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B.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

To derive the full benet of this text, the reader should have a basic knowledge of algebra, logarithms, and some essentials of trigonometry. To that end we have developed this appendix. The objective is to bring the reader along, and not to provide an exhaustive primer on basic mathematics. There are ve subsections:

Introduction Introductory Algebra Logarithms to the Base 10 Natural Logarithms Essentials of Trigonometry

B.2 B.2.1

INTRODUCTION Symbols and Notation

A symbol is commonly used in algebra to represent a quantity. Symbols are also used to indicate a mathematical operations such as +, , , and . A symbol also may be used to designate an absolute constant. For instance, the speed of light is often annotated by the letter c. We frequently reach into the Greek alphabet; for example, is used to calculate the circumference or area of a circle given its diameter or radius. Lets say that notation is a specic symbol or specic symbols used in a particular procedure or equation. For example, is nearly universally used for wavelength; F or f for frequency. Z is used for impedance and Zo for characteristic impedance. As we said, a symbol in algebra represents a specic quantity. x is the unknown, or x = the unknown (quantity). If there is a second unknown, were apt to call it y. These rules are never hard and fast. For instance, if we are dealing with a geometrical gure with height, length, and width, we would probably use H for height, L for length, and W
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for width; and wed assign r for radius and d for diameter when dealing with something circular. Angles are often represented by the symbols and , and is also widely used to represent an angle. These are just more examples of utilizing the Greek alphabet as well as the Roman. Subscripts. A subscript tells us something about a symbol. For example, PdBW would probably mean the power expressed in dBW. We might discuss the velocities of two cars. The velocity of car 1 may be expressed as V1 , and the velocity of car 2 is expressed as V2 . The use of the subscript allows us to distinguish between the two cars. Subscripts are used widely in the text. Independent and Dependent Variables. In the selection of symbols to solve a particular problem, we must distinguish between constants and variables specic to the problem at hand. Consider the volume of a circular cone where we keep its height constant (h). The formula for its volume is V = r 2 h/3, where r is the radius of the base circle. H , of course, is constant for this problem, and just for this problem alone. r is the independent variable and V is the dependent variable. h is referred to as a parameter.
B.2.2 The Function Concept

We remember the equation for power: P = I 2 R. Let R be 75 , then P = 75I 2 . When the value of I is known, we can calculate the power. For example, when I = 2 A, the power will be P = 75 2 2 = 300 W; that is, the variable P In general, we can each value of x (in a called a function of x. depends on the variable I. say that if a variable y depends on another variable x so that for suitable set), a corresponding value of y is determined. y then is In symbols, this is written as y = f (x) Read this as y is the function of x or just y equals f of x. Remember here that f is not a qualitative symbol but an operative symbol. Take the conversion formula from absolute temperature to centigrade: T = 273 + C. Here T = f (C). Another example is noise power. It is a function of absolute temperature and bandwidth. Thus, Pn = 228.6 dBW + 10 log T + 10 log BHz . This is Eq. (9.12) from the text. Note the use of an absolute constantin this case, Boltzmanns constant. Pn is the independent variable; T is the noise temperature in kelvins; and B, the bandwidth in hertz, are dependent variables. We could set the bandwidth at 1 MHz. Then Pn = f (T ).
B.2.3 Using the Sigma Notation

The Greek letter (capital sigma) indicates summation. The index of summation limits the number of items to be summed or added up. The letter i is often used for this purpose. Values for i are placed above and below sigma. The initial value is placed below, and the nal value is placed above the letter sigma. For example, we could have wi = w1 + w2 + w3 + w4 . . . + w9 + w10 . Here the initial value is 1 and the nal value is 10.

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B.3 B.3.1

INTRODUCTORY ALGEBRA Review of the Laws of Signs

If we multiply a + factor by another + factor, the product will have a + sign. If we divide a + factor by another + factor, the quotient will have a + sign. If we multiply a factor by a + factor, the product will have a sign (i.e., will be negative). Likewise, if we multiply a + factor by a factor, the product will have a sign. If we divide a + factor by a factor, the quotient will have a sign. Likewise, if we divide a factor by a + factor, the quotient will have a sign. If we divide a factor by a factor, the quotient will have a + sign.

In other words, + + = +; +/+ = +; + = ; + = ; /+ = ; +/ = ; = +; and / = +.

B.3.2 Conventions with Factors and Parentheses

Two symbols placed together imply multiplication. Each symbol or symbol grouping is called a factor. Examples: xy means x multiplied by y. x(y + 1) means x multiplied by the quantity (y + 1). abc means a multiplied by b that is then multiplied by c. The use of parentheses is vital in algebra. If a parentheses pair has a sign in front of it, that sign is operative on each term inside the parentheses. If the sign is just a +, then consider that each term inside the parentheses is multiplied by +1. Here we just have a ow through. Example. Simplify 3X + (7X + Y 10) = 3X + 7X + Y 10 = 10X + Y 10. Suppose there is a minus sign in front of the parentheses. Assume it is a 1. For the terms inside the parentheses, we change each sign and add. Consider nearly the same example: Simplify 3X (7X + Y 10) = 3X 7X Y + 10 = 4X Y + 10. One more example: Simplify 4.5K (27.3 + 2.5K) = 4.5K + 27.3 2.5K = 2K + 27.3. We carry this one step further by placing a factor1 in front of the parentheses. Example. Simplify: 4X 5Y (X2 + 2XY + 10) 36 = 4X 5X2 Y 10XY 2 50Y 36. Another example: Simplify: 4Q 21(5Q2 /3 3Q/6 4) = 4Q 105Q2 /3 + 63Q/6 + 84 = 4Q 35Q2 + 21Q/2 + 84 = 29Q/2 35Q2 + 84. An algebraic expression may have parentheses inside brackets. The rule is to clear the outside rst. In other words clear the brackets. Then clear the parentheses in that order.
1 A factor is a value, a symbol that we multiply by. To factor an expression is to break the expression up into components and when these components are multiplied together, we derive the original expression. For example, 12 and 5 are factors of 60 because 12 5 = 60.

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Example. Simplify: (r 3R) [(2R r) + 1] = (r 3R) (2R r) 1 = r 3R 2R + r 1 = 2r 5R 1. Fractions. We review the adding and subtracting of fractions in arithmetic. Add: 3/4 + 5/8 + 5/12. Remember that we look for the least common denominator (LCD). In this case it is 24. The reason: 24 is divisible by 4, 8, and 12. The three terms are now converted to 24ths or: 18/24 + 15/24 + 10/24 Now add 18, 15, and 10, which is 43/24 or 1 + 19/24. Another example: Add 1/6 + 1/7 + 1/8. The best we can do here for the LCD is the product of the three denominators 6 7 8 = 336, then convert to 336s or 56/336 + 48/336 + 42/336. Now add derived numerators or 56 + 48 + 42 = 146. Our new fraction after addition is 146/336. Divide numerator and denominator by 2 and the answer is 73/168. Subtraction of fractions follows the same procedure, just follow the rules of signs. Example. Calculate 1/4 1/5 + 2/3. Procedure. Multiply the denominators together for the LCD, the value is 60. Convert each fraction to 60ths or 15/60 12/60 + 40/60. We now have a common denominator so we can add the numerators: 15 12 + 40 = 43/60. We apply the same procedure when we add/subtract algebraic symbols. Example. Simplify 1/(X 4) 1/(X 5). Procedure. The LCD is the product (X 4)(X 5). We then have [(X 5) (X 4)]/(X 4)(X 5) = 1/(X2 9X + 20). Then multiply the two factors (X 4) and (X 5). There are two approaches. Do long multiplication as we would do with arithmetic: X 4 X 5 5X + 20 X2 4X sum X2 9X + 20 The second approach: (X 4) (X 5). Multiply the leftmost terms (the Xs) and we get X2 ; multiply the right sides (4 and 5) and we get +20; then multiply the means together (4X) and the extremes together (5X) and add (4X + 5X) = 9X. Place together in descending order: X2 9X + 20. There is a grouping we should recognize by inspection in the generic type of (X2 K 2 ), which factors into (X K)(X + K). Here are several examples: (X2 1), which factors into (X + 1)(X 1) or X2 64, which factors into (X + 8)(X 8). Adding and Subtracting Exponents. An exponent is a number at the right of and above a symbol. The value assigned to the symbol with this number is called a power of the symbol, although power is sometimes used in the same sense as exponent. If the exponent

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is a positive integer and x denotes the symbol, then x n means x if n = 1. When n > 1, 31 = 3, 32 = 9, 3 = 27, and so on. Note that x 0 = 1 if x itself is not zero. Rules: When we multiply, we add exponents; when we divide, we subtract exponents. For the zero example above, we can think of it as X2 /X2 = X0 = 1. This addition and subtraction can be carried out so long as there is a common base. In this case it was x. For example, 23 22 = 25 . Another example: X7 /X5 = X2 . Because it is division, we subtracted exponents; it had the common base x. A negative exponent indicates, in addition to the operations indicated by the numerical value of the exponent, that the quantity is to be made a reciprocal. Example 1: 42 = 1/16. Example 2: X3 = 1/X3 . Furthermore, when addition is involved, and the numbers have a common exponent, we can just add the base numbers. For example, 3.1 1010 + 1.9 1010 = 5.0 1010 . We cannot do this if there is not a common base and exponent. The power of 10 is used widely throughout the text. If the exponent is a simple fraction such as 1/2 or 1/3, then we are dealing with a root of the symbol or base number. For example, 91/2 = 3. Or (X2 + 2X + 1)1/2 = X + 1. Carry this one step further. Suppose we have x 2/3 . First we square x and then take the cube root of the result. The generalized case is Xp/q = (x p )l/q ; in other words, we rst take the pth power and from that result we take the qth root. These calculations are particularly easy to do with a scientic calculator as the x y function, where y can even be a decimal like 3.7.
B.3.3 Simple Linear Algebraic Equations

An equation is a statement of equality between two expressions. Equations are of two types: identities and conditional equations (or usually simply equations). A conditional equation is true only for certain values of the variables involved; for example, x + 2 = 5 is a true statement only when x = 3; and xy + y 3 = 0 is true when x = 2 and y = 1, and for many other pairs of values of x and y; but for still others it is false. Equation (9.20) in the text is an identity. It states that G/T = G 10 log T , where G is gain and T is noise temperature. Actually the right-hand side of the equation is just a restatement of the left-hand side; it doesnt tell us anything new. In many cases, identities, such as this one, are very useful in analysis. There are various rules for equations. An equation has a right-hand side and a left-hand side. Maintaining equality is paramount. For example, if we add some value to the left side, we must add the same value to the right side. Likewise, if we divide the (entire) left side by a value, we must divide the (entire) right by the same value. As we might imagine, we must carry out similar procedures for subtraction and multiplication. A linear equation is of the following form: Ax + B = 0 (A = 0). This is an equation with one unknown, X. A will be a xed quantity, a number; so will B. However, in the parentheses it states that A may not be 0. Lets practice with some examples. In each case calculate the value of X. X + 5 = 7.

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Clue: We want to have X alone on the left side. To do this we subtract 5 from the left side, but following the rules, we must also subtract 5 from the right side. Thus, X + 5 5 = 7 5 or X = 2. Another example is 3X + 7 = 31. Again, we want X alone. But rst we must settle for 3X. Subtract 7 from both sides of the equation. 3X + 7 7 = 31 7, 3X = 24. Again, we want X alone. To do this we can divide by 3 (each side). 3X/3 = 24/3, X = 8. Still another example: z2 + 1 = 65 (solve for z). Subtract 1 from each side to get z2 alone. z2 + 1 1 = 65 1, z2 = 64. Take the square root of each side. Thus, z = 8. More Complex Equations. Solve for R: 0.25(0.54R + 2.45) = 0.24(2.3R 1.75), 0.135R + 0.7125 = 0.552R 0.42, 0.552R + 0.135R = 0.42 0.7125, 0.417R = 1.0325, R = 2.476. Another example: Solve for x. (x + 4)(x 3) = (x 9)(x 2) = x 2 + x 12 = x 2 11x + 18, 12x = 30, x = 2.5.

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B.3.4

Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations will have one term with a square (e.g., X2 ) and they take the form Ax 2 + Bx + C = 0 (A = 0),

where A, B, and C are constants (e.g., numbers). A quadratic equation should always be set to 0 before a solution is attempted. For instance, if we have an equation that is 2x 2 + 3x = 21, convert this equation to 2x 2 + 3x + 21 = 0. We will discuss two methods of solving a quadratic equation: by factoring and by the quadratic formula. Factoring to Solve a Quadratic Equation. Suppose we have the simple relation x 2 1 = 0. We remember from above that this factors into (x 1)(x + 1) = 0. This being the case, at least one of the factors must equal 0. If this is not understood, realize that there is no other way for the equation statement to be true. Keep in mind that anything multiplied by 0 will be 0. So there are two solutions to the equation: x 1 = 0, thus x = 1 or x + 1 = 0 and x = 1.

Proof that these are correct answers is by substituting them in the equation. Solve for x in this example: x 2 100x + 2400 = 0. This factors into (x 40)(x 60) = 0. We now have two factors: x 40 and x 60, whose product is 0. This means that we must have either x 40 = 0, where x = 40 or x 60 = 0, and in this case x = 60. We can check our results by substitution that either of these values satises the equation. Another example: Solve for x. (x 3)(x 2) = 12. Multiply the factors: x 2 5x + 6, then x 2 5x + 6 = 12. Subtract 12 from both sides of the equation so that we set the left hand side equal to 0. Thus: x 2 5x 6 = 0 factors into (x 6)(x + 1) = 0. Then x 6 = 0, x=6 or x + 1 = 0, x = 1. Quadratic Formula. This formula may be used on the conventional quadratic equation in the generic form of Ax 2 + Bx + C = 0 (A = 0). x is solved by simply manipulating the constants A, B, and C. The quadratic formula is stated as follows: x = [B (B 2 4AC)1/2 ]/2A or, rewritten with the radical sign: x= B B 2 4AC . 2A

Just like we did with the factoring method, the quadratic formula will produce two roots (two answers): one with the plus before the radical sign and one with the minus before the radical sign.

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Example 1: Solve for x: 3x 2 2x 5 = 0. Here A = 3, B = 2, and C = 5. Apply the quadratic formula. x = (+2 4 + 60)/6. The rst possibility is (+2 + 64)/6 = 10/6; the second possibility is (+2 8)/6 = 1. The quadratic formula will not handle the square root of a negative number. The square root of a negative number can usually be factored down to (1)1/2 , which, by denition, is the imaginary number i, and is beyond the scope of this appendix. Example 2: Solve for E: E 2 3E 2 = 0. A = 1, B = 3, and C = 2. Thus E = (+3 9 + 8)/2. The rst possibility is (3 + 4.123)/2 and the second possibility is (3 4.123)/2. Thus E = 3.562 or 0.562.
B.3.5 Solving Two Simultaneous Linear Equations with Two Unknowns

There are two methods of solving two simultaneous equations: 1. The graphical method where both equations are plotted and the intersection of the line derived is the common solution. 2. The algebraic solution. We will concentrate on the algebraic solution. There are two approaches to solving two simultaneous equations by the algebraic solution: A. Elimination B. Substitution The Elimination Method. With this method we manipulate one of the equations such that when the two equations are either added or subtracted, one of the unknowns is eliminated. We then solve for the other unknown. The solution is then substituted in one of the original equations, and we solve for the other unknown. Example. 2x + 3y 8 = 0, 4x 5y + 6 = 0. Multiply each term by 2 in the upper equation, and we derive the following new equation: 4x + 6y 16 = 0. Place the second equation directly below this new equation, and subtract: 4x + 6y 16 = 0, 4x 5y + 6 = 0. If we subtract the lower equation from the upper, we eliminate the 4x term. Now solve for y. +11y 22 = 0, 11y = 22, y = 2. Substitute y = 2 in the original upper equation. Then 2x + 6 8 = 0, 2x = 2, and x = 1.

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So the solution of these equations is x = 1 and y = 2. Check the solutions by substituting these values into the two original simultaneous equations. Another example: 3x 2y 5 = 0, 6x + y + 12 = 0. There are several possibilities to eliminate one of the unknowns. This time lets multiply each term in the lower equation by two and we get 12x + 2y + 24 = 0. Place this new equation below the original upper equation: 3x 2y 5 = 0, 12x + 2y + 24 = 0. Add the two equations and we get 15x + 19 = 0. Solve for x. 15x = 19. x = 19/5. Substitute this value in the upper equation and solve for y. 3(19/15) 2y 5 = 0 57/15 75/15 = 2y 2y = 132/15 and y = 66/15 or 22/5 The Substitution Method. Select one of the two simultaneous equations and solve for one of the unknowns in terms of the other. Example. (Repeating the rst example from above). 2x + 3y 8 = 0, 4x 5y + 6 = 0. We can select either equation. Select the rst equation. Then 2x = 8 3y, x = (8 3y)/2. Substitute this value for x in the second equation. 4(8 3y)/2 5y + 6 = 0, 16 6y 5y + 6 = 0, 11y = 22, y = 2.

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B.4 LOGARITHMS TO THE BASE 10 B.4.1 Denition of Logarithm

If b is a positive number different from 1, the logarithm of the number y, written loga y, is dened as follows: If a x = y, then x is a logarithm of y to the base a, and we write loga y = x. This shows, therefore, that a logarithm is an exponentthe exponent to which the base is raised to yield the number. The expression loga y is read: logarithm of y to the base a. The two equations a x = y and loga y = x are two different ways of expressing the relationship between the numbers x, y, and a. The rst equation is in the exponential form, and the second is in the logarithmic form. Thus 26 = 64 is equivalent to log2 64 = 6. Likewise, the statement log16 (1/4) = 1/2 implies 161/2 = 1/4. These concepts should be thoroughly understood before proceeding.
B.4.2 Laws of Logarithms

In Section B.3 we discussed the laws of adding and subtracting exponents. From these laws we can derive the laws of logarithms. Lets say that the generalized base of a logarithm is a, which is positive, and that x and y are real numbers. Here we mean they are not imaginary numbers (i.e., based one the square root of 1). Note that a can be any positive number. However, we concentrate on a = 10that is, on logarithms to the base 10. The scientic calculator should be used to obtain the logarithm by using the log button. There will also probably be an ln button. This button is used to obtain logarithms to the natural base, where a = 2.71828183+. Law 1. The logarithm of the product of two numbers equals the sum of the logarithms of the factors. That is, loga xy = loga x + loga y. Law 2. The logarithm of the quotient of two numbers equals the logarithm of the dividend minus the logarithm of the divisor. That is, loga x/y = loga x loga y. Law 3. The logarithm of the nth power of a number equals n times the logarithm of the number. That is, loga x n = n loga x
Table B.1 Selected Powers of Ten Power of 10 104 103 102 101 100 101 102 103 104 Number 10,000 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 Logarithm of Number log10,000 log1000 log100 log10 log1 log0.1 log0.01 log0.001 log0.0001 Value of Logarithm 4 3 2 1 0 1 or 9 10 2 or 8 10 3 or 7 10 4 or 6 10

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Law 4. The logarithm of the pth root of a number is equal to the logarithm of the number divided by p. That is, log(x)1/p = 1/p loga x Remember that if x = 1, loga x = 0. Here is an exercise. Express log10 (38)1/2 (60)/ (29)3 = 1/2 log10 (38) + log10 (60) 3 log10 (29). The logarithm of a number has two components: its characteristic and its mantissa. The characteristic is an integer and the mantissa is a decimal. If the number in question is 10 or its multiple, the logarithm has a characteristic only, and its mantissa is .000000++. Consider Table B.1 containing selected the powers of 10.