Attitude Measurement

by Saul McLeod published 2009 Perhaps the most straightforward way of finding out about someones attitudes would be to ask them. However, attitudes are related to selfimage and social acceptance (i.e. attitude functions). In order to preserve a positive self-image, peoples responses may be affected by social desirability. They may not well tell about their true attitudes, but answer in a way that they feel socially acceptable. Given this problem, various methods of measuring attitudes have been developed. However, all of them have limitations. In particular the different measures focus on different components of attitudes cognitive, affective and behavioral and as we know, these components do not necessarily coincide. Attitude measurement can be divided into two basic categories
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Direct Measurement (likert scale and semantic differential)

Indirect Measurement (projective techniques) Semantic Differential

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The semantic differential technique of Osgood et al. (1957) asks a person to rate an issue or topic on a standard set of bipolar adjectives (i.e. with opposite meanings), each representing a seven point scale. To prepare a semantic differential scale, you must first think of a number of words with opposite meanings that are applicable to describing the subject of the test. For example, participants are given a word, for example 'car', and presented with a variety of adjectives to describe it. Respondents tick to indicate how they feel about what is being measured.

In the picture (above), you can find Osgood's map of people's ratings for the word 'polite'. The image shows ten of the scales used by Osgood. The image maps the average responses of two groups of 20 people to the word 'polite'. The semantic differential technique reveals information on three basic dimensions of attitudes: evaluation, potency (i.e. strength) and activity. Evaluation is concerned with whether a person thinks positively or negatively about the attitude topic (e.g. dirty clean, and ugly beautiful). Potency is concerned with how powerful the topic is for the person (e.g. cruel kind, and strong - week). Activity is concerned with whether the topic is seen as active or passive (e.g. active passive). Using this information we can see if a persons feeling (evaluation) towards an object is consistent with their behavior. For example, a place might like the taste of chocolate (evaluative) but not eat it often (activity). The evaluation dimension has been most used by social

psychologists as a measure of a persons attitude, because this dimension reflects the affective aspect of an attitude. Evaluation of Direct Methods An attitude scale is designed to provide a valid, or accurate, measure of an individuals social attitude. However, as anyone who has every faked an attitude scales knows there are shortcomings in these self report scales of attitudes. There are various problems that affect the validity of attitude scales. However, the most common problem is that of social desirability. Socially desirability refers to the tendency for people to give socially desirable to the questionnaire items. People are often motivated to give replies that make them appear well adjusted, unprejudiced, open minded and democratic. Self report scales that measure attitudes towards race, religion, sex etc. are heavily affected by socially desirability bias. Respondents who harbor a negative attitude towards a particular group may not wish be admit to the experimenter (or to themselves) that they have these feelings. Consequently, responses on attitude scales are not always 100% valid.

Projective Techniques To avoid the problem of social desirability, various indirect measures of attitudes have been used. Either people are unaware of what is being measured (which has ethical problems) or they are unable consciously to affect what is being measured. Indirect methods typically involve the use of a projective test. A projective test is involves presenting a person with an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) or incomplete stimulus (e.g. picture or words). The stimulus requires interpretation from the person. Therefore, the persons attitude is inferred from their interpretation of the ambiguous or incomplete stimulus. The assumption about these measures of attitudes it that the person will project his or her views, opinions or attitudes into the ambiguous situation, thus revealing the attitudes the person holds. However, indirect methods only provide general information and do not offer a precise measurement of attitude strength since it is qualitative rather than quantitative. This method of attitude measurement is not objective or scientific which is a big criticism. Examples of projective techniques include:

 Rorschach Inkblot Test Thematic Apperception Test (or TAT) Draw a Person Task

Thematic Apperception Test Here a person is presented with an ambiguous picture which they have to interpret. The thematic apperception test (TAT) taps into a persons unconscious mind to reveal the repressed aspects of their personality. Although the picture, illustration, drawing or cartoon that is used must be interesting enough to encourage discussion, it should be vague enough not to immediately give away what the project is about.

TAT can be used in a variety of ways, from eliciting qualities associated with different products to perceptions about the kind of people that might use certain products or services. The person must look at the picture(s) and tell a story. For example: o What has led up to the event shown o What is happening at the moment o What the characters are thinking and feeling, and o What the outcome of the story was Draw a Person Test Figure drawings are projective diagnostic techniques in which an individual is instructed to draw a person, an object, or a situation so that cognitive, interpersonal, or psychological functioning can be assessed. The test can be used to evaluate children and adolescents for a variety of purposes (e.g. self-image, family relationships, cognitive ability and personality). A projective test is one in which a test taker responds to or provides ambiguous, abstract, or unstructured stimuli, often in the form of pictures or drawings.

While other projective tests, such as the Rorschach Technique and Thematic Apperception Test, ask the test taker to interpret existing pictures, figure drawing tests require the test taker to create the pictures themselves. In most cases, figure drawing tests are given to children. This is because it is a simple, manageable task that children can relate to and enjoy. Some figure drawing tests are primarily measures of cognitive abilities or cognitive development. In these tests, there is a consideration of how well a child draws and the content of a child's drawing. In some tests, the child's self-image is considered through the use of the drawings. In other figure drawing tests, interpersonal relationships are assessed by having the child draw a family or some other situation in which more than one person is present. Some tests are used for the evaluation of child abuse. Other tests involve personality interpretation through drawings of objects, such as a tree or a house, as well as people. Finally, some figure drawing tests are used as part of the diagnostic procedure for specific types of psychological or neuropsychological impairment, such as central nervous system dysfunction or mental retardation.

Despite the flexibility in administration and interpretation of figure drawings, these tests require skilled and trained administrators familiar with both the theory behind the tests and the structure of the tests themselves. Interpretations should be made with caution and the limitations of projective tests should be considered. It is generally a good idea to use projective tests as part of an overall test battery. There is little professional support for the use of figure drawing, so the examples that follow should be interpreted with caution.

The House-Tree-Person (HTP) test, created by Buck in 1948, provides a measure of a self-perception and attitudes by requiring the test taker to draw a house, a tree, and a person.

The picture of the house is supposed to conjure the child's feelings

toward his or her family.

The picture of the tree is supposed to elicit feelings of strength or weakness. The picture of the person, as with other figure drawing tests, elicits information regarding the child's self-concept.

The HTP, though mostly given to children and adolescents, is appropriate for anyone over the age of three. Evaluation of Indirect Methods The major criticism of indirect methods is their lack of objectivity. Such methods are unscientific and do not objectively measure attitudes in the same way as a Likert scale. There is also the ethical problem of deception as often the person does not know that their attitude is actually being studied when using indirect methods. The advantages of such indirect techniques of attitude measurement are that they are less likely to produce socially desirable responses, the person is unlikely to guess what is being measured and behavior should be natural and reliable.

Chapter 8 : Scales and Attitude Measurement 1. ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES Definition of attitude: Attitude has been defined by Gene F. Summ e r s a s a predisposition to respond to an idea or an object.I n m a r k e t i n g , t h i s refers to the consumers predisposition about th e product or service. If it is favorable, then the consumer is likely to purchase the product o r service.Attitudes about products or services are composed of three elements: Beliefs such as the products strength or the economy of t h e p r o d u c t o r service Emotional feelings such as likes or dislikes Readiness to respond to the product or service, i.e. to buy it.These three elements combine together to form an image of the product or service inthe mind of the consumer. When the car manufacturer, the movie producer or thei n s u r a n c e c o m p a n y r e f e r s t o t h e c o m p a n y s i m a g e , t h e y a r e r e f e r r i n g t o s o m e general averages of many individuals attitudes towards the company.Attitude measurement is commonly referred to as scaling . The measurement techniques are divided thus: Page

3 Non-Disguised,Non-StructuredDisguised,NonStructuredtechniquesNonDisguised,StructuredtechniquesDisguised,Structuredtechniques F.G.DsDepthinterviewWordassociationSentenceCompletionPictori al TechniquesStoryCompletion Thematic ApperceptionTests (TAT)CartoonMethod OrdinalScaleIntervalScaleRatio ScaleGraphicRating Scale Semantic Differential Multiple ItemScale Thurston ScaleLikert Scale

2. NON-DISGUISED, NON-STRUCTURED TECHNIQUES The essence of these methods is that the purpose of the interview is not a secretand that there is no fixed structure for conducting the interview. 2.1. Qualitative Research

The most common method of obtaining information about the behavior, attitudes andother characteristics of people is to ask them. However it is not always possible, or desirable to use direct questioning to obtain informatio n. People may be either unwilling or unable to give answers to questions they consider to be an invasion of t h ei r p ri v ac y, t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h ei r s e l f p e r c e p ti o n o r p r e s t i g e , t h at a r e embarrassing that concern motivations that they do not fully understand or cannotverbalize, or for other reasons. Therefore additional approaches to obtaining suchinformation may be necessary. Depth interviews and Projective techniques are frequently used by marketingresearchers when direct questioning is impractical, more costly, or less accurate.These techniques generally referred to as Qualitative research .2.1.1. Depth interviews Individual depth interviews typically require 30-45minutes. The interviewer does nothave a specific set of pre-specified questions that must be asked according to theorder imposed by a questionnaire. Instead, there is freedom to create questions, toprobe those responses that appear relevant, and generally to try to develop the bestset of data in any way practical. However the interviewer must follow one rule; onem u s t n o t c o n s c i o u s l y t r y t o a f f e c t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e a n s w e r s g i v e n b y t h e respondents. The respondent. The respondent must feel free to reply to the variousquestions, probes, and other, subtler, ways of encouraging responses in the manner deemed most appropriate. Subject of interest is discussed in detail.

There is no fixed pattern for eliciting information from the respondents. Generally conducted by highly trained interviewers. They must be thorough inprobing the respondents. The interviewee is asked about the subject of his choice, coffee, for example,and an attempt is made to explore the respondents attitudes in depth byprobing extensively into any other areas which may come up. Interviewers have a general series of topics that they will introduce perhapssuch topics as coffee, or sleep, and will introduce them from time to time if therespondent does not bring them up. Tone of the interview is permissive and the respondent is allowed to talk asmuch as he likes. The interviewer must not influence the answers of the respondent. The interpretation of the answers is very subjective and knowledge of humanbehavior is required to analyze the information received.Individual depth interviews uses three questioning techniques namely 4.Advertising and communications research,5.Background studies on consumers frames or reference,6.Establishment of consumer vocabulary as a preliminary step in questionnairedevelopment and,7.Determination of attitudes and behavior. Advantages 1.Each individual is able to expand and refine t h e i r o p i n i o n s i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n with the other

members. This process provides more detailed and accurateinformation than could be derived from each separately.2 . A g r o u p i n t e r v i e w s i t u a t i o n i s generally more exciting and offers mor e stimulation to the participants than the standard depth interviews.3 . T h e s e c u r i t y o f b e i n g i n a c r o w d e n c o u r a g e s s o m e m e m b e r s t o s p e a k o u t when they otherwise would not.4 . A s t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d b y t h e moderator are addressed to the entire g r o u p rather than an individual the answer contains a degree of spontaneity that isnot produced by other techniques.5.Focus groups can be used successfully with children over five. They are alsovery useful with adults in developing countries where literacy rates are lowand survey research is difficult. 886.A final major advantage of focus groups is that executives often observe theinterview (from behind mirrors) or watch films of the interview. Disadvantages 1.Since focus group interviews last 1.5 to 3 h o u r s a n d t a k e p l a c e a t a c e n t r a l location, securing cooperation from a random sample is difficult.2.Those who attend group interviews and actively participate in them are likelyto be different in many respects from those who do not.3 . T h e r e a r e c h a n c e s t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s m a y go along with the popular opinioni n s t e a d o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r o w n w h i c h m a y b e c o n t r a r y t o t h e p o p u l a r opinions.4 . T h e presence of a one-way mirror and /or a n o b s e r v e r ( s ) h a s b e e n f o u n d t o distort participants responses.5.The moderator can intro duce serious biases in the interview by shifting topicstoo rapidly verbally or nonverbally encouraging certain answers, failing to cover specific areas, and so forth.6.Focus groups are expensive on a per respondent basis. Minigroups

Minigroups consist of a moderator and 4 and 5 respondents rather than the 8 to 12u s e d i n m o s t f o c u s g r o u p s . T h e y a r e u s e d w h e n t h e i s s u e b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d requires more extensive probing than is possible in a larger group.Minigroups do not allow the collection of a confidential or highly sensitive data asm i g h t b e p o s s i b l e i n a n i n d i v i d u a l d e p t h i n t e r v i e w . H o w e v e r , t h e y d o a l l o w t h e researcher to obtain substantially depth of response on the topics that are covered.Further the intimacy of the small group often allows discussion of quite sensitiveissues Chapter 8 : Scales and Attitude Measurement The advantages and disadvantages of minigroups are similar to those of standardfocus groups, but on a smaller scale. In principle, these interviews are the same as the previous ones, exceptingthat they are conducted in groups rather than for individuals. This method is therefore less expensive and less time consuming than thedepth interviews. This method is advantageous because it gives excellent leads to consumer attitudes that no other method can give. Another advantage of this method is that each res p o n d e n t r e c e i v e s stimulation for responding from his group members and so the interviewer need not prompt the interviewee to answer.

The disadvantage here is that one or two members could dominate in thegroup and others might not get a chance to answer. This would again make itan individual effort. 3. DISGUISED, NON-STRUCTURED TECHNIQUES The essence of these methods is that the interviewee either does not know that hisattitude is being studied, or does not know for which company the survey is beingdone, or sometimes he does not know both. It involves using various vague stimuli towh i c h t h e r es p o n d e n t i s as k e d t o r es p on d . I n d oi n g s o , i t i s b e l i ev e d t h a t t he respondent reveals several elements of his/ her attitude that he would not haverevealed in the face of direct questions.These tests are not difficult to administer because they are like games played withthe respondents. Generally, respondents seem to enjoy the exercise. 3.1. Projective Techniques Projective Techniques are based on the theory that the description of vague objectsrequires interpretation and this interpretation can only be based on the individualsown background, attitudes, and values. The more vague or ambiguous the object tob e d e s c r i b ed t h e m ov e on e m u s t r e v ea l o f o n e s el f i n o r d e r t o c om p l e t e t h e description.The following general categories of projective techniques are described: association,completion, construction and expression. 3.1.1. Association Techniques Association techniques require the subject to respond to the presentation of astimulus with the first things that come to mind. The word association techniquerequires the respondent to give the first word or thought that comes to mind after researcher presents a word or phrase. In free association only the first word or thought is required. In successive word association, the respondent is asked to givea series of words or thoughts that occur after hearing a given word. The respondentis generally read a number of relatively neutral

terms to establish the technique.Then the words of interest to the researcher are presented, each separated byseveral neutral terms. The order of presentation of the key words is randomized toprevent any position or order bias from affecting the results. The most common approach to analyzing the resulting data is to analyze the frequency with a particular word or category or word is given in respon s e t o t h e w o r d o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e researcher.W o r d association techniques are used in testin g p o t e n t i a l b r a n d n a m e s a n d occasionally for measuring attitudes about particular products, product attributes,brands, packages or advertisements. 3.1.2. Completion Techniques This technique requires the respondent to complete an incomplete stimulus. Twotypes of completion are of interest to marketing researchers sentence completion and story completion.Sentence completion, as the name implies, involves requiring the r e s p o n d e n t t o complete a sentence. In most sentence completion tests the respondents are askedt o c o m p l e t e t h e sentence with a phrase. Generally they are told to use the firstthought that comes to their mind or anything that makes sense. Because theindividual is not required directly to associate h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f w i t h t h e a n s w e r conscious or subconscious defenses are more likely to be relaxed and allow a morerevealing answer. Story completion is an expanded version of sentence completion. A s t h e n a m e suggests part of a story is told and the respondent is asked to complete it. 3.1.3. Construction Techniques

This technique requires the respondent to produce or construct something generallya story, dialogue, or description. They are similar to completion techniques except that less initial structure is provided. Cartoon techniques present cartoont y p e d r a w i n g s o f o n e o r m o r e p e o p l e i n a particula r situation. One or more of the individuals are shown with a sentence inbubble form above their heads and one of the others is shown with a blank bubble t h a t t h e respondent is to fill in. Instead of havi ng the b u b b l e s h o w r e p l i e s o r comments, it can be drawn to indicate the unspoken thoughts of one or more of thecharacters. This device allows the respondent to avoid any restraints that might bef e l t a g a i n s t h a v i n g e v e n a c a r t o n c h a r a c t e r speak as opposed to think certainthoughts. Third- person techniques allow the respondent to project attitudes onto some vaguethird person. This third person is generally an average woman, your neighbors,the guys where you work, most doctors or the like. T hus instead of asking therespondent why he or she did something or what he or she thinks about somethingthe researcher asks what friends, neighbors or the average person thinks about theissue. Picture response, another useful construction technique, involv es using pictures toelicit stories. These pictures are usually

relatively vague, so that the respondent must use his or

her imagination to describe what is occurring

Fantasy scenario requires the respondent to make up a fantasy about the product or brand. Personification a s k s t h e r e s po n d e n t t o c r ea t e a p e r s o n al l y f o r t h e p r o d u c ts o r brands. 3.1.4. Expressive Techniques Role-playing is the only expressive technique utilized to any extent by marketingresearchers. In role playing the consumer is asked to assume the role or behavior of a n o b j ec t o r a n o t h e r p e rs o n , s uc h as a s a l es r e p r es e n t a t i v e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r department store. The role-playing customer can then be asked to try to sell a givenproduct to a number of different consumers who raise varying objections. Themeans by which the role player attempts to overcome these objections can reveal agreat deal about his or her attitudes. Another version of the technique involvesstudying the role-players attitudes on what type of people should shop at the storein question. 3.1.5. Problems As projective techniques generally require personal interviews with highly trainedi n t e rv i ewe r s a n d i n t er p r e t e r s t o ev a l u a t e t h e r e s p o n s e s , t h e y t e n d t o be v er yexpensive.Small sample sizes can increase the probability of substantial sampling error. Thereliance on small samples often has been

accompanied by non-profitability selectionprocedures.Some of the projective techniques require the respondents to engage in behavior that may well be strange to them; this is particular true for techniques such as role-plays. Thus there is reason enough to believe that there might be an error in thefindings.Measurement error is also a serious issue with respect to projective techniques. Thepossibility of interpreter bias is obvious. 3.1.6. Promises They can uncover information not available throug h d i r e c t q u e s t i o n i n g o r observation.They are particularly useful in the exploratory stages of researchThey can generate hypotheses for further testing and provide attributes lists andterms for more structures techniques such as the semantic differential.The results of projective techniques can be used directly for decision- making. 3.2. Word Association One of the oldest and simplest projection techniques. Respondents are presented with a number of different words, one at a time.After each word, they are asked to give the first word that comes to mind. The assumption here is that through free words, the respondents will indicatetheir inner feelings about the subject Chapter 8 : Scales and Attitude Measurement Responses are timed so that those responses that respondents reason outare identified and taken into account in the analysis. The time limit is usually 5seconds.

The usual way of constructing such a test is to choose many stimulating andneutral words. The words are read out to the respondent one at a time, andt h e i n t e rv i e we r e s s e n t i al l y r e c o r d s t he f i r s t wo r d a s s oc i a t i o n by t h e respondent. Respondents should not be asked to write their responses because then theinterviewer will not know if the responses were spontaneous or whether therespondent took time to think out the responses. A n e x a m p l e of s uc h a te s t i s : wh o wo u l d e a t a l o t o f o a t m e a l ? T h e f i r s t response is athletes. This means that the respondent feels that the productis more suited for sportspersons. More words on the same topic will reveal more about the respondents attitude about the product. While analyzing the results of word-association tests, responses are arrangedalong such lines as favorable - unfavorable and pleasant unpleasant. 3.3. Sentence Completion The respondent is given a number of incomplete sentences and asked tocomplete them. The rule here too, is that respondent must fill in the first thought that comes tomind. Responses are timed. H e r e t h e i nt e rv i e we r g e t s mo r e i n f o r m at i on t h a n t h e wo r d a s s o c i a ti o n technique.

However, it is difficult to disguise the motive of the study from the respondent,who is usually able to diagnose the investigators purpose of study. For example, a man who reads Sportstar is -----------------------------------------. The sentences can be worded in either first or third person. No evidencesuggests that one of these approaches could be better than the other. 3.4. Story Completion Respondents are given a half-completed story. This is enough to draw their attention to a particular issue, but the ending is left vague, so that responsescan be varied. This technique is very versatile and has numerous applications to marketingproblems. The findings about products/ services give companies inputs to determineadvertising and promotional themes and product characteristics. 3.5. Pictorial Techniques These are similar to story completion method, except that here pictures areused as the stimuli. The two main methods used here area)Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT)b ) C a r t o o n m e t h o d 3.5.1. TAT Clinical psychologists have long used this method. Here the respondent is shown many ambiguous pictures and he is asked tospin stories about them.

The interviewer may ask questions t o h e l p t h e r e s p o n d e n t t o t h i n k . F o r example what is happening here? makes the answer focused towards anaction. Or which one is t he aggressor? makes the respondent think aboutthe picture as one of aggression. The reason that respondents must be askedsuch prompting questions is that the pictures are very abstract and generaland as such are open to very broad and irreverent interpret ations. So someamount of focus is needed to channel the respondents thinking. Each subject in the pictures is a medium through w h i c h t h e r e s p o n d e n t projects his feelings, ideas, emotions and attitudes. The respondent attributesthese feelings to the characters because he sees in the picture something related to himself. Responses differ widely and analysis depends u p o n t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e picture, the extent to which the respondent is able to guess the conclusions and the vagueness of the support questions asked by the interviewer. 3.5.2. Cartoon Tests They are a version or modification of the TAT, but they are simpler to administer andanalyze. Cartoon Characters are shown in a specific situation pertinent to a problem.One or more balloons indicating the conversation of the characters is left open. Therespondent has to then fill these balloons and then analyzed. 1. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENTS The terms validity, reliability & accuracy are often used interchangeably. But each of t h e s e h a s a specific meaning based on the type of

measurement error t h a t i s present.There are two types of measurement errors:1 . S y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s 2 . V a r i a b l e e r r o r s A systematic error , also known as bias, is one that occurs in a consistent manner each time something is measured. For e.g.: A biased question would produce ane r r o r i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n e a c h t i m e i t i s a s k e d . S u c h a n e r r o r w o u l d b e a sy stematic error.A variable error is one that occurs randomly each time something is measured. For e.g.: A response that is less favorable than the true feeling because the respondentw a s i n a b a d mood (temporary characteristic) would not occur e a c h t i m e t h a t individuals attitude is measured. In fact, an error in the opposite direction (overlyf a v o r a b l e ) w o u l d o c c u r i f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w e r e i n a g o o d m o o d . T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a variable The term reliability is used to refer to the degree of variable error in a measurement.We define reliability as the extent to which a measurement is free of variable errors .This is reflected when repeated measures of the same stable characteristic in the same objects show limited variation.A common conceptual definition for validity is the extent to which the measurep r o v i d e s a n a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

of what one is trying to measure. In thisc o nceptual definition, validity includes b o t h s y s t e m a t i c a n d v a r i a b l e e r r o r compo nents. However, it is more useful to limit the meaning of the term validity torefer to the degree of consistent or systematic error in a measurement. Therefore wedefine validity as the extent to which a measurement is free from systematic error. Measurement accuracy is then defined as the extent to which a measurement is freef r o m s y s t e m a t i c a n d v a r i a b l e e r r o r . A c c u r a c y i s t h e u l t i m a t e c o n c e r n o f t h e researcher since a lack of accuracy may lead to incorrect decisions. 1.1. Reliability There are various operational approaches for estimation of reliability. The followingtable summarizes these approaches. 1.1.1. Approaches to assessing reliabilityN o . A p p r o a c h D e s c r i p t i o n 1 T e s t r e t e s t reliability Applying the same measure to the same objects a second time 2 A l t e r n a t i v e f o r m s reliability Measuring the same objects by two instruments that are designed to be as nearly alike as possible 3 I n t e r n a l c o m p a r i s o n reliability Comparing the responses among the various items ona m u l t i p l e -

i t e m i n d e x d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e a ho mogeneous concept 4 S c o r e r r e l i a b i l i t y Comparing the scores assigned by two o r m o r e judgesNo one approach is the best; several different assessment approaches shouldgenerally be used. The selection of one or more means of assessing a measuresreliability depends on the errors likely to be present and the cost of each assessmentmethod in the situation at hand. 1.1.2. Test-Retest Reliability Test-retest reliability estimates are obtained by repeating the measurement using the same instrument using the same instrument under as nearly equivalent conditions as possible . The results of the two administrations are then compared andthe degree of correspondence is determined. The greater the differences, the lower the reliability

A number of practical and computational difficulties are involved in measuring test-retest reliability. They are:1. Some items can be measured only once . For e.g.: It would not be possible to remeasure an individuals initial reaction to a new advertising slogan.2 . I n many situations, the initial measurement may alter the characteristic being measured . Thus an attitude survey may focus the individuals attention on thetopic and cause new or different attitudes to be formed about it.3. There may be some form of a carryover effect from the first measure.

Theretaking of a measure may produce boredom, anger, or attempts to remember the answers given in the initial measurement.4. Factors extraneous to the measuring process may c a u s e s h i f t s i n t h e characteristic being measured. For e.g.: A favorable experience with the brandduring the period between the test and the retest might cause a shift in individualratings of that brand. 1.1.3. Alternative-Form Reliability Alternative-form reliability estimates are obtained by applying two equivalent formsof the measuring instrument to the same subjects. As in test-retest reliability, theresults of the two instruments are compared on an item -by-item basis and thedegree of similarity is determined. The basic logic is the same as in test-retest approach.Two primary problems are associated with this approach. They are: 1.The extra time, expense and trouble involved in obtaining two equivalent measures.2. More importantly , the problem of constructing two truly equivalent forms. Thus a low degree of response similarity may reflect either an unreliable instrument or nonequivalent forms. Despite these difficulties, researchers should use alternativemeasures of important concepts whenever possible to allow assessment of reliability (and validity) as well as to improve accuracy (by using the data from both themeasures) 3. Internal-Comparison Reliability Internal-comparison reliability is estimated by the intercorrelation among the scoresof the items on a multipleitem index. All items on the index must be designed tomeasure precisely the same thing. For e.g.: measures of

store image generally involve assessing a number of specific dimensions of the store, such as price level,merchandise, service, and location. Because these are somewhat independent, aninternalcomparison measure of reliability is not appropriate across di mensions.However, it can be used within each dimension if several items are used to measureeach dimension. Split-half reliability is the simplest type of internal comparison. It is obtained by comparing the results of half the items on a multi-item measure with the results from the remaining items. The usual approach to split-half reliability involves dividing thetotal number of items into two groups on a random basis and computing a measureof similarity. A b e t t e r a p p r o a c h t o i n t e r n a l c o m p a rison is known as coefficient alpha. Thism e a s u r e m e n t , i n e f f e c t , p r o d u c e s t h e m e a n o f a l l p o s s i b l e s p l i t - h a l f c o e f f i c i e n t s resulting from different splitting of the measurement instrument. Coefficient alphacan range from 0 to 1. A value of .6 or less is usually viewed as unsatisfactory. 4. Scorer Reliability: Marketing researchers frequently rely on ju dgment to classify a consumersresponse. T his occurs, for e.g., when projective techni q u e s , f o c u s g r o u p s , observation, or open ended questions are used. In these situations, the judges or scorers, may be unreliable, rather than the instrument or respondent. To estimatethe level of scorer reliability, each scorer should have some of the items he or shes c o r e s j u d g e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y b y a n o t h e r s c o r e r.

T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e various judges is a measure of scorer reliability. 1.2. Validity Validity like reliability is concerned with error. Ho w e v e r i t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h consistent or syste matic error rather than variable error. A valid m e a s u r e m e n t reflects only the characteristics of interest and random error.There are three basic types of validity. They are:1 . C o n t e n t v a l i d i t y 2 . C o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y a n d 3.Criterion-related validity (predictive and concurrent)These are summarized in the table below:
1.2.1. Basic Approaches to Validity AssessmentN o p p c h c r i o . r D i n o e p A a s t

1Content validation

Involves assessing the representativeness or thes a mpling adequacy of the items contained in th e measuring instrument 2Criterion-relatedvalidation Involves inferring an individuals score or standing ons o m e m e a s u r e m e n t , c a l l e d a c r i t e r i o n , f r o m t h e measurement at hand a . Concurrent validation Involves assessing the extent to which the obtained score may be used to estimate an individuals presentstanding with respect to some other variable

bPredictive validation
Involves assessing the extent to which the obtainedscore may be used to estimate an individuals futurestanding with respect to the criterion variable

3 Construct validation
Involves understanding the meaning of the obtainedmeasurements 1.2.2. Content Validity

Content validity estimates are essentially systematic, but subjective, evaluations of the appropriateness of the measuring instrument for the task at hand. The term facevalidity has a similar meaning. However, face validity generally refers to nonexpert judgments of individuals completing the instrument and/or executives who must approve its use. This does not mean that face validity is not important. Respondentsmay refuse to cooperate or may fail to treat seriously measurements that appear i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e m . M a n a g e r s m a y refuse to approve projects that utilize measurements lacking in face validity. Therefore, to the extent possible, researchersshould strive for face validity.The most common use of face validity is with multi-item measures. In this case, ther e s e a r c h e r s o r s o m e o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p o f i n d i v i d u a l s a s s e s s e s t h e rep resentativeness, or sampling adequacy, of the inc l u d e d i t e m s i n l i g h t o f t h e purpose of the measuring instrument. Thus, an attitude scale designed to measuret h e overall attitude towards a shopping center would n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e content validity if it omitted any major attributes such as location, layout and so on.C o n t e n t v a l i d a t i o n i s t h e m o s t c o m m o n f o r m o f v a l i d a t i o n i n a p p l i e d m a r k e t i n g research. 1.2.3. Criterion-Related Validity: Criterion-related validity can take two forms, based on the time period involved. They are:1 . C o n c u r r e n t v a l i d i t y and 2.Predictive validity Concurrent validity is the extent to which one measure of a variable can be used toe s t i m a t e a n i n d i v i d u a l s c u r r e n t score on a different measure of the same, or a closely related variable.

For e.g.: a researcher may be trying to relate social class tothe use of savings and loan associations. In a pilot study, the researcher finds auseful relationship between attitudes towards savings and loan associations and social class, as defined by Warners ISC scale. The researcher now wishes to test this relationship further in a national mail survey. Unfortunately, Warners ISC isd i f f i c u l t t o u s e i n a m a i l s u r v e y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s e a r c h e r d e v e l o p s b r i e f v e r b a l descriptions of each of Warners six social classes. Respondents will be asked toi n d i c a t e t h e s o c i a l c l a s s t h a t b e s t describes their household. Prior to using t h i s measure, the researcher should assess its concurrent validity with the standard ISC scale. Predictive validity is the extent to which an individuals future level on some variablecan be predicted by his or her performance on a current measurement of the sameo r a d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e . Predictive validity is the primary concern of the applied marketing researcher. Some of the predictive val i d i t y q u e s t i o n s t h a t c o n f r o n t marketing researchers are:(a)Will a measure of attitudes predict future purchases? (b)Will a measure of sales in a controlled store test predict future market share? (c)Will a measure of initial sales predict future sales? and (d)Will a measure of demographic characteristics of an area predict the success of a branch bank in the area?

1.2.4. Construct Validity Construct validity understanding the factors that underli n e t h e o b t a i n e d measurement is the most

complex form of validity. It involves more than j u s t knowing how well a given measure works; it also involves knowing why it works.Construct validity requires that the researcher have a sound theory of the nature of the concept being measured and how it relates to the other concepts.A number of approaches exist for assessing construct validity of which the most common is called multitrait-multimethod matrix approach. These multiple measures(by methods as different from each other as possible) of multiple traits or concepts can be analyzed by the Campbell-Fiske procedure, confirmatory factor analysis, or direct product model.These techniques generally involve ensuring that the measure correlates positivelywith other measures of the same construct (convergent validity), does not correlatew i t h t h e o r e t i c a l l y u n r e l a t e d c o n s t r u c t s ( d i scriminant validity), correlates in thet h e o r e t i c a l ly predicted way with measures of different b u t r e l a t e d c o n s t r u c t s (nomological validity), and correlates highly with itself (reliability).F o r e . g . : s u p p o s e w e d e v e l o p a m u l t ii t e m s c a l e t o m e a s u r e t h e t e n d e n c y t o purchas e prestige brands. Our theory suggests that this tendency is caused by threepersonality variables. They are:1 . L o w s e l f f o c u s 2.High need for status and3 . H i g h m a t e r i a l i s m We believe that it is unrelated to brand loyalty and the tendency to purchase new products. Evidence of construct validity would exist if our scale:1 . C o r r e l a t e s h i g h l y w i t h o t h e r m e a s u r e s o f p r e s t i g e b r a n d p r e f e r e n c e s u c h a s reported purchases and classifications by friends (convergent validity);2.Has a low correlation with the unrelated constructs brand loyalty and tendency to purchase new products (discriminant validity);3.Has a low correlation with self-focus and high correlations with need for status and

materialism (nomological validity); and4.Has a high level of internal consistency (reliability) 2. NON- DISGUISED, STRUCTURED TECHNIQUES The non structured techniques for attitude measurement are primarily of value in exploratory studies, where the researcher is looking for the salient attributes of givenproducts and the important factors surrounding purchase decisions as seen by thec o n s u m e r . S t r u c t u r e d t e c h n i q u e s c a n p r o v i d e a m o r e o b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e m e n t system, one that is more comparable to a scale or yardstick. The term scaling hasbeen applied to the efforts to measure attitudes objectively, and a number of usefulscales have been developed. 2.1. Nominal Data A set of data is said to be nominal if the values / observations belonging to it can beassigned a code in the form of a number where the numbers are simply labels. Youcan count but not order or measure nominal data. For example, in a data set malescould be coded as 0, females as 1; marital status of an individual could be coded asY if married, N if single. 2.2. Ordinal Scales They are the simplest attitude measuring scales use din marketing research. They serve to rank respondents according to some characteristics such asf a v o r a b i l i y t o a c e r t a i n brand, or to rank items such as brands in order o f consumer preference. They do not measure the degree of favorability of the different rankings. All t h e s c a l e t e l l s i s t h a t t h e individual or item has more, less, or the

s a m e amount of the characteristic being measured as some other time. They are the most widely used type of scales in marketing research.A set of data is said to be ordinal if the values / observations belonging to it can beranked (put in order) or have a rating scale attached. You can count and order, butnot measure, ordinal data. The categories for an ordinal set of data have a natural o r d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , suppose a group of people were asked to taste v a r i e t i e s o f biscuit and classify each biscuit on a rating scale of 1 to 5, representing strongly dislike, dislike, neutral, like, strongly like. A rating of 5 indicates more enjoyment thana rating of 4, for example, so such data are ordinal. However, the distinction betweenneighboring points on the scale is not necessarily always the same. For instance, thedifference in enjoyment expressed by giving a rating of 2 rather than 1 might bemuch less than the difference in enjoyment expressed by giving a rating of 4 rather than 3. 2.3. Interval Scales They separate individuals or items by rank order but measure the distance between rank positions in equal units. Such a scale permits the researcher to say that t h e p o s i t i o n 4 i s a b o v e position 3 on the scale, and also the distance from position 5 to 4 is same asfrom 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not permit conclusions that position 6 is twice asstrong as position 3 because no zero position has been established A n i n t e r v a l s c a l e i s a s c a l e o f m e a s u r e m e n t w h e r e t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n a n y t w o a d j a c e n t

u n i t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t ( o r ' i n t e r v a l s ' ) i s t h e s a m e b u t t h e z e r o p o i n t i s a r b i t r a r y . S c o r e s o n a n i n t e r v a l s c a l e c a n b e a d d e d a n d s u b t r a c t e d b u t c a n n o t b e meaningfully multiplied or divided. For example, the time interval between the startso f y e a r s 1 9 8 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 i s t h e s a m e a s t h a t b e t w e e n 1 9 8 3 a n d 1 9 8 4 , n a m e l y 3 6 5 days. The zero point, year 1 AD, is arbitrary; time did not begin then. Other examplesof interval scales include the heights of tides, and the measurement of longitude. 2.4. Ratio Scales I f o n e m e a s u r e s t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s a s f o u r f e e t a n d b e t w e e n two other points as two feet, it is possible say that one distance is twice that of the other because each distance is measured from an absolute zero. A scalethat permits such measurements is called ratio scale. W h i l e r a t i o s c a l e s a r e c o m m o n i n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e , t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f a t t i t u d e s i s s t i l l s o c r u d e t h a t t h e y a r e o f l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n m a r k e t i n g research. 2.5. Semantic Differential Scale I t o f i s a s p e c i a l t y p e g r a p h i c s c a l e ,

w h i c h b e i n g

i s i n c r e a s i n g l y u s e d , i n marketing research.

I t e s t a b l i s h e s a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e b r a n d a n d c o m p a n y i m a g e s t u d i e s a n d a l s o p e r m i t s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d e s c r i p t i v e p r o f i l e s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s comparison of competitive items. The unique characteristics of semantic differential is the use of bipolar scalesto rate any product, company or concept of interest. Respondents are given a group of these scales and asked to check on eachone point that indicates their opinion of the subject in question. E a c h s c a l e s c o n s i s t o f t w o o p p o s i n g a d j e c t i v e s s u c h a s g o o d / b a d , c l e a n / d i r t y , m o s t p o p u l a r / l e a s t p o p u l a r , e t c . w h i c h a r e s e p a r a t e d b y a continuum divided into seven segments. Respondents are asked to check the segment that represents the degree of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n v o l v e d t h a t m o s t c l o s e l y c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e i r o p i n i o n o f the product or item being rated.

It is best when used for image descriptive purposes and is not recommendedfor overall attitude measurement. The advantage of using semantic differential is its simplicity, while producingresults comparable with those of the more complex scaling methods T h e m e t h o d i s e a s y a n d f a s t t o a d m i n i s t e r , b u t i t i s a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o s m a l l differences in attitude, highly versatile, reliable and generally valid.For e.g.:1 . P e r c e p t i o n o f n a t i o n a l b r a n d s a n d p r i v a t e b r a n d s : High quality 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Low qualityLower price 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 High price : Higher value 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Low valueAttractive 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Unattr activePackaging Packaging