Alex Goussiatiner P.Eng., M. Sc.

Senior Container Terminal and Transportation Specialist

Sandwell Engineering Inc.
e-mail: agoussiatiner@sandwell.com

Systematic Approach to Quayside Container Crane Productivity 
Improvement 

Introduction 

Besides the terminal reliability factor (the fact that the vessels always sail on time) and terminal
tariff rates, gross rate of the quayside crane is the most important factor taken into account by
shipping lines when evaluating terminal services.

The gross crane rate is a comprehensive indicator of vessel operation performance as delays
under the control of the terminal operator and shipping lines are not subtracted. Most of the
terminals and shipping lines use the following definition of gross crane rate: “the total containers
handled divided by the allocated crane time.”

Allocated crane time is the total number of working crane hours. In contrast, the net crane rate
is the total containers handled divided by the elapsed crane time, where elapsed crane time is
the allocated crane time less operational delays.

The gross crane rate directly affects time at berth. For instance, if a vessel is working with three
cranes and exchange volume is 1200 cont, increasing gross rate from 27 cont/h to 30 cont/h
reduces time at berth by 1.5 hours. Reducing time at berth gives a competitive advantage to the
terminal and in most cases leads to increase in volume and revenue.

At the same time, increase in the gross rate improves overall efficiency of the operation as it
allows the terminal to reduce allocated crane hours and save on the costs associated with
manpower, maintenance, etc.

Using the terminology of the economical value analysis, gross crane productivity is a “basic
function" for the terminal services. In other words, the gross crane rate is anything that makes
the service sell and the terminal survive. The current volume downturn highlights the situation.
An increase in crane productivity should help terminal operators retain and increase volume.

Performance benchmarking of various modern container terminals suggests that significant

productivity reserves exist in most of the container terminals worldwide as container terminals
with similar quayside cranes and types of operation produce very different results.
This paper discusses what technical and operational options are available to terminal operators
for increasing productivity of existing cranes. It also describes how statistical and simulation
modeling can be used for prediction of gross crane rates after implementing certain solutions.

This paper does not promote any particular technology or solution, rather our focus is to develop
a systematic and comprehensive engineering approach for crane productivity and improvement
projects.

Factors Affecting Productivity 
There are three key characteristics of the crane performance: cycle elapsed time, lifting spectra
and operational delays which determine the gross crane rate. The following analysis presents
the underlining factors affecting each of those characteristics:

Cycle Elapsed Time  

The Cycle Elapsed Time (or net cycle elapsed time) represents elapsed time required to
perform one crane cycle in normal working condition when there are no operational delays.

The following factors affect the crane cycle elapsed time:

Type of Operation. Type of operation includes a combination of the direction (loading or

unloading) and location (deck or hold) of the operation. The type of operation defines what
activities are performed during the cycles. For instance, as figure 1 shows, unloading from a
deck requires twist locks removal which is not required for the loading to hold (see fig.2).
Figure 1 – UD (Unloading from deck) activities
Figure 2 - LH (loading to hold) activities

Typically, if operation is performed on deck, it requires shorter Crane Cycle Elapsed Time. Also
loading operations usually require more time than unloading.

Cycle Type. By the cycle type we understand combination of the lift mode and container size:
20-sigle 20’ lift, 40-single 40’ lift, 20-20- twin 20’ lift, 40-40 – tandem lift (two 40’ alongside),
40|40 vertical tandem lift (two 40’), etc. Cycles with a larger number of containers always require
longer crane cycle elapsed time.

Crane Speed and Lifting Capacity. Hoisting, lowering, lifting capacity and traveling speed of
cranes affect cycle elapsed time. For example, newer super Post Panamax cranes almost
always outperform the old Panamax crane in the cycle elapsed time.

Yard Interface Efficiency. Even during normal operation, cranes can have short ‘waiting’
periods resulting from tractor-trailer positioning, absence of the ground slots for containers
(ground operation), delays in the tractor-trailer arrivals, etc. Usually, those ‘waiting’ periods are
not registered as operation delays and ‘blended’ inside the cycle elapsed time. The main reason
for waiting quayside cranes is either low number of the prime movers or large cycle time for the
prime movers. Large cycle time depends on traveling distances, number of yard cranes used for
the operation, yard cranes workload, traffic congestion, etc. In the tractor-trailer mode, the
tractor-trailer systems are used to move containers to and from the yard.
In the ground mode, gantry cranes ground containers during discharge and pick directly from
the ground during loading. The straddle carriers or shuttle carriers are used in the ground mode
to move containers to and from the yard. In most cases, the ground mode provides better
performance than the tractor-trailer mode. The operation in this case is decoupled in time and
the gantry is less likely to have to wait for the tractor-trailer and vice versa.

Vessel Presentation. In most cases, each vessel service has its own vessel presentation or
pattern, which remains persistent for all vessels calling on the terminal for the service. The
presentation prescribes the main dimensions of the vessel operation: distribution of the
containers between bays, stowage patterns inside the bays, degree on which containers are
‘scattered’ over the vessel, ratio between 20’ and 40’ bays, etc. Quayside cranes always do
better on a well presented ship than on a poorly presented ship as they are required to visit
every deck for a handful of containers.

The vessel presentation affects Cycle Elapsed Time. For instance, the Cycle Elapsed Time is
shorter when the whole bay is discharged at once (well presented vessel) instead of working
‘blind’ in center of the bay (poorly represented vessel).

The cycle elapsed time is also affected by temporal factors related to the wind and wave
conditions.

Wind Conditions. A high wind load increases spreader swaying of the container. As a result,
more time is required for spotting of the container.

Wave Conditions High waves, especially long period waves generated by ocean swells, cause
increase in vessel motion for the vessel moored at berth. A combination of different vessel
motions caused by waves increases Cycle Elapsed Time and decreases the crane rate. For
instance, the sway and surge motion combinations caused by long period waves makes it
harder for crane operators to spot a container inside the ship and enter the cell guides.

Labor Motivation and Competence Most terminal operators cite lack of motivation and lack of
proper training as factors in lessened productivity. Low motivation of terminal operators can
often be attributed to a lack of interest in quality or final results. Inadequate proficiency of the
crane operator and other workers can be caused by the dexterity factor and lack of specialized
training. Specialized training using mechanical and computer simulation brings improvement in
proficiency and also allows objective selection By itself, the proficiency factor cannot be over
estimated. Data shows that an excellent operator has an advantage of approximately 10%-15%
in the Cycle Elapsed Time over an average operator.

Lifting Spectra 

Suppose that we have portioned all crane cycles into groups according to the cycle type. The
array of cycle counts will represent the lifting spectra:
Cycle Type 20 40 20-20 40-40

Number of S1 S2 S3 S4
Cycles

The ‘strong’ lifting spectra is defined as the spectra with a greater number of multi-container
cycles and a greater average container count per cycle. The ‘weaker’ lifting spectra produces a
lower average container count per cycle.

Container Spreader Type affects the lifting spectra. Most of the cranes in production are
equipped with telescopic spreaders capable of handling single 20, 40, 48 foot containers. More
and more cranes are equipped with the twin lift spreaders capable of handling two twenty foot
containers at once. Smaller number of cranes are equipped with the tandem lift spreader, which
is capable of handling two 40 foot or four 20 foot or their combinations.

Crane Lifting Capacity also affects the Lifting Spectra. For instance, most of the tandem-lift
cranes in production have lifting capacity under spreader lower than 120 t. As a result, the
cranes often cannot handle four full containers at once. An increase in the lifting capacity
improves usability of the crane in the tandem lift mode and makes the lifting spectra stronger.

Vessel Presentation, ratio between 20 and 40 foot container, ratio between full and empty
containers on board affect the Lifting Spectra as those characteristics control feasibility of the
multi container cycles.

Operating Delays 

Operating delays represent situations when vessel operations cannot continue based on
reasons under the control of the terminal operators or otherwise. Operating delays are defined
according to the classification adopted in individual terminals:

• Unlashing delays involve work done by the lashing crews who remove lashing bars and
unlock twist locks. Unloading from bays on deck cannot start until the lashing crews are
finished.

• Hatch cover handling delays relate to removing and setting back the hatch covers.

• Twist locks delays are caused by failure to unlock twistlocks, false unlocking, damaged
twist locks, etc.

• Wrong/bad container delays are caused by errors in container location, number, etc.

• Traveling between bays delays

• Crane downtime delays are caused by crane and spreader breakdowns.

 • Adverse weather, wind or waves conditions are delays caused by bad weather, wind and
wave conditions.

• Others: all other delays including spreader changes for over dimensional containers,
problems with the terminal operating system, adverse weather delays, etc

There are a number of factors affecting operating delays such as:

Labor Motivation and Competence: motivated and competent workers resolve problems
quickly and make fewer mistakes in container checking, etc.

Vessel Presentation also affects operation since poorly presented vessels require more
traveling between bays and more hatch cover handling.

Productivity Improvement Projects: Step‐by‐Step 

We suggest that improvement processes should follow these stages:

Recognize Problems and Goals 
From our experience, most terminal operators can identify the weakest elements in vessel
operations. But to identify desirable levels of crane productivity that make the terminal
competitive compared to others in the region, we recommend market analysis. This analysis
should determine the minimum and desirable performance for servicing certain ‘targeted’ vessel
services.

Propose Solutions or Methods to Achieve Goals (Synthesis) 
Various solutions are known to improve crane performance. Cost is associated with each type
of solution. Some solutions require capital investments such as upgrading crane infrastructure,
implementing automated technologies, etc. Others do not require capital investment, but still
require financing. These include personnel training, manpower motivation, reengineering of the
technological process, etc. At this stage, a solution or combination of solutions can be
implemented.

Validate 
In addition, any adapted solution should comply with all of the following constraints:

Feasibility: Not all of the well known solutions are feasible in particular terminal settings. For
instance, installation of the tandem-lift spreader increases the wheel load. Thus structural
engineering analysis of the rail and wharf structures is required before the solution can be
adopted. The feasibility studies narrow the decision down to a few viable options.

Safety: The solution should comply with all the safety regulations at the terminal and improve
the safety for the workers.
Environmental impact: The solution should be in compliance with all environmental regulations.

Flexibility: Unexpected changes in working schedules, handling cargo and volumes should be

accommodated in the decision. 

Evaluate Productivity Gain and Assess Risks of the Solution (Analysis) 
In this step, we estimate an increase in productivity as a result of implementing the solution.
There is also the risk that the solution might not bring what is expected. The goal is to identify a
set of options, with each option providing the targeted productivity gain.

Select the Solution 

In the end, the most cost effective option should be accepted. To determine which option is the
most cost effective, we recommend creating a financial model based on the net present value
method. The model will use the startup and operational cost as the inputs.

Implement the Best Solution 
Proper project management is required at the planning and execution phases of the productivity
improvement projects. This effort requires flexibility and willingness to optimize the chosen
solution. Special attention is required for maintaining productivity gains. A well organized
improvement program with wide participation from all workers is instrumental to achieving goals.

Possible Solutions 
The ‘causal diagram’ presented in Figure 3 depicts the solutions and productivity factors
(variables), discussed in this paper. The diagram consists of arrows connecting variables,
things that change over time, to show how one variable affects another. The black arrow means
that the first variable causes a change in the opposite direction in the second variable and the
red arrow means that the first variable causes a change in the same direction.

For instance, the ‘vessel motion’ variable is connected to ‘cycle elapsed time’ via a red arrow, as
increase in vessel motion always leads to an increase in crane cycle time. In the diagram, the
green variable depicts ‘operational’ solutions, which are based on the optimization of the
operational process. The yellow variables depict technological solutions. The causal diagram is
a kind of systems thinking tool, which helps to identify the ‘causal’ relationships between factors.

Operational Solutions – ‘Lean’ Thinking 

Lean thinking is a systematic approach to business processes with the aim of doing more with
less while still providing customers with exactly what they want. While lean thinking is not based
on a certain technical solution, costs related to planning and executing the changes and costs
for modifying the terminal operating systems should be considered.
Eliminating Redundancies Activities in the working cycles depend on rules that were adopted
in each terminal a long time ago. These rules are not performed in all the terminals all the time;
for instance, recording of the ‘seal’ number is not mandatory in all the container terminals.
These redundant activities can be eliminated after achieving an agreement with the shipping
lines.

Double Cycling During the operation in hold, container cranes can unload an import container
and return to the hold with an export container. This reduces empty crane travel, but increases
cycle elapsed time. In addition, it requires the yard cranes in both export and import stacks to
work simultaneously. This reduces the yard interface efficiency and increases the ‘waiting’ time.
Overall, according to published test results, the double cycling increases cycle elapsed time by
approximately 60% in comparison with the single lift.

Common Pool Over the years it has been proven that combining prime movers allocated to a
number of the vessel cranes into one group increases utilization of the fleet and improves the
efficiency of the yard interface. This reduces the ‘waiting’ time for the crane.

Robotized Technologies 

Container Number OCR Digital image recording and optical character recognition software
allow identification and recording of the containers handled by the crane. This eliminates the
need for the manual recording during the crane cycle and reduces delays related to the
bad/wrong containers.

Automatic Ship Mooring Systems. A number of equipment manufacturers have patented

various mechanical devices which allow securing of large container vessels alongside the berth.
A prime target for the systems is to reduce time for the vessel mooring, but at the same time the
mooring systems reduce various vessel motions by absorbing the energy. Such reduction of the
vessel movement prevents operations delays and reduces crane elapsed cycle time.

Robotised Twistlock Unlocking. Loxystem (Sweden) introduced Remote Controlled

Automatic twist lock system (RATs). This system allows unlocking twist locks for the container
on deck upon receiving command from the crane operator. The operator should become aware
if there is a failure to unlock immediately. Adopting the system by vessel operators can virtually
eliminate the unlashing delays and reduce “twist lock unlocking failure” delays. Also, the ability
to disconnect twist locks remotely can lead to wider adoption of the vertical tandem lift
operations.

Robotised Twistlock Handling. This system allows automatic or semi-automatic removal and
insertion of the twistlocks for the containers on deck. For instance, Ram Spreaders (Singapore)
produced the PINSMART system where the RAM PinSmart machine comprises a steel
platform with the robotic corner handling modules at each corner. When unloading, the machine
senses that the container is nearby and the robotic corner handling modules automatically
remove the twistlocks. During loading, the worker places a twist lock at each corner handling
module. A container or containers can then be lowered onto the machine and the twist locks will
be automatically inserted. The system drastically reduces time for handling twist locks, which is
particularly important for the terminals that operate in ground mode, where removing twist locks
is an integral part of the crane cycle time.

Figure 3 - Effect of the improvement solutions

common pool
eliminating redundancies
double cycling

cycle elapsed time

training
waves
automated mooring system vessel motions

wind spreader swaying

anti-swaying system OCR
automatic TL insertion
dual spreader trailer positioning syst.
lifting capacity increase lifting spectra

dual spreader double cycling

per cycle
# cont
lifting spectra
lifting capacity increase

automatic twist locks unlashing time

hatch cover handling
operating
delays

TL unlocking failure
OCR wrong/bad container
crane downtime
other delays

Crane Control Systems. These systems (which are part of the TOS) allow automatic exchange
of the data between parties involved in the operation (crane operators, tractor operators,
checkers, etc) in real time. As result, the crane operators and tractor drivers are receiving
instructions on graphical monitors and less radio contact required. Implementation of such
systems in a number of terminals proved that the systems can reduce the cycle time and
drastically reduce wrong/bad container delays.

Tandem Lift Spreaders 
Originally the tandem lift spreaders were only available as part of the new cranes. However, the
situation has changed. At the moment, a number of manufacturers can produce tandem lift
spreaders which can be installed in existing cranes if they match the minimum requirements
defined by spreader manufacturers. For instance, Stinis (Netherlands) invented and produced
split-headblock spreaders that can be installed in cranes with lifting capacity greater than 95 t
under the wires (the spreader weight is 12.2 t ). The spreader can be quickly transformed from
tandem lift (two 40’ or four 20’) mode to single mode and vice versa.
Evaluating Productivity Gains   
Statistical Models and Factorial Analysis 

In practice, “net” and “gross” crane rate is calculated from computerized or manual time
recording of the crane operation and operating delays. The recording is usually done for the
particular operation at the bay. For instance, figure 4 represents recording of the unloading
operation from bay 12D. The first column is used for recording Elapsed Crane Times and Delay
Times in minutes. Elapsed Crane Time includes elapsed time when the crane was performing
actual movements and ‘waiting’ time which represents waiting for the prime movers or
containers to be handled. Delay Time represents elapsed time when the crane was not
performing cycles and was waiting until the problem was resolved. The number of containers
handled is recorded separately for each type of lift: single 20’, single 40’, twin 20’, etc

Figure 4 - Time Recording Sample

Voyage: King of the Sea V 005/006

Crane: G-08
Shift: 01:00
Bay: 12 D
Operation Type: UD (unloading from deck)
Operator: John Smith
The operational recording data can be aggregated using classifiers for the vessel
service, crane type (see Fig. 5) . In the aggregated table, the following variables—vessel
presentation pattern, crane type, type of operation—are identified as the influencing factors,
while the lifting spectra, cycle elapsed time and delays are the response variables.

Figure 5. Aggregated Statistical Data

The statistical observations with the same influencing factors are relatively homogeneous and
can be used for various comparative studies. For instance, to determine increase in the crane
rate after implementing an automatic twist lock system for a certain vessel presentation pattern
and crane type, we can first establish a baseline by calculating average gross crane rate, based
on all the observations for the Vessel Presentation and Crane Type combination. Then, we can
modify the statistical model, and ignore the delays related to the twist locks unlocking (“A” and
“C”), and recalculate the gross crane rate that would have resulted with an automatic twist lock
system.

Discrete Event Simulation 

Statistical modeling is an excellent tool for the estimation of the productivity gains, but it has its
limitations. For instance, introducing new equipment types and/or modifying of the operational
strategies quite often changes how the parties of the process (crane operator, tractor-trailer
operators, checkers, etc) interact with each other. In this situation, there is no relevant statistical
data available for the analysis and discrete event simulation is applicable. In discrete-event
simulation, the operation of a system is represented as a chronological sequence of events:
engaging of the container, lifting, lowering, checking, tractor trailer arrival, tractor-trailer
positioning, etc. Each event occurs at an instant in time and marks a change of state in the
system. Each activity has its own random variables with predefined statistical distributions for
the elapsed time. Statistical modeling is only used to calibrate the simulation model.

Final Remarks 
 
The volume downturn and fierce competition will force many terminal operators to take a hard
look at their existing operation and equipment: is it really efficient? What can be done to
improve the crane productivity? This will have lasting impact on the container handling
technology. Hopefully, this paper can help on the road to efficiency.