National Cherry Blossom Festival

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Jefferson Memorial during the 2010 National Cherry Blossom Festival

The National Cherry Blossom Festival (Japanese: ) is a spring celebration in Washington, D.C., commemorating the March 27, 1912, gift of Japanese cherry trees from Mayor Yukio Ozaki ofTokyo City to the city of Washington. Mayor Ozaki donated the trees in an effort to enhance the growing friendship between the United States and Japan and also celebrate the continued close relationship between the two nations.[1]
Contents
[hide]

1 History

o o o

1.1 Early initiatives 1.2 Japanese gift planted 1.3 Cherry Blossom Festival

2 Organization and events of the Festival 3 Types of cherry trees 4 Gallery 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

[edit]History [edit]Early

initiatives

Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore was an early proponent of planting Japanese flowering cherry trees along the Potomac River.

The effort to bring cherry trees to Washington, D.C., preceded the official planting by several decades. In 1885, Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore returned from her first trip to Japan and approached the U.S. Army Superintendent of the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds with the idea of planting cherry trees along the reclaimed waterfront of the Potomac River. Scidmore, who would go on to become the first female board member of the National Geographic Society, was rebuffed, though she would continue proposing the idea to every Superintendent for the next 24 years.[2] Several cherry trees were brought to the region by individuals in this period, including one that was the location of a 1905 cherry blossom viewing and tea party hosted by Scidmore in northwest D.C. Among the guests was prominent botanist David Fairchild and his fiance Marian, the daughter of inventor Alexander Graham Bell.[3] In 1906, David Fairchild imported 1000 cherry trees from the Yokohama Nursery Company in Japan and planted them on his own property in Chevy Chase, Maryland. The Fairchilds were pleased with the results of their planting and in 1907 began promoting Japanese flowering cherry trees as an ideal tree to plant around avenues in the Washington area. On September 26, with the help of the Fairchilds' friends, the Chevy Chase Land Company ordered 300 Oriental cherry trees for the Chevy Chase area. In 1908, Fairchild donated cherry saplings to every D.C. school to plant on its school grounds in observance of Arbor Day. At an Arbor Day speech that Eliza Scidmore attended, Fairchild proposed that the "Speedway" (a now non-existing route around the D.C. Tidal Basin) be turned into a "Field of Cherries."[2] In 1909, Scidmore decided to raise the money to buy cherry trees and donate them to the District. As a matter largely of form, on April 5 she wrote a letter to First Lady Helen Herron Taft, wife of newly elected president Howard Taft, informing her of her plans. Two days later, the First Lady responded: Thank you very much for your suggestion about the cherry trees. I have taken the matter up and am promised the trees, but I thought perhaps it would be best to make an avenue of them, extending down to the turn in the

road, as the other part is still too rough to do any planting. Of course, they could not reflect in the water, but the effect would be very lovely of the long avenue. Let me know what you think about this.[2] By chance, Jokichi Takamine, the Japanese chemist who discovered adrenaline, was in Washington with Mr. Midzuno, the Japanese consul to New York City, on April 8. Informed of a plan to plant Japanese cherry trees along the Speedway, Takamine asked if Mrs. Taft would accept an additional 2000 trees, while Midzuno suggested that the trees be given in the name of Tokyo. Takamine and Midzuo subsequently met with the First Lady, who accepted the offer of 2000 trees.[2]

The original 1910 gift of 2000 cherry trees from Tokyo had to be burned after they were discovered to be infested withagricultural pests and disease

On April 13, Spencer Cosby, Superintendent of the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds, purchased ninety cherry trees (Prunus serrulata) that were planted along the Potomac River from the Lincoln Memorial south toward East Potomac Park. It was subsequently discovered that the trees were of the cultivar Shirofugen, rather than the ordered Fugenzo. These trees had largely disappeared by the 21st century.[2] On August 30, 1909, the Embassy of Japan in Washington, D.C., informed the U.S. Department of State that the city of Tokyo intended to donate 2000 cherry trees to theUnited States to be planted along the Potomac. These trees arrived in Washington, D.C., on January 6, 1910. However, the inspection team from the Department of Agriculture (led byFlora Wambaugh Patterson) found that the trees were infested with insects and nematodes, concluding that the trees had to be destroyed to protect local growers. President Taft gave the order to burn the trees on January 28.[2] Secretary of State Philander C. Knox wrote a letter expressing the regret of all involved to the Japanese Ambassador. Takamine responded to the news with another donation for more trees, 3020 in all, of a lineage taken from a famous group of trees along the Arakawa River in Tokyo and grafted onto stock from Itami, Hyogo Prefecture. On February 14, 1912, 3020 cherry trees of twelve cultivars were shipped on board the Awa Maru and arrived in D.C. via rail car from Seattle on March 26.[2]

[edit]Japanese

gift planted

Photographers and painters along theTidal Basin under blossoming cherry trees, 1920

In a ceremony on March 27, 1912, First Lady Helen Herron Taft and Viscountess Chinda, wife of the Japanese ambassador, planted the first two of these trees on the north bank of the Tidal Basin in West Potomac Park. At the end of the ceremony, the First Lady presented Viscountess Chinda with a bouquet of 'American Beauty' roses. These two trees still stand at the terminus of 17th Street Southwest, marked by a large plaque. [2] By 1915, the United States government had responded with a gift of flowering dogwood trees to the people of Japan.[4] From 1913 to 1920, trees of the Somei-Yoshino variety, which comprised 1800 of the gift, were planted around the Tidal Basin. Trees of the other 11 cultivars, and the remaining Yoshinos, were planted in East Potomac Park. In 1927, a group of American school children re-enacted the initial planting. In 1934, the District of Columbia Commissioners sponsored a three-day celebration of the flowering cherry trees.

[edit]Cherry

Blossom Festival

The Washington Monument, as seen from West Potomac Parkacross the Tidal Basin

The first "Cherry Blossom Festival" was held in 1935 under joint sponsorship by numerous civic groups, becoming an annual event. The cherry trees had by this point became an established part of the nation's

capitol. In 1938, plans to cut down trees to clear ground for the Jefferson Memorialprompted a group of women to chain themselves together at the site in protest. A compromise was reached where more trees would be planted along the south side of the Basin to frame the Memorial. A Cherry Blossom Pageant was begun in 1940.[2] On December 11, 1941, four trees were cut down. It is suspected that this was retaliation for theattack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan four days earlier, though this was never confirmed. In hopes of dissuading people from further attacks upon the trees during the war, they were referred to as "Oriental" flowering cherry trees for the war's duration.[2] Suspended during World War II, the festival resumed in 1947 with the support of the Washington, D.C., Board of Trade and the D.C. Commissioners.[citation needed] In 1948, the Cherry Blossom Princess and U.S. Cherry Blossom Queen program were started by theNational Conference of State Societies. A Princess was selected from each state and federal territory, with a queen chosen to reign over the festival. In 1952, Japan requested help restoring the cherry tree grove at Adachi, Tokyo along the Arakawa River, which was the parent stock of the D.C. trees but had diminished during the war. In response, the National Park Service sent budwood back to Tokyo.[2] The Japanese ambassador gave a 300-year old stone lantern to the city of Washington to commemorate the signing of the 1854 Japan-US Treaty of Amity and Friendship by Commodore Matthew C. Perry. For a number of years, the lighting of this lantern formally opened the Festival. Three years later, the president of the pearl company started by Mikimoto Kkichi donated the Mikimoto Pearl Crown. Containing more than five pounds of gold and 1,585 pearls, the crown is used at the coronation of the Festival Queen at the Grand Ball. The next year, the Mayor of Yokohama gifted a stone pagoda to the City to "symbolize the spirit of friendship between the United States of America manifested in the Treaty of Peace, Amity and Commerce signed at Yokohama on March 31, 1854."[2]

Lady Bird Johnson plants a cherry tree along the Tidal Basinduring the 1965 National Cherry Blossom Festival.

The Japanese gave 3,800 more Yoshino trees in 1965, which were accepted by First Lady Lady Bird Johnson. These trees were grown in the United States and many were planted on the grounds of theWashington Monument. For the occasion, the First Lady and Ryuji Takeuchi, wife of the Japanese ambassador, reenacted the 1912 planting. In 1982, Japanese horticulturalists took cuttings from Yoshino trees in Washington, D.C., to replace cherry trees that had been destroyed in a flood in Japan. From 1986 to 1988, 676 cherry trees were planted using US$101,000 in private funds donated to the National Park Service to restore the trees to the number at the time of the original gift.[2] In 1994, the Festival was expanded to two weeks to accommodate the many activities that happen during the trees' blooming.[5] Two years later, the Potomac and Arakawa became sister rivers. Cuttings were taken from the documented 1912 trees in 1997 to be used in replacement plantings and thus preserve the genetic heritage of the grove. In 1999, fifty trees of the Usuzumi variety fromMotosu, Gifu, were planted in West Potomac Park. According to legend, these trees were first planted by Emperor Keitai in the 6th century and were designated a National Treasure of Japan in 1922.[2] From 2002 to 2006, 400 trees propagated from the surviving 1912 trees were planted to ensure the genetic heritage of the original donation is maintained. [2]

Visitors in a cherry grove on the National Mall, April 5, 2009

[edit]Organization

and events of the Festival

Gordon Peterson as master of ceremonies for the 2006 Cherry Blossom Festival

Today the National Cherry Blossom Festival is coordinated by the National Cherry Blossom Festival, Inc., an umbrella organization consisting of representatives of business, civic, and governmental organizations. More than 700,000 people visit Washington each year to admire the blossoming cherry trees that herald the beginning of spring in the nation's capital. The two-week festival begins on the last Saturday of March with a Family Day and an official opening ceremony in the National Building Museum.[6][7] An array of activities and cultural events takes place on the following days.[8] The Blossom Kite Festival (formerly the Smithsonian Kite Festival) usually takes place during the festival's first weekend. Every day there is a sushi/sake celebration, classes about cherry blossoms, and a bike tour of the Tidal Basin. Other events include art exhibits (photography, sculpture, animation), cultural performances, rakugo, kimono fashion shows, dance, singing, martial arts, merchant-sponsored events, and a rugby union tournament. On the second Saturday of the celebration, a three-stage festival takes place on theSouthwest Waterfront.[9] When the festival ends, a fireworks show begins on the nearbyWashington Channel.[10] The next morning, the Cherry Blossom 10-Mile Run begins on the grounds of the Washington Monument.[11] Later in the day, dignitaries gather at the Tidal Basin to participate in a ceremonial lighting of the 360-year old Japanese stone lantern.[12] On the last Saturday of the festival, the National Cherry Blossom Festival Parade takes place along Constitution Avenue.[13] During and after the parade, the Sakura Matsuri-Japanese Street Festival (Japanese: ),[14] the largest Japanese Cultural Festival in the United States, takes place at 12th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, Northwest.[15] Because the festival must be planned long in advance, it sometimes fails to be celebrated during the peak of the cherry blooms. See also Japanese festivals.

In 2009, the National Cherry Blossom Festival introduced an alternative event to its lineup, with the debut of Cherry Blast, an underground-ish mix of projected art, dance performances, live music, fashion and DJs that took place in an empty (but festively decorated) Anacostia warehouse. (Most of the crowd was shuttle-bussed in from Dupont Circle.) In 2010, Cherry Blast IIthe creation of artist Philippa P. Hughes of the Pink Line Projectmoved to a storage warehouse in Adams Morgan, but still featured an eclectic group of local artists and musicians.[16] Cherry Blast III took place indoors near the Southwest Waterfront in the evening of the 2011 festival's second Saturday,[17] during and after the festival's nearby fireworks show.[10]

[edit]Types

of cherry trees

The Yoshino cultivar is the most common in D.C. and can be found encircling the Tidal Basin

Of the initial gift of 12 varieties of 3,020 trees, twothe Yoshino and Kwanzannow dominate.[18] The Yoshino produces single white blossoms that create an effect of white clouds around the Tidal Basin and north onto the grounds of the Washington Monument. Intermingled with the Yoshino are a small number of Akebono cherry trees, which bloom at the same time as the Yoshino and produce single, pale-pink blossoms.[18][19] The Kwanzan grows primarily in East Potomac Park and comes into bloom two weeks after the Yoshino. It produces clusters of clear pink double blossoms. East Potomac Park also has Fugenzo, which produces rosy pink double blossoms, and Shirofugen, which produces white double blossoms that age to pink. [18][20] Interspersed among all the trees are the Weeping Cherry, which produces a variety of single and double blossoms of colors ranging from dark pink to white about a week before the Yoshino. Other cultivars that can be found are the Autumn Cherry (semi-double, pink), Sargent Cherry (single, deep pink), Usuzumi (white-grey), and Takesimensis.[18][19][20]

Bonsai
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Bonsai (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Banzai.

Bonsai at the National Bonsai & Penjing Museum at the United States National Arboretum

Bonsai group planting at the "Foire du Valais" (Martigny, Switzerland)

Sequoia sempervirens (California redwood) "Informal Upright" style bonsai tree from the Brooklyn Botanic Garden

Bonsai (?, lit. plantings in tray, from bon, a tray or low-sided pot and sai, a planting or plantings, pronunciation (helpinfo))[1] is a Japanese art form using miniature trees grown in containers. Similar

practices exist in other cultures, including the Chinese tradition of penjingfrom which the art originated, and the

miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hn non b. The Japanese tradition dates back over a thousand years, and has its own aesthetics and terminology. "Bonsai" is a Japanese pronunciation of the earlier Chinese term penzai. A "bon" is a tray-like pot typically used in bonsai culture.[2] The word bonsai is often used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature trees in containers or pots, but this article focuses on bonsai as defined in the Japanese tradition. The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation (for the viewer) and the pleasant exercise of effort and ingenuity (for the grower).[3] By contrast with other plant cultivation practices, bonsai is not intended for production of food, for medicine, or for creating yard-size or park-size gardens or landscapes. Instead, bonsai practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more small trees growing in a container. A bonsai is created beginning with a specimen of source material. This may be a cutting, seedling, or small tree of a species suitable for bonsai development. Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woodystemmed tree or shrub species[4] that produces true branches and can be cultivated to remain small through pot confinement with crown and root pruning. Somespecies are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles, that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai. The source specimen is shaped to be relatively small and to meet the aesthetic standards of bonsai. When the candidate bonsai nears its planned final size it is planted in a display pot, usually one designed for bonsai display in one of a few accepted shapes and proportions. From that point forward, its growth is restricted by the pot environment. Throughout the year, the bonsai is shaped to limit growth, redistribute foliar vigor to areas requiring further development, and meet the artist's detailed design. The practice of bonsai is sometimes confused with dwarfing, but dwarfing generally refers to research, discovery, or creation of plant cultivars that are permanent, genetic miniatures of existing species. Bonsai does not require genetically dwarfed trees, but rather depends on growing small trees from regular stock and seeds. Bonsai uses cultivation techniques like pruning, root reduction, potting, defoliation, and grafting to produce small trees that mimic the shape and style of mature, full-size trees.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

o o o o

1.1 A concept and early versions 1.2 Hachi-no-ki 1.3 The classical bonsai period 1.4 The rise of modern bonsai

2 Cultivation and care

o o o

2.1 Sources of bonsai material 2.2 Techniques 2.3 Care

3 Aesthetics 4 Display

4.1 Containers

5 Bonsai styles

5.1 Other styles

6 Size classifications 7 Indoor bonsai 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

[edit]History [edit]A

concept and early versions

The earliest illustration of a bonsai (penjing) is found in theQianling Mausoleum murals at theTang Dynasty tomb of Crown Prince Zhanghuai, dating to 706.[5][6]

The lineage of bonsai derives from the Chinese penjing.[7] Imperial embassy personnel and Buddhiststudents from Japan had been returning from mainland China with many souvenirs, including occasional container planting, since the 6th century.[8] At least 17 diplomatic missions were specifically sent from Japan to the Tang court between the years 603 and 839.[8]

Japan's historical Shsin, which houses 8th-century artifacts including material from Japan'sTempy period, contains an elaborate miniature display dating from this time.[9] This artifact is composed of a wooden tray serving as a base, carved wooden mountain models, and sand portraying a riverine sandbar. Small tree sculptures in silver metal are meant to be placed in the sand, to produce a table-top depiction of a treed landscape. While this display is closer to the Japanesebonkei display than to a living bonsai, it does reflect the period's interest in miniature landscapes. From about the year 970 comes the first lengthy work of fiction in Japanese, Utsubo Monogatari (The Tale of the Hollow Tree), which includes this passage: "A tree that is left growing in its natural state is a crude thing. It is only when it is kept close to human beings who fashion it with loving care that its shape and style acquire the ability to move one." The idea, therefore, was already established by this time that natural beauty becomes true beauty only when modified in accordance with a human ideal.[10] In the medieval period, recognizable bonsai began to appear in handscroll paintings like the Ippen shonin eden (1299).[11] Saigyo Monogatari Emaki was the earliest known scroll to depict dwarfed potted trees in Japan. It dates from the year 1195, in the Kamakura period. Wooden tray and dish-like pots with dwarf landscapes on modern-looking wooden shelf/benches are shown in the 1309 Kasuga-gongen-genki scroll. These novelties show off the owner's wealth and were probably exotics imported from China.[12] Chinese Chan Buddhist monks also came over to teach at Japan's monasteries, and one of the monks' activities was to introducepolitical leaders of the day to the various arts of miniature landscapes as ideal accomplishments for men of taste and learning.[13][14] The c.1300 rhymed prose essay, Bonseki no Fu (Tribute to Bonseki) written by celebrated priest and master of Chinese poetry, Kokan Shiren (12781346), outlined the aesthetic principles for what would be termed bonsai, bonseki and garden architecture itself. At first, the Japanese used miniaturized trees grown in containers to decorate their homes and gardens.[14][15][16] Criticism of the interest in curiously twisted specimens of potted plants shows up in one chapter of the 243chapter compilationTsurezuregusa (c.1331). This work would become a sacred teaching handed down from master to student, through a limited chain of poets (some famous), until it was at last widely published in the early 17th century. Before then, the criticism had only a modest influence on dwarf potted tree culture. In 1351, dwarf trees were displayed on short poles as portrayed in the Boki Ekotoba scroll.[17] Several other scrolls and paintings also included depictions of these kinds of trees. Potted landscape arrangements made during the next hundred years or so included figurines after the Chinese fashion in order to add scale and theme. These miniatures would eventually be considered garnishesdecidedly to be excluded by Japanese artists who were simplifying their creations in the spirit of Zen Buddhism.[18]

[edit]Hachi-no-ki

Japanese white pine from the National Bonsai & Penjing Museum at the United States National Arboretum.

Around the 14th century, the term for dwarf potted trees was "the bowl's tree" (, hachi-no-ki).[19] This denoted the use of a fairly deep pot, as opposed to the shallow pot denoted by the termbonsai. Hachi-No-Ki (The Potted Trees) is also the title of a Noh play by Zeami Motokiyo (13631444), based on a story from c. 1383. It tells of an impoverished samurai who sacrifices his three last dwarf potted trees as firewood to provide warmth for a traveling monk on a winter night. The monk is an official in disguise who later rewards the samurai by giving him three lands whose names include the names of the three types of trees the samurai burnt: ume (plum), matsu (pine), and sakura (cherry). In later centuries, woodblock prints by several artists would depict this popular drama. There was even a fabric design of the same name. Stories referring to bonsai began to appear more frequently by the 17th century. Shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu (r. 1623-1651) was a hachi-no-ki enthusiast. A story tells of Okubo Hikozemon (15601639), councilor to the shogun, who threw one of Iemitsu's favorite trees away in the gardenin sight of the shogunin order to dissuade him from spending so much time and attention on these trees. In spite of the servant's efforts, Iemitsu never gave up his beloved art form. Another story from this time tells of a samurai's gardener who killed himself when his master insulted a hachi-no-ki of which the artisan was especially proud.[20] Bonsai dating to the 17th century have survived to the present. One of the oldest-known living bonsai trees, considered one of theNational Treasures of Japan, is in the Tokyo Imperial Palace collection.[21] A five-needle pine (Pinus pentaphylla var. negishi) known as Sandai-Shogun-No Matsu is documented as having been cared for by Tokugawa Iemitsu.[21] The tree is thought to be at least 500 years old and was first trained as a bonsai by, at latest, the year 1610.[21] The earliest known report by a Westerner of a Japanese dwarf potted tree was made in 1692 by George Meister.[22] Chinese bonsai containers exported to Japan during the 17th and 18th centuries would become referred to as Kowatari ("old crossing"). These were made between 1465 and about 1800. Many came from Yixing in Jiangsu provinceunglazed and usually purplish-brownand some others from around Canton, in particular, during the Ming dynasty.[23][24] Miniature potted trees were called hachi-ue in a 1681 horticulture book. This book also stated that everyone at the time grew azaleas, even if the poorest people had to use

an abaloneshell as a container.[25][26] Torii Kiyoharu's use of woodblock printing in Japan depicted the dwarf potted trees from horticultural expert It Ihei's nursery.[27] By the end of the 18th century, bonsai cultivation was quite widespread and had begun to interest the public. In the Tenmei era (178188), an exhibit of traditional dwarf potted pines began to be held every year in Kyoto. Connoisseurs from five provinces and neighboring areas would bring one or two plants each to the show in order to submit them to visitors for ranking.[28]

[edit]The

classical bonsai period

In Itami, Hyogo (near Osaka), a group of scholars of Chinese arts gathered in the early 19th century to discuss recent styles in the art of miniature trees. Their version of these, which had been previously called "Bunjin Ueki," "Bunjin Hachiue," or other terms, were renamed "bonsai" (the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese term penzai). This term had the connotation of a shallower container in which the Japanese could now more successfully style small trees. The term "bonsai," however, would not become regularly used in describing their dwarf potted trees for nearly a century. Many others terms and compositions adopted by this group were derived fromKai-shi-en Gaden, the Japanese version of Jieziyuan Huazhuan (Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden).[13][29][30][31] In 1829, a significant book that first established classical bonsai art, Somoku Kinyo Shu (A Colorful Collection of Trees and Plants/Collection of tree leaves), was published. It includes the basic criteria for the ideal form of the classical pine bonsai, in detail and with illustrations.[32] That same year, small tako-tsuki (octopus-styled) trees with long, wavy-branches began to be offered by a grower in Asakusa Park, a north-eastern Edo suburb. Within 20 years that neighborhood became crowded with nurseries selling bonsai.[33][34]The threevolume Kinsei-Jufu, possibly the first book of bonsai, tools, and pots, dates from 1833.[35] Numerous artists of the 19th century depicted dwarf potted trees in woodblock prints, including Yoshishige (who pictured each of the fifty-three classic stations of the Tokaido (road) as miniature landscape) and Kunisada (who included mostly hachi-no-ki in some four dozen prints).[36] The earliest known photograph from Japan depicting a dwarf potted tree dates from c. 1861 by Pierre Rossier.[37] On October 13, 1868, the Meiji Emperor moved to his new capital in Tokyo. Bonsai were displayed both inside and outside Meiji Palace, where they have since remained important in affairs of the Palace. Bonsai placed in the grand setting of the Imperial Palace had to be "Giant Bonsai," large enough to fill the grand space.[38][39][40] The Meiji Emperor encouraged interest in bonsai. Government officials who did not appreciate bonsai fell out of favor. Soon all members of the ministry had bonsai whether they liked the tradition or not. Prince Itoh was an exception: Any bonsai that the emperor gave him were then passed to Kijoji Itoh. Kijoji Itoh was a statesman of great influence behind the scenes, and a noted bonsai collector who conducted research and experiments on these bonsai.[41][42]

Bonsai shaping aesthetics and techniques were becoming more sophisticated. By the late 1860s, thick combed and wetted hemp fibers were used to roughly shape the trunk and branches of miniature trees by pulling and tying them. The process was tedious and bothersome, and the final product was unsightly. Tips of branches would only be opened flat. Long, wavy-branched tako (octopus)-style trees were mass-produced and designed in the [renamed capital] Tokyo for the increasing foreign trade, while the more subtle and delicate bunjin-style trees designed in Kyoto and Osaka were for use in Japan. Tokyo preferred big trunks out of proportion and did not approve of Kyoto's finely designed slender trunks. (This cultural rivalry would continue for a century.)[43][44][45] Pots exported from China between 1816 and 1911 (especially the late 19th century) were called Nakawatari (middle-crossing) orChuwatari, shallow rectangular or oval stoneware with carved feet and drainage holes. Unglazed pots of this type were used at ancestralshrines and treasured by the Chinese. After the mid-century, certain Japanese antiquities dealers imported them and instant popular approval for this type of container for bonsai created a huge demand. As a consequence, orders came from Japan to Yixing potterycenters specifically to make bonsai pots.[46][47] Through the later 19th century, Japanese participation in various international exhibitions introduced many in the U.S. and Europe to dwarf potted trees. Specimens from the displays went into Western hands following the closing of the fairs.[48] Japanese immigrants to the U.S. West Coast and Hawaii Territory brought plants and cultivation experience with them. Export nurseries, the most notable one being the Yokohama Gardeners Association, provided increasingly good quality dwarf potted trees for Americans and Europeanseven if the buyers did not have enough information or experience to actually keep the trees alive long-term.[49][50] An Artistic Bonsai Concours was held in Tokyo in 1892 followed by the publication of a three-volume commemorative picture book. This demonstrated a new tendency to see bonsai as an independent art form.[51] In 1903, the Tokyo association Jurakukai held showings of bonsai and ikebana at two Japanese-style restaurants. Three years later, Bonsai Gaho (1906 to c.1913), became the first monthly magazine on the subject.[52] It was followed by Toyo Engei and Hana in 1907, and Bonsai in 1921.[53] By 1907, "on the outskirts of Tokio [dwarf] tree artists have formed a little colony of from twenty to thirty houses, and from this centre their work finds its way to all parts of the world." "Its secrets are handed down from father to son in a few families, and are guarded with scrupulous care."[54] Count Okuma (18381922) maintained a famed collection of dwarf pines and dwarf plum trees.[55] In 1910, shaping with wire was described in the Sanyu-en Bonsai-Dan (History of Bonsai in the Sanyu nursery). Zinc-galvanized steelwire was initially used. Expensive copper wire was only used for trees that had real potential.[56][57] Between 1911 and about 1940, mass-produced containers were exported from Yixing, China, and made to the specifications of Japanese dealers. These were calledShinto (new crossing or arrival) or Shin-watare. These were made for increasing numbers of enthusiasts. Some containers, including primitive style ones, were also being made in Formosa.[47][58]

By 1914, "at the N.E. corner of Shiba Park is a permanent bazaar (the first of its kind established in Tokyo) where hosts of native-made gimcracks can be bought at fixed prices. The exhibits of potted plants and dwarf trees held here from time to time attract lovers of such things." Also this year, the first national annual bonsai show was held (through 1933) in Tokyo's Hibiya Park.[59][60] During this period, the tokonoma in formal rooms and tea rooms became the main place for bonsai display. The shaped trees now shared space with other items such as scrolls, incense burners, Buddhist statues and tea ceremony implements.[61] The first issue of Bonsai magazine was published in 1921 by Norio Kobayashi (18891972). This influential periodical would run for 518 consecutive issues. Copper wire was being extensively used by this time. Major changes to a tree's shape could now be accomplished with wiring. Trees could be precisely and aesthetically wired, and then sold immediately. A greater number of both collected and nursery trees could now be trained for bonsai. The number of hobbyists increased due to the increased ability to style with wire, but there was also an increase in damaged or scarred trees.[62][63] The 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake and resulting fire devastated Tokyo, and gutted the downtown area where many bonsai were grown. And so, two years later, a group of thirty families of downtown Tokyo professional growers established the miya Bonsai Village, northeast of the capital.[64] The first great annual public exhibition of trees was held at the Asahi Newspaper Hall in Tokyo in 1927.[65]The first of the very prestigious Kokufu-ten exhibitions were held in Tokyo's Ueno Park, beginning in 1934.[66] By the following year,tokonoma display principles allowed for bonsai to be shown for the tree's individual beauty, not just for its spiritual or symbolic significance.[67] Toolsmith Masakuni I (18801950) helped design and produce the first steel tools specifically made for the developing requirements of bonsai styling.[68] By 1940, there were about 300 bonsai dealers in Tokyo, some 150 species of trees were being cultivated, and thousands of specimens annually were shipped to Europe and America. The first major book on the subject in English was published in the Japanese capital:Dwarf Trees (Bonsai) by Shinobu Nozaki (18951968).[69] The first bonsai nurseries and clubs in the Americas were started by first and second-generation Japanese immigrants. Caretaker of the Imperial bonsai collection, Kyuzo Murata (19021991), was one of very few persons allowed to take care of bonsai during the Pacific War. He gathered together and preserved many trees from the other Omiya growers and would water them under the protection of night. Throughout 1945, many old trees were the smallest casualties of the spring and summer napalm bombing of Tokyo(esp. March 9/10) and sixty-six other cities. Gardeners protected the Imperial collection trees from fire by pouring water over them after the Palace caught fire when neighboring areas were bombed on May 25/26.[70] Following the surrender of Japan, there began the post-war re-evaluation and reviving of damaged collections of treesincluding the Imperialwhich

would continue for over a decade as Japan was rebuilt. Many of the Omiya growers did not continue their vocation. During the Allied Occupation of Japan (through 1952) U.S. officers and their wives could take courses in bonsai, bonkei, ikebana, and other traditional arts and crafts as arranged by General MacArthur's headquarters. Many of the older and limited varieties of trees were no longer available, and the bonsai considered in fashion changed partly because of this shortage. Copper wire now largely replaced ordinary iron wire for shaping the better trees, but the latter still would be used for mass-produced commercial bonsai.[71][72][73][74]

[edit]The

rise of modern bonsai

Following World War II, a number of trends made the Japanese tradition of bonsai more and more accessible to Western and world audiences. One key trend was the increase in the number, scope, and prominence of bonsai exhibitions. For example, the Kokufu-ten bonsai displays reappeared in 1947 after a four-year cancellation and became annual affairs. The displays are by invitation only for eight days in February, and continue to this day.[66] In October 1964, a great exhibition was held by the private Kokufu Bonsai Association, reorganized into the Nippon Bonsai Association, in Hibya Park to mark the Tokyo Olympics. A commemorative album Gems of Bonsai and Suiseki was published in Japanese and English. The largest (both in quantity and quality) of exhibitions are held in Japan. Another key trend was the increase in books on bonsai and related arts, now being published in English and other languages for audiences outside Japan. In 1952, Yuji Yoshimura, son of a leader in the Japanese bonsai community, collaborated with German diplomat and author Alfred Koehn to give demonstrations and the first formal bonsai courses opened to the public and outsiders in Tokyo. Koehn had been an enthusiast before the war, and his 1937 book Japanese Tray Landscapes had been published in English inPeking. Yoshimura's 1957 book The Art of Bonsai, written in English with his student Giovanna M. Halford, addressed both cultivation and aesthetic aspects of bonsai growing and went on to be called the classic Japanese bonsai bible for westerners with over thirty printings.[75] The related art of saikei was presented to English-speaking audiences in 1963 in Kawamoto and Kurihara's Bonsai-Saikei. This book described tray landscapes made with younger material than was traditionally used in bonsai, providing an alternative to the use of large, older plants, few of which had escaped war damage. Other works in Japanese and English had been published by this time, and afterward a tremendous number of books saw print. Translations and original volumes in over two dozen languages were published in the next few decades.[70] The number of clubs outside of Asia increased once Japanese was no longer the sole language of bonsai, and interaction increased between members of all levels of experience. A third trend was the increasing availability of expert bonsai training, at first only in Japan and then more widely. In 1967 the first group of Westerners studied at an miya nursery. Returning to the U.S., these people

established the American Bonsai Society. Other groups and individuals from outside Asia then visited and studied at the various Japanese nurseries, occasionally even apprenticing under the masters. These visitors brought back to their local clubs the latest techniques and styles, which were then further disseminated. Japanese teachers also traveled widely, bringing hands-on bonsai expertise to all six continents.[72][75][76] By the beginning of the 1970s, these trends were beginning to merge. A large display of bonsai and suiseki was held as part of Expo '70, and formal discussion was made of an international association of enthusiasts. Three monthly magazines were started this year:Bonsai Sekai, Satsuki Kenkyu, and Shizen to Bonsai. In 1975, first Gafu-ten (Elegant-Style Exhibit) of shohin bonsai (13-25 cm (9.84 in) (510 in) tall) was held. So was the first Sakufu-ten (Creative Bonsai Exhibit), the only event in which professional bonsai growers exhibit traditional trees under their own names rather than under the name of the owner. It was organized by Hideo Kato (1918 2001) at Daimaru Department Store in Tokyo.[77] The First World Bonsai Convention was held in Osaka during the World Bonsai and Suiseki Exhibition in 1980.[78] Nine years later, the first World Bonsai Convention was held in Omiya and the World Bonsai Friendship Federation (WBFF) was inaugurated. These conventions attracted several hundreds of participants from dozens of countries and have since been held every four years at different locations around the globe: 1993, Orlando, Florida; 1997, Seoul, Korea; 2001, Munich, Germany; 2005, Washington, D.C.; 2009, San Juan, Puerto Rico.[79][80] The final trend supporting world involvement in bonsai is the widening availability of specialized bonsai plant stock, soil components, tools, pots, and other accessory items. Bonsai nurseries in Japan advertise and ship specimen bonsai world-wide. Most countries have local nurseries providing plant stock as well, although finding specimen bonsai is more difficult outside Japan and bonsai enthusiasts will often start with local trees that have not been pre-shaped into candidate bonsai. Japanese bonsai soil components, such asAkadama clay, are available worldwide, and local suppliers also provide similar materials in many locations. Specialized bonsai tools are widely available from Japanese and Chinese sources. Potters around the globe provide material to hobbyists and specialists in many countries.[81] Bonsai has now definitively reached a world-wide audience. There are over twelve hundred books on bonsai and the related arts in at least twenty-six languages available in over ninety countries and territories.[70][82] A few dozen magazines in over thirteen languages are in print.[52] Several score of club newsletters are available online, and there are at least that many discussion forums and blogs.[83]Educational videos and just the appearance of dwarf potted trees in films and on television reach a wide audience.[84] There are at least a hundred thousand enthusiasts in some fifteen hundred clubs and associations worldwide, as well as over five million unassociated hobbyists.[85] Plant material from every location is being trained into bonsai and displayed at local, regional, national, and international conventions and exhibitions for enthusiasts and the general public.

[edit]Cultivation

and care

Main article: Bonsai cultivation and care Bonsai cultivation and care requires techniques and tools that are specialized to support the growth and longterm maintenance of trees in small containers.

[edit]Sources

of bonsai material

All bonsai start with a specimen of source material, a plant that the grower wishes to train into bonsai form. Bonsai practice is an unusual form of plant cultivation in that growth from seeds is rarely used to obtain source material. To display the characteristic aged appearance of a bonsai within a reasonable time, the source plant is often mature or at least partially grown when the bonsai creator begins work. Sources of bonsai material include:

Propagation from a source tree through cuttings or layering. Nursery stock directly from a nursery, or from a garden centre or similar resale establishment. Commercial bonsai growers, which, in general, sell mature specimens that display bonsai aesthetic qualities already.

Collecting suitable bonsai material in its original wild situation, successfully moving it, and replanting it in a container for development as bonsai. These trees are called yamadori and are often the most expensive and prized of all Bonsai.

[edit]Techniques

This juniper makes extensive use of both jin (deadwood branches) and shari (trunk deadwood).

The practice of bonsai development incorporates a number of techniques either unique to bonsai or, if used in other forms of cultivation, applied in unusual ways that are particularly suitable to the bonsai domain. These techniques include:

Leaf trimming, the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree) or needles (for coniferous trees and some others) from a bonsai's trunk and branches.

Pruning the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree. Wiring branches and trunks allows the bonsai designer to create the desired general form and make detailed branch and leaf placements.

Clamping using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. Grafting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.

Defoliation, which can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species. Deadwood bonsai techniques called jin and shari simulate age and maturity in a bonsai.

[edit]Care
Small trees grown in containers, like bonsai, require specialized care. Unlike houseplants and other subjects of container gardening, tree species in the wild, in general, grow roots up to several meters long and root structures encompassing several thousand liters of soil. In contrast, a typical bonsai container is under 25 centimeters in its largest dimension and 2 to 10 liters in volume. Branch and leaf (or needle) growth in trees is also large-scale in nature. Wild trees typically grow 5 meters or taller when mature, whereas the largest bonsai rarely exceed 1 meter and most specimens are significantly smaller. These size differences affect maturation, transpiration, nutrition, pest resistance, and many other aspects of tree biology. Maintaining the long-term health of a tree in a container requires some specialized care techniques:

Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil. Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree. Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai. Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.[86]

Location and overwintering are also species-dependent, and it is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house.

[edit]Aesthetics
Main article: Bonsai aesthetics Bonsai aesthetics are the aesthetic goals characterizing the Japanese tradition of growing an artistically shaped miniature tree in a container. Many Japanese cultural characteristics, in particular the influence of Zen Buddhism and the expression of Wabi-sabi,[87]inform the bonsai tradition in Japan. Established art forms that share some aesthetic principles with bonsai include penjing and saikei. A number of other cultures around the globe have adopted the Japanese aesthetic approach to bonsai, and, while some variations have begun to appear, most hew closely to the rules and design philosophies of the Japanese tradition.

Over centuries of practice, the Japanese bonsai aesthetic has encoded some important techniques and design guidelines. Like the aesthetic rules that govern, for example, Western common practice period music, bonsai's guidelines help practitioners work within an established tradition with some assurance of success. Simply following the guidelines alone will not guarantee a successful result. Nevertheless, these design rules can rarely be broken without reducing the impact of the bonsai specimen. Some key principles in bonsai aesthetics include:

Miniaturization: By definition, a bonsai is a tree kept small enough to be container-grown while otherwise fostered to have a mature appearance.

Proportion among elements: The most prized proportions mimic those of a full-grown tree as closely as possible. Small trees with large leaves or needles are out of proportion and are avoided, as is a thin trunk with thick branches.

Asymmetry: Bonsai aesthetics discourage strict radial or bilateral symmetry in branch and root placement. No trace of the artist: The designer's touch must not be apparent to the viewer. If a branch is removed in shaping the tree, the scar will be concealed. Likewise, wiring should be removed or at least concealed when the bonsai is shown, and must leave no permanent marks on the branch or bark. [88]

Poignancy: Many of the formal rules of bonsai help the grower create a tree that expresses Wabi-sabi, or portrays an aspect ofmono no aware.

[edit]Display

Bonsai displayed on an outdoor bench - note automated watering apparatus

A Seiju elm bonsai on display with ashitakusa of miniature hosta and a hanging scroll.

A bonsai display presents one or more bonsai specimens in a way that allows a viewer to see all the important features of the bonsai from the most advantageous position. That position emphasizes the bonsai's defined "front", which is designed into all bonsai. It places the bonsai at a height that allows the viewer to imagine the bonsai as a full-size tree seen from a distance, siting the bonsai neither so low that the viewer appears to be hovering in the sky above it nor so high that the viewer appears to be looking up at the tree from beneath the ground. Peter Adams recommends that bonsai be shown as if "in an art gallery: at the right height; in isolation; against a plain background, devoid of all redundancies such as labels and vulgar little accessories."[89] For outdoor displays, there are few aesthetic rules. Many outdoor displays are semi-permanent, with the bonsai trees in place for weeks or months at a time. To avoid damaging the trees, therefore, an outdoor display must not impede the amount of sunlight needed for the trees on display, must support watering, and may also have to block excessive wind or precipitation.[90] As a result of these practical constraints, outdoor displays are often rustic in style, with simple wood or stone components. A common design is the bench, sometimes with sections at different heights to suit different sizes of bonsai, along which bonsai are placed in a line. Where space allows, outdoor bonsai specimens are spaced far enough apart that the viewer can concentrate on one at a time. When the trees are too close to each other, aesthetic discord between adjacent trees of different sizes or styles can confuse the viewer, a problem addressed by exhibition displays. Exhibition displays allow a large number of bonsai to be displayed in a temporary exhibition format, typically indoors, as would be seen in a bonsai design competition. To allow many trees to be located close together, exhibition displays often use a sequence of small alcoves, each containing one pot and its bonsai contents. The walls or dividers between the alcoves make it easier to view only one bonsai at a time. The back of the alcove is a neutral color and pattern to avoid distracting the viewer's eye. The bonsai pot is almost always placed on a formal stand, of a size and design selected to complement the bonsai and its pot.[91] Indoors, a formal bonsai display is arranged to represent a landscape, and traditionally consists of the featured bonsai tree in an appropriate pot atop a wooden stand, along with a shitakusa (companion plant) representing the foreground, and a hanging scroll representing the background. These three elements are chosen to

complement each other and evoke a particular season, and are composed asymmetrically to mimic nature.[92] When displayed inside a traditional Japanese home, a formal bonsai display will often be placed within the home's tokonoma or formal display alcove. An indoor display is usually very temporary, lasting a day or two, as most bonsai are intolerant of indoor conditions and lose vigor rapidly within the house.

[edit]Containers

Assorted bonsai pots

A variety of informal containers may house the bonsai during its development, and even trees that have been formally planted in a bonsai pot may be returned to growing boxes from time to time. A large growing box can house several bonsai and provide a great volume of soil per tree to encourage root growth. A training box will have a single specimen, and a smaller volume of soil that helps condition the bonsai to the eventual size and shape of the formal bonsai container. There are no aesthetic guidelines for these development containers, and they may be of any material, size, and shape that suit the grower. Completed trees are grown in formal bonsai containers. These containers are usually ceramic pots, which come in a variety of shapes and colors and may be glazed or unglazed. Unlike many common plant containers, bonsai pots have drainage holes in the bottom surface to complement fast-draining bonsai soil, allowing excess water to escape the pot. Growers cover the holes with a screening to prevent soil from falling out and to hinder pests from entering the pots from below. Pots usually have vertical sides, so that the tree's root mass can easily be removed for inspection, pruning, and replanting, although this is a practical consideration and other container shapes are acceptable. There are alternatives to the conventional ceramic pot. Multi-tree bonsai may be created atop a fairly flat slab of rock, with the soil mounded above the rock surface and the trees planted within the raised soil. In recent times, bonsai creators have also begun to fabricate rock-like slabs from raw materials including concrete[93] and glassreinforced plastic.[94] Such constructed surfaces can be made much lighter than solid rock, can include depressions or pockets for additional soil, and can be designed for drainage of water, all characteristics difficult to achieve with solid rock slabs. Other unconventional containers can also be used, but in formal bonsai display and competitions in Japan, the ceramic bonsai pot is the most common container.

For bonsai being shown formally in their completed state, pot shape, color, and size are chosen to complement the tree as a picture frame is chosen to complement a painting. In general, containers with straight sides and sharp corners are used for formally shaped plants, while oval or round containers are used for plants with informal designs. Many aesthetic guidelines affect the selection of pot finish and color. For example, evergreen bonsai are often placed in unglazed pots, while deciduous trees usually appear in glazed pots. Pots are also distinguished by their size. The overall design of the bonsai tree, the thickness of its trunk, and its height are considered when determining the size of a suitable pot. Some pots are highly collectible, like ancient Chinese or Japanese pots made in regions with experienced pot makers such asTokoname, Japan or Yixing, China. Today many potters worldwide produce pots for bonsai.[95]

[edit]Bonsai

styles

Main article: Bonsai styles

Formal upright style Bald cypress

Informal upright style Juniper

Cascade style conifer

Forest style Black Hills Spruce

The Japanese tradition describes bonsai tree designs using a set of commonly understood, named styles.[96] The most common styles include formal upright, informal upright, slanting, semi-cascade, cascade, raft, literati, and group/forest. Less common forms include windswept, weeping, split-trunk, and driftwood styles.[3][97] These terms are not mutually exclusive, and a single bonsai specimen can exhibit more than one style characteristic. When a bonsai specimen falls into multiple style categories, the common practice is to describe it by the dominant or most striking characteristic. A frequently used set of styles describe the orientation of the bonsai tree's main trunk. Different terms are used for a tree with its apex directly over the center of the trunk's entry into the soil, slightly to the side of that center, deeply inclined to one side, and inclined below the point at which the trunk of the bonsai enters the soil. [26]

Formal upright or chokkan style trees are characterized by a straight, upright, tapering trunk. Branches progress regularly from the thickest and broadest at the bottom to the finest and shortest at the top.

Informal upright or moyogi trees incorporate visible curves in trunk and branches, but the apex of the informal upright is located directly above the trunk's entry into the soil line.

Slant-style or shakan bonsai possess straight trunks like those of bonsai grown in the formal upright style. However, the slant style trunk emerges from the soil at an angle, and the apex of the bonsai will be located to the left or right of the root base.

Cascade-style or kengai specimens are modeled after trees that grow over water or down the sides of mountains. The apex (tip of the tree) in the semi-cascade-style or han kengaibonsai extend just at or beneath the lip of the bonsai pot; the apex of a (full) cascade style falls below the base of the pot.

A number of styles describe the trunk shape and bark finish. For example, the deadwood bonsai styles identify trees with prominent dead branches or trunk scarring.[98]

Shari or sharimiki style involves portraying a tree in its struggle to live while a significant part of its trunk is bare of bark.[99]

Although most bonsai trees are planted directly into the soil, there are styles describing trees planted on rock.[100]

Root-over-rock or sekijoju is a style in which the roots of the tree are wrapped around a rock, entering the soil at the base of the rock.

Growing-in-a-rock or ishizuke style means the roots of the tree are growing in soil contained within the cracks and holes of the rock.

While the majority of bonsai specimens feature a single tree, there are well-established style categories for specimens with multiple trunks.[101]

Forest (or group) or yose ue style comprises a planting of several or many trees of one species, typically an odd number, in a bonsai pot.

Multi-trunk or ikadabuki style has all the trunks growing out of one spot with one root system, and is actually a single tree.

Raft-style or netsuranari bonsai mimic a natural phenomenon that occurs when a tree topples onto its side, for example, from erosion or another natural force. Branches along the top side of the trunk continue to grow as a group of new trunks.

[edit]Other

styles

A few styles do not fit into the preceding categories. These include:

Literati or bunjin-gi style is characterized by a generally bare trunk line, with branches reduced to a minimum, and foliage placed toward the top of a long, often contorted trunk.

Broom or hokidachi style is employed for trees with fine branching, like elms. The trunk is straight and branches out in all directions about 1/3 of the way up the entire height of the tree. The branches and leaves form a ball-shaped crown.

Windswept or fukinagashi style describes a tree that appears to be affected by strong winds blowing continuously from one direction, as might shape a tree atop a mountain ridge or on an exposed shoreline.[102]

[edit]Size

classifications

Not all sources agree on the exact sizes or names for these ranges, but the concept of the ranges is wellestablished and useful to both the cultivation and the aesthetic understanding of the trees. A photograph of a bonsai may not give the viewer an accurate impression of the tree's real size, and so exhibition catalogs and commercial bonsai offerings may complement a photograph by describing the bonsai's general size class (see table below). The size class implies the height and weight of the tree in its container. In the very largest size range, a recognized Japanese practice is to name the trees "two-handed", "fourhanded", and so on, based on the number of men required to move the tree and pot. These trees will have dozens of branches and can closely simulate a full-size tree. The very largest size, called "imperial", is named after the enormous potted trees of Japan's Imperial Palace.[103] At the other end of the size spectrum, there are a number of specific techniques and styles associated solely with the smallest common sizes, shohin and shito. These techniques take advantage of the bonsai's minute dimensions and compensate for the limited number of branches and leaves that can appear on a tree this small.

Common names for bonsai size classes[104]

Large bonsai

Common name

Size class

Dimensions

Imperial bonsai Eight-handed

6080 in (152203 cm)

Hachi-uye

Six-handed

4060 in (102152 cm)

Dai

Four-handed

3048 in (76122 cm)

Omono

Four-handed

3048 in (76122 cm)

Medium-size bonsai

Common name

Size class

Dimensions

Chiu

Two-handed

1636 in (4191 cm)

Chumono

Two-handed

1636 in (4191 cm)

Katade-mochi

One-handed

1018 in (2546 cm)

Miniature bonsai

Common name

Size class

Dimensions

Komono

One-handed

610 in (1525 cm)

Mame

One-handed

58 in (1320 cm)

Shohin

Palm size

26 in (515 cm)

Shito

Fingertip size

24 in (510 cm)

Keshitsubo [edit]Indoor

Poppy-seed size 13 in (38 cm)

bonsai

Main article: Indoor bonsai Indoor bonsai are bonsai which are cultivated for the indoor environment. Traditionally, bonsai are temperate climate trees grown outdoors in containers.[105] Kept in the artificial environment of a home, these trees weaken and die. But a number of tropical and sub-tropical tree species will survive and grow indoors. Some of these are suited to bonsai aesthetics and can be shaped much as traditional outdoor bonsai are.

Sake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Sake (disambiguation).

Dedicated sake barrels at Itsukushima Shrine

Sake brewery, Takayama

Sake (

/ski/ or

/ske/)[1][2] is an alcoholic beverage of Japaneseorigin that is made from

fermented rice. It may also be spelled sak or saki. In the Japanese language, the word sake refers to any alcoholic beverage, while the beverage called sake in English is termed nihonshu (, "Japanese liquor").
Contents
[hide]

1 Overview 2 History 3 Production

o o o o o

3.1 Rice 3.2 Water 3.3 Brewing 3.4 Maturing 3.5 Tji

4 Varieties

o o o o

4.1 Special-designation sake 4.2 Three ways to make the starter mash 4.3 Different handling after fermentation 4.4 Others

5 Taste and flavor 6 Serving sake 7 Storage 8 Ceremonial use 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

[edit]Overview
Sake is sometimes referred to in English-speaking countries as rice wine. However, unlike wine, in which alcohol is produced byfermenting sugar that is naturally present in grapes and other fruits, sake is produced by means of a brewing process more like that ofbeer. To make beer or sake, the sugar needed to produce alcohol must first be converted from starch.

The brewing process for sake differs from the process for beer, in that for beer, the conversion from starch to sugar and from sugar to alcohol occurs in two discrete steps. But when sake is brewed, these conversions occur simultaneously. Furthermore, the alcohol content differs between sake, wine, and beer. Wine generally contains 9%16% ABV,[3] while most beer contains 3%9%, and undiluted sake contains 18%20% (although this is often lowered to about 15% by diluting with water prior to bottling).

[edit]History
The origin of sake is unclear. The earliest reference to the use of alcohol in Japan is recorded in the Book of Wei in the Records of the Three Kingdoms. This 3rd century Chinese text speaks of the Japanese drinking and dancing. Bamforth (2005) noted that the probable origin of sake was in the Nara period (710794 A.D.). Sake is mentioned several times in the Kojiki, Japan's first written history, which was compiled in 712
A.D.

By the Asuka period, true sakemade from rice, water, and kji mold (, Aspergillus oryzae)was the dominant alcohol and had a very low content by non-Japanese standards. A non-Japanese could down much sake and not be inebriated in the least. In the Heian period, sake was used for religious ceremonies, court festivals, and drinking games.[4] Sake production was a government monopoly for a long time, but in the 10th century, temples and shrines began to brew sake, and they became the main centers of production for the next 500 years. The Tamon-in Diary, written by abbots of Tamon-in temple from 1478 to 1618, records many details of brewing in the temple. The diary shows that pasteurization and the process of adding ingredients to the main fermentation mash in three stages were established practices by this time.[citation needed] In the 16th century, the technique of distillation was introduced into the Kyushu district from Ryukyu. The brewing of shochu, called "Imosake" started, and was sold at the central market in Kyoto. Powerful daimyo imported various liquors and wine from China.[citation needed]

This is the title page of the earliest explanation of the process of brewing sake to be published in the West. In 1781,Isaac Titsingh published Bereiding van Sacki in Batavia, which was then the main city of the Dutch East Indies.

In the 18th century, Engelbert Kaempfer[5] and Isaac Titsingh[6] published accounts identifying sake as a popular alcoholic beverage in Japan; but Titsingh was the first to try to explain and describe the process of sake brewing. The work of both writers was widely disseminated throughout Europe at the beginning of the 19th century.[7] During the Meiji Restoration, laws were written that allowed anybody with the money and know-how to construct and operate their own sake breweries. Around 30,000 breweries sprang up around the country within a year. However, as the years went by, the government levied more and more taxes on the sake industry and slowly the number of breweries dwindled to 8,000.[citation needed] Most of the breweries that grew and survived this period were set up by wealthy landowners. Landowners who grew rice crops would have rice left over at the end of the season and, rather than letting these leftovers go to waste, would ship it to their breweries. The most successful of these family breweries still operate today. [citation
needed]

During the 20th century, sake-brewing technology grew by leaps and bounds. The government opened the sake-brewing research institute in 1904, and in 1907 the very first government-run sake tasting/competition was held. Yeast strains specifically selected for their brewing properties were isolated and enamel-coated steel tanks arrived. The government started hailing the use of enamel tanks as easy to clean, lasting forever, and

being devoid of bacterial problems. (The government considered wooden barrels to be unhygienic because of the potential bacteria living in the wood.) Although these things are true, the government also wanted more tax money from breweries, as using wooden barrels means that a significant amount of sake is lost to evaporation (somewhere around 3%), which could have otherwise been taxed. This was the end of the wooden-barrel age of sake and the use of wooden barrels in brewing was completely eliminated.[citation needed] In Japan, sake has long been taxed by the federal government. In 1898, this tax brought in about 55 million yen out of a total of about 120 million yen, about 46% of the government's total direct tax income.[8] During the Russo-Japanese War in 19041905, the government banned the home brewing of sake. At the time, sake still made up an astonishing 30% of Japan's tax revenue. Since home-brewed sake is tax-free sake, the logic was that by banning the home brewing of sake, sales would go up, and more tax money would be collected. This was the end of home-brewed sake, and the law remains in effect today even though sake sales now make up only 2% of government income.[citation needed] When World War II brought rice shortages, the sake-brewing industry was dealt a hefty blow as the government clamped down on the use of rice for brewing. As early as the late 17th century, it had been discovered that small amounts of alcohol could be added to sake before pressing to extract aromas and flavors from the rice solids, but during the war, pure alcohol and glucose were added to small quantities of rice mash, increasing the yield by as much as four times. 75% of today's sake is made using this technique, left over from the war years. There were even a few breweries producing "sake" that contained no rice at all. Naturally, the quality of sake during this time varied greatly.[citation needed] After the war, breweries slowly began to recover, and the quality of sake gradually went up. However, new players on the scenebeer, wine, and spiritsbecame very popular in Japan, and in the 1960s beer consumption surpassed sake for the first time. Sake consumption continued to go down while, in contrast, the quality of sake steadily improved. Today, sake has become a world beverage with a few breweries springing up in China, Southeast Asia, South America, North America, and Australia. More breweries are also turning to older methods of production. While the rest of the world may be drinking more sake and the quality of sake has been increasing, sake production in Japan has been declining since the mid 1970s.[9] The number of sake breweries is also declining. While there were 3,229 breweries nationwide in fiscal 1975, the number had fallen to 1,845 in 2007. [10] October 1 is the official Sake Day () of Japan.[citation needed]

[edit]Production [edit]Rice

The rice used for brewing sake is called shuz ktekimai (sake rice). The grain is larger, stronger, and contains less protein and lipid than the ordinary rice eaten by the Japanese. The rice has a starch component called shinpaku in the center of the grains. Since sake made from rice containing only starch has a superior taste, the rice is polished to remove the bran. If a grain is small or weak, it will break in the process of polishing. This rice is used only for making sake, because it is unpalatable for eating. There are at least 80 types of sake rice in Japan. Among these, Yamadanishiki, Gohyakumangoku, Miyamanishiki and Omachi rice are very popular.

[edit]Water
Water is one of the important ingredients for making sake. Rigid restrictions are observed for the concentrations of certain chemical substances which can affect the taste and quality of sake. The water used is almost always groundwater or well water. Urban breweries usually import water from other areas, because of the difficulty of getting water of sufficient quality locally.

[edit]Brewing
This section does not cite anyreferences or sources.(January 2011)

Moromi, the main mash

Sake is produced by the multiple parallel fermentation of rice. The rice is first polished to remove the protein and oils from the exterior of the rice grains, leaving behind starch. Thorough milling leads to fewer congeners and generally a more desirable product. Newly polished rice is allowed to "rest" until it has absorbed enough moisture from the air so that it will not crack when immersed in water. After this resting period, the rice is washed clean of the rice powder produced during milling and then steeped in water. The length of time depends on the degree to which the rice was polished, ranging from several hours or even overnight for an ordinary milling to just minutes for highly polished rice.

After soaking, the rice is steamed on a conveyor belt. The degree of cooking must be carefully controlled; overcooked rice will ferment too quickly for flavors to develop well and undercooked rice will only ferment on the outside. The steamed rice is then cooled and divided into portions for different uses. The microorganism Aspergillus oryzae is sprinkled onto the steamed rice and allowed to ferment for 5-7 days (Uno et al., 2009). After this initial fermentation period, water and the yeast culture Saccharomyces cerevisiae are added to the koji (rice and mold mixture) and allowed to incubate at 4 degree Celsius for about 7 days (Uno et al., 2009). Over the next four days, pre-incubated mixture of steamed rice (90 kg), fermentated rice (90 kg) and water (440L) are added to the fermented mixture in three series (Uno et al., 2009). This staggered approach allows time for the yeast to keep up with the increased volume. The mixture is now known as the main mash, or moromi (, also written ). The main mash then ferments, at approximately 15-20 degree Celsius for 23 weeks. With high-grade sake, fermentation is deliberately slowed by lowering the temperature to 10 C (50 F) or less. Unlike malt for beer, rice for sake does not contain the amylase necessary for converting starch to sugar and so it must undergo a process of multiple fermentation. The addition of A. oryzae provides the necessary amylases, glucoamylases, and proteases to hydrolyze the nutrients of the rice to support the growth of the yeast(S.cerevisiae) (Uno et al., 2009). In sake production these two processes take place at the same time rather than in separate steps, so sake is said to be made by multiple parallel fermentation. After fermentation, sake is extracted from the solid mixtures through a filtration process. For some types of sake, a small amount of distilled alcohol, called brewer's alcohol (), is added before pressing in order to extract flavors and aromas that would otherwise remain behind in the solids. In cheap sake, a large amount of brewers alcohol might be added to increase the volume of sake produced. Next, the remaining lees (a fine sediment) are removed, and the sake is carbon filtered and pasteurized. The sake is allowed to rest and mature and then usually diluted with water to lower the alcohol content from around 20% to 15% or so, before finally being bottled.

[edit]Maturing
The process during which the sake grows into a quality product during storage is called maturing. Mature sake has reached its ideal point of growth. New sake is not liked because of its rough taste, whereas mature sake is mild, smooth and rich. However, if it is too mature, it also develops a rough taste. Nine to twelve months are required for sake to mature. Aging is caused by physical and chemical factors such as oxygen supply, the broad application of external heat, nitrogen oxides, aldehydes and amino acids, among other unknown factors. It is said that Saussureae radix from the Japan cedar material of a barrel containing maturing sake comes to be valued, so the barrel is considered indispensable.

[edit]Tji
Tji (?) is the job title of the sake brewer. It is a highly respected job in the Japanese society, with tji being regarded likemusicians or painters. The title of tji was historically passed on from father to son; today new tji are either veteran brewery workers or are trained at universities. While modern breweries with refrigeration and cooling tanks operate year-round, most old-fashioned sake breweries are seasonal, operating only in the cool winter months. During the summer and fall most tji work elsewhere, and are commonly found on farms, only periodically returning to the brewery to supervise storage conditions or bottling operations.[11][unreliable source?]

[edit]Varieties

Various types of sake offered for sale at a Japanese grocery in the United States

[edit]Special-designation

sake

There are two basic types of sake: Futs-shu (?, Ordinary sake) and Tokutei meish-shu (?, special-designation sake). Futs-shu is the equivalent of table wine and accounts for the majority of sake produced. Tokutei meish-shu refers to premium sakes distinguished by the degree to which the rice has been polished and the added percentage of brewer's alcohol or the absence of such additives. There are eight varieties of special-designation sake.[12]

Special Designation

Ingredients

Rice Polishing Ratio

Percentage of Kji rice

Junmai Daiginj-shu (?, Rice, Kji rice Pure rice, Very Special brew)

Below 50%

Not less than 15%

Daiginj-shu (?, Very Special Rice, Kji rice, Distilled Below 50% alcohol[note 1] brew)

Not less than 15%

Junmai Ginj-shu (?, Pure

Rice, Kji rice

Below 60%

Not less than

rice, Special brew)

15%

Ginj-shu (?, Special brew)

Rice, Kji rice, Distilled Below 60% alcohol[note 1]

Not less than 15%

Tokubetsu Junmai-shu (?, Special Pure rice)

Rice, Kji rice

Below 60% or produced by special brewing method

Not less than 15%

Tokubetsu Honjz-shu ( ?, Special Genuine brew)

Rice, Kji rice, Distilled Below 60% or produced by alcohol[note 1] special brewing method

Not less than 15%

Junmai-shu (?, Pure rice)

Rice, Kji rice

Below 70%

Not less than 15%

Honjz-shu (?, Genuine brew)

Rice, Kji rice, Distilled Below 70% alcohol[note 1]

Not less than 15%

1.

a b c d

The weight of added alcohol must be below 10% of the weight of the rice (after polishing) used in

the brewing process.

[edit]Three

ways to make the starter mash

Kimoto () is the traditional orthodox method for preparing the starter mash, which includes the laborious process of grinding it into a paste. This method was the standard for 300 years, but it is rare today.

Yamahai () is a simplified version of the kimoto method, introduced in the early 1900s. Yamahai skips the step of making a paste out of the starter mash. That step of the kimoto method is known as yamaoroshi, and the full name for yamahai is yama-oroshi haishi (), meaning discontinuation of yama-oroshi. While the yamahai method was originally developed to speed production time, it is slower than the modern method and is now used only in specialty brews for the earthy flavors it produces.

Sokuj (), "quick fermentation", is the modern method of preparing the starter mash. Lactic acid, produced naturally in the two slower traditional methods, is added to the starter to inhibit unwanted bacteria. Sokuj sake tends to have a lighter flavor than kimoto or yamahai.

[edit]Different

handling after fermentation

Nigori, or unfiltered sake

Namazake () is sake that has not been pasteurized. It requires refrigerated storage and has a shorter shelf-life than pasteurized sake.

Genshu () is undiluted sake. Most sake is diluted with water after brewing to lower the alcohol content from 18-20% down to 14-16%, but genshu is not.

Muroka () means unfiltered. It refers to sake that has not been carbon filtered, but which has been pressed and separated from the lees, and thus is clear, not cloudy. Carbon filtration can remove desirable flavors and odors as well as bad ones, thus muroka sake has stronger flavors than filtered varieties.

Nigorizake () is cloudy sake. The sake is passed through a loose mesh to separate it from the mash. It is not filtered thereafter and there is much rice sediment in the bottle. Before serving, the bottle is shaken to mix the sediment and turn the sake white or cloudy.

Seishu (), "clear/clean sake", is the Japanese legal definition of sake and refers to sake in which the solids have been strained out, leaving clear liquid. Thus nigorizake anddoburoku (see below) are not seishu and therefore are not actually sake under Japanese law. However, nigorizake can receive the seishu status by being strained clear and having the lees put back in afterward.

Koshu () is "aged sake". Most sake does not age well, but this specially made type can age for decades, turning yellow and acquiring a honeyed flavor.

Taruzake () is sake aged in wooden barrels or bottled in wooden casks. The wood used is Cryptomeria (, sugi), which is also inaccurately known as Japanese cedar. Sake casks are often tapped ceremonially for the opening of buildings, businesses, parties, etc. Because the wood imparts a strong flavor, premium sake is rarely used for this type.

Shiboritate (), "freshly pressed", refers to sake that has been shipped without the traditional sixmonth aging/maturation period. The result is usually a more acidic, "greener" sake.

Fukurozuri () is a method of separating sake from the lees without external pressure by hanging the mash in bags and allowing the liquid to drip out under its own weight. Sake produced this way is sometimes called shizukazake (), meaning "drip sake".

Tobingakoi () is sake pressed into 18-liter bottles ("tobin") with the brewer selecting the best sake of the batch for shipping.

[edit]Others
Amazake () is a traditional sweet, low-alcoholic Japanese drink made from fermented rice. Doburoku () is the classic home-brew style of sake (although home brewing is illegal in Japan). It is created by simply addingkji mold to steamed rice and water and letting the mixture ferment. The resulting sake is somewhat like a chunkier version of nigorizake.

Jizake () is locally brewed sake, the equivalent of microbrewing beer. Kuroshu () is sake made from unpolished rice (i.e., brown rice), and is more like Chinese rice wine. Teiseihaku-shu () is sake with a deliberately high rice-polishing ratio. It is generally held that the lower the rice polishing ratio (the percent weight after polishing), the better the potential of the sake. However, beginning around 2005, teiseihaku-shu has been produced as a specialty sake made with high rice-polishing ratios, usually around 80%, to produce sake with the characteristic flavor of rice itself.

Some other terms commonly used in connection with sake:

Nihonshu-do (), also called the Sake Meter Value, or SMV SMV = (|1/specific gravity|1) 1443 Specific gravity is measured on a scale weighing the same volume of water at 4C and sake at 15C. The sweeter the sake, the lower the number. When the SMV was first used, 0 was designated the point between sweet sake and dry sake. Now +3 is considered neutral.

Seimai-buai () is the rice polishing ratio, the percentage of weight remaining after polishing. Generally, the lower the number, the better the sake's potential. A lower percentage usually results in a fruitier sake, whereas a higher percentage will taste more like rice.

Kasu () are pressed sake lees, the solids left after pressing and filtering. These are used for making tsukemono pickles, livestock feed, and shch, and as an ingredient in dishes like kasu soup.

[edit]Taste

and flavor

This section does not cite anyreferences or sources.(January 2011)

The label on a bottle of sake gives a rough indication of its taste. Terms found on the label may include nihonshu-do (), san-do(), and aminosan-do ().

Nihonshu-do () indicates the sugar and acid content[contradiction] of the sake. When comparing sake to water, sake that is heavier[clarification needed] than water is listed as a negative value, and sake that is lighter (drier) than water is given a positive value. As examples, "+10" is very dry, and "10" is very sweet. San-do () indicates the concentration of acid, which is determined by titration. Sake with a high sando value is dry, and low san-do is sweet.[contradiction] Aminosan-do () indicates a taste of umami or savoriness. As the proportion of amino acids rises, the sake tastes more savory. Sake can have many flavor notes, such as apples, bananas, melons, flowers, herbs, spices, rice, chestnuts, chocolates, dry grapes, sherry, caramel sauce, etc. The flavor of apples comes from ethyl caproate, and bananas from isoamyl acetate. These two constituents are contained in many types of sake, such as ginjyoshu ().

[edit]Serving

sake

Main article: Sake set

Sake can be served in a wide variety of cups; here is a sakazuki (a flat, saucer-like cup), an ochoko (a small, cylindrical cup), and a masu (a wooden, box-like cup).

In Japan sake is served chilled, at room temperature, or heated, depending on the preference of the drinker, the quality of the sake, and the season. Typically, hot sake is a winter drink, and high-grade sake is not drunk hot, because the flavors and aromas will be lost. This masking of flavor is the reason that low-quality and old sake is often served hot. Sake is usually drunk from small cups called choko, and poured into the choko from ceramic flasks called tokkuri. Saucer-like cups called sakazuki are also used, most commonly at weddings and other ceremonial occasions. Recently, footed glasses made specifically for premium sake have also come into use. Another traditional cup is the masu, a box usually made of hinoki or sugi, which was originally used for measuring rice. In some Japanese restaurants, as a show of generosity, the server may put a glass inside the masu or put the masu on a saucer and pour until sake overflows and fills both containers.

Aside from being served straight, sake can be used as a mixer for cocktails, such as tamagozake, saketinis, nogasake, or the sake bomb.

[edit]Storage
Sake is sold in volume units divisible by 180 mL (a g), the traditional Japanese unit for cup size: sake is traditional sold by the g-sized cup, or in a 1.8 L (one sh, ten g) sized flask. Today sake is also often sold in 720 mL (four g) bottles note that this is almost the same as the 750 mL standard for wine bottles, but is divisible into 4 g. In general, it is best to keep sake refrigerated in a cool or dark room, as prolonged exposure to heat or direct light will lead to spoilage. In addition, sake stored at relatively high time can lead to formation of dicetopiperazine, a cyclo (Pro-Leu) that makes it bitter as it ages (Lecture Note, Oct. 2011). Sake has high microbiological stability due to its high content of ethanol. However, incidences of spoilage has been known to occur. One of the microoganisms implicated in this spoilage is lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that has grown tolerant to ethanol and is referred to as hiochi-bacteria (Suzuki et al., 2008). Sake stored at room temperature is best consumed within a few months after purchase.[citation needed] After opening a bottle of sake, it is best consumed within 2 or 3 hours.[citation needed] It is possible to store sake in the refrigerator, but it is recommended to finish the sake within 2 days. This is because once premium sake is opened it begins to oxidize, which affects the taste. If the sake is kept in the refrigerator for more than 3 days, it will lose its "best" flavor. However, this does not mean it should be disposed of if not consumed. Generally, sake can keep very well and still taste just fine after weeks in the refrigerator. How long a sake will remain drinkable depends on the actual product itself, and whether it is sealed with a wine vacuum top.

[edit]Ceremonial

use

A cask of sake before the kagami biraki

Decorative sake containers in aNakatsugawa shop

Sake is often consumed as part of Shinto purification rituals (compare with the use of grapewine in the Christian Eucharist). Sakes served to gods as offerings prior to drinking are called Omiki or Miki (,

). People drink Omiki with gods to communicate with them and to solicit rich harvests the following year.
During World War II, kamikaze pilots drank sake prior to carrying out their missions. In a ceremony called kagami biraki, wooden casks of sake are opened with mallets during Shinto festivals, weddings, store openings, sports and election victories, and other celebrations. This sake, called iwaizake ("celebration sake"), is served freely to all to spread good fortune. At the New Year many Japanese people drink a special sake called toso. Toso is a sort of iwai-zake made by soaking tososan, a Chinese powdered medicine, overnight in sake. Even children sip a portion. In some regions, the first sips of toso are taken in order of age, from the youngest to the eldest.

Origami
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Paper folding" redirects here. For other uses, see Paper folding (disambiguation). For other uses of Origami, see Origami (disambiguation).

Origami cranes

The folding of an Origami crane

Origami (?, from ori meaning "folding", and kami meaning "paper"; kamichanges to gami due to rendaku) is the traditional Japanese art of paper folding, which started in the 17th century AD at the latest and was popularized outside of Japan in the mid-1900s. It has since then evolved into a modern art form. The goal of this art is to transform a flat sheet of paper into a finished sculpture through folding and sculpting techniques, and as such the use of cuts or glue are not considered to be origami. Paper cutting and gluing is usually considered kirigami. The number of basic origami folds is small, but they can be combined in a variety of ways to make intricate designs. The best known origami model is probably the Japanese paper crane. In general, these designs begin with a square sheet of paper whose sides may be different colors or prints. Traditional Japanese origami, which has been practiced since the Edo era (16031867), has often been less strict about these conventions, sometimes cutting the paper or using nonsquare shapes to start with. The principles of origami are also being used in stents, packaging and other engineering structures.[1]
Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Techniques and materials

o o o

2.1 Techniques 2.2 Origami paper 2.3 Tools

3 Types of origami

o o

3.1 Action origami 3.2 Modular origami

o o o o

3.3 Wet-folding 3.4 Pureland origami 3.5 Origami tessellations 3.6 Kirigami

4 Mathematics and technical origami

o o o

4.1 Mathematics and practical applications 4.2 Technical origami 4.3 Origami-related computer programs

5 Ethics 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

[edit]History
Main article: History of origami

A group of Japanese schoolchildren dedicate their contribution of Thousand origami cranes at the Sadako Sasakimemorial in Hiroshima.

There is much speculation about the origin of Origami. While Japan seems to have had the most extensive tradition, there is evidence of an independent tradition of paperfolding in China, as well as in Germany, Italy

and Spain among other places. However, because of the problems associated with preserving origami, there is very little direct evidence of its age or origins, aside from references in published material. In China, traditional funerals include burning folded paper, most often representations of gold nuggets (yuanbao). It is not known when this practice started, but it seems to have become popular during the Sung Dynasty (9051125 CE).[2] The paper folding has typically been of objects like dishes, hats or boats rather than animals or flowers.[3] The earliest evidence of paperfolding in Europe is a picture of a small paper boat in Tractatusde sphaera mundi from 1490. There is also evidence of a cut and folded paper box from 1440.[4] It is probable that paperfolding in the west originated with the Moors much earlier,[5]it is not known if it was independently discovered or knowledge of origami came along the silk route. In Japan, the earliest unambiguous reference to a paper model is in a short poem by Ihara Saikaku in 1680 which describes paper butterflies in a dream.[6] Origami butterflies were used during the celebration of Shinto weddings to represent the bride and groom, so paperfolding had already become a significant aspect of Japanese ceremony by the Heian period (7941185) of Japanese history, enough that the reference in this poem would be recognized. Samurai warriors would exchange gifts adorned with noshi, a sort of good luck token made of folded strips of paper. In the early 1900s, Akira Yoshizawa, Kosho Uchiyama, and others began creating and recording original origami works. Akira Yoshizawa in particular was responsible for a number of innovations, such as wetfolding and the YoshizawaRandlett diagramming system, and his work inspired a renaissance of the art form.[7] During the 1980s a number of folders started systematically studying the mathematical properties of folded forms, which led to a steady increase in the complexity of origami models, which continued well into the 1990s, after which some designers started returning to simpler forms.[8]

[edit]Techniques [edit]Techniques

and materials

Main article: YoshizawaRandlett system Many origami books begin with a description of basic origami techniques which are used to construct the models. These include simple diagrams of basic folds like valley and mountain folds, pleats, reverse folds, squash folds, and sinks. There are also standard named bases which are used in a wide variety of models, for instance the bird base is an intermediate stage in the construction of the flapping bird.[9] Additional bases are the preliminary base (square base), fish base, waterbomb base, and the frog base.[10]

[edit]Origami

paper

Main article: Origami paper

A crane and papers of the same size used to fold it

Almost any laminar (flat) material can be used for folding; the only requirement is that it should hold a crease. Origami paper, often referred to as "kami" (Japanese for paper), is sold in prepackaged squares of various sizes ranging from 2.5 cm (1 in) to 25 cm (10 in) or more. It is commonly colored on one side and white on the other; however, dual coloured and patterned versions exist and can be used effectively for color-changed models. Origami paper weighs slightly less than copy paper, making it suitable for a wider range of models. Normal copy paper with weights of 7090 g/m2 can be used for simple folds, such as the craneand waterbomb. Heavier weight papers of (1924&nb 100 g/m2 (approx. 25 lb) or more can bewet-folded. This technique allows for a more rounded sculpting of the model, which becomes rigid and sturdy when it is dry. Foil-backed paper, as its name implies, is a sheet of thin foil glued to a sheet of thin paper. Related to this is tissue foil, which is made by gluing a thin piece of tissue paper to kitchen aluminium foil. A second piece of tissue can be glued onto the reverse side to produce a tissue/foil/tissue sandwich. Foil-backed paper is available commercially, but not tissue foil; it must be handmade. Both types of foil materials are suitable for complex models. Washi (?) is the traditional origami paper used in Japan. Washi is generally tougher than ordinary paper made from wood pulp, and is used in many traditional arts. Washi is commonly made using fibres from the bark of the gampi tree, the mitsumata shrub (Edgeworthia papyrifera), or the paper mulberry but can also be made using bamboo, hemp, rice, and wheat. Artisan papers such as unryu, lokta, hanji, gampi, kozo, saa, and abaca have long fibres and are often extremely strong. As these papers are floppy to start with, they are often backcoated or resized with methylcellulose or wheat paste before folding. Also, these papers are extremely thin and compressible, allowing for thin, narrowed limbs as in the case of insect models. Paper money from various countries is also popular to create origami with; this is known variously as Dollar Origami, Orikane, and Money Origami.

[edit]Tools

It is common to fold using a flat surface but some folders like doing it in the air with no tools especially when displaying the folding. Many folders believe that no tool should be used when folding. However a couple of tools can help especially with the more complex models. For instance a bone folder allows sharp creases to be made in the paper easily, paper clips can act as extra pairs of fingers, and tweezers can be used to make small folds. When making complex models from origami crease patterns, it can help to use a rulerand ballpoint embosser to score the creases. Completed models can be sprayed so they keep their shape better, and a spray is needed when wet folding.

[edit]Types [edit]Action

of origami
origami

Main article: Action origami Origami not only covers still-life, there are also moving objects; Origami can move in clever ways. Action origami includes origami that flies, requires inflation to complete, or, when complete, uses the kinetic energy of a person's hands, applied at a certain region on the model, to move another flap or limb. Some argue that, strictly speaking, only the latter is really "recognized" as action origami. Action origami, first appearing with the traditional Japanese flapping bird, is quite common. One example is Robert Lang's instrumentalists; when the figures' heads are pulled away from their bodies, their hands will move, resembling the playing of music.

[edit]Modular

origami

A stellated icosahedron made from custom papers

Main article: Modular origami Modular origami consists of putting a number of identical pieces together to form a complete model. Normally the individual pieces are simple but the final assembly may be tricky. Many of the modular origami models are decorative balls like kusudama, the technique differs though in that kusudama allows the pieces to be put together using thread or glue.

Chinese paper folding includes a style called Golden Venture Folding where large numbers of pieces are put together to make elaborate models. It is most commonly known as "3d origami", however, that name did not appear until Joie Staff published a series of books titled "3D Origami", "More 3D Origami", and "More and More 3D Origami". Sometimes paper money is used for the modules. This style originated from some Chinese refugees while they were detained in America and is also called Golden Venture folding from the ship they came on.

[edit]Wet-folding
Main article: Wet-folding Wet-folding is an origami technique for producing models with gentle curves rather than geometric straight folds and flat surfaces. The paper is dampened so it can be moulded easily, the final model keeps its shape when it dries. It can be used, for instance, to produce very natural looking animal models. Size, an adhesive that is crisp and hard when dry, but dissolves in water when wet and becoming soft and flexible, is often applied to the paper either at the pulp stage while the paper is being formed, or on the surface of a ready sheet of paper. The latter method is called external sizing and most commonly uses Methylcellulose, or MC, paste, or various plant starches.

[edit]Pureland

origami

Main article: Pureland origami Pureland origami is origami with the restriction that only one fold may be done at a time, more complex folds like reverse folds are not allowed, and all folds have straightforward locations. It was developed by John Smith in the 1970s to help inexperienced folders or those with limited motor skills. Some designers also like the challenge of creating good models within the very strict constraints.

[edit]Origami

tessellations

This branch of origami is one that has grown in popularity recently. A tessellation is a collection of figures filling a plane with no gaps or overlaps. In origami tessellations, pleats are used to connect molecules such as twist folds together in a repeating fashion. During the 1960s, Shuzo Fujimoto was the first to explore twist fold tessellations in any systematic way, coming up with dozens of patterns and establishing the genre in the origami mainstream. Around the same time period, Ron Resch patented some tessellation patterns as part of his explorations into kinetic sculpture and developable surfaces, although his work was not known by the origami community until the 1980s. Chris Palmer is an artist who has extensively explored tessellations after seeing the Zilij patterns in theAlhambra, and has found ways to create detailed origami tessellations out of silk. Robert Lang and Alex Bateman are two designers who use computer programs to create origami tessellations. The first American book on origami tessellations was just published by Eric Gjerde and the field has been expanding rapidly. There are numerous

origami tessellation artists including Chris Palmer (U.S.), Eric Gjerde (U.S.), Polly Verity (Scotland), Joel Cooper (U.S.), Christine Edison (U.S.), Ray Schamp (U.S.), Roberto Gretter (Italy), Goran Konjevod (U.S.),and Christiane Bettens (Switzerland) that are showing works that are both geometric and representational.

[edit]Kirigami
Main article: Kirigami Kirigami is a Japanese term for paper cutting. Cutting was often used in traditional Japanese origami, but modern innovations in technique have made the use of cuts unnecessary. Most origami designers no longer consider models with cuts to be origami, instead using the term Kirigami to describe them. This change in attitude occurred during the 1960s and 70s, so early origami books often use cuts, but for the most part they have disappeared from the modern origami repertoire; most modern books don't even mention cutting. [11]

[edit]Mathematics [edit]Mathematics

and technical origami

and practical applications

Spring Into Action, designed by Jeff Beynon, made from a single rectangular piece of paper. [12]

Main article: Mathematics of paper folding The practice and study of origami encapsulates several subjects of mathematical interest. For instance, the problem of flat-foldability (whether a crease pattern can be folded into a 2-dimensional model) has been a topic of considerable mathematical study. A number of technological advances have come from insights obtained through paper folding. For example, techniques have been developed for the deployment of car airbags and stentimplants from a folded position.[13] The problem of rigid origami ("if we replaced the paper with sheet metal and had hinges in place of the crease lines, could we still fold the model?") has great practical importance. For example, the Miura map fold is a rigid fold that has been used to deploy large solar panel arrays for spacesatellites. Origami can be used to construct various geometrical designs not possible with compass and straightedge constructions. For instance paper folding may be used for angle trisection and doubling the cube.

There are plans for an origami airplane to be launched from space. A prototype passed a durability test in a wind tunnel on March 2008, and Japan's space agency adopted it for feasibility studies.

[edit]Technical

origami

Technical origami, also known as origami sekkei (?), is a field of origami that has developed almost hand-in-hand with the field of mathematical origami. In the early days of origami, development of new designs was largely a mix of trial-and-error, luck and serendipity. With advances in origami mathematics however, the basic structure of a new origami model can be theoretically plotted out on paper before any actual folding even occurs. This method of origami design was developed by Robert Lang, Meguro Toshiyuki and others, and allows for the creation of extremely complex multi-limbed models such as many-legged centipedes, human figures with a full complement of fingers and toes, and the like. The main starting point for such technical designs is the crease pattern (often abbreviated as CP), which is essentially the layout of the creases required to form the final model. Although not intended as a substitute for diagrams, folding from crease patterns is starting to gain in popularity, partly because of the challenge of being able to 'crack' the pattern, and also partly because the crease pattern is often the only resource available to fold a given model, should the designer choose not to produce diagrams. Still, there are many cases in which designers wish to sequence the steps of their models but lack the means to design clear diagrams. Such origamists occasionally resort to the sequenced crease pattern (SCP) which is a set of crease patterns showing the creases up to each respective fold. The SCP eliminates the need for diagramming programs or artistic ability while maintaining the step-by-step process for other folders to see. Another name for the sequenced crease pattern is the progressive crease pattern (PCP). Paradoxically enough, when origami designers come up with a crease pattern for a new design, the majority of the smaller creases are relatively unimportant and added only towards the completion of the crease pattern. What is more important is the allocation of regions of the paper and how these are mapped to the structure of the object being designed. For a specific class of origami bases known as 'uniaxial bases', the pattern of allocations is referred to as the 'circle-packing'. Using optimization algorithms, a circle-packing figure can be computed for any uniaxial base of arbitrary complexity. Once this figure is computed, the creases which are then used to obtain the base structure can be added. This is not a unique mathematical process, hence it is possible for two designs to have the same circle-packing, and yet different crease pattern structures. As a circle encloses the maximum amount of area for a given perimeter, circle packing allows for maximum efficiency in terms of paper usage. However, other polygonal shapes can be used to solve the packing problem as well. The use of polygonal shapes other than circles is often motivated by the desire to find easily locatable creases (such as multiples of 22.5 degrees) and hence an easier folding sequence as well. One popular offshoot of the circle packing method is box-pleating, where squares are used instead of circles. As a result, the

crease pattern that arises from this method contains only 45 and 90 degree angles, which makes for easier folding.

[edit]Origami-related

computer programs

Doodle: used to diagram all the steps and figures involved in the creation of a figure. Treemaker: useful in designing a figure. OriPa: a program for drawing up crease patterns. Allows one to see what a crease pattern looks like when folded.

[edit]Ethics
Copyright in origami designs and the use of models has become an increasingly important issue as the internet has made the sale and distribution of pirated designs very easy.[14] It is considered good ethics to always credit the original artist and the folder when displaying origami models. All commercial rights to designs and models are typically reserved by origami artists. Normally a person who folds a model using a legally obtained design can publicly display the model unless such rights are specifically reserved, however folding a design for money or commercial use of a photo for instance would require consent.[15]

Japanese tea ceremony

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tea ceremony

The Japanese tea ceremony, also called the Way of Tea, is a Japanese culturalactivity involving the ceremonial preparation and presentation of matcha, powdered green tea. In Japanese, it is called chanoyu ( ?) or chad, sad (?). The manner in which it is performed, or the art of its performance, is called otemae (; ?). Zen Buddhism was a primary influence in the development of the tea ceremony. Much less commonly, it uses leaf tea, primarily sencha; see sencha tea ceremony, below.

Tea gatherings are classified as chakai (?) or chaji (?). A chakai is a relatively simple course of hospitality that includes confections, thin tea ( usucha?), and perhaps a light meal. A chaji is a much more formal gathering, usually including a full-course kaiseki meal followed by confections, thick tea ( koicha?), and thin tea. Achaji can last up to four hours.
Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Venues 3 Seasons 4 Koicha and usucha 5 Equipment 6 Usual sequence of a chaji 7 Types of temae

o o o o

7.1 Chabako temae 7.2 Hakobi-temae 7.3 O-Bon temae/bonryaku 7.4 Ryrei

8 Tea ceremony and calligraphy 9 Tea ceremony and flower arrangement 10 Kaiseki (Cha-kaiseki) 11 Tea ceremony and kimono 12 Tea ceremony and seiza 13 Tea ceremony and tatami 14 Studying the tea ceremony 15 Terminology of (d) with respect to tea 16 Zen and tea 17 Sencha tea ceremony 18 See also 19 References 20 Further reading 21 External links

[edit]History

The first documented evidence of tea in Japan dates to the 9th century, when it was taken by the Buddhist monk Eich () on his return from China. The entry in the Nihon Kki states that Eich personally prepared and served sencha (unground Japanese green tea) to Emperor Saga who was on an excursion in Karasaki (in present Shiga Prefecture) in the year 815. By imperial order in the year 816, tea plantations began to be cultivated in the Kinki region of Japan.[1] However, the interest in tea in Japan faded after this.[2] In China, tea had already been known, according to legend, for more than a thousand years. The form of tea popular in China in Eich's time was "cake tea" ( dancha?)tea compressed into a nugget in the same manner as Pu-erh. This then would be ground in a mortar, and the resulting ground tea decocted together with various other herbs and/or flavourings.[3] The custom of drinking tea, first for medicinal, and then largely also for pleasurable reasons, was already widespread throughout China. In the early 9th century, Chinese author Lu Yu wrote The Classic of Tea, a treatise on tea focusing on its cultivation and preparation. Lu Yu's life had been heavily influenced by Buddhism, particularly the ZenChn school. His ideas would have a strong influence in the development of the Japanese tea ceremony.[4] Around the end of the 12th century, the style of tea preparation called "tencha" (?), in which powdered matcha was placed into a bowl, hot water added, and the tea and hot water whipped together, was introduced to Japan by Eisai, another monk, on his return from China. He also took tea seeds back with him, which eventually produced tea that was of the most superb quality in all of Japan.[5][citation needed]

An open tea house serving matcha (ippuku issen , right) and a

peddler selling decoctants (senjimono-uri ja:

, left) in Muromachi period illustrated in 24th poem match in Shichiju-ichiban shokunin utaawase (ja:, Seventy-one Poetry Matches on the (142) Occupations, a copy ofTokyo National Museum reproduced in 1846, originally compiled in 1500). Ippuku issen's monk clothing depicts the relationship between matcha culture, tea ceremony, and Buddhism.

This powdered green tea was first used in religious rituals inBuddhist monasteries. By the 13th century, when theKamakura Shogunate ruled the nation and tea and the luxuries associated with it became a kind of status symbol among the warrior class, and there arose tea-tasting (ja:tcha?) parties wherein contestants could win extravagant prizes for guessing the best quality teathat grown in Kyoto, deriving from the seeds that Eisai brought from China. The next major period in Japanese history was theMuromachi Period, pointing to the rise of Kitayama Culture(ja: Kitayama bunka?), centered around the gorgeous cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his villa in the northern hills of Kyoto (Kinkaku-ji), and later during this period, the rise of Higashiyama Culture, centered around the elegant cultural world of Ashikaga Yoshimasa and his retirement villa in the eastern hills of Kyoto (Ginkaku-ji). This period saw the budding of what is generally regarded as Japanese traditional culture as we know it today. The Japanese tea ceremony developed as a "transformative practice", and began to evolve its own aesthetic, in particular that of "wabi-sabi". "Wabi" represents the inner, or spiritual, experiences of human lives. Its original meaning indicated quiet or sober refinement, or subdued taste "characterized by humility, restraint, simplicity, naturalism, profundity, imperfection, and asymmetry" and "emphasizes simple, unadorned objects and architectural space, and celebrates the mellow beauty that time and care impart to materials." [6] "Sabi," on the other hand, represents the outer, or material side of life. Originally, it meant "worn," "weathered," or "decayed." Particularly among the nobility, understanding emptiness was considered the most effective means to spiritual awakening, while embracing imperfection was honoured as a healthy reminder to cherish our unpolished selves, here and now, just as we are - the first step to "satori" or enlightenment.[7] Murata Juk is known in chanoyu history as an early developer of tea ceremony as a spiritual practice. He studied Zen under the monkIkky, who revitalized Zen in the 15th century, and this is considered to have influenced his concept of chanoyu.[8] By the 16th century, tea drinking had spread to all levels of society in Japan. Sen no Riky and his work Southern Record, perhaps the most well-knownand still reveredhistorical figure in tea ceremony, followed his master Takeno J's concept of ichi-go ichi-e, a philosophy that each meeting should be treasured, for it can never be reproduced. His teachings perfected many newly developed forms in architecture and gardens, art, and the full development of "the "way of tea". The principles he set forward harmony ( wa?), respect( kei?), purity ( sei?), and tranquility ( jaku?)are still central to tea ceremony. Many schools of Japanese tea ceremony have evolved through the long history of chad and are active today.

[edit]Venues
Main article: Chashitsu

While a purpose-built tatami-floored room is considered the ideal venue, any place where the necessary implements for the making and serving of the tea can be set out and where the host can make the tea in the presence of the seated guest(s) can be used as a venue for tea. For instance, a tea gathering can be held picnic-style in the outdoors (this is known as nodate (?)). A purpose-built room designed for the wabi style of tea is called a chashitsu, and is ideally 4.5 tatami in floor area. It has a low ceiling; a hearth built into the floor; shoji screens; an alcove for hanging scrolls and placing other decorative objects; and several entrances for host and guests. It also has an attached preparation area known as a mizuya. A 4.5-mat room is considered standard, but smaller and larger rooms are also used. Building materials and decorations are deliberately simple and rustic in wabi style tea rooms. Chashitsucan also refer to free-standing buildings for tea ceremony. Known in English as tea houses, such structures may contain several tea rooms of different sizes and styles, dressing and waiting rooms, and other amenities, and be surrounded by a tea garden called a roji.

[edit]Seasons

The ro season; a host rests a bamboo ladle on an iron pot that rests inside the ro).

Seasonality and the changing of the seasons are important in tea ceremony. Traditionally the year is divided by tea practitioners into two main seasons: the sunken hearth ( ro?) season, constituting the colder months (traditionally November to April), and the brazier ( furo?) season, constituting the warmer months (traditionally May to October). For each season, there are variations in the temae performed and utensils and other equipment used. Ideally, the configuration of the tatami in a 4.5 mat room changes with the season as well.

[edit]Koicha

and usucha

There are two main ways of preparing matcha for tea ceremony: thick ( koicha?)and thin ( usucha?), with the best quality tea leaves used in preparing thick tea. Historically, the tea leaves used as packing material for the koicha leaves in the tea urn( chatsubo?) would be served as thin tea. Japanese historical

documents about tea ceremony that differentiate between usucha and koicha first appear in the Tenmon era (153255).[9] The first documented appearance of the term koicha is in 1575.[10] As the terms imply, koicha is a thick blend of matcha and hot water that requires about three times as much tea to the equivalent amount of water than usucha. To prepare usucha, matcha and hot water are whipped using the tea whisk ( chasen?), while koichais kneaded with the whisk to smoothly blend the large amount of powdered tea with the water. Thin tea is served to each guest in an individual bowl, while one bowl of thick tea is shared among several guests. This style of sharing a bowl of koicha first appeared in historical documents in 1586, and is a method considered to have been invented by Sen no Riky.[10] The most important part of a chaji is the preparation and drinking of koicha, which is followed by usucha. A chakai may involve only the preparation and serving of thin tea (and accompanying confections), representing the more relaxed, finishing portion of a chaji.

[edit]Equipment
Main article: List of Japanese tea ceremony equipment Tea equipment is called chadgu (?). A wide range of chadgu is available and different styles and motifs are used for different events and in different seasons. All the tools for tea ceremony are handled with exquisite care. They are scrupulously cleaned before and after each use and before storing, and some are handled only with gloved hands. The following are a few of the essential components:

Chakin (?). The "chakin" is a small rectangular white linen or hemp cloth mainly used to wipe the tea bowl.

A 16th century black Raku ware style chawan, used for thick tea (Tokyo National Museum)

Two modern "thin tea" bowls

Tea bowl ( chawan?). Tea bowls are available in a wide range of sizes and styles, and different styles are used for thick and thin tea. Shallow bowls, which allow the tea to cool rapidly, are used in summer; deep bowls are used in winter. Bowls are frequently named by their creators or owners, or by a tea master. Bowls over four hundred years old are in use today, but only on unusually special occasions. The best bowls are thrown by hand, and some bowls are extremely valuable. Irregularities and imperfections are prized: they are often featured prominently as the "front" of the bowl.

Tea caddy ( Natsume?). The small lidded container in which the powdered tea is placed for use in the tea-making procedure ([]; []; [] [o]temae?).

Tea scoop ( chashaku?). Tea scoops generally are carved from a single piece of bamboo, although they may also be made of ivory or wood. They are used to scoop tea from the tea caddy into the tea bowl. Bamboo tea scoops in the most casual style have a nodule in the approximate center. Larger scoops are used to transfer tea into the tea caddy in the mizuya (preparation area), but these are not seen by guests. Different styles and colours are used in various tea traditions.

Tea whisk ( chasen?). This is the implement used to mix the powdered tea with the hot water. Tea whisks are carved from a single piece of bamboo. There are various types. Tea whisks quickly become worn and damaged with use, and the host should use a new one when holding a chakai or chaji.

[edit]Usual

sequence of a chaji

Procedures vary from school to school, and with the time of year, time of day, venue, and other considerations. The noon tea gathering of one host and a maximum of five guests is considered the most formal chaji. The following is a general description of a noon chaji held in the cool weather season at a purpose-built tea house.

The guests arrive a little before the appointed time and enter an interior waiting room, where they store unneeded items such as coats, and put on fresh tabi. Ideally, the waiting room has a tatami floor and an alcove (tokonoma), in which is displayed ahanging scroll which may allude to the season, the theme of the chaji, or some other appropriate theme. The guests are served a cup of the hot water, kombu tea, roasted barley tea, or sakurayu. When all the guests have arrived and finished their preparations, they proceed to the outdoor waiting bench in the roji, where they remain until summoned by the host. Following a silent bow between host and guests, the guests proceed in order to a stone basin where they ritually purify themselves by washing their hands and rinsing their mouths with water at tsukubai, and then continue along the roji to the tea house. They remove their footwear and enter the tea room through a small "crawling-in" door (nijiri-guchi), and proceed to view the items placed in thetokonoma and any tea equipment placed ready in the room, and are then seated seiza-style on the tatami in order of prestige. When the last guest has taken their place, they close the door with an audible sound to alert the host, who enters the tea room and welcomes each guest, and then answers questions posed by the first guest about the scroll and other items. The chaji begins in the cool months with the laying of the charcoal fire which is used to heat the water. Following this, guests are served a meal in several courses accompanied by sake and followed by a small sweet (wagashi) eaten from special paper called kaishi (?), which each guest carries, often in a decorative wallet or tucked into the breast of the kimono.[11] After the meal, there is a break called a nakadachi, () during which the guests return to the waiting shelter until summoned again by the host, who uses the break to sweep the tea room, take down the scroll and replace it with a flower arrangement, open the tea room's shutters, and make preparations for serving the tea. Having been summoned back to the tea room by the sound of a bell or gong rung in prescribed ways, the guests again purify themselves and examine the items placed in the tea room. The host then enters, ritually cleanses each utensilincluding the tea bowl, whisk, and tea scoopin the presence of the guests in a precise order and using prescribed motions, and places them in an exact arrangement according to the particular temae procedure being performed. When the preparation of the utensils is complete, the host prepares thick tea. Bows are exchanged between the host and the guest receiving the tea. The guest then bows to the second guest, and raises the bowl in a gesture of respect to the host. The guest rotates the bowl to avoid drinking from its front, takes a sip, and compliments the host on the tea. After taking a few sips, the guest wipes clean the rim of the bowl and passes it to the second guest. The procedure is repeated until all guests have taken tea from the same bowl; each guest then has an opportunity to admire the bowl before it is returned to the host, who then cleanses the equipment and leaves the tea room.

The host then rekindles the fire and adds more charcoal. This signifies a change from the more formal portion of the gathering to the more casual portion, and the host will return to the tea room to bring in a smoking set ( tabako-bon?) and more confections, usually higashi, to accompany the thin tea, and possibly cushions for the guests' comfort. The host will then proceed with the preparation of an individual bowl of thin tea to be served to each guest. While in earlier portions of the gathering conversation is limited to a few formal comments exchanged between the first guest and the host, in the usucha portion, after a similar ritual exchange, the guests may engage in casual conversation. After all the guests have taken tea, the host cleans the utensils in preparation for putting them away. The guest of honour will request that the host allow the guests to examine some of the utensils, and each guest in turn examines each item, including the tea caddy and the tea scoop. The items are treated with extreme care and reverence as they may be priceless, irreplaceable, handmade antiques, and guests often use a special brocaded cloth to handle them. The host then collects the utensils, and the guests leave the tea house. The host bows from the door, and the ceremony is over. A tea ceremony can last up to four hours, depending on the type of ceremony performed, the number of guests, and the types of meal and tea served.

[edit]Types

of temae

Each action in sad how a kettle is used, how a teacup is examined, how tea is scooped into a cup is performed in a very specific way, and may be thought of as a procedure or technique. The procedures performed in sad are called, collectively, temae. The act of performing these procedures during a chaji is called "doing temae". There are many styles of temae, depending upon the school, occasion, season, setting, equipment, and countless other possible factors. The following is a short, general list of common types of temae.

[edit]Chabako

temae

Chabako temae (?) is so called because the equipment is removed from and then replaced into a special box known as a"chabako" (?, lit. "tea box"). Chabako developed as a convenient way to prepare the necessary equipment for making tea outdoors. The basic equipment contained in the chabako are the tea bowl, tea whisk (kept in a special container), tea scoop and tea caddy, and linen wiping cloth in a special container, as well as a container for little candy-like sweets. Many of the items are smaller than usual, to fit in the box. This ceremony takes approximately 3540 minutes.

[edit]Hakobi-temae

Hakobi-demae (?) is so called because, except for the hot water kettle (and brazier if a sunken hearth is not being used), the essential items for the tea-making, including even the fresh water container, are carried into the tea room by the host as a part of thetemae. In other temae, the water jar and perhaps other items, depending upon the style of temae, are placed in the tea room before the guests enter.

[edit]O-Bon

temae/bonryaku

o-bon temae (?), bon temae (?), or bonryaku temae (?) is a simple procedure for making usucha (thin tea). The tea bowl, tea whisk, tea scoop, chakin and tea caddy are placed on a tray, and the hot water is prepared in a kettle called a tetsubin, which is heated on a brazier. This is usually the first temae learned, and is the easiest to perform, requiring neither much specialized equipment nor a lot of time to complete. It may easily be done sitting at a table, or outdoors, using a thermos pot in place of thetetsubin and portable hearth.

[edit]Ryrei

A woman holding a natsume performs a ryrei style ceremony. Visible from far left to right are the red fresh water container (its lid is on the tana), the tea whisk, the tea bowl, the iron pot and the ladle (resting on the pot).

In the ryrei (?) style, the tea is prepared with the host seated at a special table, and the guests are also seated at tables. It is possible, therefore, for ryrei-style temae to be conducted nearly anywhere, even outdoors. The name refers to the host's practice of performing the first and last bows while standing. In ryreithere is usually an assistant who sits near the host and moves the host's seat out of the way as needed

for standing or sitting. The assistant also serves the tea and sweets to the guests. This procedure originated in the Urasenke school, initially for serving non-Japanese guests who, it was thought, would be more comfortable sitting on chairs.

[edit]Tea

ceremony and calligraphy

Calligraphy, mainly in the form of hanging scrolls, plays a central role in tea ceremony. Scrolls, often written by famous calligraphers or Buddhist monks, are hung in the tokonoma (scroll alcove) of the tea room. They are selected for their appropriateness for the occasion, including the season and the theme of the particular gettogether. Calligraphic scrolls may feature well-known sayings, particularly those associated with Buddhism, poems, descriptions of famous places, or words or phrases associated with tea ceremony. Historian and author Haga Kshir points out that it is clear from the teachings of Sen no Riky recorded in the Namp roku that the suitability of any particular scroll for a tea gathering depends not only on the subject of the writing itself but also on the virtue of the writer. Further, Haga points out that Riky preferred to hang bokuseki (lit., "ink traces"), the calligraphy of Zen Buddhist priests, in the tea room.[12] A typical example of a hanging scroll in a tea room might have the kanji (wa-kei-sei-jaku, lit. "harmony", "respect", "purity", and "tranquility"), expressing the four key principles of the Way of Tea. Some contain only a single character; in summer, (kaze, lit. "wind") would be appropriate. Hanging scrolls that feature a painting instead of calligraphy, or a combination of both, are also used. Scrolls are sometimes placed in the waiting room as well.

[edit]Tea

ceremony and flower arrangement

Chabana (?) is the simple style of flower arrangement used in tea ceremony. Chabana has its roots in ikebana, an older style of Japanese flower arranging, which itself has roots in Shinto and Buddhism. Chabana evolved from the "free-form" style of ikebana called nageire (?), literally "throw (it) in", which was used by early tea masters. Chabana is said, depending upon the source, to have been either developed or championed by Sen no Riky. He is said to have taught that chabana should give the viewer the same impression that those flowers naturally would give if they were [still] growing outdoors, in nature. Unnatural and/or out-of-season materials are never used. Also, props and other devices are not used. The containers in which chabanaare arranged are referred to generically as hanaire (
?

). Chabana arrangements typically comprise few items, and little or no filler material. In the summer, when

many flowering grasses are in season in Japan, however, it is seasonally appropriate to arrange a number of such flowering grasses in an airy basket-type container. Unlike ikebana (which often uses shallow, wide dishes), tall, narrowhanaire are frequently used in chabana. The containers for the flowers used in tea rooms are typically made from natural materials such as bamboo, as well as metal or ceramic, but rarely glass. Chabana arrangements are so simple that frequently no more than a single blossom is used; this blossom will invariably lean towards or face the guests.[13]

[edit]Kaiseki

(Cha-kaiseki)

Main article: Kaiseki Kaiseki (?) or cha-kaiseki (?) is a meal served in the context of a formal tea function. In cha-kaiseki, only fresh seasonal ingredients are used, prepared in ways that aim to enhance their flavour. Great care is taken in selecting ingredients and types of food, and the finished dishes are carefully presented on serving ware that is chosen to enhance the appearance and seasonal theme of the meal. Dishes are intricately arranged and garnished, often with real edible leaves and flowers that are to help enhance the flavour of the food. Serving ware and garnishes are as much a part of the kaiseki experience as the food; some might argue that the aesthetic experience of seeing the food is even more important than the physical experience of eating it. The basic constituents of a cha-kaiseki meal are the ichij sansai (?) or "one soup, three side dishes", and the rice, plus the following: suimono, hassun, yut, and knomono. The one soup referred to here is usually miso soup, and the basic three side dishes are the following:

mukzuke (?): foods in a dish arranged on the far side of the meal tray for each guest, which is why it is called mukzuke(lit., "set to the far side"). Often this might be some kind of sashimi. On the near side of the meal tray are arranged the rice and the soup, both in lacquered lidded bowls.

nimono (?): simmered foods, served in individual lidded bowls. yakimono (?): grilled foods (usually some kind of fish), brought out in a serving dish for the guests to serve themselves.

suimono (?): clear soup served in a small lacquered and lidded bowl, to cleanse the palate before the exchange of sak (rice wine) between host and guests. Also referred to as kozuimono (
?

) or hashiarai (?).

hassun (?): a tray of titbits from mountain and sea that the guests serve themselves to and accompanies the round of sak (rice wine) shared by host and guests. The name derives from the size of the tray.

yut (?): pitcher of hot water having slightly browned rice in it, which the guests serve to themselves. knomono (?): pickles that accompany the yut.

Extra items that may be added to the menu are generally referred to as shiizakana (?), and these attend further rounds of sake. Because the host leaves them with the first guest, they are also referred to as azukebachi (?, lit. "bowl left in another's care"). Courses are served in small servings in individual dishes. Each diner has a small lacquered tray to him- or herself; very important people may be provided their own low, lacquered table or several small tables.

Because cha-kaiseki generally follows traditional eating habits in Japan, meat dishes are rare.

[edit]Tea

ceremony and kimono

See also: Kimono Many of the movements and components of tea ceremony evolved from the wearing of kimono and, although it is not uncommon for students nowadays to wear western clothes for practice, most will practice in kimono at least some of the time, for this is essential to learn the prescribed motions properly. For example, certain movements are designed with long kimono sleeves in mind; certain motions are intended to move sleeves out of the way or to prevent them from becoming dirtied in the process of making, serving or partaking of tea. Other motions are designed to allow for the straightening of the kimono and hakama. The silk fukusa cloths are designed to be folded and tucked into the obi (sash); when no obi is worn, a regular belt must be substituted or the motions cannot be performed properly. Kaishi and smaller silk cloths known as kobukusa (?) are tucked into the breast of the kimono; fans are tucked into the obi. When Western clothes are worn, the wearer must find other places to keep these objects. The sleeves of the kimono also function as pockets, and used kaishi are folded and placed into them. On formal occasions the hostmale or femalealways wears a kimono. Proper attire for guests is kimono or western formal wear. Most practitioners own at least one kimono suitable for wearing when hosting or participating in tea ceremonies. For both men and women, the attire worn at a tea ceremonywhether traditional kimono or other clothingis usually subdued and conservative, so as not to be distracting. Men may wear kimono only, or (for more formal occasions) a combination of kimono and hakama (a long divided or undivided skirt worn over the kimono). Those who have earned the right may wear a kimono with a jittoku or juttoku (?) jacket instead of hakama. Women wear various styles of kimono depending on the season and the event; women generally do not wear hakama for tea ceremony, and do not gain the right to wear a jittoku. Lined kimono are worn by both men and women in the winter months, and unlined ones in the summer. For formal occasions, montsuki kimono (?) (kimono with three to five family crests on the sleeves and back) are worn. Both men and women wear white tabi(divided-toe socks).

[edit]Tea

ceremony and seiza

In that the Japanese tea ceremony is conventionally conducted sitting on tatami, seiza is integral to it. Unless it is the ryrei style of tea ceremony, which employs chairs and tables, both the host and guests sit in seiza throughout.

All the bows (there are three basic variations, differing mainly in depth of bow and position of the hands) performed during tea ceremony originate in the seiza position.

[edit]Tea

ceremony and tatami

See also: Chashitsu

Typical winter tearoom layout in a 4.5 mat tearoom, showing position of tatami, tokonoma, mizuya dk, hearth, guests and host.

Tatami are used in various ways in tea ceremony. Their placement, for example, determines how a person walks through the tea room, and the different seating positions. The use of tatami flooring has influenced the development of tea ceremony. For instance, when walking on tatami it is customary to shuffle, to avoid causing disturbance. Shuffling forces one to slow down, to maintain erect posture, and to walk quietly, and helps one to maintain balance as the combination of tabi and tatami makes for a slippery surface; it is also a function of wearing kimono, which restricts stride length. One must avoid walking on the joins between mats, one practical reason being that that would tend to damage the tatami. Therefore, tea students are taught to step over such joins when walking in the tea room. The placement of tatami in tea rooms differs slightly from the normal placement in regular Japanese-style rooms, and may also vary by season (where it is possible to rearrange the mats). In a 4.5 mat room, the mats are placed in a circular pattern around a centre mat. Purpose-built tea rooms have a sunken hearth in the floor which is used in winter. A special tatami is used which has a cut-out section providing access to the hearth. In summer, the hearth is covered either with a small square of extra tatami, or, more commonly, the hearth tatami is replaced with a full mat, totally hiding the hearth.

It is customary to avoid stepping on this centre mat whenever possible, as well as to avoid placing the hands palm-down on it, as it functions as a kind of table: tea utensils are placed on it for viewing, and prepared bowls of tea are placed on it for serving to the guests. To avoid stepping on it people may walk around it on the other mats, or shuffle on the hands and knees.

Interior view of a large tea room with tatamiand tokonoma. Seen in the tokonoma is a hanging scroll, flower arrangement (not chabana style), and incense burner.

Except when walking, when moving about on the tatami one places one's closed fists on the mats and uses them to pull oneself forward or push backwards while maintaining a seiza position. There are dozens of real and imaginary lines that crisscross any tearoom. These are used to determine the exact placement of utensils and myriad other details; when performed by skilled practitioners, the placement of utensils will vary infinitesimally from ceremony to ceremony. The lines in tatami mats ( tatami-me?) are used as one guide for placement, and the joins serve as a demarcation indicating where people should sit. Tatami provide a more comfortable surface for sitting seiza-style. At certain times of year (primarily during the new year's festivities) the portions of the tatami where guests sit may be covered with a red felt cloth.

[edit]Studying

the tea ceremony

In Japan, those who wish to study the tea ceremony typically join what is known in Japanese as a "circle", which is a generic term for a group that meets regularly to participate in a given activity. There are also tea clubs at many junior and high schools, colleges anduniversities. Classes may be held at community centres, dedicated tea schools, or at private homes. Tea schools often have widely varied groups that all study in the same school but at different times. For example, there may be a women's group, a group for older or younger students, and so on. Students normally pay a monthly fee which covers tuition and the use of the school's (or teacher's) bowls and other equipment, the tea itself, and the sweets that students serve and eat at every class. Students must be equipped with their own fukusa, fan, kaishi paper, and kobukusa, as well as their own wallet in which to place

these items. Though western clothing is very common today, if the teacher is in the higher rank of tradition, especially an iemoto, wearing kimono is still considered essential, especially for women. In some cases, advanced students may be given permission to wear the school's mark in place of the usual family crests on formal montsukikimono. This permission usually accompanies the granting of a chamei, or "tea name", to the student. New students typically begin by observing more advanced students as they practice. New students may be taught mostly by more advanced students; the most advanced students are taught exclusively by the teacher. The first things new students learn are how to correctly open and close sliding doors, how to walk on tatami, how to enter and exit the tea room, how to bow and to whom and when to do so, how to wash, store and care for the various equipment, how to fold the fukusa, how to ritually clean tea equipment, and how to wash and fold chakin. As they master these essential steps, students are also taught how to behave as a guest at tea ceremonies: the correct words to say, how to handle bowls, how to drink tea and eat sweets, how to use paper and sweet-picks, and myriad other details. As they master the basics, students will be instructed on how to prepare the powdered tea for use, how to fill the tea caddy, and finally, how to measure the tea and water and whisk it to the proper consistency. Once these basic steps have been mastered, students begin to practice the simplest temae, typically beginning with O-bon temae (see above). Only when the first ceremony has been mastered will students move on. Study is through observation and hands on practice; students do not often take notes, and many teachers discourage the practice of note-taking. As they master each ceremony, some schools and teachers present students with certificates at a formal ceremony. According to the school, this certificate may warrant that the student has mastered a given temae, or may give the student permission to begin studying a given temae. Acquiring such certificates is often very costly; the student typically must not only pay for the preparation of the certificate itself and for participating in the ceremony during which it is bestowed, but is also expected to thank the teacher by presenting him or her with a gift of money. The cost of acquiring certificates increases as the student's level increases. Typically, each class ends with the whole group being given brief instruction by the main teacher, usually concerning the contents of thetokonoma (the scroll alcove, which typically features a hanging scroll (usually with calligraphy), a flower arrangement, and occasionally other objects as well) and the sweets that have been served that day. Related topics include incense and kimono, or comments on seasonal variations in equipment or ceremony.

[edit]Terminology

of (d) with respect to tea

Translating the term (chad?) into English is a difficult translation task. A literal translation would be "the way of tea" or "the dao of tea". While "Tea ceremony" is the most commonly used translation, it is disliked by

many practitioners.[14] While the term "lore" is usually not used in this context, another possible translation is "tea lore". Another term is "Teaism", yet some only associate this with Japanese tea. Similar terms are "tea arts" and "tea culture". The term "chadao" has two words, the word is tea and the second is Chinese loanword tao/dao/, native suffix -ism, the term can be written as teaism.

[edit]Zen

and tea

Zen Buddhism has been an influence in the development of the tea ceremony. The elements of the Japanese tea ceremony is the harmony of nature and self cultivation, and enjoying tea in a formal and informal setting.

[edit]Sencha

tea ceremony

Like the formal art surrounding matcha, there is a formal art surrounding sencha, which is distinguished as senchad (?, the way of sencha). Generally it involves the high-grade gyokuro class of sencha. This ceremony, more Chinese in style, was introduced to Japan in the 17th century by Ingen, the founder of the baku school of Zen Buddhism, which is in general more Chinese in style than earlier schools. It remains associated with the baku school, and the head temple of Manpuku-ji hosts regular sencha tea ceremony conventions.