Author: John Waters

Utilitarianism

Socratic Ideas Limited All Rights Reserved

A Concise Historical Overview

David Hume
(1711-76 CE)

G.E. Moore
(1873-1958)

Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1832 CE)

R.M. Hare
(1919-2002 CE)

John Stuart Mill

(1806-73 CE )

Peter Singer
(1946 - )

Utilitarianism Historical Background

The Enlightenment French Revolution Victorian Britain

Voltaire
Rejection of metaphysics

Rousseau
Liberty, Fraternity, Equality

Utilitarians
Social Reformers

What is utilitarianism?
Derives from the latin word `utilis meaning useful.

A normative, consequential morality.

Good is whatever produces beneficial consequences. Utilitarianism has no intrinsic goods (Good irrespective of the consequences) Utilitarianism is instrumental (The results justify the means)

Principle of utility

The Principle of Utility

Pleasure Pain
The Principle of Utility

The good is that which will bring about the greatest sum of pleasure, or the least sum of pain, for the greatest number

Jeremy Bentham
Principle of Utility

Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.
An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation

Foundation for the Principle of Utility is Benthams Psychological hedonism: Pleasure and pain determine how people act.

Jeremy Bentham: Reductive Empiricist

Bentham was a reductive empiricist Principle of utility will replace metaphysical beliefs

According to Bentham talk of abstract `inalienable rights was nonsense on stilts.

Only the principle of utility offers an understanding of rights based on concrete, observable verification

The principle of utility offers an understanding of rights based on concrete, observable verification Scientific and Ethical Revolution
N E W T O N B E N T H A M
D A R W I N

Newtons laws of science explained how the world is governed by universal laws of nature which causally determine action.

Bentham reasoned that ethics was a science; where `good could be scientifically proven according to the principle of utility, felicific calculus.

Darwin challenged the fundamentalist, literal, understanding of the Genesis creation story with his scientific theory of evolution, natural selection.

PLEASURE
All types of pleasure and pain can be measured on the same scale.
Pleasures can be compared quantitatively because there is no qualitative difference between them Bentham once said that "quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin [a simple child's game] is as good as poetry".

What is good and bad for each person (i.e. what brings them pleasure or pain) is a matter for each person to decide by following the Felicific Calculus

Benthams Felicific Calculus

Pleasure can be `scientifically calculated according to the following 7 criteria of the Felicific Calculus

1. DURATION 2. INTENSITY 3. PROPINQUITY 4. EXTENT

How long will it last? How intense is it? How near or remote? How widely it covers

5. CERTAINTY
6. PURITY 7. FECUNDITY

How probable is it?

How free from pain is it? Lead to further pleasure?

Benthams Mnemonic Jingle for his Felicific Calculus

A little ditty to remember the Felicific Calculus

Intense, long, certain, speedy, fruitful, pure

Such marks in pleasures and in pain endure.

Such pleasures seek if private be thy end: If it be public, wide let them extend. Such pains avoid, whichever be thy view: If pains must come, let them extend few.

Benthams Felicific Calculus

The Felicific Calculus Democratic and Egalitarian Everybody is to count for one, and nobody for more than one.

No one persons pleasure is greater than anothers

In keeping with Enlightenment thinking the Felicific Calculus was a rational and scientific way to measure pleasure. Bentham claimed that goodness could be empirically proven.

Benthams Felicific Calculus

When answering an examination question on utilitarianism try and avoid simply listing the felicific calculus as this only demonstrates knowledge (something which lower grade students can achieve). Rather, select a particular feature of the Felicific calculus, perhaps propinquity, and show how it might be difficult to apply in practice e.g. Is the pleasure near or remote in terms of space (geographically close) or time may have an impact in years to come. Apply to a national or international example to illustrate further understanding and evaluation: America withdrawing from the Kyoto agreement; Bush claiming the American way of life is non-negotiable. Can the felicific calculus overcome such political short-termism?

Jeremy Bentham
Counter-cultural Pioneer of Social Reform

Penal Reform

Animal Rights
Click on either of the above boxes for further information

Benefits of Utilitarianism

Appeals to Human Nature

Human beings share a common interest in: (1) Benevolence and sympathy (David Hume) G.E. Moore David Hume (2) Pleasure and Happiness (Bentham and Mill) (3) Pleasure, Friendship, Aesthetic Appreciation (G.E. Moore) Jeremy Bentham R.M. Hare (4) Peoples Welfare (R.M. Hare) (5) Peoples Preferences (Peter Singer)
J.S. Mill Peter Singer

Utilitarianism: Fair, Objective and Democratic

Benthams felicific calculus claims that: Everybody is to count for one, and nobody for more than one. No one persons pleasure is greater than anothers.

In a radical way utilitarianism challenges elitism and an aristocratic system that offers privilege to the select few at the expense of the majority. e.g. French Revolution: `Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.
In the spirit of Marxism democracy is giving the proletariat rewards for their labour and power to determine their future.

Appropriate Ethic for a Secular and Scientific Age

In a Post Enlightenment world, with the challenge to metaphysical and theistic foundations, utilitarianism has a high regard for individual autonomy.
Hume

Voltaire

Although the felicific calculus was not the resounding success that Bentham may have wished, the importance of the quality of peoples lives, here and now, is something which governments take seriously.

Peter Singers Preference Utilitarianism recognises the importance of respecting peoples desires and inclinations when assessing moral dilemmas.

Quality of Human Life or Sanctity of Human Life?

Peter Singer Pope John Paul II

Preference Utilitarianism replaces sanctity of human life with the criteria for personhood

Personhood
Sentience Rational Self-conscious Communicate Establish Relationships

Due to advances in scientific technology it is possible to maintain life even when it is of low quality e.g. life support Machines, Motor Neurone Disease

In a world of limited resources is it more sensible to respect a patients wish to die, voluntary euthanasia? (And so reduce needless suffering and equally redistribute funds otherwise spent keeping a terminally ill patient alive with a low quality of life.)

Utilitarianism Suitable for Government

Bentham and Mills political reforms had significant impacts on public policy e.g. Penal reform, Greater Equality for women, Jeremy Bentham Animal Rights Government policy has an interest in promoting the quality of life for its electorate e.g Education, Health care, Law and order.
Tony Blair

J.S. Mill

Utilitarianism has Some Common Ground With Christian Ethics

Benthams Principle of Utility has been compared to Jesus Golden Rule, Love your neighbour as yourself or Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. The rationale behind Christian teaching of redemption may be understood in a utilitarian manner: the vicarious suffering by Jesus on the cross to redeem humanity is selfsacrificial for the greater good of the greater number. Utilitarianism upholds the message of a benevolent God showing interest for the well-being of human beings; but rejects belief in a metaphysical God!

Problems of Benthams Utilitarianism

Problem of Utilitarianism: Commits the Naturalistic Fallacy

Cannot deduce an OUGHT from an IS (G.E. Moore)

Cannot move from FACT to VALUES

Cannot move from EPISTEMOLOGY (knowledge) to ETHICS

(G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica)

Problem of Utilitarianism: Commits the Naturalistic Fallacy

From the mere statement of psychological fact that people actually desire happiness for its own sake one cannot deduce the evaluative conclusion that pleasure is desirable, i.e. that it ought to be desired. People may desire something that they ought not to desire, something which is not really desirable. e.g People may desire to take hard drugs as it produces pleasure. But is taking hard drugs good?

The Felicific Calculus Is Too Impractical

When making decisions in the heat of the moment, lacking reflection, it is not practical to apply the felicific calculus to moral dilemmas. Adding up `pleasure units is a dubious exercise and is difficult to measure accurately. The whole idea of assessing different varieties and intensities of pleasures is too subjective.

The Felicific Calculus Too Impractical? J.S. Mills response

J.S. Mill argued that instead of the felicific calculus people should come up with general principles which over the passage of time have promoted the greatest happiness. By following such principles and rules individual judgements are supported by past events and so are less pressurised and less subjective in their moral judgements.
This development is a major reason why some have labelled Mill a `rule`utilitarian as he advocated following such rules as opposed to continually using the felicific calculus or even his own Greatest Happiness Principle.

Principle Of Utility May Undermine Freedom

In Aldous Huxleys Brave New Recent World a utopian society is projected International Example where people are genetically In 1989 the Chinese engineered with differing levels of government suppressed IQ: Alphas to Epsilons (A-E) the student uprising in Tiananmen Square, Citizens receive state claiming the State, not indoctrination and soma drugs to the educated students, promote a feeling of happiness. knew what was in peoples best interest. Giving students However, the price of this inauthentic happiness is the encroachment upon freedom to determine their future was not personal freedom. deemed acceptable.

Im claiming the right to be unhappy

(John, The Savage, Brave New World)
In Aldous Huxleys Brave New World, John, the Savage, rejects a life of artificial drug (soma) induced happiness. When questioned by the Controller John asserts his right to be unhappy. John understands that a life of depth and meaning is one which embraces and learns from hardship and sorrow. A life which pursues a drug induced happiness is one which misses the richness that comes from experiencing pain and sacrifice.
It is helpful to illustrate answers with examples from literature. Equally important is lateral thinking, here with John Hicks theodicy. Hick asserts that `Virtues are better hard won than ready made.

Aldous Huxley

Living in a Fools Paradise

Tolstoys The Death of Ivan Illych is a story of how many people live a life of deception fooling themselves into believing that their lives are happy by finding meaning in superficial pleasures. Yet on his death-bed Ivan Illych, a once wealthy lawyer who is struck down by a terminal illness, realises people only really liked him for the material benefits he was able to offer them. He realises that he has lived a life where superficial pleasures fooled him into thinking he was happy, when in fact his life lacked depth & meaning. A life filled with the instant gratification of the latest designer label is not a life of fufilment.

Utilitarians Universal Altruism Lacks Justification

Each person desires his / her own happiness.

?
This jump from Egotistical Hedonism to include the welfare of others lacks support.

Therefore each person ought to aim for his or her own happiness.

Therefore everyone ought to aim at the happiness of everyone

Egoism to Altruism But Problem! Sentiment of Sympathy People are Innate within human Too egotistical beings is an elementary Marx argues that in a feeling for the happiness Capitalist society the of humanity and a dislike competition for limited David Hume of seeing them in misery. resources means the bourgeois will Economic growth should be seek to exploit the pursued as a means of proletariat. bettering conditions for all. Soon after being Smith claimed even elected President economic inequality caused George Bush withdrew greater wealth for all. Adam Smith America from the Kyoto Society is a collection of agreement, claiming individuals who work The American way of together for the common life is non-negotiable. good. Philosopher

People Are Separate And Unique

Professor Simon Blackburn has argued that Utilitarianism does not take seriously the separateness of persons the idea being that it subordinates the rights of the individual to solidarity with the general welfare.
(Being Good, p.92)

e.g. In World War II the right of the pacifist Methodist minister, Lord Donald Soper, to speak out against the war was denied as it was thought his words would undermine the war effort and was detrimental to the general welfare of the country.

Will of the Majority Does Not Always Make for Good Law
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication

Strange as it may seem the will of the majority does not always make for good law. For example, the majority of the UK public are in favour of legalising voluntary euthanasia. (2001: 82% Opinion Poll) There is a danger that people follow their desires and inclinations as opposed to thinking through the implications of their decisions. e.g. How might the ethos of society change, affecting weak and vulnerable people, such as the elderly?

Will of the Majority Does Not Always Make for Good Law
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication

Interestingly Mill was all too aware of this criticism of Benthams utilitarianism. In On Liberty Mill drew an important distinction between public and private acts. He famously remarked, Your freedom to punch me ends where my nose begins. Any law which has a serious detrimental effect on the qualitative well being of others is wrong.

Not simply the amount of pleasure produced But how that pleasure is distributed
Unlike Bentham, W.D. Ross was concerned that utilitarianism could ignore justice.
Justice is not concerned simply with the amount of pleasure produced. But, rather how and on what basis that pleasure is distributed. Do people or groups deserve to receive pleasure? Bentham W.D. Ross

Utilitarianism: Counter-intuitive
As an intuitionist W.D. Ross rejected utilitarianism on the grounds that it ignores intrinsic goods that are counter, or contrary, to our intuitive, innate, sense of right and wrong. Even if it could be shown that happiness was greatest by lying to people there is something simply wrong about lying and deception which would make people wish to reject such an ethic. W.D. Ross

Utilitarianism: Lack of Intrinsic Goods

Utilitarianism is a consequential morality and so lacks intrinsic goods, such as trust, honesty and dignity. This creates an ethos of uncertainty where people are never really sure if they are valued.
e.g

YUPPIES (Young Urban Professional People)

In the early 1980s many middle-aged businessmen, who had shown great loyalty accruing high profits for their companies were sacked over-night; to be replaced by YUPPIES. YUPPIES were considered to be of greater immediate use to the company, being younger and so cheaper in the short run.

Utilitarianism requires a non-utilitarian framework in order to work

Professor Alasdair MacIntyre argues that utilitarianism is effective as an ethical theory only when it operates within a nonutilitarian framework, where intrinsic, deontological values enable people to flourish. e.g. Happiness may be promoted in a society that upholds intrinsic values of justice, liberty and honesty. Alasdair MacIntyre

Case Studies
Application of Utilitarianism To Moral Issues

Should I.V.F Be Used To Help Infertile Couples?

The Roman Catholic church condemns the use of I.V.F as being contrary to the sanctity of human life principle and teaching of natural law. Paul VI Lord Robert Winston and Baroness Warnock support the use of I.V.F. to relieve the suffering of infertile couples.
John Paul II

Lord Winston

What would a classical utilitarian think? Give reasons for your view.

Baroness Warnock

The Survival Lottery

22 (by Professor John Harris) 3

14

12

27

Patients Y and Z will die unless they receive organ transplants in which case they will live for a further 20 years. There is a lack of donor organs. Faced with the prospect of imminent death patients Y and Z propose a `National Survival Lottery where each week a persons number will be pulled out at random, killed, and their organs donated to help those in need of a transplant thereby saving a greater number of lives. Professor John Harris Explain a utilitarian response to the suggestion of a National Survival Lottery.

12

The Survival Lottery

22 Some further points to consider 3

14

27

Is there a difference between killing and letting die? (Patients Y and Z do not think so!) Is ones individuality undermined? Would the National Survival Lottery create a climate of fear, or would people become accustomed to the unlikely probability? What about those who have brought their illness upon themselves, e.g through heavy smoking, should they benefit equally? How would a sub-class of people be protected from not being victimised? Can society take away the intrinsic right to life? Professor John Harris Where does its authority lie?

Legalise Voluntary Euthanasia?

Public Opinion Polls in the UK show that the majority of people would like to see voluntary euthanasia legalised. e.g. 82% 2001. The UK is an increasingly secular society where the Quality of Life is considered to be more important than the sanctity of human life. 20% of patients in Intensive Care Units are being treated with no likelihood of survival. Would a utilitarian agree with the legalisation of voluntary euthanasia?

Legalise Voluntary Euthanasia?

Some further points to consider

Hippocrates

Pius XII

Kevorkian

Williams

Would voluntary euthanasia undermine the role of the doctor? (cf. the Hippocratic oath, the medical duty to preserve innocent human life.) Is the current law of `the principle of double effect satisfactory in a secular society? Consequences of restrictive laws? Will people pursue a policy of illegal euthanasia? Would legalising voluntary euthanasia pressurise vulnerable members of society? (The Church of Englands concern, On Dying Well 1993) Is voluntary euthanasia a private, or a public, act? (How does it differ from suicide?)

J.S. Mill

Socrates Says Links

David Hume was an empiricist, who rejected the authority of the church and those pertaining to metaphysical foundations, Take in hand any volume of divinity or school of metaphysicsand let us ask: Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion. Rather, Hume thought that morality was founded upon emotions, and in particular feelings of sympathy with fellow human beings. This is what Hume means by the term passion, when he says, Reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions.

David Hume
(1711-76 CE)

Utilitarianism develops Humes empirical approach, rejecting God as the author of morality, and expands the notion of sympathy to include the `Greatest pleasure / happiness for the greatest number.

A Hedonistic Utilitarian
A radical empiricist Psychological Hedonism Principle of Utility Felicific Calculus Morality: could be scientifically proven Pioneer of social reform

Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1832 CE)

A Eudaimonistic Utilitarian A Weak Rule utilitarian Advocated classical liberalism Greatest Happiness Principle Quality, not Quantity Happiness, not pleasure Pioneer of social reform

John Stuart Mill

(1806-73 CE )

An Intuitionist or an Ideal Utilitarian?

G.E. Moore is famous for his analysis of ethical language in Principia Ethica, 1903, where he famously asserted that: Good is a nondefinable property. This led to Moore being labelled an intuitionist, as We know what`yellow is, and can recognise it whenever it is seen, but we cannot actually define it. In the same way we know what `good means but cannot define it. (Ethica, 1903) However, closer analysis reveals that, it seems self evident that our duty is to do what will produce the best effects upon the whole, no matter how bad the effects upon ourselves may be and no matter how good we ourselves may lose by it. (Ethica, p.143) As an Ideal utilitarian Moore suggests that there are three intrinsic goods: Pleasure, Friendship, Aesthetic appreciation and so right actions are those which G.E. Moore increase / promotes these in the world for the most people. (1873-1958)

R.M. Hare: Welfare Utilitarian

It is significant that the experiences from being a prisoner of war in Japan during World War II influenced R.M. Hares moral philosophy.

Peoples desires and needs for satisfaction are important. It is possible to intuit what will promote peoples well being. A whole life perspective should be adopted when making moral judgements. Principles of integrity and justice are important as they promote welfare. Critical reflection is important to assess the changing needs of human welfare.

R.M. Hare

Peter Singers Moral Philosophy: Four Simple Claims?

1. Pain is bad. 2. Most non-human animals feel pain. 3. When taking life we should look not at race, sex or species but at other ethically relevant characteristics of the individual being killed. 4. We are responsible not only for what we do but also for what we could have prevented.
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication

The above may sound simple and appealing. But, think how Singers philosophy would change your life?!

Peter Singers Ethical Earthquake

Challenging the Sanctity of Human Life Ethic Maldistribution of Wealth Animal Liberation

Personhood Secular Age

Benevolence Sympathy

Speciesism Sentience

The 5 Old and 5 New Commandments

Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication

1. Treat all human life as if it is of equal worth. 2. Never intentionally take innocent life. 3. Never take your own life and try to prevent others from taking theirs 4. Be fruitful and multiply 5. Treat all human life as always more precious than any non-human life.

1. Recognise that all worth of life varies. 2. Take responsibility for the consequences of our decisions. 3. Respect a persons desire to live or die. 4. Bring children into the world only if they are wanted. 5. Do not discriminate on the basis of species.

Personhood Ethically Relevant Characteristics

The criteria for personhood should replace the sanctity of human life

Rational Self-conscious (Biographical as opposed to merely biological) Sentient Act intentionally Communicate Establish relationships
Peter Singer

Philosopher
(Periodic Table)

Contribution

Peter Singers Application

Hu Be Mi

Reason is and ought to be Sympathy (feeling) fosters the slave of the passions. idea of others, Expanding Empiricist Circle. Rejection of theism.

Wa
Ha

The question is: not can Sentience applies to animals it reason, can it talk, but so they have interests and can it suffer. (Bentham) are ethically significant. Maldistribution of wealth! Qualitative differences between pleasures / pain. Superficial pleasures do not outweigh 3rd world suffering Vindication of the Rights Singer is counter-cultural: of Women 1792 Animal Liberation global oppressed group of society pioneer of animal rights Ethical self-interest Individuals find meaning in requires universalization, their lives when they focus promotes welfare for all. on others / larger goals

The Enlightenment
18th century
Voltaire Leibniz Newton Hume

Rejected theological The Enlightenment is dogma, with its emphasis known as The Age of The Reason and was a time Enlightenment on faith and ecclesiastical authority. Placed reason, when great optimism empiricism and human was expressed in autonomy over and above humanitys intellectual metaphysical belief and powers. God.. Utilitarians rejected God as the author of morality, as empirically Gods existence could not be proven, and replaced the authority of the Bible as the source of morality with the principle of utility - as no one could doubt the reality of pleasure and pain.

The French Revolution

1789 CE

In 1789 the battle-cry of the French revolution was Rousseaus Liberty, The French Equality, Fraternity Revolution reflected the challenge by the masses against the elite aristocracy.

The political structure of France, where the wealthy noble-people lorded it over the majority of the poor peasants, came to an abrupt end; many of the landed gentry losing their lives at the guillotine.

Sentiments of sympathy for the well being and happiness of others became a central aim of ethics throughout Europe.
Jean Jacques Rousseau and David Hume advocated sympathy and benevolence.

Victorian Britain
England in the 1800s was a class-riddled society. Charles Dickens, in his novel Hard Times, highlights enforced debtors prisons, exploitation of child labour and the subjugation of women. The pioneers of utilitarianism, Bentham, Wollstoncraft and Mill, campaigned for social change promoting structures which would enable the majority of people to live fulfilled and happy lives. e.g. Penal and Electoral Reform.
Bentham

Wollstonecraft

J.S. Mill

Penal Reform
Analysis / Evaluation / Implications / Analysis / Evaluation / Implication

e.g. abolition of debtors prisons.

Bentham campaigned for the reform of the Penal System, based on Psychological Hedonism (People respond to pleasure/pain) Punishment should be sufficient to deter others from offending but punishment should not cause unnecessary suffering.

The New Poor Law 1834

In examinations it is helpful to offer a brief example of how Benthams utilitarianism changed British law. Benthams felicific calculus was the philosophy behind the Whig governments Social Reform of the New Poor Law. Edward Chadwick Man seeks pleasure and flees pain. The New Poor Law (1834) stated that life inside the workhouse must be less eligible (pleasant) than life as an independent labourer. Further, no able bodied man should be able to get relief outside the workhouse. Bentham was the father of British innovation both in doctrines and in institutions. (JS Mill)

Bentham: Animal Welfare

The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been with-holden them but by the hand of tyranny. The French have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason why a human being should be abandoned without redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may one day be recognised that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os sacrum are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate. The question is not `Can they reason? `Can they talk? But `Can they suffer?