco 18, Ampco 18, SAE 701 B Bronze Ampco 26 Ampco 25 SAE CA 624 Unalloyed : LMO, 1B (1050A) Aluminium, Magnesium A199.5 EC, 1060, 1100 Magnesium & extruded Zinc aluminium Aluminium alloys LM5, 10, 12 less than 5% Si 380, 520.0, AlCuMg2, (N4(5251) Magnesium & 520.2, 2024, Low silicon AlMgMn0.8 Zinc alloys (long 6061 wrought & cast chip) Aluminium alloys LM6,12,13,20,28,2 G-AlSi18, G4032, 222.1 above 10% Si A332.0 9,30, High silicon AlSi12 (short chip) Aluminium alloys LM2,4,16,18, 21, 22,24,25,26,27 5% to 10% Si L109 Polystyrene, nylon, PVC cellulose Thermoplastic acetate & nitrate, Makrolon Thermo setting Ebonite, Bakelite, Pertinax plastics Reinforced Printed Circuit plastics & Board Tufnol,CFK, composite GFK, AFK materials GD-AlCi8Cu G-AlSi5Mg PVC Nylon Holstalen PTFE Bakelite Kevlar Printed Circuit Board 319.0, 333.0, 319.1, 356.0 Polystyrene Nylon PVC Bakelite Kevlar
High Temperature Alloys
<500
<900
>900 <1200
Copper, Brass, Bronze
<500 <800 <800 <1200 <150
<150 >300 <200 >500 <200 >500 -
Plastics Non-Metallic
8.1 8.2 8.3
101
MATERIALS
Metal & Alloy Properties
Tool Materials
High Speed Steel (HSS) Used for all types of tools standard and special in very intricate forms. Used when low cost tooling is required or where machine or workpiece stability is not good. Withstands intense friction generated heat when cutting metal. Cobalt High Speed Steel (HSS-E) When Cobalt is added to HSS alloy it allows the tool material to be run at a higher spindle speed, giving extended tool life and improved performance. Sintered High Speed Steel (HSSE-PM) This tool material is much denser and harder than drawn HSS and will run significantly faster speeds than the above and will give better tool life. It may be used on more difficult to machine materials or those that are very abrasive. Tungsten Carbide A Sintered amalgum of tungsten compounds which result in a very hard material that will cut at far higher cutting speeds than High Speed Steel. Most often produced in the form of throw away inserts which avoid the need to re-grind the tool or even take it out of the machine, can also be brazed onto steel shanks to give a hard resilient cutting edge on a tough economical tool body. Cermet A Japanese development using titanium compounds instead of tungsten, while generally more brittle than tungsten, cermet does not react chemically with ferrous materials so severely. The advantages of these two features mean that cermet can run faster that tungsten carbide and provides a far superior surface finish and maintains it longer. Ceramics Are used mostly for cutting cast irons at cutting speeds in excess of 1000 metres/minute. Turning hard materials and machining superalloys is also achieved with some ceramic grades. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) For turning hard abrasive materials giving long tool life at high speeds. Poly Crystalline Diamond (PCD) Mostly used on high silicon aluminium when large quantities of components are involved.
Tool Surface Treatments

Bright Finish Associated with high speed steel drills, milling cutters, taps, reamers, form tools, etc. Steam Temper Some standard HSS drills and taps are steam tempered to improve the surface hardness and reduce the surface friction for easier chip removal. Nitriding Provides a surface on HSS which resists abrasion. Taps for cast iron applications should be nitrided for example. Surface coating by vapour deposition (PVD or CVD) including: Titanium Nitride (TiN) Titanium Carbonitride (TiCN) Titanium Aluminium Nitride (TiAlN) These coatings can be used on most of the aforementioned tool materials and generally provide a hard low friction surface with a tough core and a hard outer case for maximum strength. 102
MATERIALS Comparison of Coating Properties

Coating Hardness (HV 0.05) Adhesion Coefficient of Friction Surface Roughness 0.2 0.15 0.18 TiN TiCN TiALN Titanium Titanium Titanium Nitride CarboAlum. Nitride Nitride 2,900 200 70 0.65 4,500 400 70/80 0.45 4,500 500 62 0.42
Tool Surface Treatments (continued)

Resistant to shock loading and the ability to run at a significantly faster speeds than the base material. The low friction surface helps chip evacuation and prevents chip welding and build up on edges. TiCN is most often used on HSS-E milling cutters. TiN is associated more with drills and taps. Turning inserts use multi layers of various coatings in different thicknesses to create high performances coated carbide grades.
Non-ferrous Metal and Alloy Properties
Aluminium: Greyish white in (Rq m) appearance. Extremely lightweight. Malleable, soft, highly resistant to Oxidation 400C to 350C to 800C to corrosion. Excellent conductor of Temp. 500C 400C 900C electricity. Aluminium Alloys: Contain small amounts of other elements such as Copper, Nickel, Chromium, Manganese, Magnesium, Silicon and Zinc. The addition of these elements directly effects the strength, hardness, and other properties of the soft pure Aluminium. Lightweight strong and resistant to corrosion. Brass: An alloy of mainly copper and zinc though it may contain some Tin. Yellow in appearance. Good conductor of heat and electricity. Highly resistant to corrosion though it does tarnish easily. Bronze: An alloy consisting of approx 90% copper and 10% tin. Reddish yellow in appearance. Harder and tougher then brass. Bronzes: Are a series of alloys that are basically a mixture of copper and tin though they may contain some zinc. Copper: Soft reddish-brown in appearance. Malleable, tough, ductile and corrosion resistant. Excellent conductor of electricity. Gun metal: Very similar composition and characteristics to that of bronze except that a small amount of copper is replaced with zinc. Which improves the casting and machinablitly. Lead: dull grey in appearance. Very soft, malleable and casts very well. Resistant to corrosion. Phosphor bronze: The constituents that are used to produce it are determined by whether the metal is tobe cast or worked to shape. Resistant to wear and corrosion. Tin: Silvery white in appearance. Malleable, ductile and has good corrosion resistance. Zinc: Bluish white in appearance. Very resistant to corrosion. 103
MATERIALS Colour Chart For Hardening & Forging Steel should be viewed in a dark or faintly lit room Chart should be viewed in normal diffused daylight. Colours vary according to metal composition and are only for guide.
Basic Forms of Heat Treatment
Annealing: Softens metal allowing further work. Also relieves internal stresses and strains from previous working or use. The steel is heated to a temperature determined by its carbon content, and then allowed to cool very slowly. Case Hardening: Mild steel with less then 0.3% carbon cannot be hardened in the normal way, but the surface of mild steel can be changed to high carbon steel and this in turn can be hardened in the normal way. This produces a tough ductile core and a hard outer case resistant to wear, Case hardened steel has many engineering uses. The process has four main stages; 1. Carburising creates a high carbon steel outercasing by 1200OC White surrounding the steel with a carbon rich source (solid, powder or gas) and heating it to a specific temperature for a set 1100OC Light Yellow period of time. Carbon is absorbed by the surface of the steel 1050OC Yellow to form a high carbon steel case. The depth of this case is 980OC Light Orange depends on how long the steel is heated for. The steel is 930OC Orange then cooled slowly. At this stage the core of the steel will 870OC Light Red have a coarse grain structure due to the prolonged heating 810OC Light Cherry time. This makes the steel soft. 760OC Cherry 2. The steel is heated again and oil-quenched to refine the 700OC Dark Cherry grain structure and toughen the core. 650OC Blood Red 3. To harden the outercasing the steel is re-heated and 600OC Brown Red quenched in oil or water. 4. Tempering of the steel is carried out in the normal way to toughen the surface to the required degree. Colour Chart For Hardening: Changes the chemical and structural make up of Tempering steel. When heated above its upper critical point Austenite When steel is forms, if the steel is then cooled naturally it will revert back to heated in air oxide its natural pearlite composition. If however the temperature of forms on the the metal is lowered quickly by quenching in water or oil this surface. The colour change does not take place - an extremely hard and brittle constituent termed martensite is formed. Low carbon steels changes as the temperature rises (less then 0.3%) can not be hardened in this way as too little and can be used to martensite is produced. Water and oil produce different gauge the amount effects when used for quenching. Water produces very hard of temper. Colours steel - oil produces slightly softer steel, less likely to crack or distort. vary according to metal composition Normalising: Refines the grain structure of the steel after it has been subjected to temperatures over the critical range and are only for (i.e. complicated forgings) and to remove internal stresses guide. caused by cold working, (bending, rolling, hammering etc). 330OC Grey While the process is similar to annealing the effect is to bring 320OC Grey the steel back to its normal condition without softening the 310OC Light Blue steel for further working. The steel is heated to just above its 300OC Blue upper critical point (normalising temperature) and allowed to OC 290 Dark Blue cool in still air. It is only kept at the normalising temperature long enough to ensure it is evenly heated. 280OC Violet 270OC Purple Red Tempering: Once hardened steel is too brittle for most engineering applications. To restore some of its normal 260OC Red Brown toughness and ductility the steel is tempered by heating the 250OC Yellow Brown steel to a temperature below its critical point, usually 240OC Deep Straw between 200C and 300C this converts some of the 230OC Yellow martensite back to pearlite. The exact temperature depends 220OC Straw on how the steel will be used. Higher temperatures produce 210OC Yellow White softer, less brittle steel. A balance between loss of hardness and gain in toughness has to be found. 104
MATERIALS
Element Properties in Alloys Al Aluminium

Strongest de-oxidiser and combines with Nitrogen. In small additions restricts grain growth. Improves scale resistance so effectively used as an alloying element in ferritic heat resisting steels. Melting Point: 660.37C Boiling Point: 2467C Density (20C): 2.702g/cm3
Boron
Improves the deep hardening of constructional steels causing an increase in core hardness of case hardening steels. Has a high neutron absorption cross-section. Melting Point: 2300C Boiling Point: 2550C Density (20C): 2.34g/cm3
Be Beryllium
Beryllium Copper alloy is anti-magnetic and can stand greater load changes. Nickel-Beryllium is a very hard and corrosion resistant steel. Melting Point: 1278C Boiling Point: 2970C Density (20C): 1.8477g/cm3
Carbon
Foremost alloy element of steel. Every unalloyed steel contains silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur. When Carbon is introduced this increases the hardening properties of steel. However elasticity, forging, welding and cutting properties suffer. Carbon content has no effect on corrosion resistance to water, acids and gases. Melting Point: 3500C Boiling Point: 4827C Density (20C): 2.62g/cm3
Ca Calcium
Increases the scale resistance of heat conductor materials. Melting Point: 839C Boiling Point: 1484C Density (20C): 1.55g/cm3
Ce Cerium
A strong de-oxidant, promotes desulphurising. Improves the hot working of high alloy steel and also the non-scaling properties of heat resisting steels. Melting Point: 795C Boiling Point: 3257C Density (20C): 6.773g/cm3
Co Cobalt
Obstructs grain growth at high temperatures. Often an element of high speed steel, hot work steel and heat resisting raw materials. It acts favourably on the graphitic formation and increases residual magnetism, coercive force and thermal conductivity. If subjected to neutron rays it forms a strong radio active Isotope Cobalt 60. Melting Point: 1495C Boiling Point: 2870C Density (20C): 8.90g/cm3
Cr
Chromium
Increases hardness and strength but reduces elasticity slightly. Improves resistance to heat and non scaling properties. The higher the Chrome content the more corrosion resistant the steels become. Strong Carbide former. The tensile strength of steel rises by 8-10kg/mm2 per 1% Cr. Melting Point: 1857C Boiling Point: 2672C Density (20C): 7.19g/cm3
Cu Copper
Copper increases the strength and the yield point of steel, but it impairs its properties of elasticity. A small amount of Copper renders steel resistant to rusting though it does not impair the welding properties of steel. Melting Point: 1083C Boiling Point: 2567C Density (20C): 8.96g/cm3 105
MATERIALS
Element Properties in Alloys (continued) H Hydrogen

Harmful to steel as it causes embrittlement by a reduction of elasticity and reduction of areas without increasing the yield point or tensile strength. Cause of the flaking problem and promotes hair line cracks. Melting Point: -259C Boiling Point: -252C Density (20C): 0.08988g/cm3
Mn Manganese
Improves the strength of steel, but impairs elasticity, good forging and welding properties. Higher presence of manganese with carbon, increases the wear resistance dramatically. With up to 3% of manganese the tensile strength is increased by 10kg/mm 2 for every percent of manganese. increases the depth of hardening. Melting Point: 1245C Boiling Point: 1962C Density (20C): 7.43g/cm3
Mo Molybdenum
Improves tensile strength, heat resistance and welding properties. Often used with chromium. Similar behaviour to tungsten. When used with chromium or nickel, it can produce high yield points and tensile values. Has a tendency to form carbide and is the alloy element of choice in high speed and hot working steels. Melting Point: 2617C Boiling Point: 4612C Density (20C): 10.22g/cm3
Nitrogen
In austenitic steels, stabilises the structure and increases hardness, yield point and mechanical properties at high temperatures. Allows surface hardness through nitride formation. Can be harmful as it decreases the toughness during precipitation. Melting Point: -209.9C Boiling Point: -195.8C Density (20C): 1.2506g/cm3
Nb/Cb Niobium/Columbium
Always found together and very difficult to separate, so they are alloyed together, usually as stabilisers. Melting Point: 2468C Boiling Point: 4927C Density (20C): 8.57g/cm3
Ni
Nickel
Increases the strength of steel (less than silicon or manganese), elasticity dropping slightly. Ensures good hardening, especially when Chromium is present. Chrome Nickel steels are stainless and resistant to scaling and heat. Increases the notch impact value of structural steels, especially at low temperatures. Suitable for use in austenitic steels. Melting Point: 1453C Boiling Point: 2732C Density (20C): 8.902g/cm3
Oxygen
Harmful to steel but its influence depends on the type and composition of the compounds as well as the atomic properties. Melting Point: -218.4C Boiling Point: -183C.
Phosphorus
There are various kinds of phosphorus, viz white (yellow), red (purple), black and others. Phosphorus is considered to be detrimental to steel so that it is endeavoured to keep the phosphorous content in high-grade steel at a maximum of 0.03 - 0.05%. Melting Point: 44.1C Boiling Point: 280C Density (20C): 1.82g/cm3. 106
MATERIALS
Element Properties in Alloys (continued) Pb Lead

Alloyed to free-machining steels in amounts of 0.2 - 0.5%. Because of its fine homogeneous distribution it allows the formation of short turnings and better cutting surfaces, therefore better machining. Lead has no affect on steel structure. Melting Point: 327.5C Boiling Point: 1740C Density (20C): 11.34g/cm3
Sulphur
Produces red shortness, harmful as it makes steel brittle. Contents of 0.025% or 0.030% are permitted. Melting Point: 112.8C Boiling Point: 444.6C Density (20C): 2.07g/cm3
Se Selenium
Used in free-machining steels like Sulphur. Enhances machineability. In stainless steels it reduces the corrosion resistance (less than sulphur). Melting Point: 217C Boiling Point: 684.9C Density (20C): 4.79g/cm3
Si
Silicon
Silicon is present in all steels like manganese. The term Silicon Steels, refers to the steels containing above 0.04%. Silicon is not a metal, instead it is called a metalloid (like phosphorus). It increases mechanical strength, resistance to scaling and density. Elasticity is affected slightly and tensile strength is increased by 10kg/mm2 for each percent of silicon, (same applies to the yield point). A high Silicon content (about 14%) enables steel to resist chemical attack, but can no longer can be forged. Melting Point: 1410C Boiling Point: 2355C Density (20C): 2.329g/cm3
Ti
Titanium
Very hard metal, strong carbide former. An alloying element mainly used in stainless steels to stabilise against inter-granular corrosion. Also has grain refining properties. Melting Point: 1660C Boiling point: 3287C Density (20C): 4.54g/cm3
Vanadium
A small addition improves the hot hardness and reduces the grain growth. Works well in structural and tool steels, increases the cutting properties in high speed steels. Strong carbide former, increases the tensile strength and yield point. Good combination with Chromium in structural and heat resisting steels and with Tungsten in high speed and hot work steels. Melting Point: 1890C Boiling Point: 3380C Density (20C): 5.80g/cm3
Tungsten
Improves the strength properties, increases the hardness and life of cutting edges, also maintains a good heat resistance level. Used as an alloy element. Tensile and yield strengths are increased by 4kg/mm2 per percent Melting Point: 3410C Boiling Point: 5660C Density (20C): 19.3g/cm3
Zr
Zirconium
Carbide former. Extra element for de-oxidation, desulphurisation and eliminating Nitrogen, as it leaves minimal de-oxidation by product. Melting Point: 1852C Boiling Point: 4377C Density (20C): 6.9g/cm3. 107
MATERIALS
108
Elements - Periodic Table

1
hydrogen 1
Key:
Group Number
element name atomic number
18
Colour Code: Alkali Metals Alkali Earth Metals Transitional Metals Other Metals Metaloids Lanthanides & Actinides Non-metals Halogens Noble Gases
helium 2
H
1.00794(7)
2
beryllium 4
element symbol
1995 atomic weight (mean relative mass)
13
boron 5
14
carbon 6
15
nitrogen 7
16
oxygen 8
17
fluorine 9
He
4.002602(2)
lithium 3
neon 10
Li Be
6.941(2) 9.012182(3)
B
10.811(7)
C
12.0107(8)
N
14.00674(3)
O S
32.066(6)
F
chlorine 17
Ne
20.1797(6)
15.9994(3) 18.9984032(5)
sodium magnesium 11 12
aluminium 13
silicon 14
phosphorous sulphur 15 16
argon 18
Na Mg
22.989770(2) 24.3050(6)
3
scandium 21
4
titanium 22
5
vandium 23
8
iron 26
9
colbalt 27
10
nickel 28
11
copper 29
12
zinc 30
Al
26.981538(2)
Si
28.0855(3)
P
30.973761(2)
Cl
35.4527(9)
Ar
39.948(1)
potassium 19
calcium 20
chromium manganese 24 25
gallium 31
germanium 32
arsenic 33
selenium 34
bromine 35
krypton 36
K Ca
39.0983(1) 40.078(4)
Sc
44.955910(8)
Ti
47.867(1)
V
50.9415(1) 92.90638(2)
Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
51.9961(6) 54.938049(9) 55.845(2) 58.933200(9) 58.6934(2) 63.546(3) 65.39(2) 69.723(1) 72.61(2) 74.92160(2) 78.96(3) 79.904(1) 83.80(1)
rubidium strontium 37 38
yttrium 39
zirconium 40
niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium 41 42 43 44
rhodium 45
palladium 46
silver 47
cadmium 48
indium 49
tin 50
antimony 51
tellurium 52
iodine 53
xenon 54
Rb Sr
85.4678(3) 87.62(1)
Y
88.90585(2)
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te
91.224(2) 95.94(1) [98.9063] 101.07(2) 102.90550(2) 106.42(1) 107.8682(2) 112.411(8) 114.818(3) 118.710(7) 121.760(1) 127.60(3)
I
126.90447(3)
Xe
131.29(2)
caesium 55
barium 56
57-71
Hafnium 72
tantalum 73
tungsten 74
rhenium 75
osmium 76
iridium 77
platinum 78
gold 79
mercury 80
thallium 81
lead 82
bismuth 83
polonium 84
astatine 85
radon 86
Cs Ba *
132.90545(2) 137.327(7)
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
178.49(2) 180.9479(1) 183.84(1) 186.207(1) 190.23(3) 192.217(3)
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
195.078(2) 196.96655(2) 200.59(2) 204.3833(2) 207.2(1) 208.98038(2) [208.9824] [209.9871] [222.0176] [269] [272] [277]
Periodic Table
francium 87
radium 88
89-103
rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium 104 105 106
bohrium 107
hassium meitnerium ununnilium unununium ununbium 108 109 110 111 112
Fr Ra **
[223.0197] [226.0254]
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub

[261.1089] [262.1144] [263.1183] [264.12] [265.1306] [268]
* lanthanides ** actinides
} see next page
Periodic Table
Elements - Periodic Table (continued)

lanthanum 57 cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 dysprosium holmium 66 67 erbium 68 thulium 69 ytterbium 70 lutetium 71
* lanthanides
La Ce Pr
138.9055(2) 140.116(1) 140.90765(2)
Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
144.24(3) [144.9127] 150.36(3) 151.964(1) 157.25(3) 158.92534(2) 162.50(3) 164.93032(2) 167.26(3) 168.93421(2) 173.04(3) 174.967(1)
actinium 89
thorium 90
protactinium 91
uranium 92
neptunium plutonium americium 93 94 95
curium 96
berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium 97 98 99 100 101 102
lawrencium 103
** actinides
Ac Th Pa
[227.0277] 232.038(1) 231.03588(2)
U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
238.0289(1) [237.0482] [244.0482] [243.0614] [247.0703] [247.0703] [251.0796] [252.0830] [257.0951] [258.0984] [259.1011] [262.110]
Symbols and names The symbols of the elements, their names, and their spellings are those recommended by IUPAC. (International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry) Atomic number The atomic number corresponds to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element. It also corresponds to the number of electrons in the neutral atom. Standard atomic weights In the above table these are the IUPAC 1995 values. "An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of an element from a specified source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of Carbon 12" in its nuclear and electronic ground state. A sample of any element consists of one or more isotopes of that element. Each isotope is a different weight. The relative amounts of each isotope for any element represent the isotope distribution for that element. The atomic weight is the average of the isotope weights weighted for the isotope distribution and expressed on the Carbon 12 scale as mentioned above. Elements for which the atomic weight is contained within square brackets have no stable nuclides and are represented by one of the elements more important isotopes. The last significant figure of each value is considered reliable to 1 except where larger uncertainty is
given in parentheses. Units Atomic mass units Group number The group number is an identifier used to describe the column of the standard periodic table in which the element appears. Groups 1-2 (except hydrogen) and 13-18 are termed main group elements. Groups 3-11 are termed transition elements. Main group elements in the first two rows of the table are called typical elements. The following names for specific groups in the periodic table are in common use: Group 1: alkali metals Group 2: alkaline earth metals Group 11: coinage metals (not an IUPAC approved name) Group 15: pnictogens (not an IUPAC approved name) Group 16: chalcogens Group 17: halogens Group 18: noble gases In addition, groups may be identified by the first element in each group - so the Group 16 is sometimes called the oxygen group.
MATERIALS
109
MATERIALS
Steel - Comparative Specifications
Changing Standards
BS 970 is the UK standard covering steel for mechanical and allied engineering purposes and dates back to 1942 (Emergency Number Series), since then there have been several revisions. In 1970 the standard underwent major change, introducing a new six digit numbering system and the division of the standard into six parts, each covering different categories of steel. In 1983 and 1996 the standard was also restructured, main changes were as follows: 1. Parts 1-4 of the 1970 standard were revised and combined to form Part 1 of the new standard. 2. The provisions for the values of steel are still covered by BS 970: Part 4: 1970 and those for steels for hot formed springs by BS 970: Part 2: 1988. Bright Bars for general engineering are covered by BS 970: Part 3: 1991. 3. The steel standard has been restructured so that each section contains all the steels intended for a particular purpose. 4. Steels containing micro alloy and boron were introduced, certain steels were added and some deleted. 5. To reduce the number of steels generally in use, steels were split into two categories. Category 1- a rationalised series for use in new designs and in established designs wherever possible. Category 2- shown in italic type on the opposite pages, are non-preferred, from a steel manufacturing point of view. Users are recommended to consult the complete standards for detailed information, particularly for details of testing and inspection procedures, freedom from defect requirements, steel-making and casting procedures as well as for a range of graphs showing hardenability curves. The standards can be obtained from: British Standards Institution. Notes The following pages give comparisons between the old EN series and new six digit reference. Comparison is also given between the new six digit reference to standardised references used in Germany and the USA. Comparisons are based on chemical composition and type analysis although some variation in the main element can exist. Mechanical properties have not been taken into account. Users should treat tables only as a guide and the appropriate standard should be consulted before specifying materials. 110
Steel - Comparative Specifications BS 970 1991 BS 970 1983 BS 970 1970/72 BS 970 1955 EN
MATERIALS AISI/ SAE

1005 1006 1006 1010 1012 1015 1017 1020 1023
1010
WERKSTOFF
1.0314 1.0313 1.0313 1.0301 1.0401 1.0426 1.0402 1.0402
1.0301
KURZNAME
D 6-2 D 8-2 D 8-2 C 10 C 15 ASt 41 C 22 C 22
C 10
Carbon Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 015A03 030A04 040A04 040A04 040A04 2A, 2A/1, 2B 040A10 040A10 040A10 2A, 2A/1, 2B 040A12 040A12 040A12 2A, 2A/1, 2B 040A15 040A15 040A17 040A20 040A22 2C, 2D
045A10 045A10 -
045M10 055M15 -
045M10 055M15 060A32
045M10 050A04 050A10 050A12 050A15 050A17 050A20 050A22 050A86 060A10 060A12 060A15 060A17 060A20 060A22 060A25 060A27 060A30
060A32
32A 2C, 2D 2 -
1010 1008 1010 1012 1015 1017 1020 1023 1086 1016 1010 1010 1015 1017 1020 1023 1025 1029 1030
1035
1.0301 1.0333 1.0301 1.0401 1.0426 1.0402 1.0402 1.1830 1.0301 1.0301 1.0401 1.0426 1.0402 1.0402 1.0415 1.1180
C 10 St 13 C 10 C 15 ASt 41 C 22 C 22 C 85 W C 10 C 10 C 15 ASt 41 C 22 C 22 D 25-2 Cm 35
060A40
060A35 060A37
060A40
1035 1038
1040
1.1180 1.1183
1.1186
Cm 35 Cf 35
Ck 40
060A45 060A47
060A42
060A47
1042
1045 1045
1.1191 1.1191
Ck 45 Ck 45
060A62 060A67 060A72 060A78 060A81 070M20 070M55 080A15
060A57 060A62 060A67 060A72 060A78 060A81 070M20 070M26 070M55 -
060A52 060A57 060A62 060A67 060A72 060A78 060A83 060A86 060A96 060A99 070A72 070A78 070M20 070M26 070M55 080A15
43D 44, 44B 42 42 3A, 3C 3 9 32
1050 1055 1060 1064 1080 1084 1070 1023 1026 1055 1016
1.1210 1.0535 1.0601 1.0402 1.0535 1.0401
Ck 53 C 55 C 60 C22 C55 C15
111
MATERIALS BS 970 1991 BS 970 1983
Steel - Comparative Specifications BS 970 1970/72 BS 970 1955 En AISI/ SAE WERKSTOFF
1.1180 1.1180 1-1186 1.1730 1.0535
KURZNAME
Cm 35 Cm 35 Ck40 C45W C 55
Carbon Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 080A17 1018 080A20 080A20 1021 080A22 080A25 1026 080A27 5A 1029
080A30 080A42 080A47 080A30 080A32 080A35 080A37 080A40 080A42 080A47 080A52 080A57 080A30 080A32 080A35 080A37 080A40 080A42 080A47 080A52 080A57 5B 5C 8A 8B 8C 8D 43B 43C 1030 1035 1035 1038 1040 1042 1046 1053 1055
080A67 -
080A67 080H36 080H41
080A62 080A67 080A72 080A78 080A83 080A86

080H36 080H41
43E -
1060 1065 1070 1080 1085 1085

1035 1039
1.0601 -
C 60 -
080H46 080M15 080M15 080M30 080M30 080M36 080M40 080M40 080M46 080M50 080M50 Carbon Manganese Steels
120M19 120M28
080H46 1046 080M15 32C 1016 1.0401 080M30 5 1030 1.1178 080M36 1035 080M40 8 1040 1.1186 080M46 1045 1.1191 080M50 43A 1049 (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics)
120M19 120M28 1526 1.1161
C 15 Ck30 Ck40 Ck45 26 Mn 5
125A15
120M36
125A15
120M36
125A15
15B
-
130M15 150M19
-
130M15 135M44 150M19

150M28
130M15 150M19
150M28
201 14A, 14B

14A, 14B
1524
-
150M36
-
150M36
150M40
150M36
-
15
-
1541
1.1167
-
36 Mn 5
-
Boron Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 17OH15 17OH15 170H20 170H20 15B21H 1.5523 19 MnB 4 170H36 170H36 15B35H 170H41 170H41 1.5527 40 MnB 4 173H 16 173H 16 174H20 174H20 175H23 175H23 185H40 185H40 Carbon and Carbon Manganese Free Cutting Steels (Category 2 Shown in Italics)
210A15 21OA15 21OA15 1117 -
210M15 212A42
210M15 212A37 212A42
210M15 212A37 212A42
32M 8BM 8DM
1117 -
112
Steel - Comparative Specifications BS 970 1991 BS 970 1983 BS 970 BS 970 1970/72 1955 En
MATERIALS KURZNAME
AISI/ WERKSAE STOFF
Carbon and Carbon Manganese Free Cutting Steels (Category 2 Shown in Italics) 212M36 212M36 8M 1140 1.0726 35 S 20 212M44 8M 214A15 214A15 214A15 1118 -
214M15 -
214M15 216A42
216M28
214M15 216M28
202 -
1118 1132
216M36 216M36 216M36 15AM 1137 216M44 220M07 220M07 1113 1.0711 9 S 20 225M36 225M36 225M44 1144 226M44 226M44 8M 1144 1.0727 45 S 20 230M07 230M07 230M07 1A 1213 1.0715 9 SMn 28 230M07Pb 230M07 Pb 1A Pb 12L14 1.0718 9 SMn Pb28 240M07 240M07 1B Silico Manganese Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 250A53 45 9255 1.0904 55 Si 7 250A58 45A 9260 1.0909 60 Si 7 250A61 45B 9260 1.0909 60 SI 7 Micro - Alloy Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 280M011 280M011 Stainless Heat Resisting & Valve Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 302S25 58A 302 302S31 302S31 302 303S21 58M 303 1.4305 X12 CrNiS 18 8 303S31 303S31 58M 303 1.4305 X10 CrNiS 18 9 303S41 58M 303Se 303S42 303S42 58AM 303Se 1.4305 X10 CrNiS 18 9 304S11 304S11 304L 1.4306 X2 CrNi 19 11 304S12 304L 1.4306 X2 CrNi 18 9 304S15 304S15 304S15 58E 304 1.4301 X5 CrNi 18 10 304S31 304S31 304 1.4301 X5 CrNi 18 10 310S24 310 1.4842 X6 CrNi 25 20 310S31 310S31 310 1.4845 X12 CrNi 25 21 315S16 58H 1.4420 X5 CrNiMo 17 13 2 316S11 316S11 316L 1.4404 X2 CrNiMo 18 10 316S12 316L 1.4404 X2 CrNiMo 18 10 316S13 316S13 316L 1.4435 X2 CrNiMo 18 14 3 316S16 58J 316L 1.4435 X2 CrNiMo 18 12 316S31 316S31 316 1.4401 X5 CrNiMo 17 12 2 316S33 316S33 316 1.4436 X5 CrNiMo 17 13 3 317S12 317L 1.4438 X2 CrNiMo 18 16 317S16 317 1.4449 X5 CrNiMo 17 1 3 320S17 58J 316Ti 1.4573 X10 CrNiMoTi 18 1 32OS31 32OS31 316Ti 1.4571 X6 CrNiMoTi 17 12 2 321S12 58B, 58C 321 1.4541 X10 CrNiTi 18 9 321S20 58B, 58C 1.4878 X12 CrNiTi 18 9 321S31 321S31 321 1.4541 X6 CrNiTi 18 10 325S2 1 58M 325S31 325S31 326S36 58JM 316Se 331S40 54 EV9 -
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MATERIALS BS 970 1991 BS 970 1983
Steel - Comparative Specifications BS 970 BS 970 1970/72 1955 En AISI/ WERKSAE STOFF KURZNAME
Stainless Heat Resisting & Valve Steel (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 331S42 54A EV9 347S17 58F, 58G 347 1.4550 X6 CrNiNb 18 10 347S31 347S31 347 1.4550 X10 CrNiNb 18 9 349S52 EV8 1.4871 X53 CrMnNiN 21 9 349S54 EV8 1.4871 X53 CrMnNiN 21 9 352S52 352S54 381S34 EV4 401S45 52 HNV3 1.4718 X45 CrSi 9 3 403S17 403S17 403S17 403 1.4000 X7 Cr 13 410S21 410S21 41OS21 56A 410S 1.4006 X10 Cr 13 416S21 416S21 416S21 56AM 416 1.4005 X12 Cr S 13 416S29 416S29 416S29 56BM 416S37 416S37 416S37 56CM 416S41 416S41 416S41 56AM 416Se 42OS29 42OS29 42OS29 56B 420 1.4021 X20 Cr 13 42OS37 42OS37 42OS37 56C 42OS45 56D 420F 1.4028 X30 Cr 13 430S15 60 430 1.4016 X8 Cr 17 430S17 430S17 430S17 430 1.4016 X6 Cr 17 431S29 431S29 431S29 57 431 1.4057 X20 CRNI 17 2 441S29 57 441S49 431Se 443S66 59 HNV6 1.4747 X80 CrNiSi 20 Alloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 503A37 12B 503A42 12C 503H37 503H42 503M40 12 523A14 206 5015 1.7012 13 Cr 2 523H15 523H15 5015 1.7012 13 Cr 2 523M15 523M 15 523M15 5015 1.7015 15 Cr 3 526M60 11 5160 527A17 527A17 5115 -
527M17 -
527H17 527M17 530A30 530A32 530A36 530A40
527A19 527A60 527H60 527M20

530A30 530A32 530A36 530A40
207 48 18A 18B 18C 18D
5120 5160 5115 5160 5115 5120

5130 5130 5132 5140
1.7121 1.7176 1.7176 1.7121

1.7030 1.7033 1.7034 1.7035
20 Cr MnS 33 55 Cr 3 55 Cr 3 20 Cr MnS 33
28 Cr 4 34 Cr 4 37 Cr 4 41 Cr 4
530M40 590A15
530H32 530H36 530H40 530M40 535A99

590A 15
530H30 530H32 530H36 530H40 530M40 534A99 535A99

-
18 31 31
-
5130 5130 5132 5140 5140 52100 52100

-
1.7030 1.7033 1,7034 1.7035 1.7035 1.3505 1.3505

1.7131
28 Cr 4 34 Cr 4 37 Cr 4 41 Cr 4 41 Cr 4 100 Cr 6 100 Cr 6
16 Mn Cr 5
59OH17
59OH17
1.7131
16 Mn Cr 5
114
Steel - Comparative Specifications BS 970 1991 BS 970 1983 BS 970 BS 970 1970/72 1955 En
605A32 605A37 605H32 605H37 16B 16C -
MATERIALS KURZNAME
16 Mn Cr 5
-
AISI/ WERKSAE STOFF
Alloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 590M17 590M17 1.7131
605A32 605A37 605H32 605H37 -
605M36 606M36 635A14 635H15 635M15 637A16 637H17 637M17
605M36 606M36 635A14 635H15 635M15 637A16 637H l 7 637M17
605M30 605M36 606M36 608H37 608M38

635A14 635H15 635M15 637A16 637H l 7 637M1 7
16D 16 16M 17
351 352
655H13 655M13
655H13 655M13
640A35 640H35 640M40 653M31 655A12

655H13 655M13
111A 111 23 36A
3135 3135 A3141 -
1.5710 1.5710 1.5711 1.5755 1.5752

1.5752 1.5752
36 NiCr 6 36 NiCr 6 40 NiCr 6 31 NiCr 14k 14 NiCr 14

14 NiCr 14 14 NiCr 14
665H17 665H20 665H23 665M17 665M20 665M23 -
665H17 665H20 665H23 665M17 665M20 665M23 708A25 708A30 708A37 708A40 708A42 708A47
659A15 659H15 659M15 665A17 665A19 665A22 665A24

665H17 665H20 665H23 665M 17 665M20 665M23 708A37 708A42 -
39A 35A 35B

34 35 19B 19C -
4615 4620 4615 462OH 4615 4620 4130 4137 4140 4142 4147
1.5860 1.5860 1.5860 1.7220 1.7225 1.7225 1.7228
14 NiCr 18 14 NiCr 18 14 NiCr 18 34 CrMo 4 42 CrMo 4 42 CrMo 4 50 CrMo 4
708H20 708M20 708M40

-
708H20 708H37 708H42 708H45 708M20 708M40

709A37 709A40 709A42
708H37 708H42 708M40

-
19A
-
4137H 1.7220 4142H 1.7227 4145H 4140 1.7225

1.7220 1.7225 1.7225
34 CrMo 4 42 CrMoS 4 42 CrMo 4

34 CrMo 4 42 CrMo 4 42 CrMo 4
709M40 720M32 722M24
709M40 720M32 722M24
709M40 722M24
19 40B
1.7225 1.7361 1.7361
42 CrMo 4 32 CrMo 12 32 CrMo 12
115
MATERIALS Steel BS 970 1983
Steel - Comparative Specifications BS 970 BS 970 1970/72 1955 En AISI/ WERKSAE STOFF KURZNAME
50 CrV 4 21 NiCrMo 2
Alloy Steels (BS970 Category 2 Steels are Shown in Italics) 735A50 47 6150 1.8159 785M19 13 805A15 8615 805A17 805A17 805A17 8617 1.6523
805A20 805A22 805H17
805A20 805A22 805H17
805A20 805A22 805A24 805A60

805H17
8620 8622 8625 8660

8617H
1.6543 1.6543 1.6523
21 NiCrMo 22 21 NiCrMo 22 21 NiCrMo 2
805H20 805H22 805M17
805H20 805H22 805M17
805H20 805H22 805H25 805H60

805M17
361
862OH 1.6543 8622H 1.6543 8625H 866OH 8617 1.6523
21 NiCrMo 22 21 NiCrMo 22 21 NiCrMo 2
805M20 805M22 808H17 808M17 815H17 815M17 -
805M20 805M22 808H17 808M17 815H17 815M17 817A37 817A42
805M20 805M22 805M25 815A16 815H17 815M17 816M40

-
362 363 353 110

-
8620 8622 8625 4340 4340
1.6543 1.6543 1.6511

-
21 NiCrMo 22 21 NiCrMo 22 36 CrNiMo 4

-
817M40 820H17 820M17 822A17 822H17 822M17 823M30 826M31 826M40 832H13 832M13 835H15 835M15 897M39 905M39 945M38
817M40 820H17 820M17 822H17 822M17 826M31 826M40 832H13 832M13 835H15 835M15 835M30 897M39 905M39 945M38
817M40 820A16 820H17 820M17 822A17 822H17 822M17 823M30 826M31 826M40 830M31 832H13 832M13 835A15 835H15 835M15 835M30 897M39 905M31 905M39 925A60 945A40 945M38
24 354 355 25 26 27 36C 39B 30B 4OC 41A 41B 100C 100
4340 9310 -
1.6566 1.6580 1.6743 1 6745 1.6746 1.6657 1.6657 1.6723 1.6723 1.6723 1.6747 1. 8523 1.8507 1.8509 -
40 NiCrMo 6 30 CrNiMo 8 32 NiCrMo 10 4 40 NiMoCr 10 5 32 NiCrMo 14 5 14 NiCrMo 13 4 14 NiCrMo 13 4 15 NiCrMo 16 5 1 5 NiCrMo 16 5 15 NiCrMo 16 5 30 NiCrMo 16 6 39 CrMo V 13 9 34 CrAlMo 5 41 CrAiMo 7 -
116
MEASURING
Section
Calipers & Dividers Calipers - Vernier, Dial & Digital Edge & Centre Finders 120 Engineers Squares External Micrometers 123 Height & Depth Gauges Protractors & Combination Sets 126 Refractometers 128 Sine Bars
118 119 - 121 122 - 124 125 - 127 - 129 130
MEASURING
117
MEASURING
Calipers & Dividers
Calipers
For taking transfer measurements or comparisons of dimensions. When taking an internal measurement, the legs are opened until they are just touching the maximum dimension. It is usual to rock the calipers backward and forward to make sure the adjustment is correct and gives a true measurement. This can then be checked accurately using a micrometer or with a try square and rule. Spring Type Spring Type The legs pivot on a roller and are tensioned by a bow spring. Adjustment is made by opening or closing the legs by means of an adjusting nut which gives a much finer setting than can be obtained with firm joint type. The nominal size is the distance from the centre of the roller to the point of the leg, this measurement also being effective capacity. Firm Joint Type The legs are hinged using a large headed nut and screw when tightened provides a rigid joint without play. The calipers have bowed tapered legs for external work or straight tapered legs with feet bent outward for internal work. Jenny Calipers Also known as hermaphrodite or odd leg calipers. Jenny calipers are used for scribing lines from the edge of a plate or shoulder, they are made in the firm joint type with large nut and screw to provide rigidity. The scribing leg is pointed and hardened or alternatively fitted with a replaceable point. The other leg is shaped with a toe or projection for locating from the datum.
Jenny Calipers
Dividers
Dividers Dividers are designed for marking out of circles on steel or the transference of measurements from a master template. They are used by holding the peg and pressing it towards the work, the pivoting leg is kept in the centre location and the scribing leg marks a true circle.
118
Calipers - Vernier, Dial & Digital
MEASURING
How to Read a Vernier Caliper.

Reading in two-hundreths of a millimetre (0.02 mm) The main scale is graduated in millimetres and numbered every ten divisions. The Vernier scale is divided into 50 divisions over a distance of 49mm, each division equalling 0.98mm. The difference between a division on the main scale to one on the Vernier scale is 0.02mm (1/50mm). To take a reading, note the position of the zero line on the Vernier scale in relation to the main scale i.e. 21mm. To this should be added the number of divisions from zero on the Vernier scale to the line coincident with a line on the main scale i.e 42 divisions or 42/50 of a millimetre (0.84 mm). Reading: 21.00mm + 0.84 mm = 21.84 mm.
Reading in thousandths of an inch (0.001) The main scale is graduated and numbered in inches, with each inch graduated and numbered in tenths (0.1). Each numbered subdivision is graduated into four unnumbered divisions (0.025). The Vernier scale is divided into 25 divisions over a distance of 1.225, each division equalling 0.049. The difference between a division on the main scale to one on the Vernier scale is 0.001 (one thou) To take a reading, note the position of the zero line on the Vernier scale in relation to the main scale i.e. 1.250. To this should be added the number of divisions from zero on the Vernier scale to the line coincident with a line on the main scale i.e. 12 (0.012). Reading : 1.250 + 0.012 = 1.262.
Dial Type Vernier Caliper

The whole numbers (centimetres and millimetres) are read from the main scale from zero to the chamfered edge of the cursor. The decimal numbers are read from the dial, numbered divisions being the first decimal place and unnumbered divisions the second decimal place. To read the measurement, note the reading on the main scale i.e 13mm. To this must be added the reading on the dial i.e. 0.74mm. Reading : 13mm + 0.74mm = 13.74mm
Electronic Digital Caliper

Measurements are clearly presented on an LCD display, easily switchable to metric or imperial readout. Resolution is 0.01mm or 0.0005 with an accuracy to 0.03mm or 0.001. The zero reset is available at any point and converts the readout to show actual deviations (plus or minus) between like components or from a set standard. The zero reset also provides automatic compensation for wear and eliminates the need for recalibration. 119
MEASURING
Edge & Centre Finders Edge Finders
Edge & Centre Finders - Cylinder Type

For fast accurate work location. Used on flat surfaces, straight edges, shoulders, grooves, studs, dowels, centre points and scribed lines. To locate an edge, first secure the finder in a collet or chuck, the work table is then traversed to cause the rotating edge finder to make contact with the workpiece (fig 1). Upon touching the workpiece, the edge finders contact point will be forced into running concentrically with the body (fig 2). Any further movement to off-centre will cause a distinct wobble. At this point, the distance from the work edge to the centre of the finder is equal to half the diameter of the contact point. Datum lines and centre points are located using the combination edge and centre finder (fig 3). This has a cone shaped contact point which is lowered into position barely touching the workpiece at the point you wish to measure. The finder is made to run concentrically using a steel rule or straight edge (fig 4).
Diameters Shank Body Shank Body Shank Body 0.200 0.375 10mm 10mm 0.200 0.500
fig 1 Edge & Centre Finders Combination
Diameters Shank Body Shank Body fig 2 Double Edge 0.200 0.500 0.200 0.375
Diameters Shank 0.200 Body 0.500
fig 3 Plain Edge
fig 4 120
MEASURING
Edge & Centre Finders Edge Finders
Edge & Centre Finders - Cylinder Type

For fast accurate work location. Used on flat surfaces, straight edges, shoulders, grooves, studs, dowels, centre points and scribed lines. To locate an edge, first secure the finder in a collet or chuck, the work table is then traversed to cause the rotating edge finder to make contact with the workpiece (fig 1). Upon touching the workpiece, the edge finders contact point will be forced into running concentrically with the body (fig 2). Any further movement to off-centre will cause a distinct wobble. At this point, the distance from the work edge to the centre of the finder is equal to half the diameter of the contact point. Datum lines and centre points are located using the combination edge and centre finder (fig 3). This has a cone shaped contact point which is lowered into position barely touching the workpiece at the point you wish to measure. The finder is made to run concentrically using a steel rule or straight edge (fig 4).
Diameters Shank Body Shank Body Shank Body 0.200 0.375 10mm 10mm 0.200 0.500
fig 1 Edge & Centre Finders Combination
Diameters Shank Body Shank Body fig 2 Double Edge 0.200 0.500 0.200 0.375
fig 3 Plain Edge
fig 4 120
MEASURING
Engineers Squares
Engineers Squares
These tools have been developed in three grades for use in workshop inspection and gauge rooms. They are made to BS939. Grade AA (Reference) is designed primarily for references purposes in gauge rooms. The working faces are hardened and finished to an accuracy of a 0.006mm per 300 mm length of blade (0.00025 per foot). The edges of the blades are bevelled to a narrow working face so that any deviation between work and blade can be quickly detected. Great care must be exercised when using these precision tools and for reliable gauge tests it is recommended that all checks are made at the internationally recognised measuring temperature of 20C (68F) The two larger sizes of this type of precision square (450mm and 600mm) are fitted with a special design of blade to ensure that the tool is within the specified close limits when held horizontally. Grade A (Inspection) is made with all the working faces hardened and finished to an accuracy of 0.0416mm per 1000mm length of blade (0.0005 per foot) and is suitable for toolroom and inspection room work. Grade B (Workshop) is the most popular type and is made to an accuracy of 0.083mm per 1000mm length of blade (0.001 per foot). The blade is hardened and tempered but the stock is not heat treated.
Toolmakers Adjustable Steel Squares

This tool is a modification of the engineers square and is fitted with replaceable adjustable blades instead of the fixed blade. To increase the applications of this square, one of the replaceable blades is ground with 45 and 30 angle ends. These modifications make the tool very useful for a number of applications in restricted places. With the rule blade fitted it can be used as a depth gauge. The stock and blades have working faces hardened and precision ground. The rule blade is available with 3 graduations in 0.5mm or 1/64ths of an inch. 1 1. Angle Blade Hardened and tempered. Precision ground on edges. Accurately ground angles. 2. Narrow Rule Hardened and accurately graduated. 3. Plain Square Blade hardened and tempered. Precision ground on edges. When the clamp is released blade can be removed or set to any desired position.
4 2
4. Stock hardened, all faces ground.
122
External Micrometers
MEASURING
How to Read a Micrometer

Reading in 0.01 mm (Hundredths of a Millimetre) Metric micrometers can be read to 0.01 mm (one hundredth of a millimetre). As the screw on metric micrometers has a pitch of 0.5mm so two revolutions of the thimble will move the spindle through 1.0mm. On the sleeve the datum line is graduated with two sets of lines - the set below the line reading in millimetres and the set above the line reading in half millimetres. (N.B. On earlier models the millimetres are graduated above the datum line with half millimetres below.) The thimble is divided into fifty equal divisions, figured in fives so that each small division on the thimble represents 1/50 of 0.5mm which equals 0.01 mm. To read the metric micrometer, first note the whole number of millimetre divisions on the sleeve (main divisions) then observe whether there is a half millimetre visible (minor divisions) and lastly read the thimble for hundredths (thimble divisions) i.e. the line on thimble coinciding with the datum line. Example for reading shown above: Main Divisions: Minor Divisions: Thimble Divisions: Reading:
1 x 1.mm 1 x 0.5mm 20 x 0.01mm
= 1.00 = 0.50 = 0.20 1.70mm
Reading in thousandths of an inch (1/1000 or 0.001) The inch reading micrometer screw has 40 threads per inch, so that one complete revolution moves it 1/40 (0.025) and in 1/25 of a turn it will move 1/25 of 1/40 which is 0.001. The sleeve has marked on it main divisions representing tenths of an inch - that is 0.001 each. Every main division is sub-divided into four minor divisions representing 0.025 each. The thimble is divided into twenty-five equal thimble divisions and as one full turn is equal to one minor division on the sleeve (0.025) then one division on the thimble will be 1/1000 or 0.001. Thus to read the setting shown, count the number of tenths (main divisions), add the number of minor divisions multiplied by 0.025, then add the number of thousandth divisions on the thimble (thimble divisions) i.e. the line on the thimble coinciding with the datum line. 123
MEASURING
The most important features of micrometers are: Accuracy - Conforms with the relevant British standard specification. Spindle - One piece alloy steel hardened throughout and stabilised. Easy Reading - Thimbles and sleeves are accurately divided and clearly marked, having a pearl chrome finish to prevent glare. Frames - All frames up to and including 150mm (6) capacity, are made from steel drop forgings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
Anvil End - Cutaway frame facilitates usage in narrow slots. Spindle and Anvil Faces - Glass hard, optically flat tungsten carbide. Spindle - Ground thread, made from hardened alloy steel. Locking Lever - Effective at any position. Retains spindle alignment. Sleeve - Adjustment setting for zero setting. Marked clearly and divided accurately. Satin chrome plated. 6. Thimble - Each graduation clearly numbered and divided accurately. Satin chrome plated. 7. Screw Adjusting Nut - Allows accurate adjustment of the main nut. 8. Main Nut - Long thread length to prolong the micrometers working life. 9. Ratchet - Even pressure through an improved design. 10. Thimble Adjusting Nut - Controls position of thimble. 11. Steel Frame - Drop forged pearl chrome plated.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Interchangeable Anvil Micrometers

By using interchangeable anvils of different lengths, these micrometers have a larger capacity than the ordinary micrometer with a fixed anvil. This feature enables several articles of various dimensions to be quickly and conveniently measured with the one micrometer. Adjustment - for wear on the screw and zero setting, is exactly as for external micrometers, using the large key. For wear on the anvils, adjustment is made by the two anvil adjusting nuts, using the two small keys. Always use the standards for checking after interchanging anvil. 124
Height & Depth Gauges
MEASURING
Vernier Height Gauges

Height gauges are designed to provide accurate and precise vertical measurements from a surface plate or table of grade A limits. The scale is engraved on a vertical beam of rectangular, triangular, or other section, and the base must be of ample proportions to ensure rigidity to the instrument. The sliding jaw is provided with a vernier scale reading to 0.02mm and a suitable assembly or clamp is designed to read direct from zero. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Beam Fine adjustment clamp Vernier scale Main scale Base Scriber clamp Scriber Sliding jaw Fine adjustment roller
1
9 8
3 7 6 4 5
Depth Gauge Micrometers

The measuring faces of base and rods are hardened The rods are marked with respective capacity and are square to base in any position. 1. Thimble 2. Thimble Cap 3. Interchangeable Rods Typical Applications:
2 1 3
Stepped Deep Hole Projection Inside bore or slot
125
MEASURING
Protractors
Universal Bevel Protractors

Used for the measurement and marking out of angles. The body of the gauge is graduated through 360o and a bevelled segments fitted on the rotating centre, graduated on both sides of the zero line with a vernier scale to read to 1/12 of a degree or 5 minutes of arc. The graduated scales and the vernier plates are pearl chrome plated for easy reading and the blades hardened and tempered. A fully universal type has an additional locating leg on which is fitted an adjustable acute angle attachment, making the instrument capable of measuring the smallest angle from zero. On this type a separate small knurled pinion engages with a gear in the back of the protractor which enables fine adjustments to be made. The ratio between the small pinion and the internal gear is 8 to 1 which makes it possible to rotate the centre slowly so that the vernier scale can be set very precisely. The small pinion thumbscrew can be withdrawn after making the adjustment and clamping the rotating centre to prevent any further movement and allows the gauge to lie flat on a plate for marking out or gauging purposes.
How to Read a Universal Bevel Protractor.

Whole numbers of degrees can be read by simply taking readings with the zero line on the vernier. Where this line coincides with a line on the Main scale, an exact number of whole degrees is indicated. The vernier on a bevel protractor enables readings to be taken to five minutes or 1/12 of a degree. One division on the vernier is this amount shorter than the two divisions on the main scale. If the zero line on the vernier does not coincide exactly with a line on the main scale, it is necessary to find the vernier line which does coincide with a main scale line; and this indicates the number of five minutes or 1/12 of a degree to be added to the whole of degrees. To take a reading, therefore, note the number of whole degrees, and then count in the same direction, the number of divisions on the vernier scale form the zero line to the first line on the vernier scale that coincides with a line on the main scale. As each of these is five minutes, multiply by five and the number of minutes to be added to the whole number of degrees will be indicated. 126
Protractors & Combination Sets
MEASURING
Combination Sets
The combination set consists of: Rule - Hardened and accurately graduated in 300 mm, 450 mm and 600 mm lengths. Range of graduations available: One side in half millimetres and 32nds of an inch. Reverse side in millimetres and 64ths of an inch. Square head - Drop forged steel (containing spirit level and scriber). Centre head - Drop forged steel. Protractor head - graduated to read from 0-180o in both directions and also fitted with a spirit level.
6
1 2
1. Spirit Levels 2. Square Head 3. Protractor Head

3
4. Steel Rule 5. Centre Head 6. Scriber
Typical applications:
Try square & height gauge
Centre line of disc
Depth gauge
Measuring angle of hexagon
Rule set at 90 and used as depth gauge
Measuring angle of slide Mitre 45 45 Angle gauge
127
MEASURING
Refractometers Calibration Screw Cower Eyepiece & Focus Adjuster
Refractometers
An optical instrument which uses the variation in refractive index of fluids at different concentrations to measure dilution ratios. Cover Plate Refraction Prism
Calibrated Refractive Scale

1355 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 BX %
Barrel Instructions: Readings will vary according to Temperature. It is recommended that the refractometer should be calibrated before every use.
1350
1345
Calibration
Use a standard of known value, on the refractive index. Distilled water being zero, is recommended.
1340
No 1333 20C
1. Open cover plate, and ensure both prism, and inner face of cover plate are clean. Use a soft clean and lint free cloth. 2. Place a drop of distilled water onto the centre of the prism and close the cover. 3. The sample will spread over the surface of the prism and become a thin film. 4. With a light source (daylight is preferable) above the prism cover, look through the eyepiece. Focus is adjusted by means of rotating the adjuster. The line of measurement is the boundary line between the blue and white zones. 5. Using the small screwdriver provided adjust the calibration screw until the boundary line is exactly at zero on the scale. The refractor is now ready for use. 6. To measure a sample from the coolant system, take a drop from the outlet pipe of the machine. This avoids picking up any tramp oil from the surface of the coolant tank. 7. After cleaning (drying) the prism and inner face of the cover plate, place a drop from the sample onto the centre of the prism. 8. Close the lid and take a reading by looking through the eyepiece (focus as necessary by rotating the adjuster) and record the figure where the boundary line passes through the scale. 9. Clean prism and cover after use. The reading taken should be related to the refraction index figure given for the particular product and dilution by the manufacturer. If this figure is not available the following is an alternative means of establishing one. After following the calibration procedure (steps 1 to 4) mix a small sample of the emulsion in a measuring cylinder, using the manufacturers recommended proportion of oil to water. This sample may then be measured following steps 7 to 9 to establish the correct scale reading for that particular product and dilution. You can now compare using steps 6 to 9, a sample from the machine to determine the strength of the coolant in the system. The higher the reading, the more concentrated the mix is. The nearer to zero the reading is, the weaker the solution. 128
Refractometers
MEASURING
Application
Maintaining the correct mixture in coolant systems is vital to ensure optimum performance from cutting tools. To protect the machine and work piece from corrosion and to reduce the risk of health hazards arising from incorrect concentrations of water soluble oils. To economise the use of water cutting fluids and grinding fluids NOTE: Dilution ratio does not necessarily give an indication of the condition of the emulsion. Bacteria and/or pH level can effect coolant
The pH Scale
pH is a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous fluid. pH should be measured using pH papers, which are available from your local distributor. The end of the paper should be dipped into the test fluid. with a matter of seconds it will change colour. This colour can then be matched to a standard pH colour chart. Always test a sample from the outlet pipe of the machine. This avoids picking up tramp oil from the surface of the coolant tank. More Acidic pH 2 Level 1 Neutral
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
More Alkaline 10 11 12 13
Very little bacteria Growth
Good for bacteria Growth
Very little bacteria Growth Aggressive to the Skin No Corrosion On ferrous Material
Typical fresh cutting fluids are in the range pH 9 to 9.5 Each division on the scale is a factor of 10 from the next, eg. pH 9 is ten times more alkaline than pH 8.
The pH level should never be above 10 as this will cause skin irritation.
Bacteria prefer slightly acidic condition, ie. just below pH 7 but start to be encouraged at anything below around pH 8. Bacteria can live at pH9 and as they work they excrete acid waste which reduces the pH of the emulsion, further improving their enviroment. Alkaline pHs reduce corrosion of ferrous materials and above pH 12 there is no corrosion on these materials. Cutting fluids are usually formulated to have a fresh emulsion pH in the range 9.0 - 9.5, ie. as high as possible to resist bacteria and corrosion without causing skin problems.
129
MEASURING
Sine Bars
Sine Bars
A Sine Bar is used to setup angles on a layout table or in a milling machine vice. It consists of a bar with two pins mounted at an accurate predetermined distance. One end is raised to a measured height by using gauge blocks or an adjustable parallel. As the length between the pins is always a constant value, trigonometry can be used to determine the angle required in order to achieve a specific height, or vice-versa. See Page 74 for Solution of Right Angled Triangle. 1. Table/Vice Roll-Pin. Rests on the inspection table or machine bed. 2. Gauge Block Roll-Pin. Rests on top of the gauge block(s) 3. Steel Bar. Precision machined to ensure flatness . 4. Catch Plate or Shoe. Allows a workpiece to be rested on the bar for inspection, marking or positioning prior to fixturing and machining. 4 3 2
How to Use a Sine Bar
a 1. To set an angle on a sine bar, sine plate, compound sine plate, or other sine tool, you must first determine the centre Gauge(s) distance of the device a B b and the angle you wish to set B. 2. Find the sine of angle B from the tables on pages 70 and 71 of this handbook. 3. This figure is multiplied by the centre distance a of the sine bar or plate. The result is the gauge height required b. Gauge blocks are produced down to units of 0.001mm - for workshop purposes the gauge To obtain the gauge height needed to height should be rounded to 2 or 3 decimal places. set a 30O angle on a 125mm bar, 4. Assemble a stack of gauge look up the sine of 30O O blocks to the required height and a = 30 O = .50000 place them under the gauge block Sine 30 roll-pin of the sine bar, and the b = .50000 x 125mm = 62.50mm To obtain the gauge height needed to desired angle is set. 5. If the device has a locking set a 52O 20 angle on a 125mm mechanism it should be tightened at bar, look up the sine of 52O 20 this point. The sine bar is now ready a = 52O 20 to use to check, hold or mark the Sine 52O 20 = .791579 b = .791579 x 125mm = 98.947mm required angle.
130
TOOLING
Section
Bandsaw Blades Brazed Tip Lathe Tools Butt-Welded Lathe Tools Cutting Tools (Shank Type) Files Indexable Insert Designation Indexable Threading Indexable Toolholders PMK Carbide Classification Shank Dimensions Taps
132 - 133 134 - 137 138 - 139 140 - 143 144 - 149 150 - 151 152 - 153 154 - 161 162 - 163 164 - 167 168 - 174
TOOLING
131
TOOLING
Bandsaw Blades
Blade Materials
Hard Edge Flexible Back high carbon steel blade combines long blade life and efficiency, under average conditions, with lower costs. For general sawing of low alloys, non-ferrous metals and synthetics and is available with regular, hook and skip teeth. Premium high carbon steel blade is specially heat treated to produce a spring tempered back, giving greater tensile strength and straighter, more accurate cutting at higher feeds. It is suitable for interrupted cuts and is available with regular, hook and skip teeth. Powerband Matrix II Edge Bimetal. With a matrix II high speed cutting edge that resists heat, abrasion and shock on production applications and a flexible back, giving greater tensile strength, this blade is suitable for a wide range of materials and applications including small radius cutting and production cutting of alloy steels, stainless etc. Available with regular, hook and variable pitch teeth. Powerband II - M42 Edge Bimetal. Powerband II has an M42 high speed steel cutting edge giving greater hardness and heat resistance. It is recommended for increased blade life when cutting such materials as austenitic stainless steels, nickel base alloys, titanium and similar tough or high-hardness metals. Available with regular, hook and variable pitch teeth.
Regular
Tooth Types
Regular Tooth. For cutting and contouring most ferrous metals. With straight face teeth which continuously rake chips out of the saw cut. Skip Tooth. With 0 rake angle. Widely spaced teeth provide extra chip clearance, shallow gullets increase band strength. For cutting large sections of soft non-ferrous metals. Hook Tooth. With a 10 positive rake angle for fast cutting rates at reduced feed pressures. For non-ferrous metals, nonmetallic and tough alloys. Rounded gullets allow fast chip clearance.
Skip
Hook
Pitch Types
In general, thin work requires a greater number of teeth per inch (fine pitches), whereas larger sections are best suited to fewer teeth per inch (coarse pitches). Constant Pitch. With uniform teeth spacing, set, gullet depth and rake angle throughout the entire length of the blade. Variable Pitch. With varying size of teeth and gullet depth over a regular and predetermined length of the blade. This disrupts the harmonics produced when sawing certain materials and structures such as tubing, angle etc. The repeatability of pattern is very closely controlled. A very smooth finish and substantial reductions in noise levels result from using variable pitch blades.
Constant
Variable
Tooth Set Types

Raker
Raker Set. Recommended for materials over 1/4 (6mm) thick and for curve cutting. Teeth are set left, right and straight in sequence. Wavy Set. Recommended for materials under 1/4 (6mm) thick. Teeth are set in groups, left then right. Available with regular teeth only and used generally on finer pitch blades e.g. 24 and 32TPI. Staggered Set. Used only on variable pitch blade. Teeth are set alternately left and right with intermittent straight raker teeth.
Wavy Staggered 132
Bandsaw Blades
TOOLING
Shown below is a selection of the most common problems encountered with metal cutting bandsaw blades, along with the most likely causes and suggested courses of action.
Bandsaw Trouble Shooting. Blade Breakage & Fatigue
Likely Causes l Incorrect blade tension l Worn or mis-aligned blade guides l Damaged blade surface l Feed pressure too high l Guides too far apart l Defective weld l Blade in contact with wheel flanges
Suggested Action l Check and/or adjust blade tension l Renew and adjust guides l Renew blade l Reduce feed pressure l Adjust guides l Check weld alignment l Check and adjust blade alignment Suggested Action l Refer to cutting chart and adjust l Check manufacturers recommendations l Check and adjust guides l Adjust for correct tension l Replace with new blade l Check machine set-up l Check material Suggested Action l Check manufacturers recommendations l Select correct pitch blade according to makers recommendations l Reduce feed pressure refer to cutting chart l Adjust blade speed l Check fluid and change or strengthen l Check hardness of material l Check machine vice and ensure material is held firm l Check/adjust brushes Suggested Action l Install blade correctly l Check manufacturers recommendations l Refer to cutting chart l Check manufacturers recommendations for type of material being cut l Check hardness of material l Check and adjust fluid Suggested Action l Check and/or adjust blade tension l Refer to machine operators manual l Refer to cutting chart l Refer to cutting chart l Check and clean drive wheel surface Suggested Action l Refer to cutting chart l Check and adjust blade guides l Replace with new blade l Check and/or adjust tension l Refer to cutting chart l Check material is clamped correctly
Inaccurate or Rough Cuts

Likely Causes l Incorrect blade speed and/or feed l Wrong blade selection l Guides worn or loose l Blade tension too low l Worn blade teeth l Machine out of alignment l Uneven hardness in material
Tooth Chipping & Stripping

Likely Causes l Improper break-in of new blade l Teeth too fine or too coarse for application l Feed pressure too high l Cutting speed too low l Improper or insufficient cutting fluid l Scale or uneven hardness in material l Movement of material in vice l Defective chip brushes Likely Causes l Blade incorrectly fitted, i.e. teeth running the wrong way l Incorrect break-in period of blade l Speed and feed of blade too high l Wrong blade selection l Hard sections of material l Improper or incorrect cutting fluid
Premature Dulling of Teeth
Blade Stalling
Likely Causes l Blade tension too low l Blade guides too tight l Speed too slow l Feed pressure too high l Drive wheel surface contaminated
STOP
Blade Vibration or Squeal

Likely Causes l Incorrect blade speed and/or feed l Lack of blade support l Worn or damaged blade l Incorrect blade tension l Wrong tooth pitch l Position of material in vice
133
TOOLING
Brazed Tip Lathe Tools
Brazed Tip Turning and Boring Tools

The shapes shown are generally manufactured in three standard grades. P40
Roughing to heavy roughing of steel and steel castings using heavy feeds and low to medium cutting speeds. Also used under unfavourable conditions, and for intermittent cutting. Also suitable for planing and for manganese steel. P30 for heavy duty turning and boring on all classes of steel. Suitable for interrupted cutting and machining at low speeds and heavy feeds. K20
Straight Round Nosed Turning Tools No.s 010 to 030
General purpose. Ideal for machining cast iron, non-ferrous metals, bakelite etc. Combines wear resistance with toughness when rough turning at Cranked Round Nosed Turning Tools No.s 12 to 31 moderate speeds. Suitable for high feed rates. Manufactured to ISO/DIN and BHMA Standards. In addition to a range of shapes all styles are available in various sizes based on standard shank sizes. When specifying tool numbers it should be noted that Metric (ISO) shank sizes are prefixed M. Imperial (BHMA) shank size tools generally have slightly more carbide in the tips when compared to the nearest metric equivalent : 1/2 being larger than 12mm for example. All illustrations are for right hand tools Light Turning & Boring Tools left hand are also available as standard. No.s 40 to 60 134
TOOLING
Brazed Tip Turning and Boring Tools (continued)
Bar Turning Tools No.s 100 to 118
Brazed Tip Cranked Turning & Facing Tools No.s 192 to 213
Bar & Knee Turning Tools No.s 132 to 141
Straight Recessing Tools No.s 230 to 246
Cranked Turning Tools No.s 160 to 180
Parting Off Tools No.s 260 to 276 135
TOOLING
Square Shank Boring Tools Used 90 in Bar No.s 280 to 293
External Threading Tools No. 2055 (55o) No. 2060 (60o)
Square Shank 80 Boring Tools No.s 300 to 326
Internal Threading Tools No. 2155 (55o) No. 2160 (60o)
Round Shank Boring Tools Used 45 in Bar No.s 331 to 381
Plowrake Tools for Planing Steel
Round Shank Boring Tools Used 90 in Bar No.s 396 to 403 136
Plowcast Tools for Planing Cast Iron
TOOLING
Square Shank Boring Bars ISO 8 DIN 4973
Cranked Facing Tools ISO 5 DIN 4977
Round Shank Boring Bars ISO 8 DIN 4973
Cranked Knife Turning Tools No.s 2130 to 2147 ISO 6 DIN 4980
Square Shank Boring Bars ISO 9 DIN 4974
Parting Tools ISO 7 DIN 4981
Round Shank Boring Bars ISO 9 DIN 4974 137
TOOLING
Butt-Welded Lathe Tools
Butt-Welded Turning and Boring Tools

Manufactured from top quality sintered steels. For use on a wide range of applications from roughing to finishing. Manufactured to BS 1296: Part 3: 1978. In addition to a range of shapes all styles are available in various sizes based on standard shank sizes.
No Rake
13
19
20
Also Available for Cutting Right Left Left Hand Thread - No. 13LH Hand Hand Light Turning & Facing Tools External Screw Cutting Tools (Right Hand)
Right Left Hand Hand Facing Tools
3
Right Hand
4
Left Hand
16
16L H
25
Right Hand
26
Left Hand
Straight Nose Roughing Tools
Right Left Hand Hand Parting Off Tools
Right Angle Recessing Tools
7
Right Hand
8 17
Left Hand Cuts In Either Direction Round Nose Planer Tools
27
Right Hand
28
Left Hand
Knife or Side Cutting Tools
Right Angle Parting Off Tools
138
Butt-Welded Lathe Tools
TOOLING
Butt-Welded Turning and Boring Tools (continued)
52 29 30
Right Hand Left Hand Cuts in Either Direction NB: Cutting Edge is On or Below the level of the Base of the Tool Swan Necked Finishing Tools
60
Square Nosed Turning & Facing Tools
Stepped Parting Blanks
39
40
57A
Right Left Hand Hand Cranked Internal Recessing Tools No Rake
Boring Tools 10 Rake (Right Hand)
61 47
Also Suitable for Tools for Work on brass and Gun-Metal Hardened Tool Blanks Boring Tools (Right Hand)
57B
Hump Back Parting Tools
Boring Tools 10 Rake (Right Hand)
50 50A
Internal Screw Cutting Tools (Right Hand)
62 57C
50B
Through Boring Tools (Right Hand) Boring Tools Boring Tools Zero Rake (Right Hand) Form Tool Blanks
139
TOOLING
Cutting Tools (Shank Type) Drill Axis
Annotation - Twist Drills

For Shank Dimensions (DIN-228B) See Page 166 Tang Shank
Helix Angle Land or Margin Flute Length Body Clearance Lead of Helix Point Length Lip Length Heel Flute Back Tapered over this length Point Angle
Overall Length
Body Face
Cutting Lip Diameter
Body Clearance Diameter Web or Core Taper Outer Corner
Axial Rake Angle at Periphery
Chisel Edge
Depth of Body Clearance Chisel Edge Angle Chisel Edge Corner
Initial or Lip Clearance Angle Flank
140
Cutting Tools (Shank Type)
TOOLING Square Size
Annotation - Reamers
Tang
For Shank Dimensions (DIN-228B) See Page 166 Square Length Shank
Shank
Overall Length
Recess Length
Bevel Cut Length Helix Angle
Taper Lead Angle
Taper Lead Length Bevel Lead Angle Length of Bevel Lead Diameter Land Circular Land Radial Cutting Face Edge Flute Positive Rake Angle Undercut Face
Bevel Lead
Clearance Clearance Angle Primary Clearance Secondary Clearance Negative Rake Angle Overcut Face
Heel 141
TOOLING
Cutting Tools (Shank Type) Centre Axis For Shank Dimensions (BS 122:4) See Page 165
Annotation Shank Cutters

Thread Length
Shank
Overall Length Helix Angle Cut Length Weldon Shank
End Teeth Clearance End Teeth Gash End Recess Land Diameter Primary Clearance Land Secondary Clearance Land Primary Clearance Angle End Teeth Gash Undercut Face
End Teeth
Cutting Edge Secondary Clearance Angle Flute Heel Centre Hole
Positive Radial Rake Angle 142
Cutting Tools (Shank Type)
TOOLING For Shank Dimensions (BS 122:4) See Page 167

6
8/9
Annotation - Taps
2 4
10 12 14
13
16 11 15 18 20
17
21 19
Key: 1. Overall Length 2. Thread Length (including chamfer) 3. Shank Length (including square) 4. Lead Length 5. Shank Diameter 6. Length of Driving Square 7. Size across Flats of Square 8. Female Centre 9. Male Centre 10. Back Taper
11. Point Diameter (chamfer) 12. Chamfer Angle 13. Rake Angle 14. Width of Land 15. Width of Flute 16. Radial Thread Relief 17. Web Diameter 18. Spiral Point Rake Angle 19. Spiral Point Angle 20. Spiral Point Length 21. Angle of Helical (Spiral) Flute 143
TOOLING
Files
How to Use a File

As with all cutting tools, incorrect use of a file could lead to serious personal injury. NEVER USE A FILE UNLESS THE TANG IS PROTECTED WITH A HANDLE. File handles have been designed to fit the palm of the hand comfortably so as to give improved control - an important consideration for efficiency and precision. The following points should be remembered in order to improve performance, reduce filing time and ensure a better finish. Use a Vice Fix your work tightly in a vice to prevent chatter. Ensure nonmarking vice jaws are used to hold delicate work pieces. Maintain a Rhythm Maintain a steady rhythm with constant pressure - just enough for the file to bite comfortably into the workpiece. Only File Away From You To avoid unnecessary tooth wear, lift the file clear of the work on the return stroke. Treat New Files With Care File carefully at first with a new file and avoid using on sharp edges. Old files should be used for descaling, dressing castings, and on mild steel. Keep new files for use on harder metals. When holding a file in one hand, the forefinger is generally placed on top of the handle in line with the file. Where possible, guide the file with both hands. The base of the thumb should be on top of the file in line with the handle when heavy strokes are required. When a light stroke requiring less pressure is to be used, the thumb should be at right angles to the length of the file.
144
Files
TOOLING
How to Use a File (continued)

There are three main methods of filing - Straight filing, Draw filling and Lathe filing.
Straight Filing
In straight filing, the file is pushed lengthwise in an almost straight line. The work is normally held in a vice which should be at elbow height. Too much pressure should be avoided as this can result in a rocking movement which gives a rounded surface. It can also cause excessive wear on the file. Too little pressure, especially on harder metals, will allow the file to slide over the metal and the teeth will quickly become dull.
Draw Filing
Draw filing is carried out by holding the file firmly at both ends and pushing and pulling the width of the file along the length of the work. When carried out correctly, draw filing will produce a finer finish than straight filing.
Lathe Filing
When work to be filed is revolving in a lathe, the file should be used with a stroking action allowing it to glide slightly along the work. This will help to avoid making ridges and will keep the file clear of chips. Because of their sharpness, new files are best avoided for lathe work where a very fine finish is required. Lathe work should not be touched by hand as oil and moisture can coat the surface and it is then difficult for the file to take hold.
Care of Files
As it is virtually impossible to re-sharpen file teeth, the following hints will help to prolong the life of your files. Hang your files on a rack. Wooden file handles can fit into spring clips or rest on tool hooks, most plastic handled files have a hole provided, especially for the purpose of hanging from a hook or rail. If files are thrown into a drawer or tool box, or left lying on a bench with other tools, there is a danger that damage to the teeth will occur. Rust will damage file teeth. It is therefore advisable to oil files after use. All grease must however be removed before the files are used again. 145
TOOLING
Files
Engineers Hand Files

Available in a comprehensive range of shapes, sizes and cut styles. Manufactured to BS 498 : 1990.
Smooth Cut Second Cut Bastard Cut
Double Cut Two sets of diagonal rows of teeth, with the second set of teeth cut in opposite direction and on top of the first. The first set of teeth is known as overcut and the second as upcut, upcut being the finer. Double cut files are used with heavier pressure than single cut and remove material faster from the workpiece. Hand - Parallel edges, one edge uncut. For flat filing, corner filing and deburring. Multi-purpose filing and other work where a safe or uncut edge is needed. Double cut. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Flat - Edges taper towards front. Applications as for hand files. Preferred where taper allows access into tight spaces and angles. For general work on iron, steel, etc. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Round - Diameter tapers towards point. Suitable for filing internal and external concave surfaces. Available in Bastard, Second and Smooth Cut. Half-Round - Edges and surfaces taper towards point Dual application; suitable for concave surfaces, flat filing and large diameters. Files for rapid removal of metal. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Square - Parallel edges, surfaces taper towards point. For groove, rectangular hole and internal corner filing. Preferable to a Flat File because of its heavier section. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut. Three Square - Equilateral section (60 angles). Tapered towards point. For filing acute angles, internal corners and flat filing, clearing out square corners and for filing HSS tools after machining. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Knife - Two equal surfaces, tapered to knife point. For filing and deburring narrow grooves, slits and gear-teeth. Used principally by tool and die makers on work having acute angles. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
146
Files
TOOLING
Engineers Hand Files (continued)

Warding - Parallel surfaces, edges tapered to a point. For narrow grooves, keyways, slots etc. Warding Files are used by locksmiths in repairing or filing ward notches in keys. Also suited for use in narrow space. All sides double cut. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Pillar - Parallel edges, surfaces tapered towards end. Narrow version of hand file. For use where access is restricted. These files are designed for mill wrights and mechanics for use in enlarging key-ways, slots, etc, close to the shoulder. Available in bastard, second and smooth cut.
Single Cut Single set of parallel diagonal rows of teeth, Often used with light pressure to produce a smooth surface finish or put a keen edge on knives, shears and saws. Double Ended Saw - Edges taper towards point. For filing and sharpening saws. Points are left uncut. Instead of having a tang, both ends of these files are tapered. They are used for sharpening saws having a 60 angle. The teeth are cut from each end towards the centre. Single cut only. Taper Saw - Edges taper towards point. For filing and sharpening hand saws. Points are left uncut. Taper Saw Files are used for filing every type of handsaw which have 60 angle teeth. These files are single cut and have edges that are set and cut for filing the gullet between the saw teeth.
Farmers Own (Handy) - For sharpening reaper knives, matchetes, hoes, etc, with hanging hole in the integral handle. Single cut. Also available in double cut, bastard and second cut.
Pitsaw - These files are extremely suitable for sharpening pitsaws. They are also used as multi-purpose files. Available in second cut.
Feather edge Saw - These files are generally used for filing saws where angle of teeth is less than 60. They are manufactured in heavy and regular sections.
Straight Tooth Mill Saw - Available with one or two round edges. Parallel edges, both edges cut for filing and sharpening saws.
147
TOOLING
Files
Precision Hand Files

Available in tanged pattern and round handled needle pattern and differ from Engineers files in application and fineness of cut. Manufactured to BS 498 : 1990. Hand - Parallel edges, one edge uncut. For flat filing, corner filing and deburring. Multi-purpose and for other work where a safe or uncut edge is needed. Double cut. Available in cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Round - Diameter tapers towards point. Suitable for internal and external concave surfaces. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Half-Round - Edges and surfaces taper towards point dual application; suitable for concave surfaces and flat filing. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4. Square - Parallel edges, surfaces taper towards point. For groove, rectangular hole and internal corner filing. Preferable to a flat file because of its heavier section. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Three Square - Equilateral section (60 angles). Tapered towards point. For filing acute angles, internal corners and flat filing, clearing out square corners and for filing HSS tools after machining. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4. Knife - Two equal surfaces, tapered to knife point. For filing and deburring narrow grooves, slits and gear-teeth. Used principally by tool and die makers on work having acute angles. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Warding - Parallel surfaces, edges tapered to a point. For narrow grooves, keyways, slots etc. Warding files are used by locksmiths in repairing or filing ward notches in keys. Also suited for use in narrow space. All sides double cut. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Pillar - Parallel edges, surfaces tapered towards end. Narrow version of hand file. For use where access is restricted. These files are designed for mill wrights and mechanics for use in enlarging key-ways, slots, etc., and filing close to the shoulder. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
148
Files
TOOLING
Precision Hand Files (continued)

Narrow Pillar (Tanged only) - Narrower alternative to standard pillar. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Crossing (Fish-back) - For use on concave surfaces. Two curved surfaces (different radii) taper towards fine point. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Barrette - One flat cutting surface with safe non-cutting back and sides. For precision filing of angles and flats. Available cuts 0, 2 and 4.
Milled Tooth Hand Files

Manufactured from alloy steel and feature undercut teeth produce a more aggressive cut than conventional files requiring less operator effort. Suitable for use on a wide variety of materials including aluminium, steels, alloys, brass, copper, wood, plastics etc. Available in four blade lengths and two tooth forms. Hand style supplied as standard.
Curved Cut Teeth are arranged in curved contours across the file face. Normally used in automotive body shops for smoothing body panels.
Wood Rasps
Designed for general use and softer materials such as wood, plastic and fillers. Single cut in a variety of sizes. Rasp Cut Series of individual teeth which are formed by a single pointed tool. Produces a rough cut that is used primarily on wood, hooves, aluminium and lead. Hand
Flat Half Round
149
TOOLING
1 2 3 4 5
Indexable Insert Designation

6 7
AF 08
10
T N M G 16 0 4
1
Shape
T N - XX
Corner/Edge Preparation or Radius
Nose Symbol Shape Angle Figure H Hexagonal 120 O Octagonal 135 P Pentagonal 108 S Square 90 T Triangular 60 C 80 D 55 E 75 Rhombic F 50 M 86 V 35 W Trigon 80 L Rectangular 90 A 85 B Parallelogram 82 K 55 R Round -
A
R
Corner Symbol Radius mm 00 0.03 02 0.2 04 0.4 08 0.8 12 1.2 16 1.6 20 2.0 24 2.4 28 2.8 32 3.2
A D E F P
45 60 75 85 90 Special
F
A B C D E F G N P Z
4
N R F A M G W T Q U B H C J X
Hole & Chipbreaker Type Shape of Hole Chipbreaker Shape
Symbol
Without Without Hole Single-sided Double-sided Without Cylindrical Hole Single-sided Double-sided Partly cylindrical hole, Without single-side 40-60 Countersink Single-sided Partly cylindrical hole, Without double-side 40-60 Double-sided Countersink Partly cylindrical hole, Without single-side 70-90 Single-sided Countersink Partly cylindrical hole, Without double-side 70-90 Double-sided Countersink Special Type
3 5 7 15 20 25 30 0 11 Special
Relief Angle
Symbol A B C D E F G N P Z
Relief Angle 3 5 7 15 20 25 30 0 11 Others
150
Indexable Insert Designation
TOOLING
Accuracy Thickness (s) I.C. Dia. (s) (d) 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.013 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.013 0.025 0.025 0.13 0.025 0.05 0.005 0.025 0.13 }* 0.05 0.013 0.025 0.13 }* 0.05 0.025 0.025 0.13 }* 0.08 0.05 }* 0.18}* 0.13 0.13 0.08 }* 0.05 0.025 0.13 }* 0.18 0.13 }* 0.08 }* 0.13 0.38 0.25
8
F E
Symbols of major cutting edge Condition of Cutting Edge Sharp Edge Honed Rounded edge Honed Chamfered edge Combination honed edge Chipbreaker Shape
Symbol Corner Height (class) (m) A 0.005 F 0.005 C 0.013 H 0.013 E 0.025 G 0.025 J K L M N U
Symbol
W.T S
10
Chipbreakers are not part of ISO Designation. Each manufacturer designates a chipbreaker in his own way.
* Detail of accuracy will vary according to shape and size of insert - further details are available on request.
Cutting Edge Length R

S
C
6
W
T
D
V
Thickness
Thick
03 3.97 03 04 05 5.0 05 06 6.0 06 07 08 8.0 09 9.525 09 10 10.0 12 12.0 12 12.7 12 15 15.875 15 16 16.0 19 19.05 19 20 20.0 22 25 25.0 25 25.4 25 31 31.75 31 32 32.0 -
4.0 4.76 5.56 6.35 7.94 9.525 12.7 15.875 19.05 22.225 25.4 31.75 -
04 05 06 08 09 12 16 19 22 25 32 -
4.8 5.6 6.5 8.1 9.7 12.9 16.1 19.3 22.6 25.8 32.2 -
06 6.9 06 08 03 3.8 09 04 4.3 11 05 5.4 13 06 6.5 16 08 8.7 22 10 10.9 27 13 13.0 33 38 44 55 -
3.97 8.2 9.6 11.0 13.8 16.5 22.0 27.5 33.0 38.5 44.0 55.0 -
05 06 07 09 11 15 19 23 27 31 38 -
5.8 6.8 7.8 9.7 11.6 15.5 19.4 23.3 27.1 31.0 38.8 -
I.C. dia. Symbol Thick 01 1.59 (mm) 02 2.38 T2 2.78 3.97 03 3.18 4.76 T3 3.97 - 5.0 04 4.76 5.56 05 5.56 - 6.0 06 6.35 07 7.94 6.35 09 9.52 7.94
Symbol Length
Symbol
Symbol
Symbol Length Symbol Length
Length
Length
Symbol Length
Symbol Length
- - - 8.0 16 16.6 16 19.7 9.525 9 Hand of Insert - - - 10.0 - - - 12.0 R 22 22.1 12.70 15.875 L - - - 16.0 19.05 N - - - 20.0 22.225 Symbol Hand - - - 25.0 R Right 25.4 L Left 31.75 - - - 32.0 N Neutral
Symbol Length
151
TOOLING
Indexable Threading
Insert Selection Procedure

A From diagrams (Fig. 1) decide on threading method to be used. B Select insert style according to thread form. Pitch often determines the size of insert which may be used, i.e. the bigger the pitch, the larger the insert needed. C Based on the workpiece material, select a suitable grade. Use the recommended cutting speed and number of passes as a starting point then fine tune the cutting conditions until a balance of optimum production and tool life is established. D Select a suitable toolholder with a height suitable for the machine where it is intended to be used. Fig. 1 Change
Anvil to Negative Anvil Left Hand Toolholder & Insert Left Hand Toolholder & Insert
Right Hand Toolholder & Insert
Change Anvil to Negative Anvil
External - Right Hand Thread

Left Hand Toolholder & Insert
Internal - Right Hand Thread

Left Hand Toolholder & Insert
External - Left Hand Thread Internal - Left Hand Thread Number of Passes Recommended mm 0.5 Tpi 3-6 1.0 48 4-9 1.5 24 5-11 2.0 16 6-13 2.5 12 7-15 3.0 10 4.0 8 6.0 64
Pitch
Number of passes
8-17 10-20 11-22
Note: 1. For most standard applications, the middle of the road is a good starting point. 2. For most materials, the tougher the material, the higher the number of cutting passes you select. 3. As a general rule of thumb, less passes are better than more speed. 4. Infeed per pass should ensure an even machine load. 152
Indexable Threading
TOOLING
Threading Toolholders
Threading toolholder pockets are manufactured with a 1.5 positive helix angle as standard. Other anvils are available to change the helix angle of the insert as required by the diameter and pitch of the thread. Fig. 2 shows the determination of recommended helix angle by both chart and formula. Note: Negative helix angles anvils are used:A When threading a right hand thread with a left hand toolholder. B When threading a left hand thread with a right hand toolholder. See diagram (Fig. 1) for illustration. Fig. 2
Tan = P D
Simplified formula Metric: = 20P/D Inch: = 20/(P x D) e.g. D = 30mm (1.18) P = 1.5mm (16 TPI) Metric: = 20 x 1.5/30 = 1 Inch: = 20/(16 x 1.18) = 1* *Rounded to nearest 1/2
L Toolholders (IC) 4.5 EX-RH 16mm or IN-LH AE16+4.5 (3/8) EX-LH or IN-RH AI16+4.5 22mm EX-RH or IN-LH AE22+4.5 EX-LH (1/2) or IN-RH AI22+4.5
Anvils Angle and Order Codes 3.5 2.5 std +0.5 -0.5 AE16+3.5 AE16+2.5 AE16 AI16+3.5 AI16+2.5 AI16
-1.5
AE16+0.5 AE16-0.5 AE16-1.5 AI16+0.5 AI16-0.5 AI16-1.5 AE22+0.5 AE22-0.5 AE22-1.5 AI22+0.5 AI22-0.5 AI22-1.5
AE22+3.5 AE22+2.5 AE22 AI22+3.5 AI22+2.5 AI22
L = Insert Edge Length IC = Inscribed Circle Important Note about Threading Inserts External left hand and internal right hand or internal left hand and external right hand inserts can not be interchanged, because:A The form for internal and external threads is different. B The clearance on internal inserts is generally greater than for that of external. C The seat angle on internal and external toolholders is different. 153
TOOLING
Indexable Toolholders
Application Examples - External Toolholders
CKJNR/L Top Clamp
CTFPR/L Top Clamp
PCKNR/L Lever Lock
CSBPR/L Top Clamp
CTGPR/L Top Clamp
PCLNR/L Lever Lock
CSDPN Top Clamp
MVJNR/L Top Clamp & Pinlock
PDJNR/L Lever Lock
CSSPR/L Top Clamp
MVVNN Top Clamp & Pinlock
PDNNR Lever Lock
CTCPN Top Clamp
PCBNR/L Lever Lock
PRSNR/L Lever Lock
154
TOOLING
Application Examples - External Toolholders (Continued)
PSBNR/L Lever Lock
SCKCR/L Screw-on
SSDCN Screw-on
PSKNR/L Lever Lock
SCLCR/L Screw-on
SSSCR/L Screw-on
PSSNR/L Lever Lock
SDJCR/L Screw-on
STFCR/L Screw-on
PTFNR/L Lever Lock
SDNCN Screw-on
STGCR/L Screw-on
PTGNR/L Lever Lock
SRDCN Screw-on
SVLBR/L Screw-on
PWLNR/L Lever Lock
SRGCR/L Screw-on
SVVBN Screw-on
155
TOOLING
Application Examples - Boring Bars

Feed Direction
Saddle Feed Z Limited Axial Feed proportional to Axial Feed Saddle & Cross Feed X,Z Cross Feed X
CSKPR Top Clamp
PDUNR/L Lever Lock
Right hand boring bars shown.
CTFPR Top Clamp
PSKNR/L Lever Lock
STFCR/L Screw-on
MDUNR/L Top Clamp & Pinlock
PTFNR/L Lever Lock
SCLCR/L Screw-on
MWLNR Top Clamp & Pinlock
SCLCR/L Screw-on
SCLPR/L Screw-on
PCLNR/L Lever Lock
SDUCR/L Screw-on
STUPR/L & STUCR/L Screw-on
156
TOOLING
Application Examples - Cartridge Units

Feed Direction
Saddle Feed Z Cross Feed X
CSKPR Top Clamp
PCLNR Lever Lock
Limited Axial Feed proportional to Axial Feed Saddle & Cross Feed X,Z
CTFPR Top Clamp
PSKNR Lever Lock
Right hand holders shown.
CTSPR Top Clamp
PTFNR Lever Lock
STFCR Screw-on
CTTPR Top Clamp
PTSNR Lever Lock
STGCR Screw-on
CTWPR Top Clamp
PTTNR Lever Lock
STSCR Screw-on
PCFNR Lever Lock
PTWNR Lever Lock
STTCR Screw-on
Threading Toolholders
DER/L Dual Top Clamp or Screw-on
DIR Top Clamp or Screw-on
SIR/L Screw-on
157
TOOLING
ISO Designation - External Toolholders

1 Clamping System C M P S 1 Clamp Multi Lock Lever Screw 2 3 N V S W T U 3 B G Lead Angle C J D K F L
P
C
C
D
K
K
20 20
4 Clearance B
K
5 Hand R
12
2 Insert Shape
C L N P N
6 Shank Height Expressed in mm
7 Shank Width Expressed in mm
8 Tool Length
Length in mm Single Digit No. preceded Single Digit No. preceded D 60 H 100 E 70 K 125 by 0 e.g: h=8mm by 0 e.g: h=8mm is indicated by 08 is indicated by 08 F 80 M 150 9 Cutting Edge Length R Expressed in mm S T W
P Q R S
170 180 200 250
C, D K, V
158
TOOLING
ISO Designation - Boring Bars

1 S A C E Bar Type Solid Steel Bar J Steel - through coolant Carbide Shank Carbide Shank with Through Coolant 1 2 3 4 5 K M Q R 6 3 Bar Length Length in mm 110 125 150 180 200 7 8 S T U V W 9 250 300 350 400 450
S 50 W P S K N R 19
2 Basic Diameter 4 5 6 Single Digit No. preceded by 0 e.g: b=8mm is indicated by 08 Clamping System Insert Shape Lead Angle 7 8 9 Clearance Hand Expressed in mm
Cutting Edge Length Note: Details as above see External Toolholders
ISO Designation - Cartridge Units

1 Clamping System 5 Hand 1 2 Insert Shape 3 Lead Angle 4 Clearance 8 Cutting Edge Length 2 3 4 5 6
Note: Details as above see External Toolholders
P T F N R 16 CA 16
6 Cutting Edge Height Expressed in mm 7 Bar Length
C
Indicates Cartridge
A
Single Digit No. preceded by 0 e.g: b=8mm is indicated by 08 Indicates Holder is designed to ISO 5611
Note: Cutting Edge Lengths are detailed to lowest whole number e.g. 12.7mm = 12mm 159
TOOLING
ISO Designation - Threading Toolholders

1 D Clamping System Dual-Top Clamp or Screw 3 Hand 6 Tool Length Length in mm R H K S Screw on L C Clamp M P R S 110 125 150 170 200 200
2 E
Type of Holder External 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
D E R 16
I Internal
16 H 16
Shank Height
Shank Width
7 Cutting Edge Length
Round Shank (Boring Bars) = 00 For Rectangular Shanks, Height is expressed in mm Single Digit No. preceded by 0 E.g. h=8mm is indicated by 08
Round Shank (Boring Bars) = Diameter in mm For Rectangular Shanks, Height is expressed in mm Single Digit No. preceded by 0 E.g. h=8mm is indicated by 08 l 06 08 11 16 22 27 6mm 8mm 11mm 16.5mm 22mm ic
5/32 3/16 1/4 3/8 1/2
27.5mm 15.875
160
TOOLING
Annotation - External Turning Annotation - Boring Bars Toolholders
Annotation - Cartridge Units
Annotation - Threading Toolholders
Dimensional Notation h = Shank Height or A/F D min h1 = Tip Height b = Shank Width d = Shank Diameter f = Width Offset a = Insert Approach Length D = Min. Boring Diameter l1 = Overall Length to Tip l2 = Neck Length l3 = Min. Adjustment Length d1 = Clamp Screw Bore Diameter d2 = Neck Diameter x = Clamp Screw Angle e = Clamp Screw Centre 161
TOOLING
PMK Carbide Classification
ISO 513:1991 (BS7662:1993)

Blue P - Representing machining of long chipping materials such as steel, cast steel, stainless steel and malleable iron. Yellow M - Representing machining of more demanding materials such as austenitic stainless steel, heat resistant materials, manganese steel, alloyed cast iron, etc. Red K - Representing machining of short chipping materials such as cast iron, hardened steel and non-ferrous materials such as aluminium, bronze, plastics, etc.
Within each main area there are numbers indicating the varying demands of machining, from roughing to finishing. Starting at group 01 which represents finish-turning and finish-boring with no shocks and with high cutting speed, low feed and small cutting depth, through a semi-roughing, semi-finishing area to medium-duty, general purpose at 25 and then down to group 50 for roughing at low cutting speeds and very heavy chiploads. Demands for wear resistance and toughness vary with the type of operation and increase upwards and downwards, respectively. Carbide Description
General ISO Category Symbol of Material to be Machined Designation
Application Description
Workpiece Material Use and Working Conditions
P01
High Wear Resistance
Finish turning and boring, high Steel, steel castings cutting speeds, small depths of cut, close tolerance work, fine finish, stable conditions. Turning, copy turning, threading and milling, high cutting speeds, small or medium depths of cut. Turning, copy turning, milling, medium cutting speeds and depths of cut. Turning, milling, medium or low cutting speeds. Medium or large depths of cut, and machining in unfavourable conditions.* Turning, slotting, low cutting speeds, large depths of cut, with the possibility of large cutting angles for machining in unfavourable conditions* and work on automatic machines.
High Speed
P10 P20
Steel, steel castings
Steel, steel castings Malleable cast iron with long chips
Ferrous metals with long chips
P30
Steel, steel castings Malleable cast iron with long chips.
P40
Steel, steel castings with sand inclusion and cavities
P50
High Toughness
For operations that are very tough carbide: turning, Steel, steel castings slotting, low cutting speeds, of medium or low large depths of cut. With the tensile strength, with possibility of large cutting sand inclusion and angles for machining in cavities. unfavourable conditions* and work on automatic machines.
High Feed
*Workpieces which are difficult to machine have casting or forging skins, hardspots, etc. Variable depth of cut, unstable workpiece or machine.
162
PMK Carbide Classification Carbide Description

ISO Symbol General Category of material to be machined Designation
TOOLING Application Description
Workpiece Material
Use and Working Conditions
M10 M20
High Wear Resistance
Steel, steel castings, manganese steel, Grey cast iron, alloy cast iron Steel, steel castings austenitic or manganese steel, grey cast iron Steel, steel castings,austenitic steel, grey cast iron, high temperature resistant alloys. Mild free-cutting steel, low-tensile steel, Non-ferrous metals and light alloys
Turning, medium or high cutting speeds. Small or medium depths of cut.
High Speed
Ferrous metals with long or short chips and non-ferrous metals
Turning, milling. Medium cutting speeds and depths of cut.
M30
Turning, milling. Medium cutting speeds, medium or large depths of cut.
M40
High Toughness High Wear Resistance
Turning, parting off, particularly on automatic machines.
K01
Very hard grey cast iron, chilled castings of over 85 Shore, high silicon Turning, finish turning, boring, aluminium milling, scraping alloys, hardened steel, highly abrasive plastics, hard cardboard, ceramics. Grey cast iron over 220 Brinell, malleable cast iron with short chips, hardened steel, silicon aluminium alloys, copper alloys, plastics, glass, hard cardboard, porcelain, stone. Grey cast iron up to 220 Brinell, nonferrous metals: copper, brass and aluminium
High Feed High Speed
K10
Turning, milling, drilling, boring, broaching, scraping
Ferrous metals with short chips non-ferrous metals and non-metallic materials
K20
Turning, milling, boring, broaching demanding very tough carbide
K30
Low hardness grey cast iron, low tensile steel, compressed wood
Turning, milling, slotting for machining in unfavourable conditions* and with the possibility of large cutting angles Turning, milling, slotting for machining in unfavourable conditions* and with the possibility of large cutting angles
K40
High Toughness
Softwood or hard wood Non-ferrous metals
High Feed
*Workpieces which are awkward to machine; casting or forging skins, hardspots, etc. variable depth of cut, interrupted cut, unstable workpiece or machine.
163
TOOLING
Shank Dimensions
Shown below are basic dimensions for the three most popular shank standards for spindle nose tooling and the respective sizes of taper. International DIN L I Standards DIN 69871/A ISO7388/1 NFE 62540 D1 Commonly d g interchangeable with ANSI/Caterpillar Shanks
f D Taper 30 40 45 50 L D D1 d max 31.75 50 45 44.45 63.55 50 57.15 82.55 63 69.85 97.5 80 f 15.9 15.9 15.9 15.9 g M12 M16 M20 M24 L 47.8 68.4 82.7 101.75 I I1min 19.1 35 19.1 35 19.1 35 19.1 35
BT
Japanese Standard BT-MAS 403
D1 g Taper 30 35 40 45 50 D 31.75 38.10 44.45 57.15 69.85 D1 46 53 63 85 100 f 20 22 25 30 35 g M12 M12 M16 M20 M24 I 22 24 27 33 38 L 48.4 56.5 65.4 82.8 101.8
ISO
Including Quick Change.

I L I
ISO Standard IS0 R 297-2583 DIN 2080

L
D1 D1 g g
OTT Groove ISO

Taper 30 40 45 50 f D L1 f 8 10 12 12 g M12 M16 M20 M24 I 9.61 11.6 15.2 15.2 L L1 68.39 93.40 7 106.8 126.8 13
Quick Change
Taper D D1 L f l g 30 31.75 46.0 69 8.76 10.7 M12 40 44.45 63.5 93 7.98 9.9 M16
D D1 31.75 50 44.45 63 57.15 80 69.85 97.5
164
Shank Dimensions
TOOLING
BS122. 1980 PT 4
Metric Imperial I2 I3 d1 l2 l3 d1 -0,025 (min) (min) -0,001 (min) (min) mm mm mm in in in 1/4 1 15/32 3/8 6 37.5 9.5 3/8 3/8 10 38 9.5 1 1/2 1/2 3/8 12 38 9.5 1 1/2 5/8 16 39 9.5 1 17/32 3/8 25 52.5 15 1 2 1/16 9/16 9/16 32 54 15 1 1/4 2 1/8
DIN 1835A/B
d1 6 to 63mm d1 6 to 20mm
d1 h6 mm 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 63
l1 b +1,0 +0,05 mm mm 28 28 28 36 4.2 36 5.5 40 7 45 8 48 10 50 11 56 12 60 14 70 14 90 18
e -1,0 mm
l2 +1,0 mm
h1 h13 mm
18 18 20 22.5 24 25 32 36 40 50
17 19 19 23
4.8 6.6 8.4 10.4 14.2 18.2 23 30 38 60.8
d1 25 to 32mm
165
TOOLING
Shank Dimensions
DIN 228 - 1 Form B - Morse Taper Shank
Morse Taper 1 2 3 4 5 6
d1 12.065 17.780 23.825 31.267 44.399 63.348
d2 12.2 18.0 24.1 31.6 44.7 63.8
d6 9.0 14.0 19.1 25.5 36.5 52.4
d7 8.7 13.5 18.5 24.5 35.7 51.0
l3 -1 62.0 75.0 94.0 117.5 149.5 210.0
l4 65.5 80.0 99.0 124.0 156.0 218.0
l5 13.5 16.0 20.0 24.0 29.0 40.0
a 3.5 5.0 5.0 6.5 6.5 8.0
b h 13 5.2 6.3 7.9 11.9 15.9 19.0
12543 12550 12616 12915 13026 12936
r1 5 6 7 8 10 13
r2 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
DIN 228 - 1 Form A Shanks
K (Morse) 1 2 3 4 5
a (mm) 3.5 5.0 5.0 6.5 6.5
d1 (mm) 12.065 17.780 23.825 31.267 44.399
d2 (mm) 12.2 18.0 24.1 31.6 44.7
d4 (mm) 9.0 14.0 19.0 25.0 35.7
l1 (mm) 53.5 64.0 81.0 102.5 129.5
l2 (mm) 5 5 7 9 10
l4 (mm) 22.0 31.5 33.5 42.5 52.5
Bridgeport R8 - Shanks
5/32
UNF
166
Shank Dimensions
TOOLING
Tap Shank & Square Dimensions

To select the correct tap holder/collet for a specific tap diameter, the table below provides details of the shank and square sizes specified for ISO and DIN standard taps.
Metric M3 M3.5 M4 M4.5 M5 M5.5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10
Tap Size UNC UNF BSW Nos 4-5 No 6 No 8 No 10 No 12 1/4 9/32 5/16
3/8
BA No. 5 No. 4 No. 3 No. 2 No. 1 No. 0
ISO Shank Square Diameter A/F mm mm 3.15 2.50 3.55 2.80 4.00 3.15 4.50 3.55 5.00 4.00 5.60 4.50 6.30 5.00 7.10 5.60 8.00 6.30 9.00 7.10 10.00 8.00 ISO Shank Square Diameter A/F mm mm 8.00 6.30 9.00 7.10 11.20 9.00 12.50 10.00 14.00 11.20 14.00 11.20 16.00 12.50 18.00 14.00 20.00 16.00 20.00 16.00 22.40 18.00 25.00 20.00 28.00 22.40 28.00 22.40
DIN 371 Shank Square Diameter A/F mm mm 3.50 2.70 4.00 3.00 4.50 3.40 6.00 4.90 6.00 4.90 6.00 4.90 6.00 4.90 7.00 5.50 8.00 6.20 9.00 7.00 10.00 8.00 DIN 376 Shank Square Diameter A/F mm mm 8.00 6.20 9.00 7.00 11.00 9.00 12.00 9.00 14.00 11.00 16.00 12.00 18.00 14.50 18.00 14.50 20.00 16.00 22.00 18.00 25.00 20.00 28.00 22.00 32.00 24.00 32.00 24.00 167
Metric M11 M12 M14 M16 M18 M20 M22 M24 M27 M30 M33 M36 M39 M42
Tap Size UNC UNF BSW 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 7/8 1 11/8 11/4 13/8 11/2 15/8
BA
TOOLING
Taps
Tapping & Clearance Drills for Fluted Taps

The correct tapping drill size is important in ensuring that the strength of the thread is maintained whilst minimising the volume of swarf produced and torque required.
Tapping Drill Sizes for Fluteless Taps are Different. See Page 172.
For Standard Taps other than Fluteless The following sizes are in line with BS 1157, however, specific drill sizes can be calculated as follows: Tapping drill size = M - (0.01299 x % depth required) TPI Where M = Major diameter, TPI = Threads per inch A simple method which works on the Vee threads is as follows: Tap drill size = M (ins) - 1 TPI or: Drill size = M (mm) - Pitch (mm) % Thread engagement = Basic major of thread - Drill Diameter x 100 2 x External thread depth Single Depth of Thread Unified and ISO metric 0.6134 x pitch Whitworth 0.6403 x pitch BA 0.600 x pitch Recommended drill sizes fall within the maximum and minimum minor diameters of the respective nut standards; Metric BS 3643; Unified BS 1580; Whitworth BS 84; BA BS 93. Tapping & clearance drills for ISO Metric Coarse Threads Tapping Clearance Nominal Pitch Tapping Clearance Nominal Pitch Drill Drill Size Drill Drill Size Tap Size mm Tap Size mm mm mm mm mm M10.0 1.50 8.50 10.20 M1.0 0.25 0.75 1.05 M11.0 1.50 9.50 11.20 M1.1 0.25 0.85 1.15 M12.0 1.75 10.20 12.20 M1.2 0.25 0.95 1.25 M14.0 2.00 12.00 14.25 M1.4 0.30 1.10 1.45 M16.0 2.00 14.00 16.25 M1.6 0.35 1.25 1.65 M18.0 2.50 15.50 18.25 M1.8 0.35 1.45 1.85 M20.0 2.50 17.50 20.25 M2.0 0.40 1.60 2.05 M22.0 2.50 19.50 22.25 M2.2 0.45 1.75 2.25 M24.0 3.00 21.00 24.25 M2.5 0.45 2.05 2.60 M27.0 3.00 24.00 27.25 M3.0 0.50 2.50 3.10 M30.0 3.50 26.50 30.50 M3.5 0.60 2.90 3.60 M33.0 3.50 29.50 33.50 M4.0 0.70 3.30 4.10 M36.0 4.00 32.00 36.50 M4.5 0.75 3.70 4.60 M39.0 4.00 35.00 39.50 M5.0 0.80 4.20 5.10 M42.0 4.50 37.50 42.50 M6.0 1.00 5.00 6.10 M45.0 4.50 40.50 45.50 M7.0 1.00 6.00 7.20 M48.0 5.00 43.00 48.50 M8.0 1.25 6.80 8.20 M56.0 5.50 50.50 57.00 M9.0 1.25 7.80 9.20 168
Taps
TOOLING Clearance Drill Size mm 3.10 3.60 4.10 4.60 5.10 6.10 7.20 8.20 10.20 12.20 14.25 16.25 18.25 20.25 22.25 24.25 25.25 27.25 30.50 32.25 40.25
Tapping & Clearance Drills for ISO Metric Fine Threads

Nominal Tap Size M3.0 M3.5 M4.0 M4.5 M5.0 M6.0 M7.0 M8.0 M10.0 M12.0 M14.0 M16.0* M18.0 M20.0* M22.0 M24.0 M25.0* M27.0 M30.0 M32.0* M40.0* *Conduit Thread Sizes Pitch mm 0.35 0.35 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.25 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 2.00 1.50 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 Tapping Drill Size 2.65 3.15 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.20 6.20 7.00 8.80 10.80 12.50 14.50 16.50 18.50 20.50 22.00 23.50 25.00 28.00 30.50 38.50
Tapping & Clearance Drills for Number Size Threads

Nominal Tap Size 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Tapping Drill Size mm BA UNC UNF 5.10 1.25 4.50 1.55 1.55 4.00 1.85 1.90 3.40 2.10 2.15 3.00 2.35 2.40 2.65 2.65 2.70 2.30 2.85 2.95 2.05 1.80 3.50 3.50 1.55 1.40 3.90 4.10 1.20 1.05 4.50 4.70 0.98 0.80 0.70 0.60 Clearance Drill Size mm BA UNC/F 6.10 1.60 5.40 1.95 4.80 2.30 4.20 2.65 3.70 2.95 3.30 3.30 2.90 3.60 2.60 2.25 4.30 1.95 1.75 4.90 1.60 1.40 5.60 1.30 1.10 0.98 0.88 169
TOOLING
Taps
Tapping & Clearance Drills for Fractional Threads

Nominal Tap Size
1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 7/8
Tapping Drill Tapping Drill Sizes Size mm
UNC
UNF
Tapping & clearance drill sizes for number UNC & UNF are listed on previous page 5.10 6.60 8.00 9.40 10.80 12.20 13.50 16.50 19.50 22.25 25.00 28.00 30.75 34.00 39.50 45.00 5.50 6.90 8.50 9.90 11.50 12.90 14.50 17.50 20.40 23.25 26.50 29.50 32.75 36.00 -
1 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 5/8 1 3/4 1 7/8 2
BSW 1.15 1.90 2.55 3.10 3.70 4.40 5.10 6.50 7.90 9.30 10.50 12.10 13.50 15.00 16.25 19.25 22.00 24.75 28.00 30.50 33.50 36.00 39.00 41.50 44.50
BSF 4.00 4.60 5.30 6.80 8.30 9.70 11.10 12.70 14.00 15.50 16.75 19.75 22.75 25.50 28.50 31.50 34.50 38.00 40.50 44.00 47.00
BS Brass BS Conduit 5.30 6.90 8.40 10.00 11.70 11.10 13.30 15.00 14.25 18.00 17.50 21.25 24.50 23.50 30.00 -
Clearance Drill Size
3.30 4.00 4.90 5.70 6.50 8.10 9.70 11.30 13.00 14.50 16.25 17.75 19.25 22.50 25.75 29.00 32.00 35.50 38.50 45.00 51.00
170
Taps
TOOLING Tapping Drill Size mm BSP.F (G) NPS 6.80 8.80 11.80 15.25 19.00 21.00 24.50 28.25 30.75 39.50 45.00 51.00 57.00 6.80 9.00 11.50 15.00 18.50 23.75 30.00 39.00 45.00 57.00 68.00
Tapping & Clearance Drills for Straight Pipe Threads

Nominal Tap Size
1/16 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8
BSP.PL (Rp) 6.60 8.60 11.50 15.00 18.75 24.25 30.40 39.00 45.00 56.75 -
NPSF 6.80 9.10 11.90 15.25 19.00 23.75 30.50 39.50 -
1 1 1/4 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 2 1/2
*Conduit Thread Sizes
Tapping & Clearance Drills for Taper Pipe Threads

Nominal Tap Size (BSP.Tr) Rc With Without Reamer* Reamer 5.10 8.00 10.80 14.25 17.75 23.00 29.00 37.50 43.50 55.00 70.00 8.40 11.20 14.75 18.25 23.75 30.00 38.50 44.50 56.00 71.00 Tapping Drill Size mm NPT NPTF With Without With Without Reamer* Reamer Reamer* Reamer 1.25 8.40 10.70 14.25 17.50 22.75 28.50 37.50 43.50 55.00 66.00 6.10 8.70 11.10 14.50 18.00 23.25 29.00 38.00 44.00 56.00 67.00 82.50 95.00 108.00 1.60 8.40 10.70 14.25 17.50 22.75 28.50 37.50 8.75 11.10 14.70 18.25 23.40 29.40 38.10 171
0
1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4
1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4
*The use of a taper reamer (after the tapping drill) is strongly recommended.
TOOLING
Taps
Tapping Drill Sizes For Fluteless Taps

Calculating the theoretical drill size: Metric: Tapping Drill Size= Tap Nominal - 0.0068 x Pitch x % Imperial: Tapping Drill Size = Tap Nominal - 0.0068 x % TPI % = percentage of thread depth required as a whole number i.e. the normal 65% = 65
Tapping Drill Sizes For Number Size Threads - Fluteless

Nominal Tap Diameter No. 0 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 8 No. 10 BA 5.60 4.40 3.80 3.30 2.95 2.60 2.00 1.55 Tapping Drill Size mm UNC/NC 1.95 2.25 2.55 2.85 3.20 3.80 4.30 UNF/ NF 1.35 2.00 2.55 3.70 3.80 4.50
Tapping Drill Sizes For Fractional Threads - Fluteless

Nominal Tap Diameter
1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2
UNC/NC
Tapping Drill Size mm UNF/NF BSW BSF 2.90 4.20 5.70 7.20 8.70
BSPF 9.25
5.80 7.30 8.80 11.90
5.90 7.50 9.00 10.50 12.20
5.80 7.30 8.90
12.60 16.10
Tapping Drill Sizes For ISO Metric Coarse Threads - Fluteless

Nominal Tap Diameter M2 M2.5 M3 M3.5 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M10 M12 172 Pitch (mm) 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 Tapping Drill Size (mm) 1.80 2.30 2.80 3.20 3.70 4.60 5.60 6.50 7.40 9.30 11.20
Taps
TOOLING
Common Problems & Suggested Corrective Action.

Shown below is a selection of the most common problems encountered with machine taps, along with the most likely causes and suggested courses of action. Problem Likely Cause Breakage of the tap Incorrect tapping speed, Incorrect tap lead, Insufficient evacuation of swarf, Undersized hole, Tap dull or worn out, Misalignment of tap to workpiece, Insufficient Lubrication. Tap wearing too quickly Hole has work hardened during drilling operation, Incorrect tap geometry for application, Unsuitable tap for component hardness, Incorrect lubricant, Insufficient lubrication. Tap dull or worn out, Incorrect tap geometry for application, Insufficient lubrication.
Poor finish of thread
Oversize hole & bell mouthing
Incorrect drill used or drill cutting oversize, Incorrect clamping, Misalignment of tap to workpiece, Excessive initial feed.
Cutting edge chipping
Incorrect clamping, Bottoming of tap in hole, Incorrect tap geometry for application, Incorrect lubricant, Insufficient lubrication.
173
TOOLING
Taps
Root Rad.
Thread Notation Nut (Female)
Flank
Thread Angle Triangular Angles Flank Angle
1/2
Pitch
Major Dia.
Width of Flat Crest
Effective Minor Dia. Dia. Crest Rad.
Crest Rad.
Bolt (Male)
Basic Depth of Thread
1/2
Flank Pitch Major Dia.
Width of Flat Root Pitch
In nearly all cases a screw thread form is based on a triangle. The thread angle is the angle enclosed by the flanks. This triangle is shortened at the crest and root to either a radius or flat depending on the specification. This form is spaced along a cylinder, the nominal diameter of which is the major diameter. The spacing or distance between two corresponding points on adjacent threads is the pitch. The reciprocal of this is the threads per inch. The effective diameter is the diameter of a theoretical co-axial cylinder whose outer surface would pass through a plane where the width of groove or thread is half the pitch. The minor or core diameter is the diameter of a further coaxial cylinder, the outer surface of which would touch the smallest diameter. BS 949 1976 Part 1 METRIC THREADS BS 948 1976 Part 1 - Taps for ISO Metric threads incorporate thread tolerances more aligned to the component tolerances than the superseded zonal tolerances, allowing more wear life of on taps of Classes 2 and 3. The following is extracted from BS 949 1976 Part 1. Choice of Tap Tolerances Class Generally, taps of classes 1, 2 and 3 are used for the manufacture of threads of the following classes: Class 1, for threads of classes 4H and 5H Class 2, for threads of classes 6H and also 4G and 5G Class 3, for threads of classes 7H and 8H and also 6G. 174
Minor Dia.
Root Rad.
Effective Dia.
WELDING
Section
Drawing Symbols Filter Shades Glossary of Terms Preparation & Techniques Trouble Shooting
176 - 182 183 184 - 186 187 - 190 191 - 193
WELDING
175
WELDING
Drawing Symbols
Engineering Working Drawings

Standard ISO/BS working drawings represent views of workpieces in 3 ways: Plan: The view as seen from above, looking vertically down. Elevation: The side and/or end view. Section: A plane cut through the object, horizontally or vertically. Scale: Any object larger than the actual drawing is drawn to scale. The scale line is shown on the drawing with full-size dimensions marked, the scale is also expressed as a ratio (1:25) a fraction (1/10 full-size), or a relationship (in. - lft.). Dimensions: Drawings for engineering use include all dimensions and materials; usually non-critical dimensions are expressed in metres (or inches and fractions) and critical dimensions in millimetres (or decimal parts of an inch). Welding Symbols: Welding drawings include specific symbols to indicate the type of weld required (single or double butt, T joint, single or double U joints, etc.) and usually, the dimensions of gaps, grinding angles, etc. All drawing are designed to be meaningful to a welder working from such drawings. Typical Joint Preparation Drawing Indication
Plan Square butt weld.
Plan Square butt weld with sealing run.
Plan Single-V- butt weld with sealing run.
Plan Single-U butt weld with sealing run. 176
Drawing Symbols Typical Joint Preparation
WELDING Drawing Indication
Elevation
Single-bevel butt weld with sealing run.
Elevation Single-J butt weld with sealing run.
Plan
Double-V butt weld.
Plan
Double-V asymmetrical butt weld.
Plan
Double-U butt weld.
177
WELDING Typical Joint Preparation
Drawing Symbols Drawing Indication
Plan U-V asymmetrical butt weld.
Double-bevel butt weld.
Elevation
Elevation Double-J butt weld.
Plan
Note: that structural member may also be used as a backing strip.
The backing strip is indicated by full or dotted lines as appropriate to the view. Square butt weld with permanent backing strip held in place by fillet welds
Plan
In all views the backing strip is indicated Square butt weld with backing strip. 178
Drawing Symbols Typical Joint Preparation
WELDING Drawing Indication
Plan The backing is not indicated on the drawing. Square butt weldmade on a backing tool (bar) Wider included angle used with the smaller gap. The same method of indicating backing strips as for the square butt joints. Backing strip or backing bar. The weld symbol is changed to indicate V-preparation.
Single-V butt weld with temporary or permanent backing.
Elevation The vertical depth of the penetration is added at the lefthand side of the symbol Partial penetration single-bevel weld. arrow points at component prepared. The above applies also to partially penetrated single-V, single-U and single-J weld, except that the appropriate weld symbol is used.
Plan
The vertical depth of the penetration is added to the left-hand side of the symbol for each side. Partial penetration double-V weld. The above applies also to partially penetrated double-U, double-J and double bevel weld, except that the appropriate weld symbol is used. 179
WELDING Typical Joint Preparation
Plan The leg length of the fillet weld required is stated at the left-hand side of the symbol. Fillet welded T-joint.
Plan
Fillet welded lap joint. Unless otherwise indicated the leg length is the same as the plate thickness where palates are of equal thickness.
Wider included angle used with the smaller gap.
Elevation
Outside corner joint. T-joint with unequal leg length fillet weld. Corner joint weld should not be represented with unequal leg length on drawing.
Elevation
Weld represented on drawing. Fillet welded T-joint (intermittent fillet welds.) Commencing each side with a weld 8mm fillet, 50 welds, 10mm long, 100mm between weld elements. 180 Plan
Drawing Symbols Typical Joint Preparation Staggered intermittent fillet welds. 8mm fillet, 50 welds, 100mm long, 100mm between weld elements.
WELDING Drawing Indication Plan
Plan
T-joint with fillet weld superimposed on a single-bevel butt weld.
Both weld symbols are used, the butt-weld symbol being nearest to the reference line. Size of fillet weld not stated unless it differs from that dictated by joint preperation. Plan
Unequal leg length fillet weld superimposed on a partial penetration single-J butt weld with fillet at root (other side).
For other types of compound welds the appropriate symbol is used together with the symbol for the superimposed fillet weld. Plan
Sealing run Plan
Sealing run 181
WELDING Supplementary Instruction Single straight line added to symbol. This may be used with any type of butt weld with appropriate symbol and may be used to request flush finish on one or both sides of the weld. Flush finish to butt weld Convex finish (to butt weld)
Concave finish (to fillet weld)
Weld to be radiographed.
Symbol is to attract attention, added at end of reference line bearing appropriate weld symbols. Plan Weld around a joint, eg. a flange to a pipe: a stanchion to a base-plate. A peripheral weld. Placed at elbow of arrow shaft with the reference line.
To be welded on site.
182
Filter Shades
WELDING
Shade Numbers of Filters Recommended For Use During Arc Welding

Welding Process or Related Technique Covered Electrodes MIG On Heavy Metals MIG On Light Alloys Hg On All Metals & Alloys MAG Air-Arc Gouging Plasma Jet Cutting Micro Plasma Arc Welding
2.5/3
Current, Amperes
0.5 1.0 2.5 5.0 10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500
10 10 10
11 11 11 12 12 13
12 12 13 14 13
13 13 14
1 4 1 4 1 5
10
11
10 11 12
14
15
10 11 12 13 14 15 11
45
12 13
13 14 15
6 7 8 9 10 11
12
Notes 1. These shades are given as a general guide. Depending on the specific conditions of use, the next greater or the next lower shade number may be more suitable. 2. The term heavy metals refers to steels, alloy steels, copper and Its alloys etc. 3. Where no recommendation is given in the table, it is normally accepted that the process is not practiced at that level. 4. The welding processes referred to are in accordance with ISO 463: Covered Electrode refers to consumable electrode having a covering of flux or other material. MIG refers to metal arc weIding with an inert gas shield. TIG refers tungsten arc welding with an inert gas shield. MAG refers to metal arc weIding with an non-inert gas shield. Air-Arc cutting corresponds to the use of a carbon electrode and a jet of compressed air to remove the molten metal. 183
WELDING
Glossary of Terms
between two lines parallel to a line joining the outer toes one being tangent at the weld face and the other being through the furthermost point of fusion penetration. Air-arc Cutting Thermal cutting using an arc for melting the metal and a stream of air to remove the molten metal to enable a cut to be made. All-Position A gas welding technique in which the flame is rightward welding. All-weld Test Piece A block of metal consisting of one or more beads or runs fused together for test purposes. It may or may not include parent metal. Arc Electrical discharge between electrode and workpiece, formed and sustained by the establishment of a gaseous conductive medium, called arc plasma. Arc Welding (AW) Welding processes that produces coalescence of work pieces by heating them with an arc. Used with or without the use of pressure and with or without filler metal. Arc Blow A lengthening or deflection of a DC welding arc caused by the interaction of magnetic fields set up in the work and arc or cables. Arc Fan The fan-shaped flame associated with the atomic-hydrogen arc. Arc Voltage The voltage between electrodes or between an electrode and the work. Backfire Retrogression of the flame into the blowpipe neck or body with rapid self extinction. Backing Bar A Temporary backing piece of material placed at a root when welding pipes or tubes. Blowhole A cavity generally (>1.6 mm in diameter) formed by trapped gas during solidification of metal. Blowpipe A device for mixing and burning gases to produce a flame for welding, brazing, bronze welding, cutting, heating etc. Burn Back Fusing of electrode wire to current contact tube by sudden lengthening of the arc. Burn Off Rate The linear rate of consumption of a consumable electrode Burn Through A localised collapse of the molten pool due to Melt Through.
Glossary of Welding Terms Chain Intermittent Weld An intermittent on (usually T Actual Throat Thickness Distance weld lapeach side of a joint so that fillet welds inlie and joints) arranged the welds
opposite to one another along the joint. Concave Fillet Weld A fillet weld in which the weld face is concave (curved inwards). Cone The more luminous part of a flame, adjacent to the nozzle orifice. Convex Fillet Weld A fillet weld in which the weld face is convex (bulbous). Coupon Plate A test piece made by adding plates to the end of a joint to give an extension of the weld for test purposes used in the shipbuilding industry. Crater Pipe Depression due to shrinkage at the end of a run where the heat source was removed. Cruciform Test Piece A flat plate to which two other flat plates or two bars are welded at right angles and on the same axis. Cutting Electrode Electrode with a covering that creates an arc that blows away molten metal to produce a groove or cut in the work. Cutting Oxygen Oxygen used at a pressure suitable for cutting. De-seaming The removal of the surface defects from ingots, blooms, billets and slabs by means of a manual thermal cutting. Dip Transfer A method of metal-arc welding in which fused particles of the electrode wire in contact with the molten pool are detached from the electrode in rapid succession by the short circuit current, which develops every time the wire touches the molten pool. Drag The projected distance between the two ends of a drag line. Drag Lines Serrations left on the face of a cut made by thermal cutting. Duty Cycle The amount of time a machine can be used at a particular output. Expressed as a percentage of a ten minute cycle, a 150 amp machine with a 30% duty cycle will allow 3 minutes of use for every ten and a 60% duty cycle would allow 6 minutes of use for every ten. Duty cycle increases as the power setting decreases so if the 150 amp machine were to be used on a 30 amp setting the duty cycle might be 100%. Electrode A component of the circuit that terminates the arc, molten conductive slag, or base metal. Excess Penetration Bead Excessive metal protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side only. Feather The zone, visible around the cone of a flame where there is excess carbonaceous gas. Fillet Weld a fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or fusion spot weld, which is approximately triangular in transverse cross-section. Flame Cutting Oxygen cutting in which the appropriate part of the material to be cut is raised to ignition temperature by an oxy-fuel gas flame.
CMTR ( Certified Material Test Reports) States the chemical and physical
properties of a specific material as well as safety warnings and handling information.
CO2 Flux Welding Metal-arc welding in which

a flux-coated or flux containing electrode is deposited under a shield of carbon dioxide. CO2 Welding Metal-arc welding in which a bare wire electrode is used the arc and molten pool being shielded with carbon dioxide. Carbon-arc Welding Arc welding using a carbon electrode or electrodes.
184
Glossary of Terms
WELDING
beyond the blowpipe body into the hose, with possible subsequent explosion. Flame washing A method of surface shaping and dressing by flamecutting using a nozzle designed to produce a suitably shaped cutting oxygen stream. Flashback Arrestor A safety device fitted in the oxygen and fuel gas system to prevent any flashback reaching the gas supplies. Floating Head A blowpipe holder on a flame cutting machine which, through a suitable linkage, is designed to follow the contour of the surface of the plate, thereby enabling the correct nozzle-toworkpiece distance to be maintained. Free Bend Test A test made without a former. Fusion Penetration In fusion welding. The depth to which the parent metal has been fused. Fusion Zone The part of the parent metal which is melted into the weld metal. Gas Economiser An auxiliary device designed for temporarily cutting off the supply of gas to the welding equipment except the supply to a pilot jet where fitted. Gas envelope The gas surrounding the inner cone of an oxy-gas flame. Gas Pore A cavity (<1.6 mm in diameter) formed by trapped gas during solidification of metal. Gas Regulator A device for attachment to a cylinder or pipeline for reducing and regulating the gas pressure to the working pressure required. Guided Bend Test A test made by bending the specimen round a former. Heat affected zone The part of the parent metal which is metallurgically affected by the heat of welding or thermal cutting but not melted. (Also known as the zone of thermal disturbance). High Frequency TIG Start Produces a low amperage arc between the electrode and the base metal and serves as the path for the TIG Arc to ignite without the electrode contacting base metal. Hose Protector A non-return valve at the blowpipe end of a hose to resist the force of flashback. Inclusion Slag or foreign matter trapped during welding. The defect is usually more irregular in shape than a gas pore. Inert gas Used to shield the electric arc from contaminants and gases which may react with the weld. An inert chemical is one with a full outer shell of electrons which do not normally react with other substances - e.g. argon and helium. Some noninert gases are used for welding such as CO2. Inverter A power source that increases the frequency of the incoming primary power, thus providing improved electrical characteristics for welding, such as faster response time and more control for pulse welding. Kerf The void left after metal is thermally cut. Leftward Welding A gas welding technique in which the flame is forward welding.
Glossary of Welding Terms Leg The width of a fusion face in a fillet weld. (continued) MIG Metal inert gas welding. (Also referred as arc welding). The metal refers to Flame Snap-out Retrogression of the flame gas metal is used to start the arc. It is shieldedthe wire which by
inert gas, the feeding wire also acts as the filler rod.
Metal Transfer Transfer of metal across the

arc from an electrode to the molten pool. Metal-arc Cutting Thermal cutting by melting using the heat of an arc between a metal electrode and the metal to be cut. Metal-arc Welding Arc welding using a consumable electrode. Nick-Break Test A fracture test in which a specimen is broken from a notch cut at a predetermined position where the interior of the weld is to be examined. Open Arc Welding Welding where the arc is visible. Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) As the name implies, no current is flowing in the circuit because the circuit is open. The voltage is impressed upon the circuit, however, so that when the circuit is completed, the current will flow immediately. i.e. a machine that is turned on but not being used for welding at the moment will have an open-circuit voltage applied to the cables attached to the output terminals of the welding machine. Overlap An imperfection at a toe or a root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing it. Oxygen Lance A steel tube, consumed during cutting, through which cutting oxygen passes, for the cutting or boring of holes. Oxygen-arc Cutting Thermal cutting in which the ignition temperature is produced by an electric arc, and cutting oxygen is conveyed through the centre of an electrode, which is consumed in the process. Packed Lance Oxygen lance with steel rods/wires. Penetration Bead Weld metal protruding through the root of a weld made from one side only. Plasma Fourth state of matter after solid, liquid, and gas. Plasma is an ionised form of gas. In plasma cutting, a gas (i.e. Nitrogen) is sent under pressure through the torch where it begins to swirl and is forced out a small orifice at which point it passes through an electric arc and the gas is ionised. The electricity excites the electrons of the gas atoms. Plug Weld A weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece so as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed through the hole. Porosity A group of gas pores Postflow Time Time interval from current shut off to either shielding gas or cooling water shut off. Postflow This feature prevents contamination of both the electrode and the weld puddle. Powder Cutting oxygen cutting in which powder is injected into the cutting oxygen stream to assist the cutting action.
185
WELDING
Glossary of Terms
Glossary of Welding Terms Spatter Metal particles blown away from the arc. These do not become part of the completed weld. (continued) Powder Lance An oxygen lance in which Spray Transfer Metal transfer caused by
powder is mixed with the oxygen stream. of shielding gas flow and arc starting. Preheating Oxygen Oxygen used at a suitable pressure in conjunction with fuel gas for raising to ignition temperature the metal to be cut. Pulse DC Welding By controlling the duration of current, metals sensitive to heat input, metals of dissimilar thickness, and very thin metals can be joined with good penetration and a minimum of distortion. Residual Welding Stress Stress remaining in a metal part or structure as a result of welding. Reverse Bend Test A bend test in which the other than that specified for a face bend test is in tension. Rightward Welding A gas welding technique in which the flame is backward welding. Root (of weld) The zone on the side of the first run farthest from the welder. Root Face The portion of a fusion face at the root which is not bevelled or grooved. Run-off Plate A piece, or pieces, of metal so placed as to enable the full section of of weld to be obtained at the end of the joint. Run-on Plate A piece, or pieces, of metal so placed as to enable the full section of weld metal to be obtained at the beginning of a joint. Scarfing The removal of the surface defects from ingots, blooms, billets and slabs by means of a flame cutting machine. Scratch TIG A third method of starting a welding arc when lift arc or high frequency is not available. To start the arc the tungsten electrode must contact the base metal. This basic method for starting an arc contaminates and causes damage to the tungsten electrode every time the arc is initiated this way. Seal Weld A weld, not being a strength weld, used to make a (sealing weld). Sealing Run The final run deposited on the root side of a fusion (backing run). Shielding Gas Protective gas used to prevent atmospheric contamination of the weld pool. Shrinkage Groove A groove caused by contraction of the metal along each side of a penetration bead. Side Bend Test A bend test in which the face of a transverse section of the weld is in tension. Single-Phase Circuit An electrical circuit producing only one alternating cycle within a 360 degree time span. Skip Sequence A welding sequence in which short lengths of run are (skip welding). Slag-trap A configuration in a joint or joint preparation which may lead to slag entrapment. Slot Lap Joint Joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet weld round the outside of a hole in one piece so as to join it to the other piece through the hole.
Preflow Time The time interval between start
globules forming of diameter substantially larger than that of the electrode from which they are transferred. Stack Cutting The thermal cutting of a stack of plates usually clamped together. Staggered Intermittent Weld A weld on each side of a joint (usually fillet welds in T and lap joints) arranged so that the welds on one side lie opposite the spaces on the another side of the joint. Stick Welding (or Shielded Metal Arc) An arc welding process that melts/joins metals by heating with an arc between an electrode and the work. Shielding gas comes from the electrode outer coating (flux). Filler metal comes from the electrode core. Striking Voltage The minimum voltage at which any specified arc may be initiated. Submerged-arc Welding Metal-arc welding in which a bare wire electrodes are used; the arc is enveloped in flux, some of which fuses to form a removable covering of slag on the weld. Surface-fusion Welding Gas welding in which a carburising flame melts the surface of the parent metal which unites with metal from a filler rod. Sustained Backfire Retrogression of the flame into the blowpipe neck or body the flame remaining alight. Note: This manifests itself either as "popping" or "squealing" with a small pointed flame issuing from the nozzle orifice or as a rapid series of minor explosions inside. TIG Tungsten inert gas welding. (Also called gas tungsten arc welding). The arc is started with a tungsten electrode shielded by inert gas. A filler rod is fed into the weld puddle separately. Slower than MIG, but produces more precise welds. Can be used at lower amperages for thinner metal/exotic metals. Thermal Cutting The parting or shaping of materials by the application of heat with or without a stream of cutting oxygen. Toe The boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between weld faces. Touch Welding Metal-arc welding using a covered electrode, the covering of which is kept in contact with the parent metal during welding Tungsten Inclusion An inclusion of tungsten from the electrode in TIG-welding. Weld Junction The boundary between the fusion zone and the heat affected zone. Welding Wire A form of welding filler metal, normally packaged as coils or spools, that may or may not conduct electrical current depending upon the welding process with which it is used. Worm-hole An elongated or tubular cavity formed by trapped gas during the solidification of molten metal.
186
Preparation & Techniques
WELDING
Welding Preparation
Before any welding work is performed it is essential that the edges are correctly prepared and clean. All mill scale, grease, primer or rust must be thoroughly removed or welding will be difficult and the Downhand Welding deposit contaminated. Thickness Diameter Speed Thickness Edge preparation of ft of of welding Weld integrity metal per metal rod hour depends on preparation and Less than 3/64-1/16 25-30 1/32 20 swg below are recommended 20-25 1/16 1/16-1/8 20 swg edges. -1/8 20-25 3/32 When welding 1/32i-1/8 brittle materials it 1/8 1/8-3/16 1/8-5/32 18-20 is recommended that suitable 15-18 5/32 Preheat be 1/8-5/32 applied to prevent 3/16-5/16 1/8-5/32 80 v 12-15 3/16 rapid thermal 1/4 expansion and 10-12 1/16-1/8 subsequent 5/16-6/8 5/32-1/4 60 v 5/16 7-8 cracking. On completion of 3/8 6-7 welding a Post1/8-5/32 Top 5/8 and 1/4 heat treatment 1/2 41/2-5 60 v may also be used over 3/4-41/2 5/8 3 to allow the joint 3/4 and parent metal 3-31/4 Bottom 80 v to cool down 1/2 1 2-2 1/8-5/32 together again to Vertical Welding prevent cracking. If fluxes have been 1.6mm (1/16) 3.2mm (1/8) Gap used then the residue should be 3.2mm (1/8) Gap thoroughly removed 3.2mm (1/8) as they exhibit post Non-ferrous 4.8mm (3/16) weld corrosive 4.8mm (3/16) Steel tendencies which 60 v 80 v will damage the weld. 3.2mm (1/8) Gap 3.2mm (1/8) Gap
0 0 0 0 0 0
Rightward welding
Leftward welding
187
WELDING
Setting up for Gas Welding

Correct welding practice requires a steady constant flame shape and this can only be achieved by using Multi-Stage regulators. Good welds are the result of good set up and time should be taken to learn the correct pressure settings for each nozzle size. The recommendations given on the following pages are a guide to creating the best flame shape with optimum gas economy, coupled with reduced risk of backfire or flashback. Never force a nozzle, use the right size. Most welding operations require the neutral flame to produce quality joints. This flame burns equal proportions of each gas. Other flames are needed for specialised operations as shown below. Oxidising Flame (excess oxygen) Neutral Flame (equal Oxidising Flame quantities of oxygen and acetylene Carburising Flame (excess acetylene) Neutral Flame To ignite the welding nozzle open the fuelgas control valve and light gas with a spark Carburising Flame lighter. When doing so ensure the sparklighter is held at right angles to the nozzle. Adjust the valve until the flame just ceases to smoke then gradually turn on the oxygen control valve until the white cone of the flame is sharply defined with the merest trace of acetylene haze. In this condition the flame is neutral and is burning approximately equal volumes of oxygen Gas Pressure & Nozzle Size Recommendations - Welding
Mild Steel Gas Welding Operating Pressures Nozzle Plate Size Lightweight Nozzles Heavy Duty Nozzles Thickness Oxygen Acetylene Oxygen Acetylene mm inch SWG No. bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI 0.9 0.035 20 1 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 1.2 0.050 18 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 0.15 2 2.0 0.080 5/64 14 3 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.15 2 0.15 2 2.6 0.100 12 5 0.30 4 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.20 3 10 7 0.35 5 0.20 3 0.20 3 0.20 3 3.2 0.125 1/8 3/32 4.0 0.160 8 10 0.35 5 0.30 4 0.30 4 0.30 4 6 13 0.50 7 0.35 5 0.30 4 0.30 4 5.0 0.200 3/16 3 18 0.55 8 0.40 6 0.35 5 0.35 5 6.5 0.250 1/4 8.2 0.312 5/16 0 25 0.65 10 0.55 8 0.50 7 0.40 6 3/8 4/0 35 - 0.65 10 0.65 10 10.0 0.375 - 0.50 7 0.40 6 13.0 0.500 1/2 7/0 45 >25.0 1.000 1 90 - 0.60 9 0.60 9 188
WELDING 60 to 70 Nozzle
Gas Welding Techniques
Leftward Welding Rod Used on steel for flanged edge welds, for unbevelled plates up to 5mm and for bevelled plates up to 8.Omm It is also the method usually adopted for cast iron and non-ferrous metals. Welding is started at the right-hand end of the joint and proceeds towards the left. The welding nozzle is given a forward motion with a slight sideways movement to, maintain melting of the edges of both plates at the desired rate a welding rod is moved progressively along the weld seam. Sideways motion of the welding nozzle should be kept to a minimum. Rightward Nozzle 30 to Rightward welding is 40 to 40 recommended for 50 Rod steel plate over 5mm thick. Plates up to 8.Omm need not be bevelled. Over 8.Omm the edges are bevelled to 30O to give an included angle of 60 for the welding V. Suitable for horizontal or vertical position. The weld is started at the left-hand end and moves towards the right with the welding nozzle and flame preceding the filler rod in the direction of travel. The rod is given a circular forward motion and the welding nozzle is moved steadily along the weld seam - this is faster than leftward welding and consumes less gas; the V angle is smaller, less filler rod is used and there is less distortion. All-Position Rightward Welding A variation of the above suitable for mild steel plate and pipe in the vertical and overhead position. The advantages are that it enables the welder to obtain a uniform penetration bead and an even build-up, particularly in fixed position welding. The welder can work with complete freedom of movement and has a clear view of the weld pool and the fusion zone of the joint. Vertical Welding Used on bevelled steel plate up to 3mm thickness and up to 15mm when two welders are employed working on both sides of the joint. Rod 30 Welding starts at the bottom 1.6mm: 30 and proceeds 3.2mm: 60 vertically. 4.8mm: 80 Nozzle
189
30 to 40
WELDING
Cutting Technique
Oxy-fuel gas flame cutting is an exothermic chemical action where the steel is oxidised, not melted. The workpiece is pre-heated to red heat (Ignition point) high pressure oxygen is then directed at the metal through. Iron is immediately oxidised to magnetic iron oxide (Fe304). Oxygen steam blows away the oxidised area leaving a clean cut. ANM Acetylene Nozzles One piece drawn copper alloy construction. Ensures the best conditions for high velocity gas (acetylene) and enhances stability and cutting efficiency. The seats of Pre-Heat Cutting ANM nozzles are diamond turned to guarantee a good seal with the blowpipe head. Essential to avoid head seat leaks, reducing backfire. PNM Propane Cutting Nozzles Two piece design. Brass inner nozzle with splines and a hollow drawn copper outer. PNMs differ from ANMs in that different mixing criteria apply. Oxypropane has a lower burning velocity than oxy-acetylene. Good flame conditions depend firstly on turbulence between the inner and outer parts of the nozzle, ensuring adequate mixing of the propane and oxygen. Secondly, the volume of mixed oxy-propane needs to Heating be more than double that of oxySplines acetylene for the same usable heat. This is achieved by having large splines Recessed for Flame to conduct greater gas volume. Stability Gas Pressure & Nozzle Size Recommendations - Cutting
Mild Steel Plate Thickness mm inch <3 < 1/8 1/8 - 1/4 3-6 1/4 - 1/2 6 - 12 1/2 - 1 12 - 25 25 - 50 1-2 50 - 75 2-3 75 - 100 3-4 100 - 150 4-6 150 - 200 6-8 200 - 250 8 - 10 250 - 300 10 - 12 190 Nozzle Size Gas Cutting Operating Pressures Acetylene Nozzles Propane Nozzles Oxygen Acetylene Oxygen Propane No. bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI bar PSI ASNM 1.5 20 0.25 4 1/32 1.5 20 0.15 2 1.5 20 0.20 3 3/64 2.0 30 0.15 2 2.0 30 0.20 3 1/16 2.5 35 0.15 2 2.5 35 0.30 4 1/16 3.0 45 0.15 2 3.0 45 0.30 4 1/16 3.5 50 0.15 2 3.5 50 0.30 4 5/64 3.0 45 0.15 2 3.0 45 0.30 4 3/32 3.0 45 0.20 3 3.0 45 0.40 6 7/64 3.5 50 0.20 3 4.0 60 0.40 6 1/8 4.5 65 0.20 3 4.5 65 0.50 7 1/8 5.5 80 0.20 3 5.5 80 0.60 9
Trouble Shooting
WELDING
Welding Trouble Shooting. The following pages show the most common problems encountered with welded joints, along with the likely causes.
Unsatisfactory Weld Profiles

Problem Uneven fillet leg length. Fillet weld with insufficient throat thickness. Fillet weld with excessive throat thickness. Excessive concavity in butt weld profile. Excessive convexity in butt weld profile. Likely Cause Incorrect angle of filler rod and blowpipe. Speed of travel too fast, leading to insufficient deposited weld metal. Speed of travel too slow causing heavy deposit. Filler rod too large. Excess heat build-up with too fast a speed of travel, or filler rod too small. Insufficient heat too slow a speed of travel nozzle size too small filler rod too large. Incorrect tilt angle of blowpipe fusing top edge of plate, which flows down to produce unequal leg length fillet with undesirable profile. Incorrect manipulation together with incorrect angle of blowpipe and filler rod. Incorrect manipulation together with incorrect angle of blowpipe and filler rod. Angle of slope of nozzle too large. Insufficient forward heat. Flame size and/or velocity too high. Filler rod too large or too small. Speed of travel too slow. Excessive penetration has produced local collapse of weld pool resulting in a hole in the root run. 191
Undesirable weld profile (lap fillet - excess melting of plate edge, giving insufficient throat thickness. Notch effect with overlap at side of fillet weld.
Notch effect with overlap at side of butt weld.
Excessive penetration. Excess fusion of root edges.
Burn through.
WELDING
Trouble Shooting Likely Cause Blowpipe used at incorrect angle. Use of too large a nozzle and/or excessive lateral blowpipe manipulation with too slow a speed of travel. Incorrect use of blowpipe. Wrong distance from plate surface. Excessive lateral movement. Use of too large a nozzle in the root run. Likely Cause Use of oxidising flame setting. Insufficient cleaning of plate surfaces. Incorrect manipulation of blowpipe permitting cone to contact the molten pool. Atmospheric contamination. Use of too large a nozzle. Speed of travel too slow. Excess blowpipe manipulation extending the weld pool. Likely Cause Incorrect set-up and joint preparation. Use of unsuitable procedure and/or welding technique. Incorrect set-up and joint preparation. Use of unsuitable procedure and/or welding technique. Welds have been deposited out of alignment with the centre line of the joint. Lack of root penetration. Angle of nozzle too smalL Speed of travel too fast. Insufficient heat applied. Incorrect joint penetration and set up. Gap too smalL Vee preparation too narrow. Root edges touching
Undercut Notching Effect

Problem Under-cut along vertical member of fillet welded tee joint. Root run too large with undercut in butt joint. Under-cut both sides of weld face in butt joint.
Oxidised and Overheated Welds

Problem Oxidised weld face. Porous dirty appearance of surface. Cracked scale adhering on weld face with dull appearance.
Overheated weld.
Incomplete Root Penetration

Problem Incomplete root penetration in butt joints (single vee or double vee). Incomplete root penetration in close square tee joint. Welds incorrectly positioned. Notch, instead of root underbead. Lack of root penetration.
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ABRASIVES

Belts, Coils & Sheets

Portable Sander Belts

Belts, Coils & Sheets

Coils and Sheets Aluminium Oxide Cloth

Wet or Dry Silicon Carbide Paper

Orbital Sanding Sheets

Cut 6 - Double Cut - Crosscut and double

Cylindrical Plain End

Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cylindrical Ball Nosed

Cut 6 - Double Cut

ABRASIVES Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Cut 9 - Chipbreaker Cut 3 - Rapid Cut

Cut 6 - Double Cut

Diameter of Burr 3mm 4mm 6mm

Speed Range RPM 40 - 80,000 35 - 60,000 30 - 60,000

Diameter of Burr 9mm 12mm 20mm

Speed Range RPM 25 - 40,000 20 - 40,000 15 - 25,000

Diamond Coated Burrs

Cylindrical Ball Nosed

Aluminium Oxide Fibre Discs

Adhesive Backed Discs

Velcro backed Sanding Discs

Flap Discs & Grinding Discs

Depressed Centre and Flat Reinforced Grinding Discs

Max rpm 15,000 13,300 12,000 8,600 6,600 5,100 4,400

How a Grinding Wheel is Defined

How a Grinding Wheel is Defined (continued)

Grain Size COARSE

Grade SOFT E F H I MEDIUM J

WA 41A 46A 48A

Abrasive Types Regular Aluminium Oxide

White Aluminium Oxide

Semi-Friable Aluminium Oxide

Pink Aluminium Oxide

Rubenite Aluminium Oxide

Abrasive Mixtures Grain Size

Flat cutting-off wheel

Large plain wheels Large centreless wheel

Medium size plain wheels

Shelf Life of Resinoid, Rubber and Shellac Boned Wheels

Floor Tap here

Workpiece not parallel

Workpiece not round

Wheel not cutting

Fibre Hand Pads

Mounted Points and Wheels

Shape Grade Diameter Length Max. rpm