Topic 8 Processes Reflex Arcs: 1. Receptors detect a stimulus and generate a nerve impulse. 2.

Sensory neurones conduct a nerve impulse to the CNS along a sensory pathway. 3. Sensory neurones enter the spinal cord through the dorsal route. 4. Sensory neurone forms a synapse with a relay neurone. 5. Relay neurone forms a synapse with a motor neurone that leaves the spinal cord through the ventral route. 6. Motor neurone carries impulses to an effector which produces a response. Resting Potential 1. Na+/K+ pump creates concentration gradients across the membrane. 2. K+ diffuse out of the cell down the K+ gradient, making the outside of the membrane positive and the inside negative. 3. The electrical gradient will pull K+ back into the cell. 4. At -70mV potential difference, the two counteract each other and there is no net movement of K+. Action Potential 1. Resting potential. 2. Depolarisation: Voltage-dependant Na+ channels open, Na+ flows into axon, depolarising the membrane. 3. Repolarisation: Voltage-dependant Na+ channels close, voltagedependant K+ channels open, K+ leave the axon repolarising the membrane. 4. Hyperpolarisation: The membrane is hyperpolarised, voltage-dependant K+ channels close, K+ diffuse back into the axon to recreate the resting potential.

Propagation of an Impulse along an axon 1. At resting potential there is positive charge on the outside of the membrane and negative charge on the inside, with higher sodium ion concentration outside and high potassium ion concentration inside. 2. When stimulated, voltage-dependent sodium ion channels open, and sodium ions flow into the axon, depolarising the membrane. Localised electric currents are generated in the membrane. Sodium ions move to the adjacent polarised (resting) region causing a change in the electrical charge (potential difference) across this part of the membrane. 3. The change in potential difference in the membrane adjacent to the first action potential initiates a second action potential. At the site of the first action potential the voltage-dependent sodium ion channels close and voltage-dependent potassium ion channels open. Potassium ions leave the axon, repolarising the membrane. The membrane becomes hyperpolarised. 4. A third action potential is initiated by the second. In this way local electric currents cause the nerve impulse to move along the axon. At the site of the first action potential, potassium ions diffuse back into the axon, restoring the resting potential. Functioning of a Synapse 1. An action potential arrives. 2. The membrane depolarises. Calcium channels open. Calcium ions enter the membrane. 3. Calcium ions cause synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. 4. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft. 5. Neurotransmitter binds with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Cation channels open. Sodium ions flow through the channels. 6. The membrane depolarises and initiates an action potential. 7. When released the neurotransmitter will be taken up across the presynaptic membrane (whole or after being broken down), or it can diffuse away and be broken down.

Visual Transduction: In the dark 1. Na+ diffuse in through open cation channels. 2. Na+ move down the concentration gradient. 3. Na+ is actively pumped out. 4. Membrane slightly depolarised -40mV. 5. Inhibitory neurotransmitter is released and binds to bipolar cell, preventing it depolarising. Visual Transduction: In the light 1. Rhodopsin is broken down. 2. Na+ channels closed. 3. Na+ actively pumped out. 4. Membrane hyperpolarised. 5. No neurotransmitter is released. 6. Cation channels in bipolar cell open and membrane becomes depolarised, generating an action potential in the neurone of the optic nerve. Phytochromes and Greening 1. Light activates Phytochrome. 2. Activates proteins in signal pathway. 3. Activate transcription factors. 4. Transcription. 5. Translation. 6. Greening proteins.

Frontal Lobe decision making reasoning planning consciousness of emotions forming associations and ideas

Parietal Lobe orientation movement sensation recognition calculation memory

Occipital Lobe processing information from the eyes: -vision -colour -shape -recognition -perspective

Temporal Lobe processing auditory information -hearing -sound -recognition -speech memory

Cerebral Hemispheres See Think Learn Emotions

Hypothalamus Thermoregulation Sleep Hunger Thirst Blood concentration

Cerebellum coordinate movement balance checks motor programme

Medulla oblongata control of heartbeat breathing blood pressure

Thalamus sensory information

Hippocampus Laying down long term memory

Basal Ganglia Selecting and initiating stored programmes for movement

Mid Brain relays information to the cerebral hemispheres. auditory information to temporal lobe. visual information to occipital lobe.

Habituation 1. With repeated stimulation, Ca+ channels become less responsive so less Ca2+ crosses the presynaptic membrane. 2. Less neurotransmitter is released. 3. There is less depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane so no action potential is triggered in the motor neurone.

Five stages of synaptic transmission that can be affected by drugs 1. Neurotransmitter synthesis and storage. 2. Neurotransmitter release. 3. Neurotransmitter-receptor binding. 4. Neurotransmitter reuptake. 5. Neurotransmitter breakdown. Bacteria to produce human insulin 1. Isolated human gene, modified if necessary. 2. Plasmid, circular piece of nucleic acid able to pass between cells. 3. Extracted plasmid is cut with restriction enzyme. 4. Human gene spliced into plasmid. 5. Modified plasmid put back into bacterial cells. 6. Cells multiply in fermenter. 7. Produce human insulin. 8. Insulin protein extracted and purified. 9. Bacterial cells destroyed. Genetically Modified Plants 1. Plasmid carrying the desired gene and an antibiotic resistance gene (marker gene) is used. 2. DNA gun or insertion of a new gene of virus DNA used to incorporate genes into the plant DNA of some cells. 3. Incubation in growth medium with antibiotic. 4. Only cells with the new genes survive. 5. Micropropagation: Cells grow in sterile culture medium containing sucrose, amino acids, inorganic ions and plant growth substances. 6. Plant growth substances stimulate root and shoot growth. 7. Transgenic plant: All new cells contain the new genes. 8. Plantlets separated and grown into full size plants.