Issue10 HR MNGT 120720 en

A TEMPUS STUDY
EN
DOI 10.2797/89070
Human Resource Management in Public Higher Education in the Tempus Partner Countries
Tempus
Issue 10 June 2012
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/tempus
HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationin theTempusPartnerCountries

Thisreportistheresultoftwostudiescarriedoutin2011bytwoindependentexperts: FloraDubosc,BudapestHungary,floradubosc@hotmail.com MariaKelo,BrusselsBelgium,mariakelo@yahoo.co.uk The coordination of the overall exercise and the consolidation of both studies has been carried out by Piia Heinmki and Philippe Ruffio from the Education, Audiovisual and CultureExecutiveAgencyinBrussels.

This study has been produced within the framework of the European Union Tempus programme which is funded by the EuropeAid Development and Cooperation DirectorateGeneral and the DirectorateGeneralforEnlargementoftheEuropeanCommission. This publication does not reflect any official position. The European Commission and the Executive Agency cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained herein.
HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
Thisreportconsistsoftwoseparatedocuments: thisdocumentwhichprovidesthemaindataandoutcomesofthestudiescarriedout an additional annex which is available only on the website of the Tempus programme (http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/tempus/tools/publications_en.php) and provides detailed statistical information on the results of the online survey addressed to individuals involvedinTempusprojects.
PREFACE
Whereasreformsinhighereducationincountriesintransitionmainlyconcentrateonstructuresand procedures, the behaviour and attitudes of staff working in higher education institutions often appear to be a major obstacle to reform. Indeed, experience proves that conservatism and reluctance to change are priority topics that need to be addressed when implementing reform policiesandprogrammes. Thismakeshumanresourcemanagementakeychallengewhenitcomestodesigning,implementing and monitoring policies, in particular, in the public sector, where legal frameworks and administrativerulesoftenlackflexibilityandadaptability. In this context, I am proud to present this study which was launched in 2011 by the Tempus programme and carried out by two external experts, with the support of the unit in charge of the managementoftheTempusprogrammeintheEducation,AudiovisualandCultureExecutiveAgency. Thestudyisinnovativefromacontentandmethodologicalpointofview.Firstofall,itaddressesa topicwhichhasneverbeendirectlytackledbeforewithintheframeworkofthe22yearoldTempus programme. Secondly, it covers the different categories of staff working in higher education institutions,notlimitingitsscopeonlytoacademicsandthusemphasisestheprominentroleofother categoriesofstaff.Moreover,itisbasedonacombinationofsourcesofinformation,rangingfrom data collected at national level, to data collected from individuals currently experiencing reform processeswithinongoingTempusprojects. It complements previous studies, by demonstrating once again the potential of the Tempus programmetosupportinnovativeactivitiesinhighereducation.Theconclusionsofthissurveywillbe exploitedin2012/2013throughaseriesofregionalseminarstobeorganisedintheTempusPartner Countries,inordertostimulatedebatesandexchangeexperiencesonthetopicsatstake. I have no doubt that this survey will be welcomed by the various stakeholders in charge of higher educationinthecountriesconcernedandbeyond,includingtheinternationalcommunityofdonors insearchofanalysesandevidence. GilbertGascard Director
Tableofcontents
1.
Introduction ExecutiveSummary Methodology Nationalpoliciesandframeworksinhumanresourcemanagement

4.1 4.2 4.3 Approachestohumanresourcemanagement
4.1.1 Sharingofresponsibilitiesinhumanresourcemanagement 4.1.2 Nationalstrategiesandschemes
2.
3.
4.
Legalframeworksandinstitutionalautonomy Regionalcontextsandspecificities
5.
Academic staff recruitment, career management and working conditions

5.1 5.2 Introduction Recruitmentofacademicstafftohighereducationinstitutions
5.2.1 Studentnumbersandneedforstaff 5.2.2 Recruitmentprocedures 5.2.3 Recruitmentrequirements
5.3
Careermanagement:evaluation,trainingandmotivation
5.3.1 Evaluatingacademicstaff:studentsandpeers 5.3.2 Training 5.3.3 Promotionsandmotivation
5.4
Workingconditions
5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 Contractualconditionsforacademicstaff Sidebenefitpackages Retirement Salaries Multiplejobs Workload
6.
Administrative and technical staff recruitment, career management, andworkingconditions

6.1 6.2 6.3 Introduction Recruitment of administrative and technical staff to higher education institutions Careermanagement:evaluation,trainingandmotivation
6.3.1 Evaluatingadministrativeandtechnicalstaff 6.3.2 Training 6.3.3 Promotionsandmotivation
6.4
Workingconditions
6.4.1 Contractualconditionsforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff 6.4.2 Retirement 6.4.3 Salaries
7.
Managementstaffrecruitmentandconditions
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 AppointmentandselectionofRectors AppointmentandselectionofDeans Termsofserviceofmanagementlevelstaff Careermanagement
8.
Genderbalance Agingofstaff Braindrain Attractiveness of jobs in higher education institutions strengths and challenges
11.1 Overview 11.2 Regionalspecificities 11.3 Impressionsfrominterviews
9.
10.
11.
12.
Skillsandmotivation Conclusionsandrecommendations
13.1 Mainfindings 13.1.1 Nationalpolicies 13.1.2 Academic staff recruitment, career managements and working conditions 13.1.3 Administrative staff recruitment, career management and working conditions 13.1.4 Managementstaff(RectorsandDeans) 13.1.5 Thewidercontext Regionalspecificities 13.2.1 CentralAsia 13.2.2 EasternEurope 13.2.3 Russia 13.2.4 Maghreb 13.2.5 MiddleEast 13.2.6 WesternBalkans Recommendations
13.
13.2
13.3
ANNEXES
Annex1BriefoverviewoftheTempusprogramme Annex2Thenationalquestionnaire(addressedtoNationalTempusOffices) Annex3Theonlinequestionnaire(addressedtoindividuals) Annex4Overviewtablesofresponsescollectedthroughthenationalquestionnaires Annex 4.1 Duration of contract and the legal employer of staff at public higher educationinstitutionsAcademicstaff Annex 4.2 Duration of contract and the legal employer of staff at public higher educationinstitutionsAdministrativeandtechnicalstaff Annex 4.3 The most significant nonsalary benefits of public higher education institutionemployeesbystaffcategoryandregion Annex4.4Theroleofnationalauthoritiesinsalarydecisionsbyregion Annex4.5Averagestudentcontacthoursbytypeofacademicstaffandbyregion Annex 4. 6 Overview of career progression by region: evaluation, training and promotions Annex4.7ProceduresfortheappointmentofmanagementstaffRectors Annex4.8ProceduresfortheappointmentofmanagementstaffDeans Annex4.9Percentageoffemalestaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions Annex 4.10 Division of responsibilities and institutional autonomy on human resourcemanagementissuesinhighereducation Annex4.11Mainchallengestohighereducationmodernisationbyregionandstaff category
An additional annex is available only on the website of the Tempus programme (http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/tempus/tools/publications_en.php) and provides detailed statisticalinformationontheresultsoftheonlinesurveyaddressedtoindividualsinvolved inTempusprojects.
1Introduction
Formorethan20years,theTempusprogramme(seeAnnex1)providesauniqueplatformforthe exchangeofbestpracticesinthemodernisationofhighereducationsystemsbetweentheEuropean Union and the Partner Countries involved in the programme. The Tempus programme is also the gateway to EU best practice in higher education modernisation and makes it possible, via the publicationofstudies,toraiseawarenessamongstakeholdersofpriorityissuesinhighereducation. Inaddition,thesestudiesalsoprovidematerialwhichcanbefurtherexploitedviaTempusprojects. Developing the management of human resources is becoming a key challenge in higher education institutions worldwide. Complex academic communities need appropriate career management procedures,aswellasnationalpolicies,whichsupporttheinstitutionsinrecruiting,motivatingand keepingqualifiedstaff. IntheTempusPartnerCountries,highereducationsystemsarefacingnumerouschallengeslinkedto the economic transition process and globalisation. These challenges are linked to quality, level of statespendingineducation,adequacytotheneedsofthelabourmarketandsociety,theneedfor appropriategovernancemechanismsandstructuresandtheaccesstohighereducationinparticular forthedisadvantagedsectorsofthepopulation. Asexperiencedinmanycountries,modernisationofhighereducationisnotonlyamatterofpolicies and strategies, organisations and structures but also a question of behaviour and the attitudes of individuals. Ongoing reflections and analyses by experts and practitioners about university modernisation highlight among many other obstacles, the human constraints and the difficulty to makepeoplechangetheirattitudesandadheretonewapproachesandmethods.Structuralreforms oftenfailbecauseofthelackofcommitmentandmotivationofindividualactors. InmanyTempusPartnerCountries,highereducationinstitutionsareconfrontedwithashortageof staff(academicandsupportstaff)inquantitative andqualitativeterms.Institutionsarelacking the appropriate human resources to properly address the challenges at stake. Unsatisfactory working conditions have an impact on the attitudes and behaviour of staff and create an obstacle to the modernisation of higher education. Tempus projects in particular are confronted with this kind of challengeswhentryingtomakemodernisationareality. Developing the proper management of human resources is therefore becoming a key challenge withininstitutionsandalsoatnationallevel.Newapproachestohumanresourcemanagementare currentlybeingintroducedinmanycountriestosupportthemodernisationofgovernanceofhigher educationsystemsandinstitutions. The study "Human Resource Management in Public Higher Education in the Tempus Partner Countries" provides an overview of the challenges, conditions and limitations which may be considered as obstacles to the modernisation of higher education. In particular, the purpose is to investigate to what extent some unfavourable conditions, such as inadequate recruitment procedures and lack of career progression schemes may be hindering the development of proper human resources in higher education. The study concentrates exclusively on the public higher educationsectorandregularlyemployedstaff.Itwaslaunchedin2011andconsistedoftwoparts: an online survey addressed to Tempus project participants to collect their individual perceptions (later referred to as "the online survey / questionnaire") and a questionnaire addressed through National Tempus Offices to National Authorities and other relevant stakeholders to gather
information on national policies and practices (later referred to as "the national survey / questionnaire). ThisstudyaimsnotonlytogiveanoverviewofthestateofplayintheTempusPartnerCountries1but also to collect good practices and to provide examples on how countries or institutions have addressedthechallengesthattheyarecurrentlyfacinginmanaginghumanresources. Most importantly, the study also aims to raise the awareness of institutions and policy makers by helpingthemtoidentifycentralareasofdevelopmentintheircountriesandtakeadvantageofthe experienceofotherstomoveforward. The report focuses on the policy measures and strategies which are being taken at macro (governmentandministries)andmicrolevels(institutions)andhighlightsthevarietyofapproaches currentlyimplementedintheTempuscountries. Thereportcoversawiderangeoftopics,including: PolicycontextinthedifferentPartnerCountries Recruitmentprocessesandpractices Careermanagement Workingconditions Braindrain Demographics Attractivenessofjobs Skillsandattitudes Wheninterpretingtheresultofthestudyitmustbekeptinmindthatsometermsmayhavebeen understoodindifferentwaysbytherespondents/countries,inspiteoftheeffortsmadetoclarify theminthequestionnaires. Moreover,manytopicsaddressedinthestudy(suchasquestionsrelatedtoattractivenessandskills, current challenges, etc.) are not based on hard facts or statistics, but on individual respondents perceptionsofthesituation.
Partner countries covered by the study: Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia (only in the online survey), Egypt, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Georgia, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, Russian Federation,Serbia,Syria,Tajikistan,theoccupiedPalestinianterritory,Tunisia,Turkmenistan,Ukraine, UzbekistanandKosovo(thisdesignationiswithoutprejudicetopositionsonstatus,andisinlinewith UNSCR1244andtheICJOpinionontheKosovodeclarationofindependence). HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
2ExecutiveSummary
Theaimofthisstudyistogiveanoverviewofthewaysinwhichhumanresourcesaremanagedin public higher education institutions in the Tempus Partner Countries. It is based on a survey addressedtoindividualsinvolvedinTempusprojectsandoninformationgatheredatthelevelofthe nationalauthorities. Inallthecountriescoveredbythestudy,humanresourcemanagementandstaffdevelopmentare becomingissueswhichrequiremoreandmoreattentiononthepartofindividualinstitutionsaswell as from the national authorities. There is a need to recruit and retain highly skilled and motivated staff in order to make modernisation of higher education a reality. While more attention is often being paid to the working conditions of academic staff, it is slowly becoming obvious that administrativeandtechnicalstaffalsoneedstobetakenbetterintoconsideration,inordertoensure theircommitmentandcontributiontothedevelopmentofhighereducationinstitutions. Ingeneral,itcanbenotedthattheimportanceofhumanresourcemanagementisrecognisedinthe TempusPartnerCountries,butonlyafewofthemhavedevelopednationalstrategieswhichwould concretelysupporthighereducationinstitutionsandgivethemguidelines.However,somesuccessful nationalschemesarepresentedinthestudyandcanserveasexamplesofgoodpracticeinmanaging humanresourceissues.Theconclusionsattheendofthereportalsoincluderecommendationsfor thedevelopmentofhumanresourcesinthecountriesconcerned.
Academicstaffmotivatedbutunderpaid
Transparentrecruitmentprocedures,goodcontractualconditionsandconcretepossibilitiesforstaff developmentandcareeradvancementareimportantfactorsinattractingandmaintainingqualified academic staff at public institutions. Such measures also ensure that staff members are not only retained, but that their skills and capacities are constantly upgraded to meet the changing requirementsetonthehighereducationsector. Thefollowingtypesofproblemareasareidentifiedinthestudyinrelationtoacademicstaff: 1) Recruitment processes: high frequency of internal recruitment and lack of transparency of procedures used, corruption and nepotism, use of selection methods and criteria that do not supporttherecruitmentofthebestsuitedcandidatesforthejobs,restrictivelegalframeworks. 2) Careerprogressionandtraining:lackofprogressionprospects,prolongedtimespentwithinone institution, inadequate performance evaluation procedures, limited training opportunities, insufficientmotivationandincentives. 3) Working conditions: limited research opportunities, political pressure and lack of autonomy, excessive working hours, varying contract durations, low salaries, the necessity to take up multiplepositions. These problems affect the Tempus Partner Countries to varying degrees and are being tackled through different measures. The study shows some positive tendencies towards more open and transparentselectionprocedures,astrongerfocusonstafftrainingandtheintroductionoffinancial incentivesandrewardschemes.Itcanalsobenotedthat,whilesalariesareusuallyconsideredtobe lower than in equivalent positions outside public higher education, other advantages such as employment stability, interesting work and a wellregarded social status continue to be seen as important advantages of academic posts in public higher education. It should also be mentioned that, in many countries covered by the study, academic staff values the possibility to work in the universityenvironmentandconsidersteachingasavocation.
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As far as recruitment procedures are concerned, it can be noted that academic staff in Tempus Partner Countries is most typically recruited via open competitions. However, also the tradition of internal recruitments continues to be widely spread while, in a small number of countries, the recruitment falls under the responsibility of the national authorities. In most of the Tempus countries, academic staff at public higher education institutions is directly employed by the institutions or their subunits. Contracts are usually concluded for a determined period, while contractdurationmayvary(mosttypically5years). Intermsofchallenges,manyTempuscountriesarefacedwithproblemslinkedtotheagingofstaff andthe needtorecruita newgenerationofstaffmembers.Braindrainisalsobecoming aserious issueinsomecountriesandincertaindisciplines,notonlyintermsofinternationalbraindrainbut evenmoretypicallyasaresultofcompetitionfromtheprivatesectortoemployacademicstaff.
Administrativeandtechnicalstaffsatisfiedbutundervalued
Administrativestaffandtheircommitmentandskillscanbecrucialtothesuccessfulmodernisation of institutions and it is therefore necessary to pay careful attention to their recruitment, career management and working conditions. However, in the countries investigated, their role does not always seem to be considered of primary importance to the development of the higher education sector.
Overall,thereislesscontrolbythenationalauthoritiesovertherecruitment ofadministrativeand technical staff and open competitions are less common than for academic positions. Recruitment decisionsareusuallytakenbytheinstitutions.Intermsofworkcontracts,thereisacleartrendthat administrativeandtechnicalstaffcontractsarelongerindurationthanthoseofacademicstaff.Itcan alsobenotedthatsalariesofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffaremoreinlinewithsalariesoffered for jobs outside public higher education. In addition, the relatively good additional benefits, the employmentstabilityandthereasonableworkinghoursmakeadministrativeandtechnicalpositions relativelyattractiveinmostcountries. The study shows that one of the challenges in respect to this category of staff is the lack of appropriateskills,inparticularlanguageandITskills.However,thedevelopmentoftrainingschemes for administrative and technical staff does not seem to be a high priority in most of the countries investigated.
Managementstaffpoliticalpressureandlackofrelevanttraining
Management staff (Rectors and Deans) naturally holds a key role in the development, strategic positioningandmodernisationofhighereducation institutions. Therefore,themanagementofthis particularlycentralhumanresourceisofhighimportancetothesuccessofinstitutionsandindeed forthemodernisationofthehighereducationsystemsasawhole. Thestudyidentifiessomeproblematicissuesinrelationtothelackofopencompetitionforpositions in senior management, their often politicised selection or appointment, the lack of adequate and transparent selection criteria, the lack of relevant training opportunities and the different kinds of political pressures that management staff may be subject to. However, also some interesting examplesofgoodpracticecanbefound,underliningtheincreasedwilltoachievetransparencyand to select the effectively best candidates able to support the strategic goals of the institutions and theirmodernisation.
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Regionalfeatures
It is difficult to summarise comprehensively the specific features of each region, but some main aspectsthataretypical,particularlyproblematicorwelladdressedcanbeidentifiedforeachofthe sixregionscoveredbythisstudy. In most Central Asian countries, unattractiveness of jobs in higher education is considered a significantproblem.Lowsalaries,ahighnumberofcontacthourswithstudentsandrelativelyweak side benefits contribute to this situation. Moreover, low salaries often lead to the need to hold multiplepositions.Institutionsareindependenttodecideonpromotionsandhaverelativefreedom instaffappointments.However,theRectorsofinstitutionsareappointedbynationalauthorities.The genderbalanceofstaffisrelativelygood,withsomevariationsacrosstheregion. The level of PhD attainment among senior teaching staff is among the lowest among the Tempus regions and language and IT skills are reported to be an area that needs to be addressed. On the otherhand,systematictrainingofstaffisavailableforacademicstaffacrosstheregion. Manycountriesintheregionfaceanegativedemographictrendoftheoverallpopulationandneed toreducenumbersofteachingstaffinthenextfiveyears. In Eastern European countries, jobs in public higher education are also not considered particularly attractive:lowsalariesandrelativelyweakbenefitspackagesmakethepositionslessattractivethan possiblealternativesintheprivatesector.Thesituationisespeciallyworryingforacademicpositions, whileforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff,theconditionsareconsideredmoreattractiveinrelative terms.Multiplepositionsarealsoanissueinthisregion. In several Eastern European countries the recruitment requirements are set by the national authorities, which mean that institutions have little freedom to steer the selection. Similarly, institutionshavelittleautonomyfordecisionsregardingsalariesandtheimplementationofrewards. Ontheotherhand,institutionalbodiesmayoftendirectlyselecttheRectorandothermanagement levelstaff. TherearecurrentlyarelativelylowproportionofPhDcandidatesamongsenioracademicstaffinthe regionandthelackofforeignlanguageskillscreatesaproblemforthemodernisationofthesector. Thereisverylittlesystematicstafftrainingavailable.Infact,Europeanprojectsareseenasoneofthe most important training tools available at higher education institutions. International braindrain is lessofaconcernthancompetitionfromtheprivatesector.Atthesametime,institutionsarefaced withaneedtoreducenumbersofteachingstaffinthenextdecade. AsintheotherexSovietcountries,alsoinRussia,jobsinhighereducationarenotconsideredvery attractive, due to the high number of contacthours with students, the lack of opportunities for researchandlowsalaries.Russiatriestofindnewwaystoattracthighlyqualifiedstaffintothesector for example by the creation of new types of higher education institutions with a special status, special funds and extended academic freedom. Institutions enjoy a relatively high degree of autonomyfortherecruitmentandthepromotionofstaff. StafftrainingconcentratesoninstitutionalinitiativesanditappearsthatEuropeanprojectsareseen as one of the main training tools. The main skills shortage is in the area of foreign language skills, while IT skills are widespread. International braindrain does not seem to be a serious cause for concern.Rather,theactualcompetitioncomesfromtheprivatesectoratnationallevel.
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PositionsinhighereducationintheMaghrebcountriesareconsideredmoreattractivethaninany otherregion:allstaffhascivilservantstatusandrelativelyhighsalariesandinsomecasesverygood benefits packages. As all staff members are civil servants, recruitment requirements, salaries and promotions are decided upon mainly by the national authorities. Promotions are based mainly on formalcriteria,suchasyearsofservice.Duetothefavourableconditionsandoverallattractiveness ofpositionsinhighereducationinstitutions,thereislittlecompetitionforthebestcandidatesatthe nationallevelfromprivatecompaniesforexample.Mostcountriesintheregionhavehighnumbers ofPhDsinacademiaandagoodlevelofskillsofstaff.Ingeneral,thereislittlestafftrainingavailable. Oneoftheproblemareasintheregionseemstobetheresistanceofstafftochange.Furthermore, thecountriesoftheregionwillneedtorecruitadditionalstaffinthecomingyearsinordertocope withtheincreasingnumberofstudents. Ageing does not seem to pose a serious problem to the sector. Gender balance has not yet been reachedhoweverandthefiguresarelowespeciallyinacademicpositions. IntheMiddleEast,someofthemainattractionsofjobsinhighereducationinstitutionsarethejob stabilityandgoodadditionalbenefits.Atthesametime,salariesarenotconsideredattractive,which leadstotheneedtoholdmultiplepositions.Thestudyshowsthatthisisactuallytheonlyregionin which most countries report a de facto decrease of salaries in the past 10 years due to inflation growing faster than salaries. For administrative staff, the attraction of jobs in higher education institutionsseemshigherincomparisontootheralternativesthanforacademicstaff. Recruitmentrequirementsarerelativelystringentandoftenmoredetailedandcomprehensivethan inotherTempusregions.ThereareaveryhighpercentageofPhDholdersamongsenioracademic staff. Lack of skills is not considered a serious problem, but rather the attitude of staff to change. There is a good awareness of the importance of staff training across the region. Training is usually organisedbyinstitutionsandisoftentakenintoconsiderationinpromotiondecisions. Some of the countries in the region suffer from severe international braindrain, especially to the richer neighbouring countries and the imbalance in gender distribution is a problem especially in academicpositions. IntheregionoftheWesternBalkans,highereducationjobsareconsideredrelativelyattractive.The salariesareconsideredrelativelygoodinmostofthecountriesoftheregionandcontacthourswith studentsareamongthelowestacrossTempuscountries. Inmostcases,institutionsareindependentindecidingaboutpromotionsandrecruitmentandthey may also put in place financial incentives. The lack of integration of the universities in several countriesisanobstacletoreformingandharmonisinghumanresourcemanagementpracticeswithin the institutions. Selection processes are now most typically open to all qualified candidates and importantchangestoincreasetransparencyhavebeenimplementedintherecentyears.TheRectors areelectedbytheinstitutions,sometimesinvolvingallstaffandstudentsintheprocess. Thereisverylittlesystematictrainingavailableforstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions.While thereisscopefortheimprovementoflanguageskills,themainissueintheregionseemstobethe lackofflexibilityofstaffandtheirlackofadaptabilitytonewrequirements. StaffinWesternBalkaninstitutionsisrelativelyyoung.Asbraindrainisacauseforconcernformany countries of the region, some national schemes have been established to deal with this phenomenon.
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3Methodology
Thisreportsdrawsonthreemainsourcesofinformation: 1) a questionnaire to the National Tempus Offices in 27 Partner Countries participating in the programme(laterreferredtoasthenationalsurvey/questionnaire) 2) SitevisitstonineoftheTempusPartnerCountries. 3) anonlinesurveycarriedoutinMayJune2011targetingapproximately3000peopleinvolvedin TempusIVprojectsintheTempusPartnerCountriesandEUmemberstates(laterreferredtoas theonlinesurvey/questionnaire)
Terminologyused
Termshavebeenusedwiththemeaningstatedbelow: Academicstaff:professors,lecturers,researchers Administrative and technical staff: staff in academic or administrative departments performing administrativeandtechnicaltasks Managementstaff:DeansandRectors Seniorandjuniorstaff:judgementwaslefttotherespondentsaccordingtothedivisionthatmade mostsenseineachcontext.Usuallytheformerreferstoprofessorialpositions(assistantprofessors, fullprofessors,etc.)andthelattertononprofessoriallevelstaff(lecturers,teachingassistants,etc.) Civil servant: term indicating staff employed typically by public authorities (e.g. the state) as permanentstaffandwhooftenenjoyspecificbenefitsrelatedtotheposition Higher education institution (HEI): all types of staterecognised, postsecondary educational and vocationalestablishmentswhichofferqualificationsordiplomasatISCEDlevel5and/or6,regardless ofwhatsuchestablishmentsarecalled(University,Polytechnic,Institute,College,etc). National authorities: entities having legal decisionmaking powers on institutional issues, such as Ministries,theGovernment/CouncilofMinistries,theHeadofStateandsoon.
Regionscoveredbythestudy
CentralAsia:Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan EasternEurope:Armenia,Azerbaijan,Belarus,Georgia,Moldova,Ukraine Russia Maghreb:Algeria,Tunisia,Morocco
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MiddleEast:Egypt,Israel,Jordan,Lebanon,theoccupiedPalestinianterritory,Syria Western Balkans: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia (only online survey), Former Yugoslav RepublicofMacedonia,Kosovo2,Montenegro,Serbia
1)ThequestionnaireaddressedtotheNationalTempusOffices(NTOs)3
A comprehensive questionnaire on human resource management in higher education was sent to coordinatorsofNationalTempusOfficesin27PartnerCountries.Thepurposeofthequestionnaire wastocollectinformationtoanalysetheextenttowhichhumanresourceissuesinhighereducation institutionsareadriveroforachallengetohighereducationreforms. Theaimofthequestionnairewastocollectdetailedinformationonissuesrelatedtohumanresource managementatthenationallevel,includingnationallevelregulations,laws,initiatives,policiesand activities related to the theme. The questions referred to the employment conditions of regularly employedstaff(excludingstaffonprojectrelatedcontracts)inpublichighereducationinstitutions. Thequestionnaire(Annex2)wasdividedintotwomainparts,addressing1)concreteproceduresin humanresourcemanagementand2)humanresourcepolicies. TheNationalTempusOfficeswererequestedtoconsulttheNationalAuthoritiesaswellasthelocal EU Delegation in filling in the questionnaire. In addition, some of them organised consultation meetings with higher education institutions, Tempus Higher Education Reform Experts (HEREs), orotherrelevantentities.OtherNTOsevensurveyedallpublicinstitutionsintheircountries,thefinal questionnairebeingtheresultoftheaggregationoftheinstitutionalreplies.Thefinalquestionnaire wasendorsedbythenationalMinistryinchargeofhighereducation.
2)Thesitevisits
Tocomplement,verifyandenrichtheinformationcollectedthroughthequestionnaires,toobtaina more indepth vision of the circumstances, to better interpret the information collected and to identify examples of good practice, a number of sitevisits were organised between May and July 2011.Thevisitswereconductedbytotheexternalexpertsinchargeofcarryingoutthestudy.Atotal of nine countries were selected for the sitevisits, maintaining a regional balance and a spread betweensmallerandlargerhighereducationsystems.Thecountriesvisitedwere: WesternBalkans:Albania,Serbia EasternEurope:Armenia,Ukraine Maghreb:Morocco MiddleEast:Jordan CentralAsia:Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan Russia
2
Thisdesignationiswithoutprejudicetopositionsonstatus,andisinlinewithUNSCR1244andtheICJ OpinionontheKosovodeclarationofindependence. The National Tempus Offices are responsible for the local management of the Programme and monitoring of the projects in each Partner Country. They act as contact point for the overal Programmeineachpartnercountryandarefundedundertheaccompanyingmeasures. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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Thesitevisitslastedtypically23daysandincludedanumberofinterviewswithrelevantindividuals fromthefollowinggroups: Ministrylevel(personsdealingwithhumanresourcesatpolicylevelandpersonsresponsiblefor practicalmattersinhumanresourcemanagement) Atleast2highereducationinstitutionscurrentlyinvolvedinTempusprojects(personsfromthe centraladministration/managementlevelandacademicandadministrativestaff) RepresentativesoftheTempusHigherEducationReformExperts(HEREs) TheNationalTempusOffice TheEUDelegation Otherstakeholders,ifrelevant. The interviews addressed questions both at the macro and micro level, i.e. nationallevel policies, strategiesandregulations,aswellasinstitutionalpracticeandindividualperceptions. The information collected through the sitevisits has been instrumental in gaining a better understandingofthemechanismsinplaceindifferentregionsandcountriesandhasmadeitpossible tobetterinterpretdatacollectedthroughthequestionnaires.Thecaseexamplesandgoodpractices included in this report have been mainly collected through the sitevisits and consequently concentrate on the 9 countries visited. This is naturally without prejudice to the number of good practiceexamplesoradvancedsystemsofhumanresourcemanagementpotentiallyavailableinthe othercountries.
3)Theonlinesurvey
Between 19 May and 29 June 2011, approximately 3000 contact persons involved in Tempus IV ongoingprojectswereinvitedbyemailtofillinaquestionnairepublishedonline. Thepurpose ofthequestionnairewastocollectinformationfromstakeholdersdirectlyinvolvedin projectsandactivitiesrelatedtothereformofhighereducationinthecountriesconcerned,namely ongoing Tempus projects. It was targeted at 3 different categories of respondents in order to provideacomplementarypictureofthesituationseenfromthreedifferentangles,includingfroman EUpointofview: personsinvolvedinTempusprojectsandworkinginapublichighereducationinstitutioninone oftheTempusPartnerCountries(CAT1); persons involved in Tempus projects and working in other institutions / organisations in a TempusPartnerCountrywhichisnotapublichighereducationinstitution,suchasprivatehigher educationinstitutions,companies,ministries(CAT2);and persons involved in Tempus projects and working in a higher education institution or other organisationintheEuropeanUnion(CAT3). Knowing that the reality may differ widely from the theory and legal / administrative frameworks, the aim of the online questionnaire was to provide additional information and evidence from the ground in order to complete, nuance and confirm the information collected through the national questionnairesandreflectingthusamoremicrolevelanalysis.
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Structureofthequestionnaire Thequestionnaire(Annex3)wasdividedinfivedifferentsections: The first section focusing on the identification of respondents, with questions allowing their classification into three target categories (CAT 1, 2 and 3), defining their staff profile (e.g. academic staff / administrative and technical staff / management staff (Dean/Rector) and the countryoforigin(wheretheirinstitution/organisationislocated). RespondentsfromtheEUmemberStateswererequestedtoselectoneTempusPartnerCountry whichtheyaremostfamiliarwith,inordertoprovidetheirperceptionsofthesituationofhuman resourcesinthatparticularcountry. Thesecondsection,withquestionsaddressedtoallrespondentscoveringthedifferenttopicsof thestudy; The third section, with questions addressed only to respondents working in a public higher education institution in a Tempus Partner Country (CAT1), aimed at gathering more precise information about human resource management at their own institution, such as career managementpractices,evaluationofstaff,workload,demography; The fourth section, with questions addressed only to respondents working in a public higher education institution in a Tempus Partner Country (CAT1), aimed at gathering information on their personal situation, such as status and contact, workload and activities outside their institution,salaryandotherbenefitsandrewards; Thefifthandconcludingsection. Responsesandrepresentativityofthesurvey Atotalof550questionnairesweresubmitted,ofwhichmorethanonethirdwerefilledbyacademic staffworkinginapublichighereducationinstitutioninaTempusPartnerCountry(table1). These550answerscoverall28TempusPartnerCountries.Itshouldhoweverbeunderlinedthat60 repliesweregivenforRussiaand69forSerbia,meaningthat24%ofallanswersconcernthesetwo countries(table2). Itisalsoworthnotingthatoutofthe173respondentsfromtheEuropeanUnion(CAT3),36%chose oneofthe WesternBalkancountries onwhich toanswer,19%choseoneoftheEastern European countriesand18%choseoneoftheMiddleEasterncountries. Furthermore, it should be noted that 17 of the Tempus Partner Countries where assessed by less than 19 persons each, namely Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Egypt, Israel, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Montenegro, Morocco, Syria, Tajikistan, the occupied Palestinian territory, Tunisia,Turkmenistan. Duetothelackofarelevantnumberofanswersconcerningthesecountries,thedecisionwastaken toanalysetheirdataatregionallevelonly.
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Table1Profilesoftherespondentstotheonlinesurvey
Publichighereducationinstitutionina TempusPartnerCountry(CAT1) Academicstaff Administrativestaff Managementstaff Total PrivateHEI Ministry/publicbody Researchorganisation Private/publicenterprise Other Total HEI Ministry/publicbody Researchorganisation Private/publicenterprise Other Total Nrof responses 200 67 37 304 25 18 6 10 14 73 154 3 3 7 6 173 550 %ofthe grand total 36,3% 12,1% 6,7% 55,2% 4,5% 3,2% 1,0% 1,8% 2,5% 13,2% 28,0% 0,5% 0,5% 1,2% 1,0% 31,4% 100,0%
Otherinstitution/organisationinaTempus PartnerCountry(includingprivatehigher educationinstitutions)(CAT2)
Highereducationinstitutionorother organisationintheEuropeanUnion(CAT3)
Grandtotal
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Table2Breakdownoftherepliestotheonlinesurveypercountryandtypeof respondents

Personsworking in apublichighereducationinstitution a inaTempusPartnerCountry Tempus Respondents Partner the Adm. Country EU Academic and Mgt Total (notina staff technical staff public staff HEI) CentralAsia 25 13 9 47 13 16 Kazakhstan 12 9 3 24 7 3 Kyrgyzstan 4 3 1 8 1 4 Tajikistan 0 0 1 1 0 1 Turkmenistan 1 0 0 1 0 3 Uzbekistan 8 1 4 13 5 5 EasternEurope 44 21 12 77 12 32 Armenia 7 3 1 11 3 4 Azerbaijan 0 0 2 2 2 2 Belarus 2 5 2 9 0 3 Georgia 11 3 0 14 2 5 Moldova 7 4 4 15 1 3 Ukraine 17 6 3 26 4 15 RussianFederation 16 9 5 30 5 25 Maghreb 12 7 3 22 1 7 Algeria 3 3 2 8 0 3 Morocco 6 2 1 9 0 3 Tunisia 3 2 0 5 1 1 MiddleEast 24 3 4 31 15 31 Egypt 3 0 2 5 3 8 Israel 3 1 0 4 1 5 Jordan 11 1 0 12 3 6 Lebanon 0 0 0 0 7 4 Syria 6 0 0 6 0 6 theoccupiedPalestinian territory 1 1 2 4 1 2 WesternBalkans 79 14 4 97 27 62 Albania 10 1 0 11 2 3 BosniaandHerzegovina 7 0 0 7 7 9 Personsworkingin Croatia formerYugoslavRepublicof Macedonia Kosovo Montenegro Serbia Total 9 14 0 9 30 200 3 2 1 1 6 67 0 1 0 0 3 37 12 17 1 10 39 304 2 2 2 4 8 73 6 16 4 2 22 173
Total
76 34 13 2 4 23 121 18 6 12 21 19 45 60 30 11 12 7 77 16 10 21 11 12 7 186 16 23 20 35 7 16 69 550
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Regionalandcountryaggregates For the purpose of the analysis, the data collected was aggregated by region as shown in Table 3 below.
Table3Breakdownoftherepliestotheonlinesurveyperregion
CentralAsia:13.8%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries: o Kazakhstan 44.7% o Kyrgyzstan 17.1% oftheresponses o Tajikistan 2.6% providedforthisregion o Turkmenistan 5.3% o Uzbekistan 30.3% Total 100.0% EasternEurope:22%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries: o Armenia 14.9% o Azerbaijan 5.0% o Belarus 9.9% oftheresponses providedforthisregion o Georgia 17.4% o Moldova 15.7% o Ukraine 37.2% Total 100.0% RussianFederation:10.9%ofallresponsesreceived MiddleEast:14%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries: o Egypt 20.8% o Israel 13.0% o Jordan 27.3% oftheresponses providedforthisregion o Lebanon 14.3% o Syria 15.6% o theoccupiedPalestinianterritory 9.1% Total 100.0% Maghreb:5.5%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries: o Algeria 36.7% oftheresponses o Morocco 40.0% providedforthisregion o Tunisia 23.3% Total 100.0% WesternBalkan:33.8%ofallresponsesreceivedconcernthefollowingcountries: o Albania 8.6% o BosniaandHerzegovina 12.4% o Croatia 10.8% oftheresponses o formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia 18.8% providedforthisregion o Kosovo 3.8% o Montenegro 8.6% o Serbia 37.1% Total 100.0%
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Remark:Thestatisticaldocumentinannex(availableonlyontheTempuswebsite)dedicatedtothe detailedresultsoftheonlinesurveyalsocontainsdatabycountry.Sincenotallcountriesgathered enoughreplies,thestatisticscoveronlyalimitednumberofthem(table4).
Table4Percentageofrepliestotheonlinesurveyforcountrieswithmorethan19 replies
Country o o o o o o o o o o o BosniaandHerzegovina Croatia formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia Georgia Jordan Kazakhstan Moldova RussianFederation Serbia Ukraine Uzbekistan Code BA HR MK GE JO KZ MD RF RS UA UZ %oftotal responses 4.2% 3.6% 6.4% 3.8% 3.8% 6.2% 3.5% 10.9% 12.5% 8.2% 4.2%
Disclaimer As the intent of the online survey was to gather impressions and perceptions of individuals, the answershavetobeinterpretedwithcautioninthelightofthecomplementaryinformationprovided inthenationalquestionnaires. When looking at aggregated figures (by region but also by category of staff) the data has to be interpreted bearing in mind the overall number of answers received and the profile of the respondents.Asamatteroffact: - Outofthe304responsesgivenbyindividualsworkinginapublichighereducationinstitutionina TempusPartnerCountry(CAT1),only12%weregivenbyadministrativeandtechnicalstaffand 7%bymanagementstaff(RectorsandDeans). - 50%ormoreoftheanswersconcerningTajikistan,Turkmenistan,Egypt,Israel,SyriaandKosovo were provided by staff working in a higher education institution or other organisation in the EuropeanUnion. - Thebreakdownofanswerspercountrydoesnotreflectthesizeofthehighereducationsectorin eachPartnerCountry. - Some counties seem to be underrepresented, namely Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Tunisia, Israel, the occupied Palestinian territory and Kosovo. The answers concerning these countries represent less than 2% of all 550 responses while other countries such as Ukraine, RussiaandSerbiaarecoveredbymorethan8%ofall550responses. - Thesameremarkappliesatregionallevel.TheMaghrebissignificantlyunderrepresentedinthe sample and gathered only 6% of all 550 responses, in contrast to the Western Balkans which represent34%ofallresponses.
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Within one region, some countries are less represented than others. This means that regional datamaybebiasedbytheunevendistributionofanswersbetweencountries.Forinstance: Tajikistan and Turkmenistan were covered by only 3% and 5% (respectively) of the responses providedforCentralAsia,whereasKazakhstanrepresents45%oftheregionalsample; AzerbaijanandBelaruswerecoveredbyrespectively5%and10%oftheresponsesprovidedfor EasternEuropewhereasUkrainerepresents37%oftheregionalsample.
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4Nationalpoliciesandframeworksinhuman resourcemanagement
4.1
Approachestohumanresourcemanagement
Thetermhumanresourcemanagementhasbeenusedinthisstudyinthebroadestsense.Inthis report, human resource management is considered as something wider than the technical management of recruitment procedures, contracts and salaries and including also a strong developmental and strategic approach. Issues such as training schemes, incentives and rewards, evaluation and staff development support and systematic planning of future staffing needs are all partofwhatisconsideredhumanresourcemanagement. Atthesametime,mostofthecountriesinvestigatedintheframeworkofthisstudyhaveaslightly more restricted understanding of the concept of human resource management and concentrate often on technical aspects related to hiring and management of staff. While institutions within countries may have taken more proactive roles in developing more comprehensive strategies to human resource management, countries with national strategies aiming explicitly at the developmentandreinforcementofstaffareveryfew. 4.1.1 Sharingofresponsibilitiesinhumanresourcemanagement Accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,humanresourcemanagementis,inmostcases,considered thejointresponsibilityofthenationalauthoritiesandpublichighereducationinstitutions.However, in almost equally many cases, human resource management is considered mainly the task of the institutions. In some cases, the fact of institutions being solely responsible is a result of a lack of national strategies in human resource management, as is the case in several Western Balkan countries,partlyduetotheheritageoftheselfmanagementcultureofformerYugoslavia.Inother countries,suchasEgyptandGeorgia,humanresourcemanagementisconsideredanimportantarea of institutional autonomy and as such, not interfered with by national authorities. However, as humanresourcemanagementisoftenunderstoodinaratherrestrictedsense,thefactthatinmost countries,nationalauthoritiessettheframeworkforcontracts,salariesandrecruitment,mayhave ledcountriestooptforsharedresponsibility,evenincaseswherehumanresourcedevelopmentis notpartofthetasksofoneorbothlevels. In a small number of countries mainly those where staff at higher education institutions are civil servantsandemployedbythestatehumanresourcemanagementisconsideredmainlyorentirely theresponsibilityofthenationalauthorities. Based on the information provided in the national questionnaires, Map 1 shows clearly that in Central Asia and Eastern Europe, the responsibility is usually considered shared between the two levels, while in most Western Balkan and Middle Eastern countries, it is principally the task of the highereducationinstitutions.InMaghrebcountries,wherethesystemofhighereducationishighly centralised,themainresponsibilityforhumanresourcemanagementlieslogicallyatnationallevel.
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Map1SharingofresponsibilitiesforHumanResourceManagementinthenational context
Source:Nationalquestionnaires

Primarilyresponsibilityofthenationalauthorities Sharedresponsibility/collaborationbetweeninstitutionsandnationalauthorities Primarilyresponsibilityoftheeducationinstitutions
4.1.2 Nationalstrategiesandschemes While,accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,theimportanceofhumanresourcemanagementis recognised in many countries and regions included in this study, very few countries have set up national level strategies that deal with staff issues (Map 2). Most countries in the Western Balkan region,aswellasanumberofcountriesacrosstheotherregions,havenotprovidedanyindicationof nationalstrategiesonhumanresourcemanagement.InsomeothercountriesnamelyAzerbaijan, theoccupiedPalestinianterritory,Israel,Syria,Belarus,TajikistanandMoroccoitseemsthatsome elements related to human resource management have been integrated into overall national strategiesoneducation.Onlyfivecountriesreportedonspecifichumanresourcerelatedstrategies. ThesecountriesareMoldova,Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,EgyptandAlbania. Integratinghumanresourcerelatedobjectivesintotheoverallnationalhighereducationstrategiesis a step in the right direction, as it shows that the importance of the issue has been recognised, to some degree, by the national authorities. However, in most of these cases concrete action and national level schemes supporting the realisation of the set goals and objectives are not well developed.Nevertheless,insomecountrieswherespecificstrategiesonhumanresourcesinpublic
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highereducationhavebeenelaborated,somefinancialsupportandspecificschemestosupportthe achievementoftheaimshavealsobeensetup.Someexamplesofthesecanbefoundinthisreport.
Map2Countrieswithnationalstrategiesforhumanresourcemanagementinpublic highereducation
Source:Nationalquestionnaires Specifichumanresourcerelatedstrategiesexist Somehumanresourcerelatedelementsareintegratedinoverallnationalstrategies,orthecountryhas startedthefirstphasesofstrategicapproachestohumanresourcemanagement Noindicationofanationalstrategyonhumanresourcemanagementinhighereducation
National strategies are considered very important by institutional actors and they are needed to support and give direction to institutional initiatives. Furthermore, the budgets linked to the implementation of human resource development strategies may be fundamental in supporting institutional activities in this area. National level recognition of the importance of human resource management and development, backed up by concrete policies and schemes, provide institutions withafertileenvironmentinwhichtodeveloptheirownschemesandstrategies.
4.2
Legalframeworksandinstitutionalautonomy
Institutions do not operate in a vacuum, even where no national strategies on human resource management exist. Several different legal and regulatory aspects influence the way in which institutionsareabletomanagetheirownhumanresources.Indeed,thedegreetowhichinstitutions maydeterminethenumberofposts,contracts,recruitmentrequirements,promotions,salariesand
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theteachingload,dependsonthenationalframeworksandconsequentlyvariesbetweencountries and regions. Table 5 gives an overview of the issues in which institutions enjoy autonomy and in which,ontheotherhand,decisionsaretakenorhighlyinfluencedbythenationalauthoritiesorlegal frameworks.Inmanycasesthetwolevelsinteract,collaborateorjointlyinfluencethefinaloutcome. Legal frameworks at national level are often important to maintain minimum standards across institutions,toprotecttheemployeesandtomakesurethatpublicfundsareusedefficiently.Atthe same time, institutional autonomy in issues related to staff recruitment, promotion and implementation of financial and other incentives may be an important way to ensure the competitiveness of institutions and to motivate their leadership to develop institutional strategies andschemestosupporttheinstitutional,aswellasnationalobjectives,intermsofhumanresource management. The number of posts in public higher education institutions is often determined by institutional needs on the one hand and national requirements (e.g. on studentstaff ratio) and available state budget,ontheother.Insomecasesinstitutionsproposethenumberofstafftheyexpecttoneedand seek then approval from the national authorities for the number of posts that can be filled. In the majority of countries, the decision regarding the number of posts is in fact influenced by both nationalauthoritiesandinstitutions. Decisionsregardingcontractualconditionsandpromotionsareusuallylefttotheinstitutions,apart fromthemosthighlycentralisedsystems,suchastheMaghrebcountries,EgyptandSyria.However, promotioncriteriaaresomewhatmoreofteninfluencedordeterminedbythenationalauthorities. In most cases, individual salaries depend on both the national and institutional level. Often the nationalauthoritiesdeterminethebasicsalaries,whileinstitutionsmayusepartoftheirownbudget to integrate the salaries of one part or all of their staff. In some cases, the salaries are de facto determined by the national level, as institutions do not have the financial resources necessary to implementadditionalfinancialincentives.
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Table5Divisionofresponsibilitiesandautonomyofhighereducationinstitutionsinhumanresourcemanagementissues
NA=nationalauthorities,includingnationallaws HEI=highereducationinstitutions Both=jointdecisionmaking,orinfluencesfrombothinstitutionalandnationallevel Numberof Recruitment Contractual Individual postsinHEI requirements conditions salaries Annualstudent contacthours Promotion decisions academicstaff
Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan x x x x5 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Promotion decision Promotion administrative requirements staff NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x4 x
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine Russia
x x
x x x x x x
x x x
Nationalauthoritiesforacademicstaffandhighereducationinstitutionsforadministrativestaff Highereducationinstitutionsaloneforadministrativestaff
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Contractual conditions Individual salaries Annualstudent contacthours Promotion decisions academicstaff
Promotion decision Promotion administrative requirements staff NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 6 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x9 x x x x x x x x x x8 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Numberof postsinHEI
Recruitment requirements
x x
Algeria Morocco Tunisia Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon oPt7 Syria Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo Montenegro Serbia former Yugoslav Republicof Macedonia
8 9
Nationalauthoritiesforadministrativestaff OccupiedPalestinianterritory Recruitmentrequirementsforacademicstaffaresetbynationalauthorities Highereducationinstitutionsaloneforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff
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4.3
Regionalcontextsandspecificities
Theanalysisofthenationalquestionnairesmadeitpossibletodistinguishdifferentregionalpatterns. In Central Asia, important differences exist between countries within the region. While Kazakhstan and Uzbekistanhavetakensignificantstepsforwardinestablishingnationalstrategiesandschemestosupport the development of human resources in higher education, institutions in other countries in the region receive less support in this area from the national level. In Kyrgyzstan one of the short term priorities in highereducationistoimprovecareerdevelopmentopportunitiesforhighereducationstaffandtoimprove the quality of teaching staff and career development tools. However, these plans have not yet been translatedintoconcreteactionplansandschemesatnationallevel. CountriesinEasternEuropedonothaveconcretenationalstrategiesonhumanresourcemanagementfor the moment. Indeed, only Moldova has set up a comprehensive national strategy on higher education which also includes aspects of human resource development. While concrete action plans have not yet beensetup,thereisrecognitioninmanycountriesoftheregionofthefactthattheinadequatesalaries paid to staff in public higher education weaken the sectors development. In a similar way, while brain drainisasignificantissuefortheregion,nosystematicschemestocombatthephenomenonexistatthe nationallevelinthecountriesinvestigated.InGeorgia,significantchangeshavetakenplaceintherecent yearstoimprovetherecruitmentandpromotionmechanismsintopublicinstitutionstomakethemmore transparent and better able to select the best candidates. However, as human resource management is seenasthesoleresponsibilityofinstitutionsthemselves,thereisnonationalstrategyorinitiativesinthis area. In Russia, there also appears not to be any substantial national strategy on human resources in public higher education and no national schemes on human resource management have been identified. Consequently there seems not to be any specific funding of human resource management related initiatives,suchastrainingorrewardschemesatthenationallevel.Thereisaneedtoenhanceskillsand retainqualifiedstaffinpublicinstitutions,butcreatingsystemstoachievetheseaimsismainlylefttothe institutions.Infact,competitionforwellqualifiedindividualshasledmanyinstitutionstoinvesttheirown resourcesintrainingschemes,additionalfinancialincentivefundsandmobilityandresearchopportunities. In the Maghreb countries, the higher education system is highly centralised and issues related to the recruitment, promotion, contracts and salaries of staff at public institutions, are mainly managed at the national level. As student numbers have risen rapidly, there is a need to recruit more staff across the region.Whilejobsinhighereducationareconsideredattractivethankstogoodsalarylevelsandthecivil servantstatusofemployees,thereisalackofavailabilityoftherightprofilesthatmeettherequirementsof thehighereducationsystem.Nospecifictraining,development,orstaffmanagementschemeshavebeen identified.Humanresource managementisrather understoodinrelativelytechnical terms,assomething relatedtorecruitmentandcontractualproceduresofcivilservants. IntheMiddleEast,systemsareconsideredrelativelydecentralisedandinstitutions,autonomousinterms ofhumanresourcemanagement.ExceptionsinthisrespectareSyriaandtheoccupiedPalestinianterritory, where human resource management is still highly centralised. The importance of human resource managementisrisingacrosstheregion,butchangesarelefttotheinitiativeofinstitutions.OnlyEgypthas a substantial national strategy with a strong focus on retraining and upgrading of skills levels, including thoseofthemanagementlevelstaff.Mostcountriesintheregionhaveseensignificantincreasesinstudent numbers in the past 10 years and many of them need to recruit more teaching staff, with higher qualificationrequirements.Assalariesarenotalwaysconsideredattractive,inparticularincomparisonto salaries paid by the private institutions, or by institutions in richer neighbouring countries, retention, motivationandincentiveschemeshavebecomeveryimportant.Highereducationinstitutionsinmanyof
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thecountriesoftheregionlamentthelackofnationalstrategiesandinitiativesinthisarea.Animportant exception is the occupied Palestinian territory, with a specific national scheme to attract highly qualified expatriatesbackfromabroad,intothepublichighereducationinstitutions. IntheWesternBalkanregion,highereducationishighlydecentralised,sometimesalsoattheinstitutional level(withhighlyautonomousfaculties)andhumanresourcemanagementisconsideredtheresponsibility ofinstitutionsorasinthecaseofSerbia,forexample,oftheirsubunits.Institutionsenjoyhighautonomy in setting up recruitment systems, in determining the number of posts and salaries, even if in certain countriesthenationalauthoritiesarealsoinvolvedtoacertainextent.Ingeneral,thereisalackofnational level support and initiatives, in terms of human resource management, with the exception of Albania, wheretheimportanceofhumanresourcedevelopmenthasbeentakenonboardalsobythenationallevel authorities and the strategic priorities are pushed forward by collaborative action from the national and institutional level. There is an increasing awareness in the country that something needs to be done in terms of staff training, better conditions of work and increasing attractiveness. However, in all other countries, initiative is left principally to the institutions. One typical feature of this region is that, as distinguishedfromtheothers,thetrendistowardsanoverallyoungerstaffthan10yearsearlier.
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5AcademicstaffRecruitment,career managementandworkingconditions
5.1 Introduction
The recruitment procedures and criteria, as well as contractual conditions and possibilities for staff developmentandcareeradvancement,areimportantfactorsinattractingandmaintainingqualifiedstaffat publicinstitutions.Inaddition,thesetoolsareimportantinensuringthatthestaffskillsandcapacitiesare constantly upgraded to meet the changing requirements, set on the higher education systems. Some problematicissuesrelatedtothesubjectofthischapter,asidentifiedthroughthenationalquestionnaires, theonlinesurveyandthesitevisitinterviewsconcernthefollowing: 1) Recruitmentprocesses:highfrequencyofinternalrecruitmentandlackoftransparencyofprocedures used; corruption and nepotism; use of selection methods and criteria that do not support the recruitmentofthebestsuitedcandidatesforthejob;restrictivelegalframeworks. 2) Career progression and training: lack of possibilities for career progression; prolonged time spent withinoneinstitution;lackorinadequacyofperformanceevaluations;lackoftraining;lackofsufficient motivationandincentives. 3) Workingconditions:lackofresearchopportunities;politicalpressureandlackofautonomy;excessive workinghours;permanent/shortcontracts;lowsalaries;thenecessitytotakeupmultiplepositions. Eachoftheitemslisted,doesnotpresentthesamechallengeineachregion,country,orinstitutiontothe sameextent.Afeaturethatcanbeconsiderednegativeinonecontextcouldbeconsideredaspositivein another. For example, a permanent contract is sometimes considered as the main attraction of jobs in highereducationandthusoneofitsmaincompetitiveadvantagesinattractingstaff.Inothercontexts,this isconsiderednegative,sincestaffmaynotbemotivatedtoimproveanddevelopfurther,whenthereisno riskoflosingtheirjobs. There are also a number of positive examples of how institutions or countries have tackled some of the problematicissueslistedabove.Thereis,forexample,ageneraltrendandsomespecificexamplesofhow selectionproceduresarebecomingmoretransparentandfair.Intermsofcareermanagement,institutions across the regions are starting to understand the importance of staff training. Training, together with financial incentives and reward schemes, are used to motivate staff to develop their skills and capacities further. Concerning contractual conditions, salaries limit the attractiveness of jobs in public higher education. While some countries have been able to implement improved contractual conditions, inadequatesalariesarestillin many countriesasignificantissue.Longerthanaverage holidaysand good benefits packages are important ways to partially compensate for the uncompetitive salaries offered by publicinstitutions.
5.2
Recruitmentofacademicstafftohighereducationinstitutions
Recruitmentofstaffisoneofthemostcrucialaspectsinensuringthataninstitutionhasgoodqualitystaff withappropriateskills,knowledgeandattitudesfortheneedsoftheinstitutions.Appropriaterecruitment procedures, that are transparent, fair and open, are likely to enable institutions to better select the best candidatesfromtheavailablepoolandtheabilityofinstitutionstosettheirownrecruitmentrequirements, accordingtotheirspecificneeds,supportstheinstitutionallevelmanagementofhumanresources.
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Asthelevelofawarenessoftheirimportancerises,manyinnovativesolutionshavealsobeenfound.Some ofthesearedescribedtowardstheendofthissection.Atthesametime,severalproblemsrelatedtostaff recruitment persist in many of the countries investigated. For example, the high frequency of internal recruitments; lack of transparency of recruitment procedures and criteria; persisting corruption and political or personal appointments; as well as in some cases, the rigidity of the legal frameworks, may preventinstitutionsfromrecruitingthebestcandidatesavailable. Itisneverthelessinterestingtonotethatthesemattersarenotnecessarilyperceivedasanissuebyallthe individualsconcerned.Forinstance,61%oftheonlinesurveyrespondentsindicatethatthehighfrequency ofinternalrecruitmentofacademicstaffisnotconsideredasaproblemintheircountry. In general terms, institutions across the Tempus countries are becoming more autonomous in the recruitmentofstaff.Inmostcases,however,aformalapprovalandmonitoringoftheproceduresorsetting the(minimum)recruitmentcriteriaremaintasksforthenationalauthorities.Incountrieswerestaffiscivil servants, the procedures and criteria are determined by the national authorities to a greater degree, or entirely.Inallcases,nationalguidelinesorlegalframeworksneedtoberespected.Regardlessofpersisting challenges, the tendency is towards a more professionalised selection of staff, with more open and transparent selection mechanisms. These procedures support efforts to combat recruitment based on personalconnectionsapracticewhichstillseemstobeaprobleminsomeofthecountriesinvestigated. 5.2.1Studentnumbersandneedforstaff The developments in student numbers have had an impact on the need and quantity of staff for higher educationinstitutions.Map3showsthetrendsinstudentnumbersinthecountriesinvestigated. According to the national questionnaires, most countries in the Western Balkans, Middle East and the Maghrebhavewitnessedimportantincreasesinstudentnumbersandhavereportedaneedtoincreasethe totalnumberofstaffinhighereducation,inthenextfiveyears.Someofthesecountriesalreadystartedto increasestaffinglevelssomeyearsago.Insomecountries,ratherthannumbers,theproblemconcernsthe quality of candidates, the constant development of already recruited staff and the development of proceduresthatenablethebestsuitedcandidatestobeselected. Many Central Asian and Eastern European countries need to maintain current levels or reduce staffing levels,duetonegativedemographicdevelopments.Indeed,UzbekistanandGeorgiahavealreadyreduced staffingsignificantlyandArmenia,Moldova,UkraineandKyrgyzstanneedtodosointhecomingfiveyears. AnexceptionintheregionisTurkmenistan,whichisfacinganincreaseinthedemandforstudyplacesand thus needs to increase the numbers of staff in public institutions. Also Russian institutions report on the need to reduce staff. This is however not so much due to changes in student numbers, as reforms in teachingstyle.
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Map3Evolutionofstudentnumbersbetween2000and2010
Source:Nationalquestionnaires Increaseofover100% Increaseofbetween30and100%: Increaseofupto30%between2000and2010 Nocomparabledataprovided
5.2.2Recruitmentprocedures
Thenumberofpostsavailableathighereducationinstitutionsisoftenrelatedtofinancialpossibilitieson the one hand and national level or accreditation requirements concerning the staffstudent ratio on the other.Inmostcasestheavailablestatebudgethasasignificantimpactontheinstitutionsstaffplanning. The minimum number of staff at an institution, when determined by the national authorities, is usually basedonthenumberofstudentsandhastocorrespondtoanationallyapprovedratio.Thisisthecasefor mostofCentralAsianandEasternEuropeancountries.IntheMiddleEasterncountries,institutionsexpress theirstaffneedstotheMinistry,whichapprovesthefiguresinconsiderationoftheavailablebudget.Inthe WesternBalkans,institutionsmaydecidethemselvesonthenumbersofstaff,butinpractice,theavailable state budget determines, to a high degree, the number of staff that the institutions are actually able to employ.Inmanycountries,institutionsmaydecidetoemployotherstaffattheirownexpense,e.g.with funds deriving from tuition fees or services. However, this is not always an option in practice, due to insufficientadditionalresources.
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Threemainmodelsofrecruitmentproceduresforacademicstaffinpublichighereducationemergefrom thenationalquestionnaires: 1) openselectionorcompetitionorganisedbytheinstitutions 2) internalselectionwithintheinstitutions 3) openselectionofcompetitionorganisedbythenationalauthorities The first is the most common selection method. This model aims at guaranteeing transparency and fair treatment of all candidates, leaving institutions the autonomy to decide on (additional) recruitment criteria,processestobeusedandtheindividualsandentitiestobeinvolvedintheselectionprocesses.This isindeedthemostwidespreadmodel,thoughofficiallyopenproceduresarenotalwaysactuallyopenin practice. The second option is widespread, especially for some of the positions available at higher educationinstitutions.Internalrecruitment maycreateproblemsoffairnessandtransparency,aswellas quality,asaninternalrecruitmentordirectappointmentmaynotalwaysbethebestwaytoidentifythe most qualified candidates for the available position. However, for several positions, recruitment is organised internally in order to offer staff at lower positions, a privileged possibility to advance in their careers.Suchinternalrecruitmentmayalsobeusedasretentionmeasuresforwellqualifiedstaff.Thethird model an open competition organised at the national level is applied only in a limited number of countries. Interestingly, only in very few countries (for example in Albania) have there been changes in the recruitmentproceduresinthepasttenyears.Thesituationcanmainlybeconsideredstable.However,as willbedescribedinsection5.2.2,importantchangeshaveoftentakenplaceinrespecttotherequirements forrecruitmentintodifferentpositions,ratherthanintheproceduresapplied. 1) openprocedureswithininstitutions In all Eastern European countries and in Russia the recruitment of academic staff into public higher educationinstitutionsfollowsanopencompetitionafterapublicannouncementofavailablepositions. TheselectionprocessesarealsoopeninmostWesternBalkancountries,suchasSerbia,AlbaniaandBosnia and Herzegovina. In spite of the recent efforts to introduce more transparent and open selection procedures,somestaffinterviewedorsurveyedreportedthatwhiletheproceduresmayseemperfecton paper, they are not always implemented perfectly in practice. Indeed, personal connections sometimes continue to play an important role in appointments. For example in Montenegro, the selection of senior academicsisofficiallyexternalandopen,butinpracticetheappointmentstakeplacethroughaninternal facultyled selection. The consequent high frequency of internal recruitments is considered a significant problemforthedevelopmentofhighereducation. In Jordan and the occupied Palestinian territory, recruitment takes place through an open public competition.InLebanon,wheresenioracademicsaremosttypicallyrecruitedinternallyonthedecisionof the institution, junior academics are also usually recruited through an open competition. However, as in someotherregions,criteriaforselectionmaybeclearandobjective,buttheassignmentofpostsdoesnot alwaysfollowanobjectiveclassificationofcandidates. In Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, selection procedures of academic staff involve other teachers of the institutionandthefavouritecandidateisselectedthroughavote.InTurkmenistanandKyrgyzstan,awide rangeofactorsattheinstitutionallevelarealsoinvolvedinselectionprocedures.
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2) Internalselectionorappointmentwithoutpublicannouncementofpositions Internal recruitment is less frequent for academic positions than for administrative positions, but may persist even in countries with officially open and transparent selection procedures. In some Middle Eastern countries, institutions recruit at least part of their staff through internal means and in Egypt, for example,therecruitmenttosenioracademicpostsisratheraquestionofpromotionorachangeoftitle, than of appointment. Consequently, posts are only rarely advertised publicly. In a similar manner, junior academicpostsareoftenfilledbynominatingsomeofthebeststudentsoftheinstitution.InSyria,internal promotions or appointments are also the main method of recruitment, though positions may also be publiclyannounced,whenneeded. 3) openselectionbynationalauthorities TherecruitmentofstafftohighereducationinstitutionsinAlgeria,Egypt,MoroccoandTunisiaiscarried outentirely bythenationalauthoritiesthroughanopencompetition. Theinstitutionsplaynoroleinthe recruitmentprocesses. 5.2.3 Recruitmentrequirements
Recruitment of academic staff usually follows nationally set minimum qualification requirements, while additional criteria may be set by the institutions in countries where recruitment is organised, at the institutionallevel.Criteriausedbyinstitutionsareoftensetintheinstitutionsstatutesorregulations,inan attempttoincreasetransparencyofrecruitmentprocedures.InAlgeria,Azerbaijan,MoldovaandBelarus, the national authorities set the recruitment requirements entirely. At the other end of the spectrum, in JordanandIsrael,institutionsdecideonrecruitmentcriteriaindependently.
Intermsofqualificationslevels,inmostcasesaMasterdegreeisrequiredforjuniorteachingpositionsand increasingly, a PhD for senior academic posts. Additional recruitment requirements may include internationalpublications,otherinternationalactivities,teachingexperienceandinsomecasesvoluntary servicetotheuniversity community10.Therequirementsareparticularlydetailedand developedinsome MiddleEasterncountries,namelyinIsrael,Jordanandtoacertainextent,Egypt. Whileoverallrecruitmentrequirementsseemtohavebecomemorestringentinthepasttenyears,great variationscanbeobserveddependingontheoverallattractivenessofthesector,theneedtorecruitmore staff and the available financial resources. Also at the regional level, larger and richer countries tend to havethehighestrecruitmentrequirements. However,whilethereisanattempttoupgradethequalificationslevelofstaffthroughhigherrecruitment requirements, it is not always possible to fill posts with candidates meeting the formal requirements. In Kyrgyzstan,forexample,aMasterleveldegreeisneededtobecomealecturerandaPhDforprofessors. However,inpractice,staffwithlowerqualificationsisoftenrecruitedandasaresult,lessthan40%ofall teaching staff have a degree at the required level. In the occupied Palestinian territory and some institutions in the Western Balkans, positions may remain unfilled if appropriate candidates cannot be found. The teaching load is covered by staff in post or staff beyond retirement age still teaching at the institution.
APhDisbecomingastandardrequirementforalloratleastsenioracademicpositionsinmanycountries. However, at the moment, there are still great variations in the proportion of PhD holders among senior
10
Voluntaryservicestotheuniversitycommunitymayincludee.g.responsibilityforcollectiveactivitiessuchas coordinationofworkinggroups,animationofteams,etc. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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academicstaff,bothbetweenandwithinregions.Onaverage,theproportionofseniorstaffwithaPhDis thehighestintheMiddleEasternandMaghrebcountries,thoughinbothMiddleEastandMaghrebsome variationscanbeobserved. Accordingtodatasubmittedinthenationalquestionnaires,inJordan,EgyptandSyriaallteachingstaff apartfromteachingassistantsorotherjuniorteachingstaffhaveaPhD.InIsrael,thefigurestandsat95% and in Lebanon, at around 85%. An exception is the occupied Palestinian territory, where only 65% of senior academics hold a PhD. However, as there are very few PhDs produced in the country each year, mostrecruitedPhDholdershavebeentrainedabroad.Acrosstheregion,theshareofPhDshasremained relativelyunchangedsince2000.InRussia,aPhDisnowrequiredforallacademicpostsand100%ofsenior academicshaveaPhD,whichrepresentsanincreasesince2000. In Algeria and Tunisia, 100% of senior academics have a PhD. For Algeria, this represents an increase, compared to 80% of PhD holders in 2000. In Morocco currently only about 40% of teaching staff have a PhD,butasaPhDisnowrequiredforacademicstaffatalllevels,thefigureissettoincreaseinthecoming years. Compared to the rest of the Eastern European region, only Ukraine and Georgia have 100% PhD attainmentamongsenioracademicstaff. The countries of the Western Balkans have high qualifications levels and a large number of PhD holders amongacademicstaff.ThenumberofPhDholdersis100%inSerbia(inuniversitiesbutnotyetincolleges), MontenegroandtheFormerYugoslavRepublicofMacedoniaandnearly100%inBosniaandHerzegovina (professorsinthefieldofartsareexcludedfromthisrequirement).InAlbania,around60%ofseniorstaff currentlyhasaPhD,butthefigureisrising. ThelowestproportionofPhDholderscanbefoundinEasternEurope(withtheexceptionofUkraineand Georgia) and Central Asia. In Eastern Europe, the percentage varies between 43% in Belarus and 60% in Azerbaijan. In Central Asia, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan witness lowering percentages of PhD holders in their academic staff, while the figures are relatively stable in Uzbekistan and stand at around 42%. In Kyrgyzstan,whileaPhDisrequiredforsenioracademicpositions,inpracticestaffwithlowerqualifications isrecruited. Overallthereseemstobeatrendtowardsalargerandbetterqualifiedpoolofcandidatesforjobsinhigher education than before. This depends however, on the subject area, with higher education institutions struggling to compete with private businesses in the recruitment of engineering and technology professionals, for example. In addition, the older universities, usually situated in the capital cities, are betterabletoattracthighqualitycandidates,thaninstitutionsinmoreremoteareas.
5.3
Some of the main problems related to the career management of academic staff at higher education institutionsrelateoftentothestaticnatureofthejob(littlemobilitybetweenpositionsandinstitutions); lack of training possibilities, as opposed to an awareness of the importance of training; insufficient evaluationschemesandconsequentlackofincentivesandschemestomotivatestafftoimprovetheirskill levelsandtodevelopfurther. Someexamplesofgoodpracticeareavailableandcoverissuesasvariedasanincreasedawarenessofthe importance of continuous training and new kinds of skills for academic staff (from mere subject specific expertise,totheuseofIT,teachingskillsandmanagementofinternationalprojects,forexample)tohighly developedevaluationandrewardsystems.
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Three different areas related to career management will be considered below: regular staff evaluations, trainingschemesandhowthesetwoandothercriteriaandproceduresareusedforpromotions.
5.3.1 Evaluatingacademicstaff:studentsandpeers Atmanyinstitutions,academicstaffisevaluatedatmoreorlessregularintervals.Accordingtotheonline survey,itseemstobethenorm,as72%ofrespondentsdeclaredthattheirinstitutioncarriesoutperiodic performanceevaluations.Inspiteofalimitednumberofanswers,itseemsthattheMaghrebcountriesare anexception,withthemajorityofrespondentsdeclaringthattherearenosuchevaluationscarriedoutin their institutions. Moreover, it is interesting to note that ministries and government bodies play only a marginal role in the evaluation process, in comparison with actors within the institutions (heads of department,DeansandRectors). Performanceevaluationstypicallylookattheachievementsofmembersofstaffbutthetypesofactivities thataretakenintoconsiderationvarybetweeninstitutionsandcountries.Thesemayinclude,forexample, thenumberofpublications,studentassessmentsofteachingperformanceorpeerevaluationofresearch performance. Accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,performanceevaluationsofacademicstafftendtobemorewide spread and more frequent than evaluations of administrative and technical staff. The frequency of evaluations is often linked to the length of the contract and is also used for the purposes of renewal decisions. However, also in the case of staff with permanent contracts, like in Algeria or in Egypt, evaluationsarecarriedoutatregularintervals.Theevaluationintervalvariesfromcountrytocountry,but israrelylongerthanfiveyears.Accordingtotheonlinesurvey,evaluationsarecarriedoutonayearlybasis for66%oftherespondents. In addition to contract renewal decisions, evaluations are used also for promotions, financial rewards, identificationoftrainingneedsortransferstootherpositions(asinAzerbaijan).Ideally,evaluationsshould providestaffwithpositiveandconstructiveideasonhowtheycouldimproveintheirjob.Mostcountries usestudentquestionnairesintheevaluationofteachingstaff(morethan80%oftheonlinerespondents considerthatstudentfeedback/evaluationsaretakenintoaccount)andinsomecases,thisisessentially theonlymethodofevaluationavailable.However,selfevaluations(Georgia),peerevaluations(Russia)and other achievements, such as international publications, research grants or participation in international projects,mayalsobeconsideredintheevaluationprocesses. While evaluations are becoming common practice, the systems are not very comprehensive and tend to concentrateonformalcriteriasuchase.g.thenumberofpublications.InArmenia,forexample,teaching staffissubjecttoregularstudentfeedback,butitonlycountsfor1%ofthetotalityoftheawardcriteria.In severalcountries,fullprofessorsareexemptfromregularevaluations,asprofessorshipoftencorresponds toapermanentcontract.However,thefactthatprofessorsarenolongersubjecttoregularevaluationsis often considered a significant problem to ensure a continuous drive for good quality in teaching and research. Indeed, some interviewees spoke about falling levels of motivation after reaching full professorship. However, in Morocco, some institutions have taken initiatives towards a system which facilitatesevaluationsatalllevels.
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UniversityofTanger,MoroccoExperimentingwithjobdescriptionsforevaluations The University of Tanger has engaged in the development of fiches de poste individuelle, i.e. individual job descriptions which include the mission of the person, his or her place in the functionalorganisationalchart,aswellastheindividualsmain(regular)andsecondary(adhoc) duties.Thisdocumentisdraftedbythejobholder,checkedanddiscussedwiththehierarchy,and approved by the President of the institution. It can be revised and it is also used on an experimentalbasisfortheperformanceevaluations,amongvolunteers.However,thereisstrong resistancebystaffandthetradeunionstoregularevaluationsinMorocco,astheseareseenas tools for blame and punishment, rather than positive development. The success of the experimental programmes may have a positive impact on the development of evaluation schemesinthefuture. 5.3.2 Training Generalfeatures Trainingschemesareasvariedasthecountriesandinstitutionsincludedinthisstudybutitseemsthatstaff training is becoming more and more common. Indeed, according to the online survey, a majority of respondents(62%)indicatethattheirinstitutionofferstrainingopportunitiesforacademicstaff. According to the national questionnaires, models employed vary from nationally organised obligatory schemes,tovoluntaryparticipationininstitutionallyorganisedcourses.Europeanprojectsandprogrammes arealsoconsideredinsomecountriesasthemainstaffdevelopmentandtrainingtools.Trainingorganised bynationalauthoritiesorinstitutionsisoftenfreeofchargetotherelevantstaffcategories.Thisstudyhas not looked into the availability of commercial training for individual staff members by external training providers. The need for new skills, such as use of IT, pedagogy and teaching methods, English and other foreign languages and project management skills, has led most countries to seriously think about the training needs of their staff and to invest in new systems and incentives for their effective implementation. In addition to IT and language skills, teaching and project management skills are gaining ground as training subjectsandsometrainingisalsomadeavailableonnewlegalframeworksandproceduresatthenational level. These trends are confirmed in the online survey. Indeed, according to the respondents, the most commonlyofferedtypesoftrainingare(Chart1): InformationTechnology(exceptinRussia,wherepedagogyandteachingmethodsappearasthemost commonlyproposedtraining); Foreignlanguages(notablyinEasternEurope,RussiaandtheWesternBalkans); Pedagogyandteachingmethods(CentralAsia,theMiddleEastandRussia); Researchmethodology(inparticularintheMaghreb).
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Chart1Trainingopportunitiesofferedtoacademicstaffas apercentageofthetotalnumberofreplies
Trainingopportunitiesofferedtoacademicstaff
Communication skills 8% Teambuilding 4%
Project management 11% Research methodology 14%
Information Technology(IT) 22%
Pedagogy, teaching methods 21% Foreign languages 20%
Source: Online survey (question B3a. What type of training opportunities does your institutionofferforacademicstaff?)
Inthenationalquestionnaires,limitedreferenceismadetoacademictrainingandacquisitionofacademic competencies.Apossiblewaytointerpretthisfactisthatfurtheracademictrainingandskillsacquisitionis considered an integral part of the academic profession and an individual duty of all academics, fulfilled naturallythroughresearchactivityandexchangeswithpeers.Whiletheremayindeed,notbeaproblem with the subjectspecific skills of academic staff, care should be taken, not to disregard this important aspect of academic staff development at the institutional and national level, in particular in countries wherepossibilitiesforresearchactivitiesarelimited. While the importance of continuous staff training is increasingly being accepted, it is also met with resistance by academic staff members, who do not always see the need for or benefits of training especially in areas not directly related to their subject area (project management, academic writing, teachingmethodsandsoon).Thereisconsequentlyaclearneedtodemonstratethebenefitsoftrainingto staff.Financialincentives,rewardsandconsiderationoftrainingasacriterionforpromotionsmayhavea positiveshorttermimpactontrainingattendance.However,inthelongertermitisnecessarytoachievea training culture, where such initiatives are not seen as a necessary nuisance, but as a fundamentally positiveopportunityforselfdevelopment.Inmanycases,trainingorganisedwithgoodwill,butwithouta clear understanding of the actual needs, has led to staff being frustrated and increased the negative responsetotraining,assomethingonlywastingpeoplestime,ratherthansupportingtheirdevelopment.If on the other hand, training takes into account the current skill levels and development needs of all staff through a personalised approach, staff is more likely to see the relevance of training to their actual positions as academics and lead to a wider acceptance, appreciation and impact of the training programmes.
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CentralAsiasystematicnationalschemes InCentralAsia,systematicmandatorytrainingschemesarecommonpracticeandhaveexistedforseveral decades.Thisisreflectedintheonlinesurvey,where82%oftherespondentsintheregiondeclaredthat theirinstitutionofferedtrainingopportunitiesforacademicstaff.However,thetrainingschemesmaynot always be adapted to the actual needs of the institutions in relation to the requirements of the modernisationagendas. Training is, in many cases, organised by nationallevel entities, such as institutes for professional training (Tajikistan),institutionsforqualificationsupgrading(Uzbekistan)orentitiesinchargeofthetrainingofcivil servantsofthecountry.Training,whichisoftenobligatory,isusedforcareerpromotionandadvancement. Training in these countries is mostly financed through the state budget. Training often takes place at intervals, corresponding to the duration of the contractual period, i.e. all staff is expected to take up training once during their contract period. In Kazakhstan and Russia, such training has to be attended at least once in a fiveyear period, in Uzbekistan every three years. In Kyrgyzstan, no substantial national trainingschemesareavailableandindividualsrely,dependingontheirowninterestandinitiative,mainly on European programmes and international or foreign organisations for training. Some institutions have takeninitiativestofillthetraininggap,ascanbeseenintheexamplefromKyrgyzstanbelow. Uzbekistanstatetrainingschemes The State requirements for retraining and professional development of pedagogical staff were adoptedbythegovernmentinFebruary2006.Theresolutionhasleadtoretrainingbeingofferedby 28 institutions for qualifications upgrading throughout the country. Every year, over 6 000 teachers areretrainedthroughthisscheme.TrainingisorganisedbytheMinistryandiscompulsoryforallfull timeacademicstaff,atleastonceeverythreeyears.Tocreateahealthycompetitiveenvironment withinteamsandtoencouragestafftocontinuouslydeveloptheirskills,thereisanongoingeffortto improve the retraining system and to organise differentiated advanced training for every teaching staffmember,takingintoaccounthisorherprofessionallevelandskills.In2011,astudywascarried outanalysingthecurrentsystemofretraining,withtheobjectiveoffurtherdevelopingthesystem. Secondly,theIstedodFoundationofthePresidentoftheRepublicofUzbekistanoffersprogrammes tosupportyoungteachersandresearchersinreceivingeducationandadvancedtraininginuniversities abroad. The same foundation also organises training seminars for vicerectors and deans, with particularemphasisondevelopingtheirleadership,administrationandprofessionalskills. Kyrgyzstaninstitutionalschemesfillingthegap In Kyrgyzstan, the main opportunities for training of academic staff are provided by international mobility and participation in training, organised through European programmes, such as Tempus. In addition,someforeignorganisations,suchasthegermanDAAD,organisetraining.Itisusuallyupto theindividualstaffmemberstolookfortrainingopportunitiesandtoengageindifferentschemesand programmesavailable. However,someinstitutionshavealsosetuptheirowntrainingschemes.TheKyrgyzStateUniversityof Construction, Transportation and Architecture (KSUCTA) has established a Quality Improvement Center,whichofferstrainingfortheimprovementofqualificationsofteachingstaff.Itisobligatoryfor allteachingstafftopassacourseorganisedbythecenter.Themaintrainingsubjectisdeterminedby theindividualsprofessionalprofile.Forexample,staffinvolvedindistanceeducationneedtopassa programme on distance education and IT, while some others are trained on interactive teaching methods. Language training is also offered at the center by an Australian volunteer. Younger staff demonstratesinterestintheprogrammesandarepleasedbytheopportunitytodeveloptheirskills.It ismoredifficulttomotivateandattracttheinterestoftheoldergenerationofstaff. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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MiddleEastandRussiainstitutionalapproachestostafftraining InseveralMiddleEasterncountries,stafftraininghasalsogainedsignificantfocusinthepast20yearsand according to the online survey, 61% of the respondents declared that their institution offered training opportunitiesforacademicstaff.However,inthisregion,trainingismostlyorganisedbytheinstitutions, notnationallevelentitiesandassuchtendsalsotovaryfrominstitutiontoinstitution(e.g.inIsraelgreat variationsbetweeninstitutionsmaybeobserved).InmostMiddleEasterncountries,includingforexample Jordan,SyriaandEgypt,trainingiscompulsoryforalljunioracademics(whilemoreexperiencedstafforfull professors may be exempt altogether). In all these countries, training is an obligatory element for staff promotions. In Lebanon, some optional training is organised by donors for academic staff from time to time. The main subjects covered in the training concern teaching skills, IT, languages, curriculum developmentandinsomerarecases,entrepreneurialskills(theoccupiedPalestinianterritory).InRussia, while national schemes and support exists for training, the actual implementation of training is often decentralisedtotheinstitutions.Thiswasconfirmedbytheonlinesurvey,where93%oftherespondents stated that their institution offered training opportunities for academic staff. European projects are also seenasanimportanttrainingopportunityforstaff. Russianationalschemescomplementedbyinstitutionalsupport A part of the universities state budget is earmarked for upskilling, but many additional training schemesarepaidforfromtheuniversitiesownbudgets.Forexample,manyteachersgetachanceto go abroad, sent by their university (especially if it is a large and modern university) to be trained. Institutions are ready to invest in such training, to respond to the challenges posed by national modernisation objectives. Each university can decide how many teachers to send and where, but in ordertogetfinancialsupportfromtheStatebudget,theschemeneedstobepartofastrategyandthe funds need to be won competitively through a tender procedure. In Russia, management is also involvedincontinuoustrainingandforexample,inoneuniversity,allvicerectorsattendshorttraining severaltimesayear. Jordanmeetinginstitutionalneedsthroughtraining TheUniversityofJordanhasavisiontobecomealeadingresearchuniversityinJordan.Toachievethis objective,theuniversityhasputtogetherastrategicplan,whichfocusesoncapacitybuildinginresearch and training of staff, with the relevant skills. There is a strong belief at the institutional level, that all staffoncampusneedtobetrained.ACenterforHumanResourceDevelopmentandTraininghasbeen set up with the task of creating programmes on writing grant applications and research papers and otherissuesrelatedtoacademicresearch.Oneofthemainproblemshowever,isthatitisdifficultto attractnewlyappointedacademicstoattendtrainingandthatacademicsaregenerallynotveryopento theideaofbeingtrained. OtheruniversitiesinJordanarealsocurrentlylaunchingsimilarinitiatives. EasternEuropeandWesternBalkansfromEuropeanprojectstoinstitutionalawareness In the Western Balkans and Eastern Europe, there is limited systematic training for academic staff and wheretrainingismadeavailable,itistheresponsibilityoftheinstitutions,withearmarkedfundsfromthe state budget. This is clearly confirmed by the Western Balkans in the online survey, as 54% of the respondents from the region declared that their institution did not offer training opportunities. Where
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sometrainingismadeavailablebytheinstitutions,itoftenconcentratesontheimprovementoflanguage and IT skills. In these regions, international projects and participation in European programmes are considered an important tool for staff development and often, the only effective development tool available. This is particularly mentioned as an important element by Moldova and Armenia. In Russia, Europeanprojectsarealsoseenasanimportanttrainingopportunityforacademicstaff. InEasternEurope,anexceptionispresentedbyUkraine,where,since1999,allacademicstaffmusttake part in training every five years. In Belarus, some training is available for all staff on IT and professional skills.AmoretypicalexampleisprovidedbyArmeniawhere,since2005,afewlargerinstitutionsorganise training for tenured professors every three years, unless the person has participated in international seminarsandconferences,whichisconsideredastraining.Interestingdifferencescanbenotedwithsome MiddleEasterncountriesforexample,wheretenuredprofessorsarenotobligedtotakepartintraining. IntheWesternBalkans,thereisalsolittlesystematictrainingavailableforacademicstaffatnationallevel andasaconsequence,traininginitiativesarelefttothediscretionoftheindividualinstitutions.However,in somecountries,likeBosniaandHerzegovina,institutionshaveadutytoadoptaprofessionaldevelopment policy for their teaching staff and to allocate resources for professional and scientific development and progress.InKosovo,oneinstitutionhas,onavoluntarybasis,dedicatedapartofitsownbudget,tofund4 monthstaysforstaffdevelopment,inEuropeaninstitutions.Twentyacademicstaffmembershave,sofar, benefitted from the scheme. In Albania, several institutions organise training programmes for academic staffinforeignlanguages,useoflTinteachingandacademicwritingskills.Trainingsareusuallycompulsory for all staff members and used as a criterion for promotions. This shows that while the importance of trainingforhighereducationstaffmaynothavebeenfullyunderstoodatthenationallevelintheBalkan region(orthisunderstandinghasnotledtothecreationofappropriatetrainingschemesorallocationof funding by the national authorities) some institutions recognise the centrality of human resources for institutionaldevelopmentandattractivenessandarereadytoinvestintrainingfromtheirownfunds. Maghreblackofstafftrainingprogrammes In Maghreb, according to the national questionnaires, it seems that no actual training programmes are available for academic staff, though some possibilities for internships or placements abroad exist in Morocco. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that this perception is not necessarily shared by the limited numberofrespondentstotheonlinequestionnaire.Indeed,manyofthemdeclaredthattheirinstitution didoffertrainingopportunitiesforacademicstaff. Serbiarelyingoninternationalprojectsforstaffdevelopment Through the site visit interviews, it became clear that staff training is mainly associated with training receivedintheframeworkofinternationalprojects.Mostintervieweesseemedtoconsiderthatitwas the role of these programmes and projects to offer professional training. Indeed, the idea that the nationalauthoritiesorinstitutionswouldneedtotakeresponsiblityfortrainingisnotacknowledgedin the country. The lack of funds is the main explanation given for the lack of training organised at the nationalorinstitutionallevel.
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UkraineInstitutionalinitiatives By way of an example, the Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (a municipal institution) has developed a structuredapproachtostafftraining,includedintheresponsibilitiesofthepersonneldepartment.The department organises internships for staff in Ukraine or abroad, as well as training in the field of ICT, pedagogy,communication,assessmentofeducationalprocessesandEnglishlanguage,incollaboration withtheBritishCouncil.Inordertomotivateitsstafftoattendtraining,theinstitutionhasdecidedto make IT training compulsory, by adding staff attendance to the regular staff evaluation criteria. The NationalTechnicalUniversityofUkraineKyivPolytechnicInstitutealsooffersfreetrainingtoitsstaff atitsPostDoctoralInstituteinforeignlanguages,ITandhighereducationmanagement.Inmostcases, regionaluniversitieshavetosendtheirstafftoKievfortraining,asnoschemesareavailablelocally. Armeniacompulsorytrainingmeasuredbycredits Training of academic staff has been made compulsory by law in Armenia. E.g. the Yerevan State Universityhasdevelopedaprogrammewhichincludestrainingonthedifferentdisciplines,languages,IT as well as pedagogical and psychological skills. Academic staff members get 30 credits per lecture or conference which they attend in Armenia or abroad and they have to get 30 credits every fiveyear period. For the moment there is no data available on the extent to which academic staff attains the requiredcreditsinthesettimeframe. 5.3.3 Promotionsandmotivation In most Central Asian countries as well as in Russia, the Western Balkans and most Middle Eastern countries,institutionsareindependentindecidingonthepromotionofstaff.Theexceptionispresentedby countrieswhichcarryoutrecruitmentthroughpublicopencalls,suchasGeorgia,wherepromotionsalso takeplaceonlythroughopencompetitions. In Maghreb, the national authorities decide on promotions entirely, while in Syria and the occupied Palestinianterritory,nationalauthoritiescollaboratewithinstitutionsonpromotiondecisionsandsetting promotioncriteria.Inmostcountries,minimumcriteria,bothforrecruitmentandpromotionareattached to certain positions, e.g. professors and institutions may not promote a person who does not fulfil the nationalbasiccriteriafortheposition. Onwhatbasisarepeoplepromoted? Whileyearsofserviceorperformanceandpublicationsmaybeusedasabasisforpromotions,evaluations andtrainingarealsousedforpromotionpurposesinseveralcases. Theresultsoftheonlinesurvey(Chart2)suggestthatcareerprogressionofacademicstaffismostlybased onresearchoutputs(exceptinCentralAsia).Continuedtrainingandeducationappearstobeanimportant criterion for only two regions (Central Asia and Eastern Europe). Other criteria such as the quality of teaching or responsibilities in collective activities are mentioned as important criteria, only in one region each,respectivelyCentralAsiaandtheMaghreb.Nevertheless,itisworthnotingthatyearsofseniorityare mentionedasoneofthemaincriteriaonwhichcareerprogressionisbasedintheMiddleEast,Russiaand theWesternBalkans.
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Chart2Criteriaforcareerprogressionofacademicstaff
Political Criteriaforcareerprogression considerations andpersonal relations Resultsof 9% performance evaluations Research 10% outputs (publications) 19% Responsibilities incollective activities 11% Yearsof seniority 14% International Continued experience trainingand 12% Qualityof education teaching 13% 12% Source: Online survey, question B1: "To what extent is the career progression (promotionfromonecategorytothenext)ofacademicstaffinyourinstitutionbased on the following criteria"? The percentages represent the breakdown of grades 4 (important)and5(veryimportant).
IntheMaghrebandEasternEuropeancountries,mainlyformalcriteria,suchasyearsofservices,aretaken intoaccount.Asthesystemofstafftrainingisnotdevelopedinthesecountries,itisunderstandablethat attendance to training is not part of the promotion criteria. In some countries with a system of open competitions, promotion only takes place through participation in competitions. An example of this is provided by Georgia. In several Middle Eastern and Western Balkan countries, as well as in Russia, promotionsmayalsotakeintoaccountyearsofservice,butperformanceandtraining(withtheexception ofRussiaandsomeWesternBalkancountries),areimportantfactorsinpromotiondecisions.Thefactthat continuoustrainingisapromotionrequirementmotivatesstafftotakepartintraining,madeavailableat the institutional level. In addition, in Jordan, for example, a very complex set of factors is considered for staff promotions and also include service to the wider community and participation in supplementary activities. While in most countries, the promotion requirements are set by the institutions, in some cases, certain basicrequirementsandrulesneedtobefollowedespeciallyincaseswherestaffiscivilservants. Armeniastudentfeedbackforcareerprogression InmostuniversitiesinArmenia,studentfeedbackistakenintoaccountwhendecisionsaremadeabout careerprogressionandsalaryincreasesofacademicstaff.AtYerevanStateUniversity,studentsprovide feedbackonteachingstaffeachsemesterandgraduatesareaskedtoevaluatetheirwholeeducational programme.
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Motivation All countries face the challenge to find ways to incentivise and motivate their academic staff to improve skills and performance. Performance evaluations, short term contracts and availability of mandatory training are all ways to ensure consistently good quality and relevance of skills to the changing requirements.Somecountrieshave,inaddition,implementeddifferentrewardschemes,competitionsand pricestomotivateexcellenceandinnovation. KazakhstanBestteachersoftheyear In Kazakhstan, there are a number of monetary incentives implemented, both by the national authorities, as well as by the higher education institutions from their own funds. The State award of Best teacher of the year is delivered every year on a competitive basis to a number of teachers in differentsubjectareas,whohaveexcelledintheirwork.Thisschemewasestablishedin2005inorderto encourage and support academic staff in their professional growth, further development of science pedagogic qualifications and conduct of science studies, including training abroad. The competition is open to all members of the teaching staff and the award consists of an honorary title, as well as a financialreward. Russiamotivatingstaffthroughopportunities,benefitsandrewards AtsomeinstitutionsinRussia,youngqualifiedacademicsaregivenstructuredsupporttoparticipatein experimental projects and publications, in order to make the jobs more attractive to them. At some institutions,eachemployeehasbiannualobjectivesrelatedtothedifferentaspectsofhisorherwork and monetary awards are linked to reaching these objectives. Indeed, according to interviewees, staff aremotivatedtoimprovetheirskillsincertainareassuchasIT,becauseoffinancialrewardstothose whocancreateelearningmaterialsandbecauseifskillsarenotsufficient,contractswillnotberenewed afterthefiveyearperiod. Inaddition,someinstitutionshaveimplementedgoodsocialbenefits,suchas housingsupport,whichareanimportantattractionandretentionmeasure. Albaniafinancialincentivestoyoungacademics To motivate young qualified academics to stay and wait for a professorship to become available at a department,institutionsmaydecidetogiveyoungacademicsanextrafinancialincentiveintheformof 50%ofaprofessorssalary,inadditiontotheirownsalary(e.g.asalecturer).Itisconsideredimportant toinvestinretainingyoungstaff,inordertoensureaprovisionforthenearfuture,whenalargenumber ofhighlytrainedacademicswillretire.Ifalaboratory,forexample,remainswithoutqualifiedprofessors forthreeyears,ithastobeclosed.Thismakesitveryimportanttoavoidgapsinstaffinglevels.
5.4
Workingconditions
5.4.1 Contractualconditionsforacademicstaff Map 4 below demonstrates the range of different contractual practices in the countries included in this study. The categories differentiate between permanent contracts and contracts of temporary or definite duration.Italsodistinguishescontractsbytheformalemployeri.e.whetherstaffworkingatpublichigher
46
education institutions is employed by the State or directly by the institution or one of its subunits. The Mapdescribesthemosttypicalsituationineachofthecountries.Itdrawsondatapresentedinatablein Annex4.1.
Map4Contractsandformalemployerofacademicstaffatpublichighereducationinstitutions
Source:Nationalquestionnaires Permanentcontractissuedbythenationalauthorities Determineddurationcontractbyinstitution/subunitsofinstitutions11 Nodataavailable
Permanentemploymentbynationalauthorities In a minority of countries, namely in Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, occupied Palestinian territory, Tunisia and Syria, academic staff is employed directly by the national authorities. Employment contracts are permanent,theselectionisusuallycarriedoutatthenationallevelandstaffisconsideredascivilservants (however,inAlgeria,thecallforrecruitmentispublishedatnationallevelbuttheselectioniscarriedoutby the institution). Civil servant status is considered attractive for the employees because of the related benefits and job stability. Often the status of civil servants is also attached to a higher social status and prestige.However,eveninseveralcountrieswherestaffathighereducationinstitutionsdonothavecivil servantstatus,i.e.arenotdirectlyemployedbytheStateonpermanentcontracts,thejobsarepartofthe publicsectorandthusattractmanyofthesamebenefitsasthosegiventocivilservants.Anexceptionto
11
AtoneinstitutioninIsraelinstitutionalcontractsforacademicstaffarepermanent.InSerbia,Montenegro, JordanandBosniaandHerzegovinasenioracademics/fullprofessorsmayhavepermanentcontracts. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
47
thetypicalcivilservantstatusisprovidedbytheoccupiedPalestinianterritory,whereacademicstaffmay bealsoemployeddirectlybytheinstitutionsonshorttermcontracts.InLebanonabout27%ofacademic staffisemployeddirectlybythenationalauthorities.InMorocco,therewasarecentattempttochangethe statusofHEIstafftoemployees(theformpreferredbytheMinistry),butthismetwithstrongresistance fromthetradeunionsandwasthusabandonedforthemoment. Institutionsasemployers Byfarthemostcommonmodelofemploymentofacademicstaffatpublichighereducationinstitutionsis thedirectemploymentbytheinstitutionsortheirsubunits.Whilethecontractdurationmayvary,ascan be observed in Map 5 below, in most cases the duration is determined for all academic staff. In some countries,however,suchasBosniaandHerzegovina,Serbia,Montenegro,theformerYugoslavRepublicof Macedonia,IsraelandJordan,senioracademicsorfullprofessorsmayhavepermanentcontracts. Contractduration WhilepermanentcontractsforacademicstaffarerelativelyrareintheTempusPartnerCountries(map5), in practice renewals are considered rather the rule than an exception in most institutions. As a consequence, jobs in higher education are considered to be de facto stable, even by staff on shortterm contracts. As has been mentioned above, it is not uncommon for temporary contracts to become permanente.g.afterreachingthestatusoffullprofessor.Longercontractsprovidemorestability,whichis considered a great advantage for jobs in public institutions. On the other hand, some countries have observedreducedlevelsofmotivationanddevelopmentamongstaffonpermanentcontractsascompared tothoseonshorttermcontracts. FiveyearsemergesclearlyasthestandardcontractdurationforacademicstaffinCentralAsia(threeyears in Kyrgyzstan), Russia, Eastern Europe and in the Western Balkans, though in the latter with a slightly higherdegreeofvariation.InBosniaandHerzegovina,institutionsusefourtosixyearcontracts,renewable anunlimitednumberoftimes,aslongasaPhDhasbeenobtainedandinKosovo,renewablecontractsfor academicstaffareconcludedforthreetofouryears. InEasternEurope,inAzerbaijan,Belarus,ArmeniaandMoldovacontractsofacademicstaffareconcluded for five years and can be renewed indefinitely. In Ukraine, contracts for academic staff are one, five or seven years long, after which, staff has to take part in a new competition. In Georgia, where permanent contractsarenolongerallowed,allstaffmembershavethreeyearcontracts. ThereareimportantdifferencesincontractualconditionsintheMiddleEasterncountries.Thedurationof thecontractandconditionsforrenewalmayvarysignificantly,bothbetweencountriesanddependingon theacademictitleofthestaffmemberinquestion.InJordan,academicstaffstartswithoneortwoyear contractsafterwhichtheymovetoanormalappointmentuntiltheyarepromotedtotherankofassociate professor. After one year, they can apply for a permanent tenure. In Egypt and the occupied Palestinian territory,academicstaffmembersarecivilservantsonpermanentcontractsfromthestartoftheircareer. Untilrecently,ithasbeenpossibleforinstitutionsintheoccupiedPalestinianterritorytorecruitadditional contractualstaffononetofouryearcontracts.InSyria,contractsarepermanentforallstaff,whichisone ofthemainattractionsofthejob.InIsrael,contractualconditionsvarygreatlybetweeninstitutionsfrom oneyearcontracts,topermanentpositions. In Serbia, contracts of academic staff vary according to the position, with full professorship being a permanentposition.InAlbaniathelengthofacontractdependsontheinstitutionandusuallystartswitha oneyear contract for senior academic staff and sixmonths for junior academic staff. This is, however, considered rather as a trial period and there is a de facto automatic renewal and continuation of the contract.Indeed,regardlessoftheshortcontractduration,thestabilityofthejobsinhighereducationis
48
consideredasoneoftheirmainadvantages.Previouslycontractswerelonger,butnewshortcontractsare intendedtoenableinstitutionstoalwaysrecruitthebeststaffandtomotivatestafftoperform.
Map5Contractdurationofstaffinpublichighereducation
Source:Nationalquestionnaires Permanentcontracts Fiveyearcontracts Threeyearcontracts Oneyearcontracts Varieddurations
Determiningcontracts Overall, a trend can be observed where institutions have increasing influence on the contract type and durationoftheirstaff.Thisinfluenceisclearlyexercisedintheframeworkofnationallawsandregulations onemploymentandlabour.Incountrieswherethecivilservantstatusisstillpredominant,institutionsare gainingsomeautonomy,inmanyplaces,torecruitshortertermstaffondifferentconditions,shouldtheir ownfundspermit.Forexample,inMoroccoandtheoccupiedPalestinianterritory,theinstitutionscanalso employsomeshorttermcontractstaffandinthiscasethereismoreflexibilityattheinstitutionallevel,in terms of recruitment and contractual conditions. In Belarus, on the other hand, there is an intention to move from contracts decided upon by the institutions themselves, to a national system of open
49
competitions for recruitment and to employ a new contractual system which harmonises practices betweenindividualinstitutions. 5.4.2 Sidebenefitpackages Accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,thereisnocommonapproachintheTempusPartnerCountriesto additional benefits such as health insurance, child care, subsidised housing or transport. However, the repliestotheonlinesurveyindicatethatsocialprotectionisindeedincludedintheremunerationscheme of staff in public higher education: 63% of the respondents declared that they benefited from such schemes,whereas27%ofthemstatedthattheydidnotexistand11%didnotknow. Table 6 indicates the benefits that are most common in each region, according to the national questionnaires.
Table6Themostsignificantnonsalarybenefitsofpublichighereducationinstitution employees,bystaffcategoryandregion12
(Numbersindicatethenumberofcountriesthathaveselectedeachoftheitems) Academicstaff Administrativestaff 5 Pensions/retirementfunds 5 Pensions/retirementfunds 5 Childallowance 5 Childallowance 3 Freeorsubsidisedchildcare 3 Freeorsubsidisedchildcare 5 Holidayallowance 5 Holidayallowance 1 Freeorsubsidisedhousing 1 Freeorsubsidisedhousing 2 Free,subsidisedorreimbursed 2 Free,subsidisedorreimbursed CentralAsia transportexpenses transportexpenses Totalcountries:5 1 Accesstosubsidised 1 Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal meals/mealcheques cheques 1 Healthinsurance 1 Healthinsurance 5 Maternityleave 5 Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Otherallowances.Which? 4 3 3 1 5 Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? 4 3 3 1 1 5 Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which?
EasternEurope Totalcountries:6
12
Informationinthistableisbasedentirelyonthenationalquestionnaires.Aseachcountrycouldindicatein the questionnaire the benefits enjoyed by staff, it is difficult to evaluate whether, in some cases, certain benefitswerenotselected,astheywerenotconsideredspecifictothehighereducationsectororbecause suchbenefitsdonotexistatall. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
50
Maghreb Totalcountries:3
2 2 1 1 1 2 2
Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which?
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 5 5 1 3 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 6 4 2 2 5 6
Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which?
MiddleEast Totalcountries:6
5 5 1 3 3 5 5
Russia
1 1 1 1
WesternBalkans Totalcountries:6
6 4 2 2 5 6
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Themostfrequentlymentionedbenefitsincludepensionschemes,maternity,holidayallowancesandchild allowances.Inaddition,intheMiddleEastandtheWesternBalkans,healthinsurancecoverageismention frequently. In Eastern Europe, the replies given in the national questionnaires show that the side benefits vary betweencountriesanditishardtogiveoneoveralltendencyfortheentireregion.Thisisalsoreflectedin theonlinesurvey,withequalnumbersofanswersfromthosewhodeclaredtobebenefitingfromsocial protectionschemes,includedintheirremunerationandthosewhodidnot.InAzerbaijanandGeorgia,staff seemstohaveveryfewsidebenefits,whereasinUkraineandArmeniatheyareconsideredrelativelygood. Accordingtotheonlinesurvey,holidayallowancesappeartobearathercommonpractice. IntheMaghrebcountries,theonlinesurveyrevealsthatthelargemajorityofrespondentsbenefitfrom socialprotection,includedintheirremunerationschemeandchildallowanceisalsofrequentlymentioned. Thissituationisprobablylinkedtothestatusofcivilservant.Accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,staff enjoysgoodsidebenefits,particularlyinAlgeriaandTunisia. Overall,thebenefitspackagesinMiddleEasterncountriesarecomprehensiveandhighlyvaluedbystaff. 79%oftherespondents oftheonlinesurveydeclaredtheybenefitedfrom socialprotection,includedin theirremunerationscheme.Atypicalextrabenefitforacademicstaffisapaidsabbaticalleaveevery5or6 years. In Israel, academic staff members have also a personal fund for participation in international conferences and subscriptions to professional journals. In Jordan, staff members also acquire health insuranceforlifeforthemselvesandtheirfamilies,after10yearsofservice.Accordingtostaffinterviewed atJordanianinstitutions,oneofthemostinterestingbenefitshowever,isthatemployeeshaveanumberof places reserved for their children at that same university. In a country where higher education is highly valued, especially in good public universities, having a de facto guaranteed place for ones children is consideredasignificantbenefit.InSyria,ontheotherhand,thebenefitsarenotequallyascomprehensive asinothercountriesintheregion.InthecaseoftheoccupiedPalestinianterritory,anotewasmadethat whilethebenefitsaregood,theycannotcompensateentirelyforthelowsalaries.Accordingtotheonline survey, it also seems that the respondents in this region quite often benefit from free / subsidised / reimbursedtransportexpenses. IntheWesternBalkans,thebenefitspackagesareconsideredsatisfactory(79%oftherespondentstothe onlinequestionnairementionedsocialprotectionincludedintheremunerationscheme),butitseemsthey arenotamongthemainreasonstobeattractedtopositionsinhighereducationinstitutions.AsinMiddle East, the online survey also reveals that free / subsidised / reimbursed transport expenses are a rather commonpracticeintheregion. ThesituationinCentralAsiaandRussia,asrevealedbytheonlinesurvey,looksquitesimilartoEastern Europe,withamixofanswersandcommonpracticeforholidayallowances.Thedatacollectedatnational levelrevealssomeparticularschemes,someofwhichstemfromhistoricaltraditions.Forexample,therole oftradeunionsisstronginsomeoftheexSovietcountriesandtheymaintainaroleinprovidingsupport (e.g.hardshipfundsforstaffindifficultyorholidaypossibilitiesintradeunionresorts).InKazakhstan,for example,thereisalsoahousingsupportscheme,throughwhichstaffcanobtainhighlysubsidisedhousing. 5.4.3 Retirement Themaindifferencesintheretirementageofstaffinhighereducationinstitutionsareduetothefollowing: 1) a lower retirement age often applied to female employees and 2) the possibility for academic staff to continueemploymentbeyondretirementage.
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For academic staff, the official retirement ages vary from 55 to 70 years, according to national questionnaires. Regions with a relatively early retirement age include Central Asia, Russia and Eastern Europe(55/60/65).Ontheotherhand,theretirementageisrelativelyhighintheMiddleEasternregion, where it varies between 67 and 70 years for academic staff. An exception is the occupied Palestinian territory, where all staff on civil servant contracts may retire at the age of 60. There have been recent plans,however,toraisetheretirementageofcivilservantsto65.InMorocco,theretirementageis65for allacademicandmanagementstaffandintheWesternBalkans,itvariesfrom60to65years. In most regions and countries, academic staff members are allowed to continue to work for their institutionsbeyondtheofficialretirementage.However,somerestrictionsoftenapply,e.g.contractsare only concluded for one year at a time, a maximum extension may be fixed (e.g. at 70 years, as in many WesternBalkancountries)ormanagerialpositionscannotbeheldbystaffbeyondtheofficialretirement age.InAlgeria,thereisnofixedretirementageforacademicsatall. In general, early retirement is not considered a problem in the countries investigated. While early retirement is possible in some cases, on healthrelated grounds, the numbers actually taking early retirement are very limited. On the other hand, the fact is that in many countries, it is common for academics to continue to teach after the official retirement age. This phenomenon is considered both a problemandasolution,dependingonthenationalcontext.Indeed,insomecountries,delayedretirement hinderstheentryofnew,youngerstaffintothesector.Ontheotherhand,incountrieswherethereisa significant deficit of highly qualified teaching staff, delayed retirement eases short term pressure on the system. 5.4.4 Salaries Basicandadditionalsalarycomponents Themostcommonmodelinthecountriesinvestigated,isthatnationalauthoritiessetthebasicframework for salaries of staff at public higher education institutions, while leaving institutions the freedom to implement reward schemes and additional payments or benefits, according to their own policies and availablefunds(Table7).Accordingtotheonlinesurvey,itseemsthatsuchrewardmechanismsarerather commoninRussia,EasternEuropeandCentralAsia(50%oftherespondentsintheseregionsmentioned thattheirinstitutionsoffersuchmechanisms)whereasonaverage60%oftherespondentsintheMaghreb, theMiddleEastandtheWesternBalkansindicatedthatnorewardmechanismswereinplace. These extra reward schemes may however be regulated by the national authorities and differentiation between individuals is only possible in some cases. Sometimes, restrictions or regulations in the implementation of financial awards are introduced to increase transparency and predictability and to ensurethatallstafffulfillingthesameconditionshaveaccesstoadditionalpay.InIsraelihighereducation institutions, there are collective contract agreements of all staff, which set limits to financial awards and determinetheobjectivecriteriathatneedtobeusedforsuchawards.Therulesandlimitsarethesamefor allpublicinstitutionsinthecountry.Basicsalariesareusuallycalculatedbasedonyearsofexperienceand the academic title obtained. The part that differs may be concerning additional responsibilities, above averageperformance(whetherscientific,teaching,orinternationalprojects),orsimplyextrahoursworked. InKyrgyzstan,thesalaryiscomposedofastatebasicsalaryandanadditionalpart,subjecttoaseparate contractbetweenthestaffmemberandtheHEIforspecifictasksorfortheachievementofspecificgoals. However, this differentiated part is relatively insignificant compared with the total cost/salary. The standard contracts do not allow for rewarding or sanctioning by the institutions, which can create a problem of motivation and performance standards. In several Eastern European countries, such as Azerbaijan, Belarus and Ukraine, salaries are determined by the national authorities, which also set the conditionsforextrapaymentstobegivenbytheinstitutionsfromtheirownsources.InRussia,minimum
53
salaries are also determined by the national authorities, but institutions may and do pay from their own budgetsinaddition.
Table7Theroleofnationalauthoritiesinsalarydecisions
CentralAsia Eastern Europe Maghreb Middle East Russia Western Balkans
Kosovo, Bosniaand Herzegovina Montenegro
Decidingontotalspent Tajikistan onstaffcosts
Moldova Belarus Ukraine Moldova Azerbaijan Armenia Ukraine
Egypt
Setting minimum/maximum limitsbystaffcategory
Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan
Jordan Israel
Russia
Serbia theformer Yugoslav Republicof Macedonia, Albania, Bosniaand Herzegovina
Uzbekistan Determiningpayscales Turkmenistan withinstaffcategories Kazakhstan
Moldova Azerbaijan Ukraine
Algeria
Jordan Lebanon Israel
Russia
Determiningindividual salaries
Uzbekistan
Azerbaijan
Morocco, Tunisia
Syria, the occupied Palestinian territory, Israel
Notinvolvedin decisionsaboutstaff costs Source:Nationalquestionnaires
Georgia
In Egypt, salaries are determined and paid by the national authorities. However, as in the other Middle Eastern countries, institutions may implement rewards and provide financial incentives from their own funds. These are usually the same for all staff in the same category and in practice, do not distinguish betweenindividuals.InSyria,salariesarealsosetatthenationallevel.Institutionsmaygivesomerewards, but in a highly restricted way, controlled by the Ministry of Finance. In Jordan, basic salaries can be enhanced upon performance, at the discretion of the higher education institutions, while respecting the limits set in the law and bylaws. In Lebanon, the only public university, the Lebanese University, can implementfinancialrewards,inadditiontobasicsalaries,butmaynotmakeanydifferentiationwithinthe samestaffcategory. TheWesternBalkansfollowsthemainpattern.InMontenegro,institutionsdecideonsalariesfollowingthe national framework. In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, salaries are composed of two parts: basesalaryfromstatefunds,whichisthesameforallandadditionalpaymentsbytheinstitutions.Thisis similartomostothercountries,whereadditionalfinancialrewardscanbeimplementedbytheinstitutions fromtheirownfundsandcanthusdifferentiatebetweensalarieswithinthesamestaffcategory.InSerbia, therearebigdifferencesincontractsandsalaryscalesbetweenfaculties,becauseofdecentralisation,but plannedintegrationofuniversitiesshouldleadtomoreuniformtreatmentofallemployees,withthesame status within an institution. Normally, institutions can pay topups of up to 30%, if they can afford it.
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However,theofficiallimitsarenotalwaysfullyrespected.ForexamplealsoinSerbia,theadditionalsalary providedbyinstitutionsshouldnotrepresentmorethan30%ofthebasicsalary.However,inmostcases, waysaroundthislimitationarefound,allowinghugedifferencesinsalaries(forthesamestaffcategoryand between faculties). A number of interviewees also underlined that the allocation of these funds is not alwaysproportionaltothequantityofteachinghoursorworkperformed.Inpracticalterms,basicsalaries are paid by national authorities and additional amounts by the institutions. In Albania, basic salaries are establishedinthedecisionsofthecouncilofministers.However,financialrewardsbasedonperformance, participation in international conferences, overtime, etc may be implemented but must follow national regulations. It is usually possible to integrate the state budgetbased salaries with additional institutional contributions,aslongasthefundscomefromanallocationotherthanthestatebudget. In some countries, institutions enjoy an even greater freedom to decide on the salaries of their staff. In Armenia, institutions may differentiate salaries between staff within categories, as long as nationally set minimums are respected. In Georgia, institutions can decide on the salaries entirely and they may vary, even between faculties. In Israel, the national authorities set the maximum ceiling on salaries for senior staff,butotherwisehavenoroleindeterminingindividualsalaries. Ontheotherhand,differentiationsarenotalwaysallowed.Indeed,forexampleinTurkmenistan,salaries aresetbythenationalauthoritiesandnodifferentiationbythehighereducationinstitutionsisallowed.In fact,salariesarepaiddirectlybythenationalauthorities.ThesituationisthesameinMaghrebwherethe national authorities usually set and pay all salaries and no extras or differentiations are allowed. In the occupied Palestinian territory, salary levels are decided by the Ministry for all civil servants and no differentiationorfinancialrewardsareallowed. Comparativeattractivenessofsalaries In order to evaluate the attractiveness of the higher education sector as an employer and to get to the sourcesofpotentialproblemsrelatedtounattractiveness,itwasdeemednecessarytoachieveanestimate ofthecomparativevalueofthesalariesprovidedbypublicinstitutions,inrespecttoothersalariesavailable forsimilarlyqualifiedindividualsinthepublicsector(ministries),privatehighereducationinstitutionsand theprivatesector(businessesinthehomecountry).Whileitisimpossibletocompareaccuratelysalaries between different categories in these broad terms (no exact comparison point was expected), the responses from both surveys (national level and online survey) provide at least an indication of the perceptionsthatprevailinthecountriesinquestion. As expected, salaries of academic staff when compared to other public higher institutions, are generally considered similar (the reply given by 60% of the respondents to the online questionnaire) reflecting probablytheexistenceofnationalschemes(seeabove).ThisislesstrueinEasternEurope,theMiddleEast andtheWesternBalkans,duetotheincreasingdiversityofremunerationschemesintheseregions. In contrast, the salaries of academic staff, as paid by public higher education institutions, can never compete with the salaries in the private sector. Only in some rare cases, was managementlevel staff of institutionsconsideredonanequalorbetterfootingthansimilarlyqualifiedindividualsincompanies.The trendindicatedatnationallevelisfullyconfirmedbytheonlinequestionnaire(Chart3),sincemorethan 77% of the respondents considered that their salaries were lower than in business (9% declared it was equal). In contrast with the other regions, in the Western Balkans, the situation is perceived more favourably,withonly60%oftherespondentssharingthisopinion,whereas14%consideredtheirsalaryto beequaland13%,evenhigher. However,thecomparisongetsmorecomplicatedwhenconsideringprivatehighereducationinstitutionsor jobsintheministries.
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WhencomparedtopositionswithsimilareducationandlevelofexperienceintheMinistries(Chart4),35% oftherespondentstotheonlinesurveydeclared thattheirsalarywaslowerand31%,thatitwasequal (16%, higher). In fact, this average hides regional differences. In the Maghreb countries and the Middle East,wherethemajorityofstaffmembersarecivilservants,thereisahighcorelationbetweensalariesin institutionsandintheMinistries.IntheMiddleEast,38%oftherespondentsevendeclaredthattheirsalary was higher than in the Ministries. In Central Asia, Eastern Europe and Russia, the situation looks less favourable for academic staff, when compared to Ministries, whereas the situation is more equal in the WesternBalkans. Insofarasprivatehighereducationinstitutionsare concerned(Chart5),salariesaremostoftenhigherin privateratherthanpublicinstitutionsafactorpushingstafftotakeupadditionalparttimepositionsor teachsupplementaryhoursinprivateinstitutions,inadditiontotheirpublicinstitutionposition.62%ofthe respondents to the online survey declared that their salary was lower than at private education institutions. This is particularly the case in the Middle East and the Western Balkans, where such institutions are quite numerous. This is less true in Central Asia (32%), Russia (44%), Maghreb (50%) and Eastern Europe (52%). However, this does not prevent public institutions from being considered more attractive,regardlessofthelowersalariesbecauseofthehigherdegreeofstabilityandprestige,aswellas thequalityofteachingandstudents. Chart3Comparisonofsalariesofacademicstaffwithsalariesinprivatebusiness Comparedtoprivatebusiness(excludinginternational companies),yoursalaryis:
Western Balkans Russian Fed. Middle East Maghreb Eastern Europe Central Asia
20
40 Numberofresponses
60
80
Lower
Equal
Higher
Noopinion
Source: Online survey, question B15b: "How does your salary compare with other jobs potentiallyavailabletopeoplewithasimilareducationandlevelofexperienceinprivate businessexcludinginternationalcompanies?"
56
Chart4ComparisonofsalariesofacademicstaffwithsalariesintheMinistryofeducation ComparedtotheMinistryofeducation,yoursalaryis:
20
60
80
Lower
Equal
Higher
Noopinion
Source: Online survey, question B15b: "How does your salary compare with other jobs potentially available to people with a similar education and level of experience in the Ministryofeducation?"
Chart5Comparisonofsalariesofacademicstaffwithsalariesinprivatehighereducationinstitutions Comparedtoprivatehighereducationinstitutions,yoursalary is:

20
60
80
Lower
Equal
Higher
Noopinion
Source: Online survey, question B15b: "How does your salary compare with other jobs potentiallyavailabletopeoplewithasimilareducationandlevelofexperienceinprivate highereducationinstitutions?"
It is interesting to note that in a small number of countries, salaries of academic staff are nevertheless consideredrelativelyattractive.Accordingtothesurveyatnationallevel,thisisthecaseforUzbekistan,the Maghreb countries and also several Western Balkan countries. In Montenegro, salaries are considered equivalent to those in private business and higher than for comparably qualified staff working in the Ministry.InBosniaandHerzegovina,thesalariesofacademicstaffarerelativelycompetitive,whichcould bearesultoftheshortageofteachingstaffinthecountry.InKosovoandtheformerYugoslavRepublicof Macedonia,salariesareconsideredtobehigherthanthoseofcomparablestaffintheMinistryforallstaff categories. As confirmed by both studies (national questionnaire and online survey), salaries in public higher education institutions in Central Asia, Russia and Eastern Europe are generally lower than salaries of
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comparablyqualifiedindividualsinotheravailablejobs,whetherintheMinistryorinprivateinstitutionsor businesses.Lowsalariesmakejobsinhighereducationlessattractiveandthebestcandidatesoftengointo othercareers.Lowsalariesalsopressstafftoholdmultiplepositions.Incountrieswherecivilservantstatus andshorttermcontractscoexist,thesalariesandbenefitsforthelattertendtobesignificantlylowerthan forcivilservants. In addition to competition from other sectors in the national context, international attractiveness of salariesislikelytohaveanimportantimpactontheextentanddirectionsofbraindrain.Whilethemain reasons for braindrain seem to relate to unattractive research and working conditions, rather than low salaries, the latter continue to play asignificant role. In severalMiddle Eastern countries included in this study, a significant problem relates to the fact that in many neighbouring countries. Salaries are more attractiveandconsequently,manyacademicsspendtheirsabbaticalteachingabroad,toearnsomeextra money,insteadofdoingresearchormovetheretoworkaltogether. Trendsinsalarydevelopment Inmostofthecountriesinvestigated,salarieshaveremainedthesameasin2000orhaveincreasedslightly in terms of purchasing power. This is also evident from the online survey. The very large majority of respondentsdeclaredthattheydidnotliveinworseconditions,comparedtotenyearsago.IntheWestern Balkans and the Middle East, the respondents are evenly distributed between those who think that they livebetterthantenyearsagoandthosewhodonot.Undoubtedly,thesituationisseenmorepositivelyin Central Asia and in the Maghreb countries, whereas more mixed feelings seems to dominate in Eastern EuropeandRussia. Accordingtothedatacollectedatnationallevelanddifferentlyfromtherestoftheregion,Belarusreports animportantincreaseinacademicssalariesinthepasttenyears.SeveralCentralAsiancountrieshavealso increased the salaries of academic staff and in Uzbekistan, the sector is now considered relatively attractive. While conditions have improved for all staff in public institutions, in Kazakhstan, salaries have notincreasedinthesamewayacrossthesector:intherecentlyestablishednationaluniversities,whichare tobecometheflagshipsofthecountryshighereducationsystem,staffreceiveparticularlyhighsalaries,up to75%higherthaninotherpublicinstitutions.Thisisconsideredaspecialinvestmentprojectinalimited numberofhighprofileinstitutionsofexcellence.InAlgeria,salarieshavealsoincreasedsignificantlysince 2000andinparticularintherecentyears. Itisworthnotingthat,atnationallevel,severalMiddleEasterncountriesreportadecreaseintherealvalue ofsalariesofacademicstaff,assalarieshaveremainednearlyunchangedoverthelasttenyears.Thisisthe case of Lebanon and Jordan, for example. In Jordan, to rectify the situation, there is a discussion at the political level to reform the salary systems for staff at higher education institutions. In Lebanon, the governmenthasrecentlyadoptedanewpayscalewhichincreasesthesalariesofacademicstaffinpublic highereducationbyapproximately80%. 5.4.5 Multiplejobs Duetounattractivesalariesandthefailureinsomecasestomatchinflationwithsufficientsalaryincreases, thephenomenonofmultiplepositionsorevensimplyextrateachingoutsideofonesowninstitution,isin somecountriesawidespreadphenomenon. Insomecountries,multiplepositionsarelegallyallowed,butdonotcreateasignificantissueforthesector. Inothers,suchpositions arenotallowedatallandinyetothers,theissuecreatesasignificant problem, whetherformallyallowedornot.Themainproblemwithmultiplepositionsistheassumptionthatitishard to do two or more jobs, while maintaining the same quality and that the time left after teaching of contractualhoursononesmainjobshouldbeused,ratherforresearch,preparationandprojectactivities,
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than taking up more teaching hours. Multiple positions can range from extra teaching jobs at other institutions,toconsultancyrolesinprivatecompaniesandeventopoliticalroles. The question of having multiple jobs was explicitly raised in the online survey (chart 6), which provides interesting information on the actual situation in the Tempus Partner Countries. In spite of the limited number of answers in some regions, a clear trend can be identified. According to the respondents, this practiceisverycommoninCentralAsia,EasternEuropeandRussia.Morethan70%oftherespondentsin theseregionsdeclaredthatacademicstaffintheirinstitutiontypicallyholdsbetweenoneandthreejobs (72% in Central Asia, 84% in Eastern Europe, 79% in Russia). In contrast, only 36% and 45% of staff respectivelyintheMaghrebandtheMiddleEasthavemultiplepositions,accordingtotherespondentsin theseregions.TheWesternBalkansappearsomewhereinbetween,with59%oftherespondentsdeclaring thatacademicstaffintheirinstitutiontypicallyholdsbetweenoneandthreejobs. Chart6Numberofdifferentjobstypicallyheldbyacademicstaff Inyourinstitution,onaverage,howmanyjobsdoesatypicalmemberof academicstaffhold?
1 Between1and3 Morethan3 0 20 40 Numberofresponses 60 80
Source:Onlinesurvey,questionB10:"Inyourinstitution,onaverage,howmanyjobsdoesatypicalmemberof academicstaffhold,includingjobsinotherhighereducationinstitutions,ministriesandbusiness"
ItisinterestingtonotethatmultiplejobsarenotconsideredasignificantprobleminCentralAsia,according to the online survey, which confirms that the practice is embedded in the consciousness of the people. Accordingtotheinformationprovidedatnationallevel,inKyrgyzstansalarieshavedecreasedinpurchasing powerinthelast10yearsandconsequently,aboutathirdofallalsoteachersteachelsewhere.Thisleaves verylittletimeforacademicstafftodootheracademicactivities,suchasresearch,coursedevelopmentor internationalprojects.InTajikistan,multiplepositionsarenotofficiallypermitted.However,asisconfirmed by the online questionnaire, they do exist in practice and create a problem for the sector, in particular consideringtherelativelyhighnumberofteachinghoursacademicteachingstaffisalreadyfacedwith.On theotherhand,inTurkmenistanandUzbekistan,doublejobsareallowedandarecommon. In contrast, in Eastern Europe, the online survey reveals that multiple jobs are indeed considered a problem. This was confirmed by the data collected at national level in Ukraine and Armenia, but not in MoldovaandBelarus,wheremultiplepositionsdoexist,butarenotconsideredaproblemforthesystemat nationallevel. InRussia,multiplepositionsarenotagainstthelaw.Thereisnodataontheimpactofthephenomenonon the highereducationsystem,but the onlinesurveytendstoshowthatitis commonpracticeandareal concernformostoftherespondents.
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In the Middle East, there are restrictions on holding positions outside of ones own university and permission often needs to be obtained from the Rector. However, teaching at several institutions on an hourlybasisisapracticewhichcreatesmixedfeelings,accordingtotheonlinequestionnaire13.Thosewho arecriticalofit,considerthatthispracticecreatesaproblem,aslittletimeisspentbyacademicstaffon research activities, development of teaching materials or participation in international projects. The data collectedatnationallevelhelpscompletethispicture.InIsrael,academicstaffmayholdmultiplepositions, but the overall working time should not amount to more than 150% of a fulltime position. In Jordan, teachingsupplementaryhoursatotheroftenprivateinstitutionsisverycommonamongacademicstaff, howeverstaffrarelyholdsactualpositionsoutsideoftheirowninstitution.InEgypt,multiplepositionsare also common, especially for consultancy or managerial positions in companies or public authorities. This caneitherbeinadditiontotheregularteachingloadoronloanfromtheparentinstitution,asdetached personnel. In this country, the frequency of multiple positions is considered a serious problem for public highereducationandconcernsalsoadministrativestaff.InSyria,abouthalfofallacademicstaffinpublic institutions holds several parttime teaching positions. The exceptions in the region are the occupied Palestinian territory and Lebanon, where double positions are not allowed at all. However, in Lebanon, doublepositionshavebeenrelativelycommonpracticeamongacademicstaff,butfollowingtherecentpay increaseattheLebaneseUniversity(onlypublichighereducationinstitution),morepressurewillbeputon stafftogiveupdoubleemployment. In the Western Balkans, multiple positions are relatively common but, as in the Middle East, the online surveyrevealsmixedfeelingswithregardstothispractice,probablyreflectingthediversityofsituationsin the countries concerned. In Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Serbia, for example, the data collected at nationalleveltendstoprovethatmultiplepositionshaveanegativeimpactonthequalityofteachingand research,eventhoughnoprecisedataontheextentoftheproblemisavailable.AlsoinAlbania,multiple positionsarecommonandcanbetakenonapprovaloftheRector.However,differentlyfrommanyother countriesintheregion,inAlbania,multipleteachingjobsarenotnecessarilyseenasaproblem:thereisa shortage of highly qualified staff and it is for the good of the Albanian students, if good professors from publicinstitutionsalsoteachinprivateinstitutions.Thereisahighnumberofparttimeacademicstaff,who areteachingalongsideanother(main)job,e.g.inindustry. In Algeria and Tunisia, multiple jobs are allowed in the private sector, as consultants, or in the political sphere, though in the latter authorisation must be sought. In neither of the two, are multiple positions perceivedasaproblem.InMorocco,nomultiplepositionsareallowed. 5.4.6 Workload Thegravityoftheproblemcreatedbymultiplepositionsorextrateaching,takenatotherinstitutions,also dependsofcourseonthecontractualstudentcontacthoursatonesowninstitution.Logically,thehigher the number of hours that need to be taught at the home institution, the more difficult it is to add supplementarytasksandduties,withoutanegativeimpactontheremainingdutiesofthejob. Inthe nationalquestionnaires,thestudyaskedfor anindicationofthelegal averagenumberofcontact hourswithstudents,bothforjuniorandsenioracademicstaff(Table8).Thecontacthoursareactualhours spent teaching or being in contact with students. Apart from some very rare exceptions, a significant difference in student contacthours can be observed between junior and senior teaching staff. While the contacthours do give an indication of the overall workload of individuals, the expected time input on researchseemstovarysignificantlybetweencountriesandtypeofinstitutions(whethermoreresearchor mainlyteachingoriented).
13
Inthisregion,thesamenumberofrespondentsdeclaredeitherthatitwasnotaproblematicissueorthatit preventshighereducationfromperformingasitshould. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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Table8Minimumandmaximumstudentcontacthoursforjuniorandsenioracademicstaffby region
CentralAsia EasternEurope Maghreb MiddleEast Russian Federation WesternBalkans Juniormin. 550 (Kazakhstan) 180 (Georgia) 192 (Algeria) 300 (Lebanon) 740 170 (formerYugoslav Republicof Macedonia) Juniormax. 850 (Turkmenistan) 750 (Belarus) 450 (Morocco) 1000 (Egypt) 900 450 (Kosovo) Seniormin. 350 (Kazakhstan) 120 (Georgia) 165 (Tunisia) 250 (Lebanon) 500 140 (formerYugoslav Republicof Macedonia) Seniormax. 850 (Turkmenistan) 450 (Belarus) 250 (Morocco) 500 (Syria,Egypt) 500 270 (Kosovo)
Forjuniorstaff,thecontacthoursvarywidelyfrom170to1000hoursannually.Forseniorstaff,therange isslightlymorerestricted,butcoverssystemsasdifferentasbetween120and850annualhours. In Central Asia, there are important differences in student contacthours and these vary between 350 in Kazakhstanand850inTurkmenistan,forseniorteachingstaffandbetween550inKazakhstanand850in Turkmenistan for junior teaching staff. In Turkmenistan, all teaching staff has similar obligatory contact hoursandinKyrgyzstan,thedifferenceisalsominimal(750/800).Thebiggestdifferencescanbeobserved however,inEasternEurope.InGeorgia,thecontacthourswithstudentsareonlybetween120and180per year,dependingonthelevel,whereasinBelarus,attheotherendofthespectrum,thecontacthoursreach CentralAsianlevels,at450750annualcontacthours. InRussia,thenumberofcontacthoursisrelativelyhigh,from500forprofessorsupto900forlecturers, whileintheMiddleEast,thenumberofteachinghoursisalsorelativelyhigh.InLebanon,itvariesfrom250 h/year for full professors to 300 h/year for lecturers. In Jordan, the number of student contact hours is consideredsohigh,thatitthreatensthelongtermdevelopmentofacademicstaffandthusofinstitutions. IntheWesternBalkans,thestudentcontacthourloadofacademicstaffcanbeconsideredrelativelylow,in comparisontoseveralotherregions.Itvariesbetween140and270forsenioracademicsandbetween170 and450forjuniorteachingstaff.AsimilarsituationcanbenotedfortheMaghreb.Thosecountriesseemto havethemostfavourableconditionsforacademicstaff,theworkload,notexceeding450hoursforjunior staffand250forseniorstaff. The question of the actual workload of academic staff was included in the online survey and addressed onlytotheacademicstaff,workinginaTempusPartnerCountry(Table9).Inspiteoftheheterogeneityof answers, some averages have been extrapolated and these indicate that the perceptions of the actual workloadvaryquitealotamongtheregionsconsideredandconfirmmoreorlesstheanalysiscarriedoutat nationallevel.
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Table9Averageworkloadofacademicstaff
Averagenumberof contacthourswith studentswithinyour institution,onayearly basis.
Averagenumberof contacthourswith studentswithinanother highereducation institution,onayearly basis,ifany.
Averagenumberofdays spentonother remuneratedactivities peryear,ifany.
CentralAsia EasternEurope Maghreb MiddleEast RussianFed. WesternBalkans Source:Onlinesurvey
640 600 270 420 640 400
200 80 100 50 180 50
74 79 41 50 98 62
CentralAsia,EasternEuropeandRussia,withtheircommonhistory,havesimilarpatterns,characterisedby very high workloads for academic staff, whereas the Maghreb countries appear in the most favourable situation.TheMiddleEastandtheWesternBalkansappearinanintermediatesituation. Themainissuewithstudentcontacthourworkloadsisthat,inthecaseofaveryhighnumbersofcontact hours,toolittletimeislefttoacademicstafftoengageinresearchactivities,preparationofpublications, internationalprojectsandotherscientificactivities.Ifhighstudentcontacthoursarecoupledupwiththe need to take up extra teaching hours at other institutions to integrate low salaries, the problem may becomesignificant.Inadditiontoriskingreducingthequalityofteachingandresearch,thephenomenon may also be an important obstacle to staff development, both in terms of their academic and subject specificskills,oftenacquiredthroughscientificactivityandotherskills.
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6. Administrativeandtechnicalstaffrecruitment, careermanagementandworkingconditions
6.1 Introduction
Less information was provided through the national questionnaires and during the sitevisits, on the conditionsofadministrativeandtechnicalstaff,thanonthoseofacademicstaff.Often,thisisprobablydue to the fact that the differences between administrative and technical staff within institutions and e.g. in ministries are fewer than those between academic staff and similarly qualified individuals in other jobs. Often, very specific working conditions apply to academic staff, while administrative staff members have more 'standard' working profiles. Perhaps because of the direct connection between academic staff and theskillsoftheirstudents,morefocusonevaluation,qualityassuranceandfurthertrainingisusuallygiven toacademicthanadministrativeandtechnicalstaff.However,administrativestaffandtheircommitment and skills are considered crucial to the successful modernisation of institutions and therefore, it is necessarytopayattentiontotheirrecruitment,careermanagementsystemsandworkingconditions.
6.2
Recruitmentofadministrativeandtechnicalstafftohighereducationinstitutions
Overall, there is less control by the national authorities over the recruitment of administrative staff and open competitions, while often employed, are less common than for academic positions. When open competitions are used, this is often at the discretion of the institution. Indeed, for example in Ukraine, Belarus,Armenia,MoldovaandGeorgia,opencompetitionsarealwaysusedforrecruitmentofacademic staff,whileforadministrativestaff,theinstitutionsmaydecidethemselvesontheproceduretofollowand may consequently advertise jobs publicly or proceed with internal appointments. In Central Asian countries,positionsforadministrativeandtechnicalstaffareoftennotpubliclyadvertisedandseniorstaff members especially are usually selected from junior staff, through internal selection and promotion. The internal recruitment of administrative staff is considered a serious problem for the sector in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan. On the other hand, in Kazakhstan, positions for senior administrative and technicalstaffarepubliclyadvertised.AlsoinmanyWesternBalkancountries,administrativeandtechnical positionsarepubliclyadvertisedandtheselectionprocessisopen. In Egypt and Syria, administrative or technical positions may be advertised publicly, but this is relatively rare. Senior administrators recruitment in Lebanon is based on the general system of state employees, whilejuniorstaffisrecruiteddirectlybythehighereducationinstitutions,onshorttermcontracts. The recruitment decisions are usually always taken by the institutions. The procedures are relatively unchangedsince2000,acrossallregions.Thismayindicatethat,whiletheawarenessoftheneedfornew methods to recruit the best academic staff has grown in the sector, the same has not yet happened in regard to administrative and technical staff. Indeed, most countries in the national questionnaires, reportedthelackofappropriateskillsofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffandthehighdegreeofinternal recruitments,asthemainchallengesinrespecttothisstaffcategory. As for the academic staff, it seems that internal recruitment is not seen as a major problem by the individualrespondentstotheonlinesurvey.Onaverage,74%oftheonlinerespondentsindicatethatthe highfrequencyofinternalrecruitmentofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffisnotconsideredaproblemin theircountry.
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Recruitment requirements for administrative and technical staff are, in most cases, decided on by the institutions themselves, according to their needs and the specific technical and other skills required. In mostcountries,adegreeleveleducationisrequiredforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff,aswellasITand foreign language skills. Although language skills are becoming an increasingly important recruitment criterion, in practice, the lack of language skills continues to be an important obstacle and is often mentionedasthemostimportanttrainingneed.
6.3
6.3.1 Evaluatingadministrativeandtechnicalstaff Evaluations for academic staff tend to be more frequent and detailed than those of administrative and technicalstaffandstudentsareinvolvedalmostexclusivelyintheevaluationoftheformer.Whereas72% of the respondents to the online survey declared that their institution carried out periodic performance evaluationsforacademicstaff,only37%ofthemdeclaredsimilarpracticesforadministrativeandtechnical staff.Itseemsthatinpractice,asfortheacademicstaff,evaluationisusuallycarriedoutonayearlybasis (64%oftherespondentstotheonlinesurvey).Accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,itiscommonthat evaluationstakeplaceattheendofthecontractperiod.Consequently,e.g.inKyrgyzstan,academicstaff members are evaluated every year, while administrative staff, every five years. In Jordan, Egypt and the occupiedPalestinianterritory,thereareannualstaffevaluationsforallstaff,administrativeandtechnical andinJordan,thisiscoupledupwithcompulsoryannualstafftraining. According to 76% of the online respondents, staff evaluations include the definition and assessment of yearlyobjectives,exceptintheMaghreb,wherethemajorityoftherespondentsindicatedthatnoyearly objectives are defined. Concerning the actors involved, the respondents confirm, as was the case for academicstaff,thatheadsofdepartment,DeansandRectorsplayamajorrole,ratherthantheministries andgovernmentbodies. SystematicevaluationmethodsforadministrativestaffareneithercommonintheWesternBalkans,norin Russia.Accordingtotheresponsesintheonlinesurvey,suchpracticesarerareinbothregionsandmore than 60% of them declared that they did not exist in their own institution. The national questionnaires indicatethatintheWesternBalkans,administrativestaffinMontenegroisevaluatedinanongoingmanner bytheimmediatesuperiors.InSerbia,evaluationofadministrativestaffisnotobligatoryandthereisnoset frequency.InBosniaandHerzegovina,thereisalsonosystemforevaluationofadministrativestaff.Onthe otherhand,inKosovo,administrativestaffisevaluatedannuallybytheirchiefofdepartmentoratfaculty level,basedonthenationalregulationsrelatedtocivilservants. The evaluations may be used for promotions, payrises, financial rewards, the identification of training needs,transferstootherpositions(asinAzerbaijan),disciplinaryactionsandsoon.Theevaluationsapply usually to all staff categories, though in Azerbaijan, evaluations do not apply to technical staff. While evaluations are becoming common practice, there are still no systematic evaluation mechanisms of administrative and technical staff in place in Armenia, Syria, Lebanon, Bosnia and Herzegovina and to a certain extent, in Serbia. In these countries, promotions are based on other criteria, mainly years of experience. 6.3.2 Training TrainingprogrammesforacademicstaffarestartingtobedevelopedacrosstheTempusPartnerCountries. However,thedevelopmentofsimilarschemesforadministrativestaffisastepbehindanddoesnotseem tobeahighpriorityinmostofthecountriesinvestigated.Again,thisisalsoreflectedintheonlinesurvey. Overall, only 48% of the online survey respondents stated that their institution offered training opportunitiesforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff(62%fortheacademicstaff).
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Somecountriesalsoorganisesystematictrainingatnationallevelforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff.In Kazakhstan,forexample,allstaffhastotakepartintrainingeveryfiveyears.InSyria,ICTtrainingisalso compulsory for administrative staff for promotions. In Eastern Europe and the Middle East, training is mainlyorganisedbytheinstitutionsandtheextentoftheprogrammesdependsontheirinterestandthe availability of funds. This leads to significant variations between institutions. In Lebanon, some optional trainingisorganisedforadministrativestaff,bytheinstitutionsordonors.Thereislittlesystematictraining availableforadministrativeandtechnicalstaffintheWesternBalkans14,RussiaandEgyptandlittleorno public funding is made available for this purpose by the national authorities. However, institutions sometimes take significant initiatives on this and in Albania for example, several institutions organise training programmes for administrative and technical staff. In cases where programmes exist, they are usually compulsory for all staff members and are used as a criterion for promotion. In Algeria, some periodical training for certain groups of administrative staff on professional skills is organised and in Moroccosomepossibilitiesforinternshipsabroadexist. ThemainareasfortrainingofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffincludeIT,professionalskillsandEnglish(or other foreign) language. In addition, several informative seminars may be organised by the national authoritiesortheinstitutionsonnewlegalframeworksornewadministrativesystemsandtoolsemployed nationally.However,thesehavenotbeenconsideredasactualtrainingorskillsupgradinginthiscontext. Thisisconfirmedbytheonlinesurvey.Accordingtotherespondents,themostcommonlyofferedtypesof trainingare(Chart7):software/equipmentuseforallregions,foreignlanguagesforallregions(exceptthe Maghreb, where this type of training is quoted in penultimate position) and project management (only quotedfortheMaghreb). Chart7Trainingopportunitiesofferedtoadministrativeandtechnicalstaff Trainingopportunitiesofferedtoadministrativeand technicalstaff
Communication skills 14%
Team building 9% Software/ equipmentuse 34%
Project management 17% Foreign languages 26% Source:Onlinesurvey,questionB6.a."Whattypeoftrainingopportunitiesdoesyour institutionofferforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff?".Thepercentagesrepresentthe proportionofthenumberoftimeseachchoicewasselectedasanswertothequestion
14
IntheWesternBalkans,48%oftheonlinesurveyrespondentsansweredthatnotrainingopportunitieswere offeredbytheirinstitutionsand24%indicatedthattheydidnotknow. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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6.3.3 Promotionsandmotivation In several countries, senior administrative positions are filled through internal promotions. However, in some Central Asian countries, such as Kyrgyzstan, promotions of administrative staff take place through competitiveselection.InGeorgia,promotionsalsotakeplacethroughopencompetitionsonly.InLebanon, theonlywaytogetpromotedistoparticipateinnationalexaminations. Accordingtotheonlinesurvey(Chart8),careerprogressionofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffismainly basedontheyearsofseniority,responsibilitiesincollectiveactivities,politicalconsiderationsandpersonal relations. Chart8Criteriaforcareerprogressionofadministrativeandtechnicalstaff Criteriaforcareerprogression
Resultsof performance evaluations 18% Continued trainingand education 19% Political considerations andpersonal relations 20%
Yearsof seniority 22%
Responsibilities incollective activities 21%
Source: Online survey, question B4. "To what extent is the career progression (promotionfromonecategorytothenext)ofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffinyour institution based on the following criteria?". The percentages represent the breakdown of grades 4 (important) and 5 (very important) given as answer to the question.
Thecriteriaquotedmostoftenforcareerprogressionofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffare: - Yearsofseniority,inparticularfortheMaghreb,theMiddleEastandtheWesternBalkans - Responsibilities in collective activities (coordinating working groups, leading teams, etc.) for Central Asia,EasternEuropeandRussia - ResultsofperformanceevaluationsforEasternEurope,theMaghrebandtheMiddleEast - Continuoustrainingandeducationismentionedasoneofthecriteriaonwhichcareerprogressionis based,onlyforCentralAsia Itisinterestingtonotethat,accordingtotheonlinesurvey,politicalconsiderationsandpersonalrelations appeartobeamajorcriterionforthecareerprogressionofadministrativeandtechnicalstaff,inparticular inRussiaandintheWesternBalkans.
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According to the national questionnaires, in Eastern European countries, Western Balkans and Russia, promotiondecisionsaremostcommonlytakenbytheinstitutions.However,incountrieswithcivilservant status, promotion decisions are either taken by the national authorities (Maghreb) or approved by them (SyriaandtheoccupiedPalestinianterritory).AsdistinguishedfromothercountriesinWesternBalkans,in Montenegro, the promotion requirements are also set collaboratively by the institution and the national authorities.InAlbania,promotionsarebasedonyearsofserviceandparticipationincontinuoustraining. Thefactthatcontinuoustrainingisapromotionrequirementmotivatesstafftotakepartintraining,made availableattheinstitutionallevel.Nospecificmotivationorsupportschemesforadministrativestaffwere detectedinthecourseofthestudy.
6.4
Workingconditions
6.4.1 Contractualconditionsforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff As for academic positions, the formal status of staff varies between countries and staff categories. Permanentcontractsaremorefrequentamongadministrativeandtechnicalstaffthanacademics,whileat thesametime,themostshorttermcontractscanalsobeobservedinthisstaffcategory.Map6showsthe spread of different contractual practices for administrative and technical staff at public higher education institutions in the Tempus Partner Countries. The information in Map 6 is based on data from a table in Annex4.2. Permanentcontractsbynationalauthorities InAlgeria,Morocco,Tunisia,Egypt,theoccupiedPalestinianterritoryandSyria,staffmembersareusually civilservantsandallcontractsforadministrativeandtechnicalstaffarepermanent.InEgypt,somejunior administrative and technical staff is employed directly by the institutions, often on shortterm contracts. However, around 85% of all junior administrative staff members are still civil servants. In the occupied Palestinian territory, institutions have also been recently allowed to recruit additional contractual administrativeandtechnicalstaffononetofouryearcontracts.InMorocco,therewasarecentattemptto changethestatusofstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionstoemployee(theformpreferredbythe ministry), but this met with strong resistance from the trade unions and was thus abandoned for the moment. Contractsbyinstitutionsortheirsubunits Intheremainingcountries,contractsareconcludeddirectlybytheinstitutions.However,muchmoreoften than for academic staff, contracts may be of permanent duration. This is the case for Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,Azerbaijan,Ukraine,Armenia,Serbia,Montenegro,BosniaandHerzegovina,Moldovaandsome institutionsinIsrael. InTajikistanandUzbekistan,allcontractshaveastandarddurationoffiveyearsandinGeorgia,wherethe Labour Law does not allow for permanent contracts, all staff members have renewable threeyear contracts.Forthemoment,inBelarus,institutionsdecideoncontractualconditions.
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Map6Contractsandformalemployerofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffatpublichigher educationinstitutions15
Permanentcontractbythenationalauthorities Permanentcontractbyinstitutions/subunitsofinstitutions Determineddurationcontractbyinstitutions/subunitsofinstitutions16 Nodataavailable
In most Middle Eastern countries, contracts for administrative and technical staff are concluded for a limitedduration.InIsrael,contractualconditionsvarygreatlybetweenhighereducationinstitutions,from permanent contracts to four, three or oneyear contracts. Also in the Western Balkans, the contract duration varies significantly. For example, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in Serbia, administrative staff usually has permanent contracts, while in Albania, Kosovo and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, administrative and technical staff has shortterm renewable contracts. Jobs are often consideredverystable,regardlessofthefactthatcontractsmaybetemporary.Thisismainlybecause,in mostcases,renewalsaredefactoautomaticortheinitialshorttermisconsideredratherasatrialperiod. ThisisthecaseinAlbania,forexample:thelengthofthecontractdependsontheinstitution,buttheusual starting contractforadministrativestaffisfor3months. However,astheprolongationofthecontractis quasiautomatic,thestabilityofthejobsinhighereducationisconsideredasoneoftheirmainadvantages. Shorter contracts were adopted in Albania, to enable institutions always to recruit the best staff and to motivatestafftoperform.
15 16
TheMapdescribesthemosttypicalsituationineachofthecountries. InIsrael,theuniversitiesandpartofthecollegesprovideseniorstaffwithpermanentcontracts. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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6.4.2 Retirement Theretirementageofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffisoftenlowerthanthatofacademicstaffandlate retirements are rare for this category. In some cases, women may retire three to five years earlier than men. Thestandardretirementagevariesfromregiontoregion,butrangesfrom55to63yearsinCentralAsia, the Middle East, Russia and Maghreb. In some Eastern European countries, as well as in the Western Balkans,theretirementagerangesfrom60to65years.Twocountrieswitharetirementageof60years arecurrentlyplanningtoraiseitto65years(MoroccoandtheoccupiedPalestinianterritory). 6.4.3 Salaries In terms of structures in place for the payment of salaries for administrative and technical staff and the conditionsrelatedtosupplementarypaymentsbytheinstitutions,themechanismsaresimilartothoseof academicstaff. This is confirmed by the online survey. According to the respondents, it seems that such reward mechanisms are rather common in Russia, Eastern Europe and Central Asia (62% of the respondents of thesecountriesmentionedthattheirinstitutionsofferedsuchmechanisms)whereasonaverage70%ofthe respondents in the Maghreb, the Middle East and the Western Balkans indicated that no reward mechanismswereinplace.Itseems,however,thatthesituationisevenmorevariedforadministrativeand technicalstaff,whencomparedtoacademicstaff.Forthelatter,theabovementionedfiguresamountedto 50and60%respectively. As for academic staff, salaries of administrative staff are often considered lower than those potentially earnedinprivateeducationinstitutions,privatebusinessorincomparablepositionswithinministries. According to the national survey, for administrative staff, the differences are often considered less pronounced. Coupled up with relatively good side benefits (Table 6) in comparison with other available positions and considering the stability of jobs in higher education institutions and the flexibility of time schedules, administrative and technical positions are relatively more attractive than those for academic staff. This appreciation is not fully reflected in the online survey, where the figures are rather similar to thoseobservedfortheacademicstaffbutlessrepresentative,duetothelimitednumberofrespondents. Thefiguresareverysimilartothoseofacademicstaff,whencomparingsalariesofadministrativestaffin publichigherinstitutionstootherpublichighereducationinstitutionsandprivateeducationinstitutions.In contrast,thereisamuch strongerfeelingthatsalariesarelowerforadministrativestaffwhencompared withministriesandbusinesses.Indeed,48%(35%inthecaseofacademicstaff)and87%(77%inthecaseof academicstaff)ofadministrativestaffrespondentsdeclaredthattheirsalarywaslowerthanincomparable positionsinministriesandinprivatebusiness,respectively. Atnationallevel,littlechangecanbeobservedintheapproximatepurchasingpowerofsalaries:whilein some cases, an increased investment in brains, i.e. in researchers and academics, has started through nationalorinstitutionalschemes,nocasesofsuchaninterestinthedevelopmentofhumanresourcesin the categories of administrative and technical staff have been observed. This is indeed confirmed by the onlinequestionnaire.Themajorityofrespondents(64%)declaredtheydonotlivebetterthantenyears ago(54%oftheacademicstaff). Asregardsthemultiplejobsphenomenon,thesamepatternscanbeobservedfortheadministrativeand technical,asfortheacademicstaff,accordingtotherepliestotheonlinequestionnaire(Chart9).Itseems, however,thatthispracticeislesscommon,notablyintheWesternBalkans.Nevertheless,holdingoneto
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threejobsisconsideredacommonpracticeintheirinstitutionsby60%oftherespondentstotheonline questionnaireinEasternEuropeandRussia(47%inCentralAsia).Asaresult,inallregions,therearemixed feelingsregardingtheimpactofthispracticeonhighereducation. Chart9Numberofjobstypicallyheldbyadministrativeandtechnicalstaff Inyourinstitution,onaverage,howmanyjobsdoesatypicalmemberof administrativeandtechnicalstaffhold?

1 Between1and3
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Source:Onlinesurvey,questionB11."Inyourinstitution,onaverage,howmanyjobsdoesatypicalmemberof administrative and technical staff hold (including jobs in other higher education institutions, ministries and businesses)".
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7. Managementstaffrecruitmentandconditions
Institutional management naturally holds a key role in the development, strategic positioning and modernisation of higher education institutions. Therefore, the management of this particularly central human resource is naturally of high importance to the success of institutions and indeed of higher educationsystems. The most pertinent issues in respect to managementlevel staff to be addressed in this section are the selectionorappointmentproceduresandrequirementsofmanagementlevelstaff(RectorsandDeans)as wellasspecifictrainingthatismadeavailableforthem. Someproblematicissuesinthisrespectconcern,forexample,thelackofopencompetitionsforpositionsin senior management, the politicised selection or appointment of management staff, the lack of adequate selection criteria, based on the managerial and leadership skills needed by the institutions, the lack of trainingopportunitiesortrainingrequirementsanddifferent kindsofpoliticalpressuresthatinstitutional management may be subjected to. However, some interesting examples of practice can also be found, underlining the increased good will to achieve transparency and to select the best candidates for managementoftheinstitutions.
7.1
AppointmentandselectionofRectors
TheproceduresfortheappointmentofRectorsvarysignificantly(Map7).Themaindivisionisthatbetween appointed and elected Rectors. The second important factor is, in both cases, who elects and/or finally appointstheRector.Subsequently,insomecases,theappointmentorelectionofaRectorcarriedoutat theinstitutionallevelmayneedtobeapprovedbythenationalauthorities.
Rectorselectedattheinstitutionallevel Oneofthetwomainmodels(andamorerecentoneinmanycountries)istheelectionoftheRectorfroma numberofcandidates.Insomecases,theelectionisopentoallstaffandstudentsoftheinstitution(e.g.in Albania),whileinothersitisoneofthemainbodiesoftheinstitution,suchastheAcademicorUniversity CouncilortheSenate(inGeorgia,SerbiaandBosniaandHerzegovina),whichelectstheinstitutionalleader. InUkraine,RussiaandAlbania,thefinalappointmentorapprovalfollowinganinstitutionallevelelectionis, however,uptothenationalauthorities.Ontheotherhand,inGeorgia,Israel,BIH,Montenegro,Serbia,the formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedoniaandTunisia,nonationallevelapprovalisrequired.
Theselectionofcandidatesmaybeinternalorexternaltotheinstitutionandsometimesfollowsanopen competition or Call for Nominations. In the Western Balkans, the Rector is elected either from internal candidates or on the basis of a formally open competition. In Serbia, all full professors are eligible to compete for the management positions. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the selection for management positionsisopentoallqualifiedcandidatesemployedbytheinstitution.IntheformerYugoslavRepublicof Macedonia,thecandidatescancomefromoutsideorwithintheinstitution.Albanianinstitutionsrequireat leastaPhDfromaprestigiousinstitutionabroadoraprofessorshipinaninstitutioninAlbania,toqualify for election. Rectors of public institutions are elected by secret ballot by all academic staff, all non academicstaffandallstudentsofaninstitution.Thevotesareweighedwiththestudentvotes,countingfor 20%ofthetotalandnonacademicstaffvotes,for5%ofthetotal.

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Map7MethodofrecruitmentofRectors
Source:Nationalquestionnaires ElectedRector,approvalbythenationalauthoritiesrequired ElectedRector,noapprovalbythenationalauthoritiesrequired Noelection,approvalorappointmentbynationalauthorities Noelection,noapprovalbynationalauthoritiesrequired
Rectorsappointedorapprovedbynationallevelauthorities In the vast majority of the Tempus Partner Countries Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Armenia,Azerbaijan,Belarus,Algeria, Morocco,Egypt,Jordan, Lebanon,occupiedPalestinian territoryandSyriatheinstitutionalheadisappointedbythenationalauthorities.Thisappointmentmay takeplacewithoutconsultationoftheinstitutionalbodies,suchastheSenateortheAcademiccouncilor canrelyoninstitutionstomakethefirstselectionforalistofsuitablecandidates,forappointmentbythe nationalauthorities. Differentnationalentitiesmaybeinvolvedintheappointmentofinstitutionalleadersatthenationallevel, depending e.g. on the status of the institutions. For example in Central Asia, the Rectors of higher educationinstitutionsareusuallyappointedbynationallevelauthoritiesanddependingonthecountryand thestatusoftheinstitutions,thiscanbetheEducationMinistry,theCouncilofMinistersorthePresidentof the Republic. In the Middle East as well, the national authorities play a significant role overall, in the appointmentsofmanagementstaff.UsuallyRectorsareappointedbythehighestofficialsofthestateand therecruitmentrequirementsandproceduresaresetbythenationalauthorities.InAlgeria,therectorsare
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appointed by a Presidential Decree on the basis of a proposal by the Ministry. In Morocco, the Rector is appointedbytheKingafteraselectionprocedurebytheMinistry.InAzerbaijan,Rectorsareappointedby the President. In some cases, the list of candidates is provided by institutions. In Armenia, the Rector is selected at the institutional level from internal and external candidates, but the actual appointment falls withinthecompetenceoftheMinistry. Appointmentofinstitutionalmanagement,whicharepositionsofpower,mayalsobepoliticallycontrolled to a high degree. In some cases, the appointment for managementlevel staff, clearly requires that the individual should be politically in line with the national government. The fact that appointments may be basedonpoliticalconnections,ratherthanonqualitiesneededtoleadaninstitution,createsproblemsfor the sector, as not necessarily the best candidates are chosen through political appointments. Also, the frequent changes in the political sphere lead to frequent changes in institutional management, which createsalackofcontinuitywithininstitutionsandmakesstrategicplanningdifficult. InthecaseofappointedRectors,theselectionisalmostneverbasedonanopencompetitionandpositions usually aren't publicly announced. However, in most countries, appointed Rectors also need to be professors,orhighrankingacademicstoqualifyforappointment. Rectorsselectedbyinstitutionalorganswithoutelection In some cases, institutional organs are involved in the selection of the Rector from qualified candidates, either at the institutional level or through an open competition. In such cases, there is no election, but ratheraselectionbyabodywithintheinstitution.Theselectionmustoftenbeapprovedbythenational authorities.ThisisthecaseinMoldovaandKosovo.InMoldova,theRectorisselectedbytheinstitution, basedonanopencompetition,forwhichtherequirementsaresetbytheMinistry.InKosovo,theRectoris appointedthroughanopencompetitionbasedontheStatutesoftheUniversityandothernormativeacts. ThedecisionistakenbytheUniversityBoard. Trends It is interesting to observe some contrasting trends in the way in which the Rectors of institutions are appointed. Some countries, for example Georgia, have moved from appointment of the Rector by the Ministry,toanelectionatinstitutionallevel.InKazakhstan,theinstitutionalleadersarecurrentlyappointed bydifferentlevelsofnationalauthorities,butitisplannedtograduallychangetheappointmentprocedure ofrectorsbygivingfullautonomytohighereducationinstitutions.InEgypt,thereisanongoingprocessto shift, in the near future, to "electionbythebase" model for Rectors and Deans, though the "electing base"hasnotyetbeendefined. Bycontrast,inKyrgyzstan,theRectorswerepreviouslyelected,butasthesystemcreatedfrictionsbetween theRectorandthemembersofstaffwhohadbeeninfavourofanothercandidate, the Rectorsarenow appointedbythePresidentortheGovernment,dependingonthestatusoftheinstitution(Stateinstitution orspecialstatusnationalinstitution). OveralltrendsintheconditionsofworkofRectorsindicatethatsalarieshaveonaveragegrownfasterfor thetopmanagement,thanforotherstaffathighereducationinstitutions.Whileseveralpositionsinhigher education institutions suffer from unattractiveness and lack of competitiveness visvis other available positionsoutsidethepublicinstitutions,thisisunderstandablynotthecaseforthetopmanagement.In somecountries,theconditionsofworkofRectorsareveryattractive:inMoroccoRectorsofuniversitiesget the same salary as a Minister. Also in many of the Western Balkan countries, the salaries of Rectors are higherthanforpositionsofsimilarlyqualifiedstaffinbusiness.However,comparisonsbetweensectorsare admittedlydifficultandatbest,approximate.
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Training While increasing attention is being paid to the training of academic staff, systematic training of managementlevel staff is still relatively rare. In some countries, like Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Egypt, training is obligatory, also for all managementlevel staff. In others, including the occupied Palestinian territory and Russia, training is available and management is advised to take part in it, but it is not compulsory. Wheretrainingisavailable,itoftenconcentratesonmanagementskills,qualitysystemsor,insomecases, languages.
7.2
AppointmentandselectionofDeans
SimilarlytotheappointmentofRectors,alsoforDeans,twomainmodelscanbeeasilyidentified:election or appointment. However, while election takes place without exceptions at the institutional level, appointmentmaybelefttoinstitutionalorgans,ortothenationalauthorities. The most common authority to appoint Deans is the Rector. Perhaps logically, this is the most common model in countries where the Rector has himself or herself been appointed by the national authorities. OfteninthecaseofappointedDeans,thereisnoopencompetition. InKazakhstan,TurkmenistanandRussia,forexample,theDeansareappointedbytheRector,withoutany publicannouncementorcompetitionforthepositions.InTurkmenistan,approvaloftheMinistryhastobe soughtfortheappointments.InJordan,theDeansarealsoappointedbytheRectorandfrequentchanges inRectorshipsleadalsotofrequentchangesinthewholemanagementbodyoftheinstitution.Positionsof Deansarenotpubliclyannounced.InEgypt,theRectornominatesthreecandidatesforeachDeanposition, butthefinaldecisionistakenbytheMinistry.InKyrgyzstan,awideracademiccommunityisinvolvedinthe appointmentofDeans,throughtheAcademicCouncil.InArmeniaandKosovo,theDeansareselectedfrom internal candidates and appointed by the institution, while in Ukraine and Azerbaijan, the Deans are selectedthroughanopenexternalcompetition.InGeorgiaandSerbia,Deansareelectedinternallybythe faculty council. In Albania, the Deans are elected by all staff and students of the faculty or institute in question. On the other side of the spectrum, in Tajikistan and Morocco, the appointment of Deans is also in the handsofthenationalauthorities(theMinistryofEducation).
7.3
Termsofserviceofmanagementlevelstaff
ThetermsofRectorsandDeansvaryacrosscountries,eventhoughthreetofiveyearsisthemostcommon scenario.TheshortesttermidentifiedthroughoutthestudyisaoneyeartermatsomeinstitutionsinIsrael. Terms can be renewed, most typically at least once, though in some cases, there is no set limit to the numberoftimesapersonmaybereelectedformanagementpositions.InUkraine,forexample,Rectors have five to sevenyear contracts, which can be renewed unlimited times. However, a new draft law proposesthatRectorscouldonlyberenewedtwice.

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7.4
Careermanagement
Theonlinesurveyprovidessomeinterestinginformationaboutthecareer managementofmanagement staff and the conclusions are in line with those concerning the other categories of staff analysed in the study. Inparticular,itisinterestingtonotethatthereisapparentlyacleardividebetween: - Russia,EasternEuropeandCentralAsia.Accordingto59%oftherespondentsinthesecountries,most of the institutions carry out yearly performance evaluations of Deans, which take into account staff feedbacks / evaluations. These evaluations are mostly carried out by the Rectors, but the answers providedalsoshowacertaininvolvementofinstancesatgovernmentallevel. - the Maghreb, the Middle East and the Western Balkans. On average, 65% of the respondents from these countries indicated that their institution does not carry out any performance evaluations of Deans. Asregardstrainingactivities,itseemsthatopportunitiesofferedtomanagementstaffarelimited.47%of the online survey respondents stated that their institution did not offer training opportunities to managementstaffand23%indicatedthattheydidnotknow.However,thesituationlooksbetterinRussia andinCentralAsia,wherethemajorityofrespondentsindicatedthatmanagementstaffisofferedtraining (respectively54%and57%). Onaverageandaccordingtotherespondents,themostcommonlyofferedtrainingrelatesto(Chart10): - Institutionalmanagement(strategy,finance,HR)exceptinRussia,whereforeignlanguagesandproject managementareconsideredasthemostcommonlyofferedtypesoftrainingformanagementstaff; - Foreign languages. Exceptions are Maghreb and the Middle East where, respectively, project managementandleadershipareconsideredasthemostcommonlyofferedtrainingopportunitiesfor managementstaff.
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Chart10Trainingopportunitiesofferedtomanagementstaff Trainingopportunitiesofferedtomanagementstaff
Communication skills 8% Institutional management (strategy, finance,HR) 19% Foreign languages 18%
Team building 9% Project management 14%
Leadership 15%
Information Technology(IT) 17%
Source:Onlinesurvey,questionB8a."Whattypeoftrainingopportunitiesdoesyour institution offer for management staff (Rectors and Deans)?" The percentages representtheproportionofthenumberoftimeseachchoicewasselectedasanswer tothequestion.
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8. Genderbalance
According to the national questionnaires, gender balance is a cause for concern in several countries investigated.Whileinmanycountries,thenumbersoffemalestudentsareontheriseandreachingifnot outnumbering male students, the higher positions in academia and management are still held far more often,bymenthanwomen.The degreeofthe problemvaries. Indeed,insome countries,thebalanceis reversedinfavouroffemales,alsoindifferentstaffcategories.Theimbalanceisoftenmuchlessvisiblein thecaseofadministrativestaff,comparedwithacademicstaff. It is nevertheless interesting to note that the gender balance is not necessary considered a cause for concern by the individuals themselves. Indeed, in the online survey, the clear majority of respondents (73%)didnotconsidergenderbalanceaproblemintheircountry. Threedifferenttypesofsituationwereidentified,onthebasisofthedatacollectedatnationallevel. Balanceddistributionofstaffbetweengenders In Central Asia, there is a lack of precise data on the numbers of women working in higher education. However,accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,morethan50%ofthestaffinKazakhstaniswomenand around 42% of academic staff in Uzbekistan is female. In the Eastern European countries, the gender distributiononaverageisalsorelativelybalanced.Acrossthesixcountries,femaleacademicstaffaccount forabout50%ofthetotal.InAlbania(54%)andMontenegro(45%),theproportionofwomeninacademic staffisalsorelativelywellbalanced.AsanexceptiontomanyMiddleEasterncountries,thegenderbalance inEgyptisrelativelygood,withabout40%ofacademicstaffbeingwomen.InLebanon,thesituationisalso better than other countries of the region, as 34 % of academics are women. In Jordan, were very few academics are female, the proportion of women in administrative positions can be considered relatively good(40%).Administrativepositionsatpublicinstitutionsareconsideredveryattractiveforwomenwith families,becauseoftheextrabenefits,flexibilityandprestige.InSerbia,BosniaandHerzegovinaandthe formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia,therearesomewhatlessfemalethanmaleacademics,justaround 40%ofthetotal.KosovopresentstheweakestgenderbalanceintheWesternBalkans,withonlyaround 28%femaleacademicstaffinpublicinstitutions. Lowestproportionsoffemalestaff As an exception to other countries in Central Asia, the gender balance in Tajikistan is considered a significant problem. New policies are in place to guarantee a number of places in higher education for femalestudents.InMaghrebcountries,therearealsomanymorementhanwomenworkingasacademics, withthelatteraccountingforbetween25and30%ofthetotalteachingstaff.Theproblemispronounced inseveralMiddleEasterncountries.InJordan,veryfewacademicsarewomen(6%)thoughseveralwomen canbefoundintopmanagementpositions.Itisconsideredanissueofpersonalchoiceforwomen,rather thanaquestionofreligionorculture.Indeed,therearemanymorewomen(upto40%)atthestartofthe academic career but progression is slower due to family commitments. In the occupied Palestinian territory, the proportion of women is also very low and stands at 17% of academics and 33% of administrative staff (making for an average of 23% of all staff). While slightly better, the balance also remainsnegativeinIsrael(2734%)andSyria(32%ofacademicstaff).InIsrael,thenewstaffinvigoration schemeincludesinitiativesforanimprovedrepresentationofwomen,aswellasethnicalminoritygroups, inpublichighereducationinstitutions.
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Predominanceofwomenconcentratesonadministrativepositions The proportion of women is often higher among administrative staff than academic staff and even countries with very low proportions of female academic staff, may have a significant number of female administrative and technical staff. The difference between the staff categories is perhaps the clearest in Jordan, where only 6% of academic staff, but as many as 40% of administrative and technical staff is female.However,inRussia,thegenderbalanceismorestronglyinfavourofwomenamongacademicstaff: 60%ofacademicstaffand40%ofadministrativestaffisfemale. ThehighestproportionsoffemalestaffamongadministrativeandtechnicalstaffcanbefoundinMoldova andGeorgiaandstandat72%and76%.InseveralcountriesoftheWesternBalkans,therearealsomore womenthanmenworkinginadministrativeandtechnicalpositions.ThisisthecaseinMontenegro,Serbia andtheformerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia(6063%).InAlbania,57%ofadministrativestaffisfemale. InSyria,56%ofadministrativestaffmembersarewomen.
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9. Agingofstaff
MostTempusPartnerCountriesreportinthenationalquestionnairesofaseriousproblemwiththeaging ofstaffintheirpublichighereducationinstitutions.Themaincausesoftheproblemare: Lackofyoungqualifiedstaff,duetotheoveralldemographiccurveinthecountry Lack of young staff due to braindrain abroad or into the private sector, mainly due to unattractive salariesandotherconditionsinhighereducationinstitutions Lateretirementofcurrentstaff,whichmakesaccesstojobsforyoungerstaffmoredifficult
Again, as is the case for gender balance, it seems that individuals have a different understanding of this typeof"macroissues",thanthepersonsconsultedatnationallevel.Inthiscase,theindividualrespondents who have replied to the online survey had less concerns about the aging of staff than the national authorities,as55%ofthemdidnotconsidertheagestructureofacademicstaffinpublichighereducation institutionsasaproblem.Asforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff,theiragestructurewasnotconsidereda problemby65%ofrespondents.However,cleardifferencescouldbenotedbetweenregions:inRussiaand inEasternEurope,themajorityofrespondentsdidperceiveagingofacademicstaffasaproblem,whilein theWesternBalkansandevenmoreso,intheMiddleEast,lessrespondentsconsideredthisanissue.Itcan alsobenotedthat,ingeneral,respondentsdidnotexpectthattherewouldbeaninsufficientnumberof academicoradministrativestaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinthecomingyears. According to the national questionnaires, the extent of the problem caused by the aging of staff varies between regions and in some cases, within regions. The regions where aging of human resources in the highereducationsectorisaseriousconcerninclude:theMiddleEast,RussiaandEasternEurope.InCentral Asia and the Maghreb, more variations can be observed between countries. The Western Balkans is the only region, where overall aging is not considered as a great threat to the development of the higher educationsector.Map8givesanoverviewofthetrendsinstaffageingacrosstheregions.
InEasternEurope,agingofstaffisacommonproblem,asconfirmedbothbythenationalquestionnaires and the replies to the online survey. From 20 to 25% of the staff in Ukraine and Belarus work beyond retirementage,raisingtheaverageageinbothstaffcategories.InArmenia,morethanathirdofacademic staffisover60.Asanexceptionintheregion,inGeorgiamorethanhalfofallstaffisunder45yearsandit is the only country in the region with a trend to having more younger staff overall. Some countries are investing in supporting the creation of a new generation of academics through different scholarship schemes. Azerbaijaneducatingyoungacademicsabroad Azerbaijan has a State Program for Education of Azerbaijani Youth Abroad (20072015). In the framework of this programme, some of the best students are granted scholarships to study at prestigious universities abroad, mostly in economics, management, medicine, social and life sciences, ICT, engineering and services. By 2011, about 700 students had benefitted from the scheme but the objective is to reach 5 000 students by the end of 2015. The contract, which is signedbetweenthestudentbeneficiariesandtheMinistryofEducation,includesadutytoreturnto Azerbaijan after studies for at least five years. The interesting feature of this scheme is that the scholarshipgraduatesmaywork,eitherinthepublicorprivatesectorinAzerbaijan.
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Map8Trendsinagestructureofstaffinpublichighereducation,asperceivedatnationallevel
Source:Nationalquestionnaires Overallolderstaffthan10yearsago Agestructureofstaffsimilarto10yearsago Overallyoungerstaffthan10yearsago Nodataavailable
According to the national questionnaires, aging of academic staff is a challenge in the Middle Eastern region as well. However, it is interesting to note that, in the online survey, 66% of respondents for this regiondidnotconsidertheagestructureasaproblemwhichshowsacleardifferencebetweenindividual andnationallevelperceptions.However,lookingatthestatisticsprovidedinthenationalquestionnaires,in Israel,forexample,alargerproportionofstaffisover60thanunder45ofageandinEgyptabout30%of academics are over 60 and more than half of the total are over 45 of age. The highest percentage is in Lebanonwith71%ofacademicstaffover45yearsofage.Thetrendshowsthatoverallthereisanolder staff body than in 2000. Most of the countries allow the continuation in academic positions beyond the retirementage,whichpushestheaverageageofacademicstaffup.InSyria,theagestructureofacademic staffisyoungeroverall,than10yearsago,eventhough30%ofteachingstaffisstillover60.Theexception totheruleinthisregionispresentedbytheoccupiedPalestinianterritory:nostaffmembersarebeyond theofficialretirementageof60yearsandnearlyhalfoftheacademicstaffisbetweentheagesof35and 45years.Theaverageageofstaffisnowlowerthanin2000.Acrosstheregion,theagingofadministrative staffislessseriousandforexampleinJordan,staffinthiscategoryisoverallyoungerthan10yearsago.In
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Egypt,30%ofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffisalsoyoung.IntheoccupiedPalestinianterritorynearly halfofalladministrativeandtechnicalstaffmembersareyoungerthan35. Israel600millioneuroinvestmentinstaffinvigoration Agingisaseriousproblemtothecountry,asabout800academicswillretireinthenextfiveyearsand consequentlytheGovernmenthasinvestedsignificantlyinastaffinvigorationscheme.Theschemewill enabletherecruitmentof1200newstaffmembers. Jordansupportingyoungtalentthroughscholarships TheUniversityofJordanhasascholarshipsscheme,throughwhichgoodstudents(allthosewhogetthe firstrankareeligible)aresenttosomeofthebestuniversitiesintheWorldforfurtherstudies.The studentsneedtocomebackwithin6monthsaftertheendoftheirstudiesandthenserveatthe universityforaminimumperiod,correspondingtotwicethetimespentabroadonthescholarship, otherwisetheyhavetopaybackthescholarshipandanadditionalpenalty.Theprojectisfundedfrom theinstitutionalbudget(ande.g.feesmaybepartlywavedthroughinterinstitutionalagreements).By law,institutionsneedtoallocate3%ofthebudgettoscholarships. ThesituationisthereverseinRussia,where,accordingtothenationalquestionnaire,80%ofadministrative and technical staff members are over 45 years old, compared to 70% of academic staff in the same age category.However,overallstaffageingisconsideredaseriousissuetotheinstitutionsandthisproblemis clearly perceived also by the respondents of the online survey. Paradoxically, due to demographics and changesintheorganisationofteaching,institutionshavetoreducestaff,whichmakesitmoredifficultfor youngstafftoaccessacademiccareers. In Central Asia, the problem of staff aging does not follow the same trends across the region. Aging is considered a significant issue in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, with the latter having a serious problemwithlateretirements,whichinhibittheaccessofnewstaffintothesector.InUzbekistan,specific schemeshavebeensetuptofacilitatetheentryofyoungerstaff,byallowingthemtoenterjobsinhigher education institutions temporarily without a competition. As distinct from other countries in the region, highereducationjobsinKazakhstanareconsideredrelativelyattractive,alsotoyoungerstaff,whichhasled toamorebalancedagedistributionamongbothcategoriesofstaff.
Uzbekistanfacilitatedfirstentrytoyounggraduates
Uzbekistaniscombatingstaffageingthroughdifferentschemes.Recruitmenttoacademicpositionsis donethroughopencompetition.However,tohelpyoungstafftoenterthesector,Mastergraduates maybeemployedwithaninitialthreeyearcontract,withoutacompetition.Theycanthusgetintothe university environment and gain experience to help them be better placed in the open competition (competingwithexperiencedteachers),whichtakesplaceeveryfiveyears. Kazakhstaninvestinginhighqualitystaffforthefuture TheBolashakinternationalscholarshipprogrammewasestablishedupontheproposaloftheHeadof Statein1993andisaimedtofinancestudyingabroad.TheScholarshipcoverstuitioncosts,insurance, livingcostsandtravelcostsfromKazakhstantothecountryofdestinationandback,aftercompletion of study. In the period from 1993 till 2010, a total of 7 356 people benefited from the scholarship scheme.2788ofthesehavegraduated,around4000continuestudyingandaround300areaboutto beemployed.Outofthe2788graduatesoftheprogramme,1725personsarecurrentlyengagedin HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries theirfiveyearmandatorypostscholarshipwork.
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IntheMaghrebregion,theagingofstaffdoesnotposeaseriousproblemforAlgeria,where40%ofboth staffcategoriesareunder35yearsandonly5%ofacademics(andnoadministrativestaff)areover60.The situationisdifferentinMorocco,whereoverhalfofallstaffisover45yearsofage. TheagestructureofstaffinhighereducationintheWesternBalkanregionisrelativelyyoungcomparedto all other regions included in this study. The main reason is that many countries in the region miss the middlegenerationduetothewarinthe1990s.ThetrendinallWesternBalkancountriesisthatstaffis younger overall, than 10 years ago. In most countries of the region, the majority of staff in both staff categoriesisunder45yearsofageandveryfewstaffmembers,evenincludingacademicstaff,areover60 yearsofage.TheexceptionintheregionisSerbia,wherethetrendisreverseandstaffageingisaworrying phenomenon. Differences can be observed between different institutions, with an overall older staff in consolidateduniversities,incomparisontonewlyestablishedones.Whilemanyyoungstaffmembersare beingrecruitedasolderstaffretires,thereisalackofstaffthatisnotyetnearorbeyondretirementage, but at the same time, sufficiently experienced. For example in Kosovo, almost 40% of academic staff is under 30 years of age, which reflects the overall demographic situation in the country. This shows a positivepotentialforthefuture,butmightindicatethatcurrently,alargeproportionofteachingstafflacks significantexperience. AlbanianExcellenceFundsupportingtheskillsdevelopmentforthefuture In order to support the fast development of human resources in higher education, the government started the Excellence Fund in 2007, which is a scheme to finance postgraduate studies abroad for someofthebeststudents.TheMinistryfundsthetuitionfeesandlivingcoststhroughascholarship,in one of the best 50 universities in the world (based on a number of rankings, mainly in the US, UK, Germany,andotherEuropeancountries).Afterfinishingstudies,studentsareobligedtostayandteach atanAlbanianinstitutionforaminimumof3years(previouslyaminimumof5).Theschemestartedin 2007,withabout50studentsandthefirstPhDgraduateshaveonlyrecentlyreturnedtoAlbania.Inthe lastroundofapplications,200studentsappliedand90100weregivenascholarship.Theselectionis carriedoutincooperationwithfivetosixprofessorsintherelatedfieldandaViceMinister.Thefinal decisionistakenbytheMinistry.Theselectionisbasedonnationalprioritiesintermsofsubjectarea. Albanianstudentscanalsoapplyfromabroad. The students participating in the scheme has to be integrated, from the beginning, with the sending universitys overall longterm business and employment plan, which guarantees the production of graduates in the areas most needed by the university. Students, who come back after a PhD abroad, bringinnewknowledgeandmethods,whichareofbenefittolocaluniversities.TheExcellenceFundis an important priority for the government and therefore, there is an open fund of USD 1 million for financingofthescheme.
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10. Braindrain
Braindrain usually refers to the significant emigration of highly qualified individuals to countries with betterfinancialandotherconditionsforworkandinthecaseofacademicstaffresearch.Indeed,many of the countries investigated have suffered from or are still suffering from serious international brain drain. In this study, however, a wider definition of the term has been used, which also includes competitionwithothersectorsofthenationaleconomy,suchasprivatehighereducationinstitutionsand businesses(Map 9). There is an increasing awareness, in several countries, of the importance of human resourcestothegrowthanddevelopmentofthecountryandtherefore,severalexamplesofpoliciesand financialincentivestoreversebraindraincanbefound.
Map9Maindirectionsofbraindrain,asperceivedatnationallevel
Countriessufferingmainlyfrominternalbraindraintoprivateinstitutionsandbusinesses Countrieswhichperceivebothinternalandinternationalbraindrainasaproblemforpublichighereducation Countrieswhichsufferprincipallyfrominternationalbraindrain Braindrainisnotconsideredasaproblemforpublichighereducation
Both 'push' and 'pull' factors are at play in determining the extent and directions of braindrain. For international braindrain, the main reasons are usually better research opportunities and higher salaries abroadand/oranunstablepoliticalsituationinthehomecountry.Boththenationalquestionnairesandthe replies to the online survey indicate that, in Middle Eastern countries participating in the Tempus
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programme, braindrain is a significant problem (with the exception of Lebanon). It also remains a significantproblemintheWesternBalkans,eventhoughsomeinterestingschemestoreducebraindrain havereducedthenegativetrendinAlbania. Intermsofinternalcompetitionfrombusinessesandprivatehighereducationinstitutions,themainissue concerns the better salaries offered by the competitors and the general lack of attractiveness of jobs in highereducation.Aneventualpushfactorininternaldrainisthelackoftransparencyandhighdegreeof corruptioninthehighereducationsector,ofsomeoftheinvestigatedcountries.Inadditiontointernational braindrain, there is a high degree of competition for the best brains from the private sector within the country. Several countries, such as Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Ukraine, Lebanon, Montenegro, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Russia report internal competition from businesses as the main cause for concern, rather than international braindrain. Internal competition particularly hits fields such as medicine, technology and engineering, where higher education institutions cannotoffersalariesthatcancompetewiththoseofferedbytheprivatesector.IntheMaghrebcountries, internalcompetitionisnearlyinexistent,duetothehighattractivenessofjobsinhighereducationwithin the country. The gravity of braindrain hits different countries to a different degree, but important differencescanbeobservedalsowithincountries,especiallybetweencapitalregionsandruralareas,the latter suffering from a greater drain of brains both towards the capital and other main cities, as well as abroad.Thisisthecase,forexample,withseveralCentralAsiancountries.Understandably,braindrainis morefrequentamongyoungerstaff,thansenioracademics,althoughsomeexceptionsexist. Itisinterestingtonotethat,whencomparingthenationalquestionnairestotheanswersgiventotheon linesurvey,somedifferencesinperceptionscanbenoted.Whileatthenationallevel,thecompetitionwith the private sector seems to be more of a concern, the individual respondents clearly see international braindrainasthebiggestthreat.
Somecountrieshavesetupschemestoreducethenegativeimpactofbraindrain. AlbaniatheBraingainprogramme AninitiativeoftheAlbanianGovernmentandtheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeinAlbania, theBrainGainProgrammeiscreatingpoliciesandincentivestoencourageskilledpeopletoremainin Albania,toreturnafteruniversitystudiesabroadortocomeonashorttermbasis,toengageinspecific projects. Partnerships with Albanian lecturers and researchers working in Western universities and researchinstitutionsareencouraged.Theprogrammesupportsuniversitiestofillleadingmanagement and academic positions with qualified individuals from abroad, selected on a competitive and transparentbasis.TheBrainGainschemeissupportingtheGovernmentbycreatingpoliciesthatallow the return of talented professionals, as well as keeping the expertise of Albanians already in the country.Thisincludesacriticalanalysisofthecurrentlawsandpracticesinpublicadministrationthat promote or prevent the attraction of those that have graduated abroad with public administration degrees.Moreinformationontheschemeisavailableathttp://www.braingain.gov.al. TheoccupiedPalestinianterritorymobilisinghumanresourcesabroad IntheoccupiedPalestinianterritory,anationaldatabaseonhighlyqualifiedPalestiniansabroadisbeing created. This database will enable people to contact Palestinian experts in other countries, when specificneedsarise.High salariesareofferedtotheindividualsonthelist,basedontheir experience andqualifications,forparticipationinprojectsorworkathighereducationinstitutionsintheoccupied Palestinianterritory.
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11. Attractiveness of jobs in higher education institutionsstrengthsandchallenges
11.1 Overview
This chapter is based on national level and individual perceptions, as collected through the national questionnaires, the online survey and the site visits, on the comparative attractiveness of positions in highereducationinstitutionsandtheextenttowhich,theeventuallackofattractiveness,isconsidereda problemforthesector. On the basis of the replies to the online questionnaire, it can be noted that, in general, the main advantages of academic jobs in public higher education are perceived to be employment stability, interesting work and a wellregarded social status, while for administrative and technical positions, the mainadvantagesseemtobeemploymentstabilityandreasonableworkinghours.Lowsalariesandthelack ofautonomyappearasthemaindisadvantagesinbothacademicandadministrativejobs. In addition, some regional specificities can be noted, for example, the high number of working hours is mentionedasoneofthemaindisadvantagesofacademicjobsinCentralAsia,EasternEuropeandWestern Balkans, while it does not appear to be a major issue in the other regions. The lack of research opportunities,ontheotherhand,appearsasamajordisadvantage,mainlyintheMiddleEast,theWestern BalkansandtheMaghrebcountries. Asfarasadministrativepostsareconcerned,somedivergencebetweenregionscanalsobenoted.Thehigh numberofworkinghoursappearsasamaindisadvantageonlyinCentralAsiaandEasternEurope,while thelackofcareerdevelopmentperspectiveswasrankedasamajordisadvantage,mainlyintheWestern Balkans and the Middle East. The perceived advantages also differ to some extent: in addition to the employmentstabilityandreasonableworkinghours,thewellregardedsocialstatusranksrelativelyhighly in Central Asia, the Middle East and Eastern Europe. In Eastern Europe and Russia, one of the main advantagesperceived,isalsothefactthatthejobsareconsideredinteresting.
11.2 Regionalspecificities
According to the national questionnaires, unattractiveness of jobs in higher education is considered a significant problem in most Central Asian countries. There are some variations between staff categories, withtheacademicjobsbeingconsideredmoreattractiveinrelativeterms,thanthoseinadministrationor technicalpositions.However,withintheregion,inUzbekistanandKazakhstan,jobsinhighereducationare considered relatively attractive and in the latter, jobs in the special status national institutions are consideredcompetitiveandattractive,duetotheadditionalsalaryprovisionsmadefortheseinstitutionsin thenationalbudget.Itisinterestingtonotethatjobsareconsideredmoreattractiveinthetwocountries whichalsohavethemostadvancedtrainingschemesintheregion. The answers to the online questionnaire provide more details on the perceived attractiveness of jobs in public higher education. According to the replies, the perceived advantages of academic jobs in Central Asiaareinlinewiththeaverageresults:employmentstability,goodsocialstatusandinterestingworkare seenasthemostimportant.Themaindisadvantagesarelowsalaries,ahighnumberofworkinghoursand thelackofautonomy.Foradministrativeandtechnicalstaff,theemploymentstability,careerdevelopment perspectivesandawellregardedsocialstatusappearasthemainadvantages.Theperceiveddisadvantages aremoreorlessinlinewiththeotherregions(lowsalary,lackofautonomy)withthedifferencebeingthe highnumberofworkinghours,whichisnottypicallymentionedinmostotherregions.
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InEasternEuropeancountries,jobsalsoaren'tconsideredparticularlyattractive,accordingtothereplies tothenationalquestionnaires:lowsalariesandrelativelyweakbenefitspackagesmakethemlessattractive overall, than possible alternatives in the private sector. The situation is especially worrying for academic positions,whileforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff,theconditionsareconsideredinrelativeterms,less unattractive.InMoldova,ArmeniaandBelarus,however,unattractivenessofjobsinhighereducationisnot consideredamajorissue.Atthesametime,braindrain,especiallyintotheprivatesector,isconsidereda real challenge, which might indicate, indirectly, the lack of attractiveness of positions offered by higher educationinstitutions.Asinmanyaspectsinvestigated,Georgiadiffersfromothercountriesinthisregion: jobsinhighereducationareconsideredrelativelyattractive,mainlybecauseoftheirstabilityandprestige. Recentreformshaveresultedinmoretransparentrecruitmentandpromotionprocedures,whichislikely to have increased confidence in the professionalism of the sector. Some countries, like Azerbaijan and Belarus, implement specific actions to increase the attractiveness of the positions in higher education. These include, for example, improvement of research conditions, by additional funding from the institutionsownfundsorotherconditions,suchaslongervacations,flexibleworkinghoursandrotationof personnel. Lookingattheresultsoftheonlinesurvey,themainperceivedadvantagesanddisadvantagesofacademic jobsinEasternEuropearecomparabletothoseintheotherregions.However,itisworthnotingthatthe factofhavinganinterestingjobrankshighestinEasternEurope(beforeemploymentstabilityandagood socialstatus).Foradministrativeandtechnicalpositions,theinterestingworkalsoappearstobeoneofthe mainadvantages,whichisnotthecaseinmostotherregions.Amongthedisadvantages,thehighnumber ofworkinghoursisquitefrequentlymentioned(asinCentralAsia). As in the other exSoviet countries, in Russia, jobs in higher education also aren't considered very attractive. According to several interviewees, older staff work in higher education because of a commitmenttocertainvaluesandespeciallyforacademics,itisratheraquestionoflifestylechoice.The perceptionisthat,foryoungerstaff,salaryandcareerprospectsseemstomattermore,whichmakesthis sectorunattractiveforthem.Russiatriestofindnewwaystoattractandretainhighlyqualifiedstaff,also throughthecreationofnewtypesofhighereducationinstitutionswithaspecialstatus,specialfundsand extendedacademicfreedoms.Thisinitiativemayindeedbringandretainsomehighlyqualifiedresearchers intothecountry,butconcernsonlyasmallnumberofindividualsoverall,comparedtothewholesector. Whereas the results of the online survey for academic staff in Russia are similar to those of the other regions, it can, however, be noted that the fact of having an interesting job ranks highest among the advantages. This confirms the abovementioned conclusions related to the attitudes of at least older academicstaff.Foradministrativestaff,interestingworkalsoappearsamongthe"topthree"advantages, asinEasternEurope. IntheMiddleEast,accordingtostaffinterviewed,someofthemainattractionsofjobsinhighereducation institutions are the job stability, the civil servants status and good additional benefits. At the same time, salariesarenotconsideredcompetitive,whichleadstotheneedtoholdmorethanonepositionortoteach extrahoursatotherusuallyprivateinstitutions.Foradministrativestaff,theattractionofjobsinhigher education institutions seems greater, in comparison with other alternatives, than for academic staff. Institutions in remote areas or in countries with a higher degree of political instability and unrest have understandably,amoresignificantproblemwiththelackofattractiveness.InEgypt,whereacademicjobs atpublicinstitutionsarenotconsideredparticularlyattractive,competitivescholarshipschemesandbetter researchconditionsareusedtoattracthighlyqualifiedyoungstaff.InLebanon,theplannedchangesinthe statusofcontractualstaff,reinforcementofresearchpoliciesandimprovementofsocialallowancesanda retirementscheme,areusedtoincreasetheattractivenessofhighereducationjobs.
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Accordingtotheonlinesurvey,oneofthemaindifferencesintheMiddleEast,comparedtootherregions, isthefactthatthelackofresearchopportunitiesappearstobeoneofthehighestrankingdisadvantagesin academicpositions.Asfarasadministrativeandtechnicalstaffisconcerned,thewellregardedsocialstatus appearstobeoneofthemainadvantages,whichisnotthecaseinallregions. While in most regions, it seems that jobs in higher education suffer from lack of attractiveness, visvis other sectors of the economy, the picture is somewhat different in the Western Balkans and in the Maghreb.Indeed,intheformer,jobsinhighereducationareconsideredrelativelyattractiveoverall,orat least not particularly unattractive. This is valid, equally for academic and administrative staff in most WesternBalkancountries.InAlgeriaandMorocco,jobsinhighereducationareconsideredveryattractive, thanks to flexible working hours, stability of jobs and good salaries. In addition, in Algeria good research grants attract high level academics and furthermore, mobility opportunities and scholarships are used to increase attractiveness. For example in Morocco, the main problem with jobs in higher education is not related to the lack of attractiveness, but rather to the difficulty in finding the right profiles in the labour market,thatmeettherequirementsofthehighereducationsector. ItisdifficulttodrawconclusionsfortheMaghrebregionfromtheonlinesurvey,consideringthatveryfew respondentshadrepliedtoallthequestionslinkedtoattractiveness.Themainresultthatcanbeobserved isthat,bothforacademicandadministrativestaff,thestabilityofemploymentseemstobeconsideredas the main advantage. As far as the Western Balkans is concerned, some specificities can be noted when comparingtherepliestotheonlinesurveywiththoseofotherregions.Foracademicstaff,thepossibilities for research seem to be particularly important: on the one hand, this is considered as one of the main advantagesofacademicjobs,butinterestinglyalsothelackoftheresearchopportunitiesappearsasoneof the main disadvantages. As for administrative and technical staff, the region differs from others in two aspects:longholidaysappearasoneofthemainadvantages,whileinotherregions,thisisnotthecaseand thelackofcareerdevelopment perspectivesisconsideredasoneof themaindisadvantages,toa higher extentthaninmostotherregions. The graphs 11 to 14 below show the distribution of answers by region to the online survey on the questionsrelatedtotheattractivenessofjobs,asacademicoradministrativeandtechnicalstaffinhigher educationinstitutions.
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Chart11Mainadvantagesofajobasacademicstaff
Twomainadvantagesofajobasacademicstaff
Western Balkans
Opportunitiesfor internationalmobility
Employmentstability
RussianFed.
Interestingwork Employmentstability
MiddleEast
Employmentstability Socialstatus Interestingwork Employmentstability Interestingwork Employmentstability
Maghreb
Eastern Europe
CentralAsia
Employmentstability Socialstatus
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Numberofresponses
Opportunitiesforinternationalmobility Careerdevelopment perspectives Interestingwork Employmentstability Interactionwithstudents Researchopportunities Reasonableworkinghours Wellregardedsocialstatus
Source:Onlinesurvey,questionA.5:"Inyouropinion,whicharethetwomainadvantagesofajobasacademicstaff inapublichighereducationinstitutioninyourcountry?"
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Chart12Maindisadvantagesofajobasacademicstaff
Twomaindisadvantagesofajobasacademicstaff
Lackofresearchopport. Lowsalary
Western Balkans
Russian Fed.
Lackofautonomy Highnrofworkinghours Lackofresearchopport. Lowsalary
Middle East
Lowsalary Lackofresearchopport. Lackofautonomy
Maghreb
Eastern Europe
Highnrofworkinghours
Lowsalary
Central Asia
Highnrofworkinghours Lowsalary
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Numberofresponses
Lackofopportunities forinternationalmobility Lackofresearchopportunities Insufficientsocialprotection Absenceofnonsalarybenefits Lackofcareerdevelopmentperspectives Lackofautonomyinthework Highnumberofworkinghours Lowsalary
Source:Onlinesurvey,questionA.6:"Inyouropinion,whicharethemaindisadvantagesofajobasacademicstaffin apublichighereducationinstitutioninyourcountry?"
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Chart13Mainadvantagesofajobasadministrativeandtechnicalstaff
Twomainadvantagesofajobasadministrativeandtechnicalstaff
WesternBalkans
Reasonableworkinghrs Employmentstability
RussianFed.
MiddleEast
Maghreb
Goodsocialprotection Employmentstability Interestingwork
EasternEurope
Employmentstability Careerdevelopment perspectives
CentralAsia
Employmentstability
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Numberofresponses
Varietyoftasks Interestingwork Longholidays Employmentstability Careerdevelopment perspectives Goodsocialprotection Reasonableworkinghours Wellregardedsocialstatus
Source:Onlinesurvey,questionA.7:"Inyouropinion,whicharethetwomainadvantagesofajobasadministrativeor technicalstaffinapublichighereducationinstitutioninyourcountry?"
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Chart14Maindisadvantagesofajobasadministrativeandtechnicalstaff
Twomaindisadvantagesofajobasadministrativeandtechnicalstaff
Lackofcareerdev. perspectives Lowsalary
WesternBalkans
RussianFed.
Lackofautonomy Lowsalary Lackofcareerdev. perspectives Lowsalary
MiddleEast
Lackofchallenge Maghreb
Lackofautonomy Lowsalary
EasternEurope
CentralAsia
20
40
80
100
120
Lackofchallengeandmonotonyoftasks Lackofautonomyinthework Highnumberofworkinghours Lowsalary
Lackofcareerdevelopmentperspectives Insufficientsocialprotection Absenceofnonsalarybenefits Lowsocialstatus
Source:Onlinesurvey,questionA.8:"Inyouropinion,whicharethemaindisadvantagesofajobasadministrativeor technicalstaffinapublichighereducationinstitutioninyourcountry?"
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11.3. Impressionsfrominterviews Theinterpretationsofthefindingsabovearealsocolouredbytheperceptionscollectedthroughindividual interviewsofhighereducationstaffduringthesitevisits.Afterhavinglookedintotheextentofbraindrain in the different regions included in this study, it is important to try and link those phenomena to the perceived and effective difficulties that public higher education institutions face to attract, recruit and retainhighqualitystaff. One of the presumed problems with jobs in higher education institutions is that the positions are not sufficientlyattractivetodrawthebestavailablecandidates.Infact,itseemsthatthelackofattractiveness ofsalariesorlessthanidealresearchconditionsandopportunitiesmayleadtobraindrainabroad,orout of public institutions towards private business and private higher education institutions in the home countryorelsewhere. However,atthesametime,highereducationjobsoftenprovidefavourableconditionsorotheradvantages which money cannot buy: indeed, interviewees often spoke about dedication to teaching, self development,gratificationandevenusedthewordvocation.Oftentheuniversityenvironmentishighly appreciatedforitsatmosphereandpeoplearereadytoacceptworseconditionstobeabletoworkina nice place. Some interviewees of administrative staff, especially from the international offices also considerthe jobsrelativelyattractive,regardlessofuncompetitivesalariesbecausethey considerthe job dynamicanditallowsstafftolearn,progressandgainexperiencesininternationalcontexts.Onecanthen presumethatwhilebetterconditionswouldmakepositionsinhighereducationinstitutionsmoreattractive and consequently, the potential pool of candidate for available positions larger and more qualified, this aspectonlytellsapartofthestory. Itisalsoveryinterestingtoobservethemainadvantages,asidentifiedbyinterviewedindividualsandthe presumedimpactthismayhaveonhumanresourcemanagementattheinstitutionalornationallevel.Just by way of example, the fact that jobs in higher education institutions are often considered very stable, almostregardlessoftheactualdurationofthecontract,isoneofitsmainattractions.Ontheotherhand, strategically,shorttermcontractshavebeenintroducedinseveralcountries,inordertobeabletoselect and reselect staff based on performance and in this way, also motivate staff to perform well with consistencythroughouttheyears. While some deductions on the potential attractiveness of jobs in higher education for the different staff categories and in comparison with other jobs can be made, on the basis of tangible aspects, such as salaries,benefits,researchopportunitiesandsoon,theoverallperceptionoftheattractivenessofjobsisof central importance to understanding the main attractions and problems related to human resources in publicinstitutions.
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12. Skillsandmotivation
According to the perceptions of the national authorities, the perceived lack of attractiveness of jobs in higher education may lead to or have led in some countries to a less qualified pool of candidates, with insufficientskillsandmotivation.Existingstaffalsomayconsiderthatthedemandsbroughtaboutbythe modernisation agendas and increasing internationalisation, are not reflected in their working conditions andremunerationsorthat,indeed,theyarenotgiventhetoolsandmeanstodeveloptheskillsneededto addressnewandchangingexpectations.Thismayleadtolackofmotivationandinsomecases,eventoa strongresistancetochange. Theperceptionofthemotivationofacademicstaff,asexpressedbytherespondentstotheonlinesurvey, issomewhatmorecomplexanddividestherespondents.Ofthetotalreplies,around50%ofrespondents considerthatacademicstaffintheircountrydoesnothavesufficientmotivationtodevelopandimprove theirwork,while40%thinktheoppositeand10%donotgivetheiropinion.Thesituationisdifferentwhen lookingattheresultsatregionallevel.InCentralAsia,forexample,aclearmajorityofrespondents(57%) consider academic staff to be motivated, while in Russia, 69% of them find that academics are lacking motivation. When asked about the reasons for the lack of motivation of academic staff (Chart 15), the inadequate salariesareoneofthemostoftenmentionedreasons,togetherwiththelackofrewardmechanismsand lackoftime,duetoheavyworkload. Chart15Reasonsforlackofmotivationofacademicstaff Mainreasonsforthelackofmotivation
Adminis trative burden 4% Lackof time/heavy workload 12% Lackof career perspectives 14%
Inadequate salaries 32%
Lackof research oppor tunities 15%
Lackof reward mechanisms 23%
Source: Online survey, question A.22.a: "In your opinion, what are thetwomainreasonsforthelackofmotivationofacademicstaff?" The percentages represent the proportion of the number of times eachchoicewasselectedasanswertothequestion.
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The lack of research opportunities appears as a demotivating factor in particular in the Western Balkans andtheMiddleEast,thusreflectingagainthefactthatresearchisseenbyacademicstaffinthesecountries asanintegralcomponentofhighereducation. Whenaskedintheonlinequestionnaire,whatwouldbethebestwaytoboostthemotivationofacademic staff,financialincentivesaremostoftenmentionedinallregions.Improvedcareerperspectivesandbetter researchpossibilitiesarealsoamongthemostfrequentlymentionedsolutions,withaparticularemphasis onresearchpossibilitiesintheWesternBalkans. For administrative and technical staff, inadequate salaries alsoappear as the main reason for the lack of motivation,followedbythelackofrewardmechanismsandlackofcareerperspectives. Questions related to the skills of the different categories of staff were included, both in the national questionnaires and in the online survey. While academic staff skills are, in most Tempus countries, consideredsufficient,accordingtothenationalquestionnairesorevenverygood,intermsofthesubject specificknowledgeandexpertise,thelackofadditionalskills,suchasacademicwriting,communicationand foreign language skills may impede the individuals and institutions from taking full advantage of the professionalskillsthatstaffpossess.Inotherwords,withoutskills,suchasforeignlanguages,thatmaybe considered secondary for some academic fields, research results cannot be disseminated and the impact remainslimited. Accordingtothenationalquestionnaires,theproblemisnotthesameinallcountriesorregionsandthe extenttowhichalackofskillsisconsideredaproblem,alsovariesbetweenstaffcategories.Infact,inmost cases, the skills of academic staff are considered satisfactory overall perhaps with the occasional exception regarding language and IT skills, while for administrative staff, the problem seems to be more pronounced. However, the lack of flexibility and adaptability, as well as resistance to change, were mentioned by many countries among the most significant obstacles to the modernisation of the higher educationsystems.Detailedtablesonthemainobstaclestomodernisationbyregion,ascollectedthrough thenationalquestionnaires,canbefoundinAnnex4.11. Similar findings can be noted in the online survey, where a majority of respondents (59%) considered academic staff as well as Rectors and Deans. to have the necessary professional skills to carry out their tasks. As in the national questionnaires, the figure was lower for administrative and technical staff, with 48% of respondents considering that professional skills of this group are sufficient. The most often mentionedskillsorattitudeswhichwerelackingforthisgroupwereforeignlanguageskillsandwillingness toimplementchange,whilerespondentsseetheITskillsofbothgroupsasbettergenerally,thanwhatis reportedinthenationalquestionnaires. From the national perspective, the main weakness in terms of skills in Central Asia were the foreign language skills of all staff categories, with often a greater lack of skills indicated for administrative and technicalstaff.Similarresultsappearintheonlinesurvey,wherethelackofforeignlanguageskillsisthe mostfrequentlymentionedweakness,forbothacademicandadministrativestaff.Inadditiontolanguages, IT skills are also not always considered to be appropriately developed, according to the national questionnaires, though more work seems to have been done in this area than with language skills, e.g. throughspecifictrainingprogrammesofferedbynationallevelentitiesortheinstitutions.InTajikistan,the mainchallengeispresentedbythelackofhighlyqualifiedacademicsandthelackofprofessional,language andITskillsofthoseemployed. InEasternEurope,foracademics,themainchallengesfromthenationalpointofviewareposedmostof all,bythelackoflanguageskillsandinsecondplace,bylackofITskills.Languageskillsarealsoconsidered anissuebytheonlinesurveyrespondents,followedbythelackofteamworkingskillsandunwillingnessto
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implement changes, while IT skills are more frequently considered as good. The lack of flexibility and resistancetochangebyacademicstaffalsocausesachallengeinsomecountries,accordingtothenational questionnaires (Moldova, Armenia, Georgia). From the national perspective, the challenges in relation to administrativeandtechnicalstaffrelatemainlytothelackoflanguageskillsandinsomecountries,alsothe lackofprofessionalandITskills.Asanexception,inAzerbaijan,neitheralackofskillsnorattitudestowards change,seemtobeanissueforeitherofthestaffcategories.Intheonlinerepliesfortheregion,thelack oflanguageskillsofadministrativestaffisfollowedbythelackofteamworkingskillsandunwillingnessto implementchanges,asforacademicstaff.InRussia,themainissueintermsofskillsshortage,accordingto both national and individual replies, concerns the foreign language skills of both administrative and academic staff. In addition, administrative staffs lack of adaptability and autonomy is considered at the nationallevelsasanimportantobstacleforthedevelopmentofinstitutions.Therespondentsoftheonline surveyalsohighlightthefeelingofincapacityofthisstaffgrouptoproposeandimplementchangesandon theotherhand,theirunwillingnesstoimplementchanges. InMaghreb,intermsofacademicstaff,theskillsareconsideredgood,withaneventualissueinMorocco regarding language skills. There is a slight concern in Algeria regarding resistance to change of academic staff.InMorocco,foradministrativestaff,aproblemisposedbythelackoflanguageskillsandprofessional skills. In the online replies, the unwillingness to implement changes is frequently mentioned at regional levelforbothacademicandadministrativestaff. In the Middle East, from the national point of view, the skillslevel of academic staff is considered satisfactory across the region, thanks to highlevel recruitment requirements and almost 100% PhD attainmentamongstsenioracademics.Themainweaknesseslieinattitudes,includinglackofflexibilityand resistancetochange,thoughthisisnotmentionedasanissueinEgyptorinLebanon.Intherepliestothe online survey, the main weaknesses of academic staff are not seen in the basic skills related to IT or languages, but the most frequently mentioned are the lack of team working skills and unwillingness to implement changes. . An exception, in the national questionnaires was Syria where IT, language and professionalskillsofacademicstaffarenot consideredsufficientfor theneedsofthesector.In termsof administrativestaff,thelackoflanguageskillsandinsomecasesofprofessionalandITskillsisanimportant areafordevelopment,inordertobebetterabletorespondtotheneedsofanincreasinglyinternational sector and more advanced technology. Resistance to change by administrative staff is also a significant obstacleinsomecountries,includingJordan,LebanonandSyria.Therepliestotheonlinequestionnaires pointinthesamedirection,languageskillsappearingasthemainweakness,followedbyanunwillingness toimplementchangesandalackofteamworkingskills. IntheWesternBalkans,themainissuesreportedinthenationalquestionnairesintermsofacademicstaff weretheirlackofflexibilityandresistancetochange.Intheonsurvey,unwillingnesstoimplementchanges isalsooneofthemostfrequentlymentionedweaknesses.Skillsareconsideredsatisfactoryoverall,though in some national contexts, language skills are not yet considered sufficient. The questionnaire for Bosnia andHerzegovinaexpressedaconcernforthelackofexperiencedacademicstaff,whichwouldatthesame time be open to change. In other words, young staff may be more open to change, but lack the needed experience.ForadministrativestaffintheWesternBalkans,themainissuesinthenationalquestionnaires pertaintothelackoflanguageandITskills.Resistancetochangeisalsoconsideredanissuesometimes.In theonlinereplies,thelackoflanguageskillsalsoappearsto beamajorissue,followedbyresistanceto changeandlackofteamworkingskills. As far as Deans and Rectors are concerned, the online survey also included questions on the skills and attitudesofthisstaffgroup.Morethanhalfoftherespondents(56%)considerthatthemajorityofRectors andDeanshavethenecessaryprofessionalskillstocarryouttheirtasksandthefiguresareevenhigherin CentralAsiaandinRussia,wherealmost70%ofrespondentshaveconfidenceintheskillsofmanagement levelstaff.Respondents,whoconsideredtheprofessionalskillsofDeansandRectorsinsufficient,indicated
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recruitment criteria mostly based on political considerations or criteria insufficiently focused on competencesandskillsasthemainreasons. When asked in greater detail about the weaknesses in skills and attitudes of Rectors and Deans, their unwillingnesstoimplementchangeappearsasthemainissue,accordingtotherespondentsoftheonline surveyandthiscanbenotedforeachoftheregions.Thelackofforeignlanguageskillsappearsinparticular in replies concerning Central Asia, Eastern Europe and Russia, while insufficient team working skills are frequently mentioned in the Western Balkans and to some extent, also in Maghreb countries and the MiddleEast.
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13. Conclusionsandrecommendations
13.1 Mainfindings
Thepresentreporthadthemandatetoinvestigatethefactorsinfluencinghumanresourcemanagementin publichighereducationinstitutionsintheTempusPartnerCountries.Theobjectivewastoinvestigate,to whatextent,someunfavourableconditions,suchasinadequaterecruitmentproceduresandlackofcareer progressionschemesmaybehinderingthedevelopmentofhumanresourcesinhighereducation,totheir greatestpotentialandidentifycurrentpoliciesandstrategiesatnationalandinstitutionalleveltoaddress those issues. Since further pressure on higher education systems is created by negative demographic curvesinseveralcountries,braindrainandamorecompetitiveenvironmentforthebestgraduates,human resourcemanagementandstaffdevelopmentarebecomingimportantissuesforhighereducationsystems andinstitutionstoaddress.ThisreportaimstogiveanoverviewofthestateofplayintheTempusPartner Countriesonissuesrelatedtohumanresourcemanagementandadditionallyprovidesanumberofgood practiceexamplesonhowcountriesorinstitutionshaveaddressedthechallengestheyarecurrentlyfacing inthisfield. 13.1.1 Nationalpolicies Humanresourcemanagementis,inmostcases,consideredthejointresponsibilityofnationalauthorities andpublichighereducationinstitutions.However,inalmostasmanycases,humanresourcemanagement isconsideredmainlyataskoftheinstitutions.Insomecases,thefactthatinstitutionsaresolelyresponsible isanoutcomeofalackofnationalstrategiesinhumanresourcemanagement,whereasinothers,human resource management is considered an important area of institutional autonomy and as such, not interferedwithbynationalauthorities.However,ashumanresourcesmanagementisoftenunderstoodin a rather restricted sense, the fact that in most countries, national authorities set the framework for contracts,salariesandrecruitmentsmayhaveledcountriestooptforsharedresponsibility,evenincases wherehumanresourcedevelopmentisnotpartofthetaskofoneorbothlevels. While the importance of human resource management is recognised in many countries and regions included in this study, only five countries reported on specific human resourcerelated strategies at nationallevel.Atthesametime,nationalstrategiesareconsideredveryimportantbyinstitutionalactors andtheyareneededtosupportandgivedirectiontoinstitutionalinitiatives. 13.1.2 Academicstaffrecruitment,careermanagementandworkingconditions
The recruitment procedures, contractual conditions and possibilities for staff development and career advancement are important factors in attracting and maintaining qualified staff at public institutions, as wellasinensuringthatthestaffarenotonlyretained,butthattheirskillsandcapacitiesareconstantlyup graded to meet the changing requirements set on the higher education sector. Some problematic issues relatedtothesetopicswereidentifiedthroughthenationalquestionnaires,theonlinesurveyandthesite visitinterviews: 1) Recruitmentprocesses:highfrequencyofinternalrecruitmentandlackoftransparencyofprocedures used, corruption and nepotism, use of selection methods and criteria that do not support the recruitment of the bestsuited candidates for the jobs and restrictive legal frameworks may be unsupportivetothedevelopmentofthesector. 2) Career progression and training: lack of progression prospects, prolonged time spent within one institution, lack or inadequacy of performance evaluations, lack of training and lack of sufficient
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motivation and incentives may hinder the retention of staff and attraction of new talent into institutions. 3) Workingconditions:lackofresearchopportunities,politicalpressureandlackofautonomy,excessive working hours, contract duration, low salaries and the necessity to take up multiple positions, make jobsatpublichighereducationinstitutionslessattractive. Theseproblemareasarebeingrecognisedtovaryingdegrees,byseveralcountriesandinstitutionsanda number of positive examples of how these issues have been tackled, have been described in this report. There is a tendency towards a more professionalised selection of staff, with more open and transparent selection mechanisms to combat corruption. In terms of career management, institutions across the regions start to understand the importance of staff training and use training programmes, together with financial incentives and reward schemes, to motivate staff, to develop their skills and capacities further. Whiletheimportanceofcontinuousstafftrainingisincreasinglybeingaccepted,itismet,atthesametime, withresistancebysomestaff,whodoesnotalwaysseetheneedfororbenefitoftraining. As regards the contractual conditions, salaries create a significant limitation to the attractiveness of the sector, but in some cases, improved contractual conditions, substantial side benefits, as well as longer holidaysandflexibleworkinghourscontinuetobeseenasimportantjobbenefitsinhighereducation.In some countries, heavy workloads and the necessity to hold multiple job positions reveals the difficult conditions. Such practices hamper the implementation of reforms and contradict their objectives, for instance concerning the necessary improvement of the quality of teaching and the development of researchactivities.
13.1.3 Administrativeandtechnicalstaffrecruitment,careermanagementandworkingconditions
Lessinformationwasprovidedthroughthequestionnairesandduringthesitevisitsonadministrativeand technicalstaffconditions,thanforacademicstaff,whichcouldbetakenasanindicationthattheirroleis notconsideredofprimaryimportancetothedevelopmentofthesector.However,administrativestaffand theircommitmentandskillscanbecrucialtothesuccessfulmodernisationofinstitutionsandthereforeitis necessary to pay careful attention to their recruitment, career management systems and working conditions.
Overall, there is less control by national authorities in the recruitment of administrative staff and open competitions, while often employed by institutions, are less common than for academic positions. In addition,recruitmentdecisionsareusuallytakenbytheinstitutions,ratherthanatnationallevel.Thefact thatproceduresarerelativelyunchangedsince2000acrossallregions,mayindicatethatwhiletheneedfor new methods to recruit the best academic staff is gradually being recognised, the same has not yet happenedconcerningadministrativeandtechnicalstaff.Indeed,mostcountrieshavereportedthelackof appropriate skills of administrative and technical staff and the high degree of internal recruitments, as some of the main challenges in respect to this staff category. Similarly, the development of training schemesforadministrativestaffisastepbehindthedevelopmentoftrainingforacademicstaffandisnota highpriorityinmostofthecountriesinvestigated. Intermsofworkcontracts,thereisacleartrendthatadministrativeandtechnicalstaffcontractsarelonger indurationthanthoseofacademicstaffandshorttermcontractsoftenapplymainlytojuniorstaff.Evenin the case of temporary contracts, jobs at public institutions are considered very stable. Salaries of administrativeandtechnicalstaffareoftenmoreinlinewithsalariesofferedforjobsoutsidepublichigher education.Inaddition,therelativelygoodsidebenefits,thestabilityofjobsinhighereducationinstitutions and the flexibility of time schedules, make administrative and technical positions relatively attractive in mostcountries.
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13.1.4 Managementstaff(RectorsandDeans) Institutional management naturally holds a key role in the development, strategic positioning and modernisation of higher education institutions. Therefore, the management of this particularly central human resource is naturally of high importance to the success of institutions and indeed, for the modernisationofthehighereducationsystems. Someproblematicissuesconcernthelackofopencompetitionforpositionsinseniormanagement,their oftenpoliticisedselectionorappointment,thelackofadequateselectioncriteriabasedonthemanagerial skills needed by the institutions, the lack of training opportunities or training requirements and the different kinds of political pressures that institutional management may be subjected to. However, some interestingexamplesofgoodpracticecanbefound,underliningtheincreasedwilltoachievetransparency andtoselecttheeffectivelybestcandidates,abletosupportthestrategicgoalsoftheinstitutionandtheir modernisation. 13.1.5 Thewidercontext
Most Tempus Partner Countries face a serious problem with the aging of staff in their public higher educationinstitutions.Themaincausesoftheproblemare: Lackofyoungqualifiedstaffduetotheageingofpopulationinthecountry Lack of young staff due to braindrain abroad or into the private sector, mainly due to unattractive salariesandotherconditionsinhighereducationinstitutions
- Lateretirementofcurrentstaff,whichmakesaccesstojobsmoredifficultforyoungerstaff. TheinadequategenderbalanceisalsoacauseforconcerninseveralTempusPartnerCountries.Whilein manyofthesecountries,thenumbersoffemalestudentsareontherise,thehigherpositionsinacademia andmanagementarestillheldfarmoreoftenbymenthanwomen.Thedegreeoftheproblemvariesand indeed, in some countries, the balance is reversed in favour of females, also among different staff categories. The imbalance is often much less visible in the case of administrative and technical, than academicstaff. Intermsofbraindrain,bothpullandpushfactorsareatplayindeterminingitsextentanddirection.For international braindrain, the main reasons are mainly better research opportunities and higher salaries abroadand/ortheunstablepoliticalsituationandlackofincentivesinthehomecountry.Severalcountries report internal competition from businesses, rather than international braindrain, as the main source of concern.Thereisanincreasingawarenessinseveralcountriesoftheimportanceofhumanresourcestothe growthanddevelopmentofthecountryandtherefore,severalexamplesofpoliciesandfinancialincentives toreversebraindraincanbefound. Whilethelackofcompetitivenessofsalariesorlessthanidealresearchconditionsmayleadtobraindrain abroad or towards the private sector, at the same time, higher education jobs often provide favourable conditions or other advantages which money cannot buy. The university environment is often highly appreciatedforitsatmosphereandpeoplearereadytoacceptworseconditions,tobeabletoworkina niceplaceora'dynamicenvironment'andmanystaffmembersvaluethecontactwithstudentsandsee teaching as their 'vocation'. While some deductions on the potential attractiveness of jobs in higher educationcanbemadeonthebasisofformalaspects,gaininganoverallperceptionoftheattractivenessof jobsisofcentralimportanceinunderstandingthemainassetsandproblemsrelatedtohumanresourcesin publicinstitutions.
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13.2 Regionalspecificities
Summarising comprehensively the specific features in terms of human resource management in each region is a difficult task. This section underlines however, some of the main features in this area of investigation that are typical, particularly problematic, or well addressed in each of the six regions investigatedinthisstudy.Itmustberememberedthatnotallfeaturesapplyinasimilarwaytoallcountries ofeachregionandthatsomegeneralisationswerenecessaryinthiscontext. 13.2.1 CentralAsia In most Central Asian countries, unattractiveness of jobs in higher education is considered a significant problem. Low salaries and a high number of student contacthours and relatively weak side benefits contributetothissituation.Therearenocivilservantsinpublicinstitutionsintheregion.Institutionsare independent to decide on promotions and have relative freedom in staff appointments. However, the Rectorsofinstitutionsareappointedbynationalauthorities.Thegenderbalanceofstaffisrelativelygood, withsomevariationsacrosstheregion. ThelevelofPhDattainmentamongseniorteachingstaffisamongthelowestamongtheTempusregions andlanguageandITskillsarereportedasanareathatneedstobeurgentlyaddressed.Ontheotherhand, systematictrainingofstaffisavailableforacademicstaffacrosstheregion.Thisshowsapositiveattitude towardsfurtherdevelopmentoftrainingschemes,tomodernisethemtobettermeetthecurrenttraining andskillsneeds. Many countries of the region face a negative demographic turn of the overall population and need to reducenumbersofteachingstaffinthenextfiveyears. 13.2.2 EasternEurope In Eastern European countries, jobs in public higher education are not considered particularly attractive: low salaries and relatively weak benefits packages make these jobs less attractive overall, than possible alternatives in the private sector. The situation is especially worrying for academic positions, while for administrativeandtechnicalstaff,theconditionsareconsideredmoreattractiveinrelativeterms. In several Eastern European countries, recruitment requirements are set entirely by the national authorities,whichmeanthatinstitutionshavelittlefreedomtosteertheselectioninadirectionthatmight best fit their specific mission and objectives. Similarly, institutions have little autonomy for decisions regardingsalariesandtheimplementationofrewards.Ontheotherhand,institutionalbodiesmayoften selecttheRectorandothermanagementlevelstaffdirectly. TherearecurrentlyrelativelylowproportionsofPhDcandidatesamongsenioracademicstaffandthelack of foreign language skills creates a problem for the modernisation of the sector. There is very little systematictrainingavailableatanylevel.Infact,Europeanprojectsareseenasoneofthemostimportant trainingtoolsavailableforstaffathighereducationinstitutions. Therearemorewomeninadministrativepositions,representinginsomecases,thehighestfiguresacross allregions. Internationalbraindrainisoflessconcernthancompetitionfromtheprivatesectornationally.Atthesame time,institutionswillneedtoreducethenumberofteachingstaffinthenextdecade.
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13.2.3 Russia AsintheotherexSovietcountries,inRussiajobsinhighereducationalsoaren'tconsideredveryattractive, due to the high number of contacthours with students, the lack of opportunities for research and low salaries.Russiatriestofindnewways toattracthighlyqualified staffintothesector,forexample bythe creation of new types of higher education institutions, with a special status, special funds and extended academicfreedom.Institutionsenjoyarelativelyhighdegreeofautonomyoverall,fortherecruitmentand promotionofstaff. Staff training concentrates on institutional initiatives and European projects are seen as one of the main training tools. The main skills shortage is in the area of foreign language skills, while IT skills are widespread. Internationalbraindraindoesnotseemtobeaseriouscauseforconcern.Rather,themaincompetitionat nationallevelcomesfromtheprivatesector. 13.2.4 Maghreb Positions inhigher education in the Maghreb countries are considered more attractive than in any other region: all staff has civil servant status and relatively high salaries and in some cases, very good benefits packages. As all staff members are civil servants, recruitment requirements, salaries and promotions are decideduponmainlybythenationalauthorities.Promotionsarebasedmainlyonformalcriteria,suchas years of service. Due to the favourable conditions and overall attractiveness of positions in higher education institutions, there is little competition for the best candidates at national level by e.g. private companies. Most countries in the region have high numbers of PhDs in academia and the skills levels of staff are considered good overall. In fact, the main issue is reportedly the resistance of staff to change, ratherthantheirinabilitytorespondtothechallengesposedbymodernisation.Thereislittlestafftraining availableatalllevels. Ageingdoesnotposeaseriousproblemforthesectorandinstitutionsneedrathertoincreasetheirstaffing levelsinthenextfiveyears,duetoincreasesinstudentnumbers.Genderbalancehasnotyetbeenreached howeverandthefiguresarelow,especiallyinacademicpositions. 13.2.5 MiddleEast IntheMiddleEast,someofthemainattractionsofjobsinhighereducationinstitutionsarethejobstability andgoodadditionalbenefits.Atthesametime,salariesarenotconsideredattractive,whichleadstothe need to hold multiple positions. For administrative staff, the attraction of jobs in higher education institutions seems higher in comparison to other alternatives, than for academic staff. It is possible for institutions to implement financial rewards, although they are usually the same for all staff in the same category.However,thisistheonlyregionwhich,overall,reportsonadefactodecreaseofsalariesinthe past10years,duetoinflationgrowingfasterthansalaries17. Recruitment requirements are relatively stringent and often more detailed and comprehensive than in other Tempus regions. There is a very high percentage of PhD holders among senior academic staff in MiddleEasterncountries.Infact,lackofskillsisnotconsideredaseriousproblem,butrathertheattitudes ofstafftowardschange.RectorsareappointedbynationalauthoritiesinallcountriesexceptIsrael,where Rectorsareelectedatinstitutionallevel,withoutneedforapprovalbynationalauthorities.
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Israelreportsthatsalarieshaveincreasedslightlyinthe10yearperiod. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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Thereisawelldevelopedawarenessontheimportanceoffurtherprofessionaltrainingacrosstheregion. Training concentrates on institutional initiatives and is often taken into consideration in promotion decisions,whichtypicallyincludenotonlyformalbutalsoperformancebasedcriteria. Some of the countries in the region suffer from severe international braindrain, especially to the richer neighbouring countries and the imbalance in gender distribution, especially in academic positions, is a problem. 13.2.6 WesternBalkans Higher education jobs can be considered relatively attractive in the Western Balkans region. The salaries areconsideredrelativelyattractiveandcontacthourswithstudentsareamongthelowestacrossTempus countries. In most cases, institutions are independent to decide on promotions and recruitment and they may also implementfinancialincentives.Thelackofintegrationoftheuniversities(autonomoussubunits)inseveral countries is an obstacle to harmonising human resource management practices within the institutions. Selection processes are now, most typically, open to all qualified candidates and important changes to increase transparency have been implemented in many countries in the region, in the recent past. However, sometimes personal connections continue to play a role in appointments. The Rectors are electedbytheinstitutions,sometimesinvolvingallstaffandstudentsintheprocess. Thereisverylittlesystematictrainingavailableatanylevelforstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions. Whilethereisscopefortheimprovementoflanguageskills,themainissueintheregionisconsideredtobe thelackofflexibilityofstaffandtheiradaptabilitytonewrequirements. StaffinWesternBalkaninstitutionsisrelativelyyoungandwhilebraindrainisacauseforconcerninmany countriesoftheregion,somenationalschemeshavebeenestablishedtocombatthephenomenon.
13.3 Recommendations
Nationalstrategiesandsupportforhumanresourcedevelopment
There is a clear need for a national strategy and nationallevel support for the development of human resources management structures and methods across the Tempus Partner Countries. Countries which havesetupfinancingschemesaspartsoftheirnationalstrategies,havemanagedtoreversesomenegative trends, such as braindrain, aging or the inadequate skillslevels of staff. National strategies and support should however be coupled with sufficient independence and autonomy, for institutions to find the best waystomeettheirowninstitutionalmissionandobjectives. Asoneofthemainproblemsintheattractivenessofhighereducationjobs,istherelativelylowsalariesin many countries, nationallevel action in this area will be important, as public institutions rely on public funds for salary payments, to a large degree. In other words, while autonomy in setting supplementary financialrewardschemesmaybeimportant,itis,atthesametimeimportantforthenationalauthoritiesto ensurethatthebasicsalariesaresufficienttoensurethathighlyqualitystaffmayberecruitedandretained inpublichighereducationinstitutions.Losingthebestbrainstoprivatecompaniesortoabroadwouldbe tothedisadvantageofentirecountries. While the creation of flagship institutions with special funding may be important for the visibility of the countryshighereducationsectorandforthedevelopmentofitsresearchcapacity,theyarenotasufficient responsetotheproblemsrelatedtohumanresourcemanagementinhighereducation.Itisimportantto
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find ways to protect and support institutions that have fewer resources and are e.g. remotely located: thesearetheinstitutions worsthitby braindrainandwhichstruggle the mosttoattract andretain high qualitystaff. Nationallevellegalframeworksareoftenimportanttomaintainminimumstandardsacrossinstitutions,to protecttheemployeesandtomakesurepublicfundsareusedefficiently.Atthesametime,institutional autonomy in issues related to staff recruitment, promotion and implementation of financial and other incentives, may be an important way to ensure the attractiveness of institutions and to motivate their leadershiptodevelopinstitutionalstrategiesandschemestosupporttheinstitutional,aswellasnational objectivesinthetermsofhumanresourcesmanagement. Institutionalstrategiesandmanagementofhumanrecourses In addition to national strategies, it is essential that institutions create their own strategies on human resource management. These strategies should be translated into concrete action plans and they should makereferencetoawiderconceptofhumanresourcemanagement,asnotlimitedtoasetofstructural approachesandmeasures. Applyingtransparentandopenrecruitmentprocedures Recruitmentofstaffinbothcategoriesandatalllevels,includingmanagementlevel,shouldbecarriedout following transparent and open procedures. This is necessary to ensure that the best and most suitable candidatesareselectedandthattheinstitutionsremainasindependentfrompoliticalinfluenceaspossible. It is also necessary to build in mechanisms to monitor that transparent and open procedures are also followedthroughinpractice. Appointmentofinstitutionalmanagementstaffbythenationalauthoritiesmayimpedetheselectionofthe best suited candidate, as political considerations weigh heavily on the balance. Applying clear selection criteriaandopenCallsshouldbeconsideredasawaytostrengthenthemanagementoftheinstitutionand ensuretherightskillsareavailable,fortheuseofinstitutionaldevelopment. Creatingattractiveworkingconditions The financial conditions in some countries and institutions do not make it possible to attract staff on competitive salaries alone. Increased autonomy for institutions to add financial incentives may improve theirchancesofattractingmoreandbetterstaff.Whilefinancialconditionsareveryimportantforallstaff categories, they are also sensitive to other aspects, such as working conditions, academic freedom, flexibility and a sense of accomplishment. In some cases, it may thus take little to make a significant difference at the institutional or national level, by improving and sustaining research possibilities and by creatinganenvironment,opentoinnovativeapproachestoteaching. Motivatingstaffthroughincentives Staffathighereducationinstitutionsoftenfeelsacloseconnectionandadedicationtotheirinstitutionand itsworkforsociety.However,unfavourableworkingconditionsandalackofincentivesandencouragement may easily lead to a diminishing degree of motivation and opposition to change. Possibilities to offer financialandotherincentivestostaffwithhighperformance,mayleadtopositiveresultsinthisregard. Staffevaluationsareanimportanttooltomonitortheachievementofobjectivesandperformancelevels, but the best results are likely to be reached, if evaluations are designed so as to give staff positive and constructiveideasonhowtoimprovetheirwork.Inotherwords,evaluationsthatfocusesonenhancement
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of performance rather than punishment due to failure, support staff development without undermining motivation. Rewardandevaluationschemesshouldalsobedesignedforadministrativestaff. Trainingofstaff Intermsofcareermanagement,institutionsacrosstheregionsstarttounderstandtheimportanceofstaff trainingandusethese,togetherwithfinancialincentivesandrewardschemes,tomotivatestafftodevelop theirskillsandcapacitiesfurther.However,notallstaffrecognisestheimportanceoftrainingandthereis consequently a clear need to demonstrate the benefits of training to staff. While financial incentives, rewardsandconsiderationoftrainingasacriterionforpromotionsmayhaveapositiveshorttermimpact on training attendance, in the longer term, a training culture where such initiatives are not seen as a necessarynuisance,butasafundamentallypositiveopportunityforselfgrowth,needstobeachieved. Toachievethepurposes,trainingshouldtakeintoaccountthecurrentskillslevelsanddevelopmentneeds ofallstaffthroughapersonalisedapproach.Inmanycases,trainingorganisedwithgoodwill,butwithouta clear understanding of the actual needs, has led to frustration and increased the negative response to training,assomethingonlywastingtime,ratherthansupportingstaffdevelopment.Realisingtherelevance of training to their actual functions as academics of an institution, is central to a wider acceptance, appreciationandindeedtheimpactoftrainingprogrammes. Trainingofmanagementlevelstaffonthespecificskillsrequiredfortheirpositionwouldbedesirableand setagoodexampletoallstaffontheimportanceandnecessityofconstanttrainingandskillsupgrading. Administrativestaffsskillsneedalsoshouldbeaddressedbyspecifictrainingschemes. Trainingshouldaddress,firstofall,themostcentralareasofskillsshortages,namelyforeignlanguageand ITskills.Thecontinuousdevelopmentofacademicandsubjectspecificskillsofacademicstaffalsoshould beensured,especiallyinsystemswhereahighnumberofteachinghoursmayreducethepossibilitiesfor scientificactivityandresearch. Consideringexistingandfuturebenefitsandconditions When reforming the system and implementing changes to contractual conditions, salaries or additional benefits,nationalauthoritiesandinstitutions,accordingto their responsibilities,shouldbewellinformed aboutthemainattractionfactorsforjobsinpublichighereducationintheircontext.If,forexample,the stabilityofjobsisconsideredasoneofthemainattractionsofhighereducationjobs,aplantoimplement shorttermcontractsneedstotakethisfactintoconsideration. Administrativestaff Overall,fartoolittleattentionisgiventotherecruitmentrequirements,skills,motivationandtrainingof administrativeandtechnicalstaff.Itseemsthatoften,administrativeandtechnicalstaffisconsideredfar removed from the core operations of institutions and when talking about the human resources of an institution,themainorexclusivefocusisonacademicstaff.However,asadministrativeandtechnicalstaff canplayanimportantrolein themodernisationof institutions,thisstaffcategoryshould notbeignored when discussing human resource management in public higher education institutions. Comprehensive evaluation, reward and training schemes for administrative staff should be considered as important as thoseforacademicstaff.
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Openingupforinternationalrecruitment Very few of the countries investigated reported on significant international recruitment of staff. Clearly, unattractiveconditionsandlowsalariesmaymakemanysystemsunattractiveintheinternationalmarket. However,theeliminationoflegalandstructuralobstaclestointernationalrecruitmentandfacilitatingthe mobilityoflocalstaffcouldhaveasignificantlypositiveimpactonthedevelopmentofthesector.Where financiallyfeasible,asafirststep,reattractionschemesofhighlyskilledexpatriatesseemtobringpositive resultsandcouldbeseenasafirststepintheinternationalisationofstaffrecruitment. Internationalprojectsandprogrammes InternationalandespeciallyEuropeanprogrammes,namelytheTempusProgrammeandErasmusMundus, areinmany casestheonlytraininganddevelopmentopportunitiesavailabletostaffathighereducation institutions.Theircentralimportanceandstrongimpactontheinstitutions,aswellasnationalpoliciesin several countries must be underlined and applauded. Without the support of these programmes many good initiatives would not have taken place and the internationalisation and modernisation of several institutionswouldbegiantstepsbehinditscurrentstate.However,itisneithersufficientnorsustainableto leave the task of human resource development and training exclusively to these programmes: while projects may be used as an initiator of new systems or processes, national authorities, together with institutions,shouldtakeonmoreresponsibilityforthedevelopmentofhumanresourcesacrossthesector.
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ANNEX1 BriefoverviewoftheTempusprogramme

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BriefoverviewoftheTempusprogramme
TempusistheEU'sexternalcooperationprogrammethathasbeensupportingthemodernisationofhigher education systems in the European Unions neighbouring countries for over 20 years. The number of Partner Countries involved has changed during this time. At present, the programme covers the 27 countriesintheWesternBalkans,CentralAsia,EasternEurope,NorthernAfricaandtheMiddleEast18. Sinceitscreation,Tempushascontributedtopromotingcooperationbetweenhighereducationinstitutions in the European Union and the Partner Countries, through various capacity building activities. It also promotesthevoluntaryconvergenceofhighereducationsystemsinthesecountrieswithEUpoliciesand processesinhighereducation,includingtheBolognaProcess.Indeed,theBolognaProcesshasbecomea reference for most of Tempus Partner Countries, by setting in motion a series of reforms, to modernise highereducationsystemsandtomakethemmorecompatibleandcomparable. Background InitiallycoveringcountriesinCentralandEasternEurope,thefirstphaseoftheprogrammewaslaunchedin 1990 and lasted until 1993. During this period, Tempus sought to contribute to socioeconomic reforms, throughcooperationinhighereducation.ThesecountrieswerelatertojointheEUitself. Thesecondphaseoftheprogramme,TempusII,coveredthenextsixyears(19942000).Duringthisperiod, theprogrammewasextendedtocertaincountriesinEasternEuropeandCentralAsia.Nationalpriorities fortheProgramme,definedbynationalauthoritieswereintroducedforthefirsttime. The third phase of Tempus was implemented from 2000 to 2006. The concept of cooperation between different countries in the same region was introduced during this time. In the framework of the Euro Mediterraneanpartnership,TempusIIIwasextendedtoNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast,withaviewto contributing to promoting socioeconomic development of this region. The programme also aimed at promoting intercultural understanding as a means of sustainable growth, peace and reinforced the 'intercultural'and'civilsociety'dimensionoftheEU'spoliciesintheseregions. Since2007,Tempushasentereditsfourthphase,whichrunsuntil2013.Itputsemphasisonregionaland crossregional cooperation and reinforcing links between higher education and society. The programme currently covers 27 Partner Countries and territories. The programme is integrated into the European Unions 'Neighbourhood', 'Enlargement' and 'Development' policies, which aim to promote prosperity, stabilityandsecurity. Tempus is funded by three financial instruments: the Instrument for Preaccession Assistance (IPA), the DevelopmentCooperationInstrument(DCI)andtheEuropeanNeighbourhoodandPartnershipInstrument (ENPI).
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Tempus partners (2012): Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Egypt, Georgia, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Libya, Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, the occupiedPalestinianterritory,Russia,Serbia,Syria,Tajikistan,Tunisia,Turkmenistan,Ukraine,Uzbekistanand Kosovo. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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MaincharacteristicsofTempus Tempus was designed to contribute to reforming and upgrading the higher education institutions and systemsintheTempusPartnerCountries'.Throughcooperationathighereducationlevel,theprogramme alsoaimstostrengthencivilsociety,promotedemocracy,aswellasenhancingmutualunderstandingand intercultural dialogue between the EU and its partners. It promotes a "bottomup" approach, since the contentandmethodologyoftheprojectsarelefttoprojectbeneficiariestodefine(withintheprioritiesset bytheCall).However,theProgrammecanalsobedescribedas"topdown",sincethenationalandregional prioritiesareestablishedbythenationalauthoritiesineachPartnerCountry,tomaximisetheimpactofthe Programmeonthehighereducationreformprocess. TempusIVsupportsthreetypesofprojects: - JointProjectstargethighereducationinstitutionsandfundmultilateralpartnershipsbetweentheseEU and Partner Country institutions, to develop, modernise and disseminate new curricula, teaching methods and teaching materials. They also aim to enhance quality assurance mechanisms in institutions, modernise the governance and management of higher education institutions and strengthentheircontributiontolifelonglearningandtheknowledgetriangleofeducationresearch innovation. - StructuralMeasuresaimtoreformhighereducationsystemsinthePartnerCountriesandtoenhance their quality and relevance to the world of work and society at large. They promote further convergencewithEUdevelopmentsinthefieldofhighereducation.Theyfocusonissueslinkedtothe reform of governance in higher education institutions (qualification systems, quality assurance mechanisms,autonomyofinstitutions)andfosterlinksbetweenhighereducation,theworldofwork and other sectors of education. They can also include studies and research, the organisation of national,regionalandthematicconferencesandseminars,theprovisionoftraining,policyadviceand thedisseminationofinformation. Both Joint Projects and Structural Measures are funded through Calls for Proposal. The grant awarded variesbetween0.5to1.5millionEUR. - AccompanyingMeasuresarefundedthroughCallsforTenderorFrameworkContracts.Theycomprise ofdisseminationandinformationactivitiessuchasthematicconferences,studiesandactivitieswhich aimtoidentifyandhighlightgoodpracticeorconsultationofstakeholders.Theyarealsousedtofund theNationalTempusOfficesandtheactivitiesofthegroupofHigherEducationReformExpertsinthe TempusPartnerCountries. ManagementofTempus TheEducation,AudiovisualandCultureExecutiveAgency(EACEA)isresponsibleforboththemanagement and the implementation of Tempus, under powers delegated by the European Commission. The DirectorateGeneral for Development and CoOperation EuropeAid and the DirectorateGeneral for EnlargementallocatefundsdirectlytotheExecutiveAgencytomanagetheProgrammeandthushavethe formalresponsibilityforsupervisingitsactivities.TheDirectorateGeneralforEducationandCulturebrings itsexpertiseandfacilitateslinkswiththeEuropeanUnion'sinternalhighereducationreformpolicies.The EuropeanExternalActionServicecontributestothestrategicorientationsoftheProgramme.
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ANNEX2 Thenationalquestionnaire (addressedtoNationalTempusOffices)

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HumanResourceManagementinHigherEducation NationalPoliciesandPractice
QuestionnairetoNationalTempusOffices
Deadline16May2011
Country: Respondent: Contactdetailsofrespondent: Dateofcompletionofquestionnaire:
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HumanResourceManagementinHigherEducation NationalPoliciesandPractice
QuestionnairetoNationalTempusOffices

Introductionandinstructions
This questionnaire is part of a study launched by the Education, Audiovisual & Culture Executive Agency withintheframeworkoftheTempusprogrammeoftheEuropeanCommission.Thestudyaimsatanalysing to what extent human resource issues in higher education institutions are an obstacle / driver of higher educationreformsintheTempusPartnerCountries. We would be very grateful if you could complete the following questionnaire in order to describe the situationinyourcountry.Theaimofthequestionnaireistocollectdetailedinformationonissuesrelated tohumanresourcemanagementatthenationallevel,includingnationallevelregulations,laws,initiatives, policiesandactivitiesrelatedtothetheme. Thequestionsrefertotheemploymentconditionsofregularlyemployedstaff(excludingstaffonproject relatedcontracts)inpublichighereducationinstitutions. The questionnaire is divided into two main parts, addressing 1) concrete procedures in human resource managementand2)humanresourcepolicies. Terminologyusedinthequestionnaire Academicstaff:professors,lecturers,researchers Administrative and technical staff: staff in academic or administrative departments performing administrativeandtechnicaltasks Managementstaff:DeansandRectorsonly Senior staff and junior staff: judgement is left to you according to the division that makes most sense in yourcontext Civil servant: term indicating staff employed typically by public authorities (e.g. the state) as permanent staffandwhooftenenjoyspecificbenefitsrelatedtotheposition Contractstaff:staffonallothertypesofcontractsthancivilservants,excludingveryshorttermstaff/staff onspecificprojects Highereducationinstitution(HEI):alltypesofstaterecognised,postsecondaryeducationalandvocational establishments which offer qualifications or diplomas at ISCED level 5 and/or 6, regardless of what such establishmentsarecalled(University,Polytechnic,Institute,College,etc). Practicalnotesonfillingthequestionnaire Pleasefillinallquestionsascompletelyaspossible,includingtherespondentdataonthefrontsheet. Comments are especially important for us, so please provide comments, descriptions and further explanationwheneverrelevant. Theresponsesmaybewritteninashortandconciseway,alsousingbulletpoints. ThequestionnairecanbefilledinEnglishorFrench. Inordertoticka"tickbox",doubleclickontheboxandselectDefaultvaluechecked PleasereturnthequestionnairetoPiiaHeinmki(piia.heinamaki@ec.europa.eu)by16.5.2011
PleasedonothesitatetogetincontactwithMariaKelo(mariakelo@yahoo.co.uk)incaseofanyquestions ordoubtsregardingthequestionnaire.
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SECTIONIProceduresinHumanresourcemanagement
IRecruitment
1. What is the current number of staff at public higher education institutions (totals in all public highereducationinstitutionsacrossthecountry)? Numberofstaff(approx.),if possibleseparatelyforfulltime andparttime Fulltime: Academicstaff,includingpost Parttime: doctorates Total: Administrativeandtechnicalstaff Fulltime: Parttime: Total: Total Fulltime: Parttime: Total: Proportionofwomen (approx),in%
2. Whodecidesonthenumberofpostsineachcategory? Thenationallevelauthorities(e.g.theMinistry) Thehighereducationinstitutionsthemselves Codecision between the two (e.g. institution, but on approval of the ministry). Other.Pleasespecify. Pleaseexplain:
Requirements 3. Please indicate in the table who decides on the recruitment requirements of the two staff categories: Thehigher Nationalauthoritiesin Thenationallevel education cooperationwiththe authorities institution institutions Academicstaff Administrativeand technicalstaff Comments:
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4. Whataretheminimumrequirementsfortheemploymentofthefollowingstaffcategories: Requireddegreelevel (Bachelor,Master, PhD) Numberofyearsof experience(if applicable) Otherspecificrequirements (e.g.numberofpublications, postdocexperience)
Professors Lecturersor equivalent Senior administrativeand technicalstaff Junior administrativeand technicalstaff Deans/Rectors
5. Whatchangeshavetherebeenintermsofrecruitmentrequirementsinthelast10years?Please explain.
6. Whichproportionofprofessors/senioracademicsholdaPhD?________% 7. HowhasthepercentageofsenioracademicsholdingaPhDinhighereducationinstitutionsinyour countryevolved,comparedwiththesituation10yearsago? HigherpercentagewithaPhDthan10yearsago LowerpercentagewithaPhDthan10yearsago AboutthesamepercentagewithaPhDas10yearsago
Procedures 8. Please describe briefly the typical recruitment procedure for the various categories of staff includingindicationof: a) theactorsinvolvedandtheirrespectiverolesinvariousphasesoftheselection b) the formal aspects, i.e. are posts publicly announced? Are they open competitions? Is the selectioninternaltohighereducationinstitutionsorexternal? c) themethodsused/basisforevaluation(nationalexamination,interviews,suitabilitytests,etc) d) whotakesformallytherecruitmentdecision(Ministry,highereducationinstitution,etc)? e) Otherfactors
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Senioracademicstaff a. b. c. d. e. Junioracademicstaff a. b. c. d. e. Senioradministrativeandtechnicalstaff a. b. c. d. e. Junioradministrativeandtechnicalstaff a. b. c. d. e. Management(RectorsandDeans) a. b. c. d. e. 9. Whatsignificantchangeshavetherebeenintermsofrecruitmentproceduresinthelast10years? Pleasedescribe.
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IIContractsandstatus
10. Pleaseindicatethemostcommoncontractualconditionsforthedifferentstaffcategories: Civilservant status(yes/no)+ indicatethe%of civilservantsfor eachcategory Contractstaff(staffwithoutcivilservantstatus) Typical Contractrenewable Theformalemployer lengthof (yes/no,numberof (state,institution, contract times) other)
Senioracademic staff Junioracademic staff Senior administrativeand technicalstaff Junior administrativeand technicalstaff Rector/deans
Comments:
11. Who decides on the contractual conditions of staff in public higher education institutions? What differencesaretherebetweendifferentcategoriesofstaff(e.g.civilservantsandcontractstaff)in termsofwhodecidesontheircontractualconditions?
12. What significant changes have there been in the last 10 years in contractual practice of higher educationstaff,includingissuesrelatedtocivilservantstatus?
13. Whatsignificantchangesincontractualpracticeofhighereducationstaff,includingissuesrelated tocivilservantstatus,arecurrentlybeingplanned?
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IIISalariesandhumanresourcebudget
14. Whosetstheoverallstaffcostbudgetofhighereducationinstitutions? theinstitution thenationalauthorities collaborationbetweenthetwo(e.g.institutions,butontheapprovalofthe nationalauthorities,orhighereducationinstitutionsbutwithinsetlimits). other(pleasespecify) Comments:
15. Pleasedescribewhetherandinwhichwayshasthesituationchangedinthelast10years?
16. Whodecidesonindividualsalaries? theinstitution thenationalauthorities collaborationbetweenthetwo(e.g.institutions,butontheapprovalofthe nationalauthorities,orhighereducationinstitutionsbutwithinsetlimits). dependsonstaffcategoryandtype. Pleaseexplain
17. Ifnationalauthoritiesareinvolvedindecisionsregardingstaffcosts,isitby: decidingonthetotaltobespentinstaffcosts,withoutdetailingindividual salaries settingminimumand/ormaximumlimitsbystaffcategory determiningpayscaleswithinstaffcategories determiningindividualsalaries other(pleasespecify) thenationalauthoritiesarenotinvolvedindecisionsregardingstaffcosts Pleaseexplain
18. Canhighereducationinstitutionsimplementfinancialrewardmechanismsusingtheirowncriteria (e.g. performance) and in particular, can they differentiate salaries of staff in the same staff categoryorcareerlevel?Pleasedescribe.
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19. Whopaysthesalariesofstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions?Tickasappropriate. National authorities Higher Education Institutions
Other(pleasespecify)
Academicstaff Administrativeand technicalstaff Management(Deans andRectors)
20. Pleaseindicatewhethersalariesinpublichighereducationinstitutionsaretypicallylower,equalor higherthansalariesinotherjobsforsimilarlyqualifiedandexperiencedstaff. Arethesalariesofacademicstafftypically a) Lower Equal Higher thaninprivatehighereducationinstitutions? b) Lower Equal Higher thanintheministryofeducation? c) Lower Equal Higher thaninprivatebusiness(excludinginternationalcompanies)? Arethesalariesofadministrativeandtechnicalstafftypically a) Lower Equal Higher thaninprivatehighereducationinstitutions? b) Lower Equal Higher thanintheministryofeducation? c) Lower Equal Higher thaninprivatebusiness(excludinginternationalcompanies)?
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ArethesalariesofDeansandRectorstypically a) Lower Equal Higher thaninprivatehighereducationinstitutions? b) Lower Equal Higher thanintheministryofeducation? c) Lower Equal Higher thaninprivatebusiness(excludinginternationalcompanies)? Comments:
21. How have salaries evolved in real value (purchasing power) in the last 10 years for the different staffcategories?Pleasetickasappropriate. Academicstaff Administrativeand technicalstaff Management(Deans andRectors) Comments: Decreased Remained equivalent Increased slightly Increased significantly
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22. What are the most significant nonsalary benefits of public higher education institution employees?Pleaseselectallthatapply. Academicstaff Civilservants Contractstaff Pensions/retirementfunds Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques cheques Healthinsurance Healthinsurance Maternityleave Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which?
Administrative andtechnicalstaff
Pleasedescribeandexplainanysignificantdifferencesbetweenstaffcategories:
IVWorkloadofacademicstaff
23. Is there an officially defined minimum number of contacthours19 with students for fulltime academicstaffonayearlybasis?Pleaseindicatethenumberofhoursforthefollowingcategories: Annualcontacthoursinfulltimepositions Professors Lecturersorequivalent
19
Contacthours are actual hours spent teaching or being in contact with students. This excludes research activities and office hours such as bilateral meetings with students, preparing lessons or evaluating and gradingstudents'work. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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Comments:
24. Wherearetheannualcontacthoursdetermined? Inthelaworothernationalrules Inagreementsbetweenthenationalauthoritiesandtheinstitutions Bythehighereducationinstitutions Inindividualcontracts/negotiatedwiththeemployee Other.Pleasedescribe.
25. To what extent does academic staff at public higher education institutions hold additional positions, such as in the political sphere, in private higher education institutions, in businesses, etc.?Isthephenomenonofmultiplepositionsofacademicsaprobleminyourcountry?
VCareerdevelopment
Evaluationandprogression 26. Doyouhaveasystemforregularperformanceevaluationsofstaffinpublichighereducation?If yes,pleaseindicateforeachstaffcategory Whataretheprincipal Withwhatfrequency consequences/objectivesof Whocarriesout (annual,everyfive evaluations?(Promotions, theevaluation? years)? disciplinaryactions,rewards, contractrenewals.) Academicstaff Administrativeand technicalstaff 27. Ifstaffevaluationsdonotapplytoallstaffwithintheabovecategories,forwhichstaffcategoriesor contracttypesareevaluationsused?Pleasetickallthatapply. Staffwithcivilservantstatus Staffwithoutcivilservantstatus Juniorstaff Staffonshorttermcontracts Staffwhosecontractiscomingtoanend
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Other.Pleasedescribe__________________________________________________
Comments
28. Whotakesdecisionsonthepromotionofstaff?Pleasetickasappropriate. Thehigher education institution Thenational authorities Theinstitutionand Other.Please nationalauthority specify together
Academicstaff Administrative andtechnicalstaff Comments:
29. Onwhatbasisarepromotionsawardedforthefollowingstaffcategories?Pleasetickallthatapply andspecify. Voluntaryserviceto Performancebased theuniversity Formalcriteria criteria/evaluations community (e.g.numberof Continued (publications, (responsibilitiesin yearsin trainingand internationalactivities, collectiveactivities: service).Please education developmentofstudy e.g.coordinating specify programmes,etc). workinggroups, Pleasespecify. animatingteams,etc) Academicstaff Administrative andtechnical staff 30. Whodecidesonthepromotionrequirementsof(pleasetickasappropriate): Thehigher Nationalauthoritiesin Thenationallevel education cooperationwiththehigher authorities institution educationinstitutions Academicstaff
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Administrativeand technicalstaff
Training 31. Aretheresystematicstafftrainingprogrammes?Ifyes,pleasedescribeforeachstaffcategory: a. Whenweresuchprogrammesintroduced(approx)? b. Whoisinchargeofplanningandorganisationoftraining? c. Istrainingcompulsoryforallorsomestaffinthiscategory?Pleasedescribe. d. Which types of staff can attend training in this category? (all staff, contract staff, civil servants,etc.) Academicstaff a. b. c. d. Administrativeandtechnicalstaff a. b. c. d. Management(RectorsandDeans) a. b. c. d. 32. What specific schemes or initiatives are in place in your country to support the improvement of staff competences and skills (e.g. language skills, IT competences)? Please specify for each staff category(academic,administrativeandtechnical,management(DeansandRectors))anddescribe below. Academicstaff
Administrativeandtechnicalstaff
Management(RectorsandDeans)
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VIDemographicsandbraindrain
33. To what extent do you experience or expect the demographic situation to create a problem to humanresourcesinyourhighereducationsystem? notaseriousproblem 1 2 Pleaseexplain: 3 asignificantproblem 4 5
34. Approximately, which percentage of staff in public higher education institutions belong to the followingagegroups: Academicstaff Administrative technicalstaff 2535years and 3545years 4560years Over60years
35. Howhasthepicturechangedinrespectto10yearsago? Averageageisnowhigher(olderstaffoverall) Averageageisnowlower(youngerstaffoverall) Thecurrentagestructureissimilarto10yearsago Comments:
36. Whatistheofficialretirementageforeachstaffcategory? Academicstaff Administrativeandtechnicalstaff RectorsandDeans Comments: Women ____years ____years ____years Men ____years ____years ____years
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37. Please describe the conditions for early retirement and continued employment after retirement ageandtowhatextentstaffmakeuseofthesepossibilities.Isearlyorlateretirementaproblem forhumanresourcemanagementinyourcountry?
38. Inthelastfiveyears,havehighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry,onaverage decreasedtheirstaff increasedtheirstaff maintainedsimilarlevelsofstaff Comments(e.g.differencesbetweenacademic/administrativeandtechnicalstaff):
39. Inthenextfiveyears,willhighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountryneedto decreasetheirstaff increasetheirstaff maintaincurrentlevels Comments(e.g.differencesbetweenacademic/administrativeandtechnicalstaff):
40. ApproximatelyhowmanyPhDgraduatesdohighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountryproduce eachyear?_____________ 41. ApproximatelyhowmanyMasterlevelgraduatesdohighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry produceeachyear?____________ 42. Is the number of potential candidates for jobs in higher education considered sufficient large for theneedsofthepublichighereducationsector? Yes No Partially Cannotsay/dontknow Pleaseexplain:
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43. Are the potential candidates for jobs in higher education considered sufficiently qualified for the needsofthepublichighereducationsector? Yes No Partially Cannotsay/dontknow Pleaseexplain:
44. WhatwasthetotalnumberofstudentsinHEinyourcountryin a) Year2000__________ b) Year2010__________ 45. Howwouldyoudescribethemaindirectionsof"braindrain"20forthefollowingstaffcategories? Pleaseindicatewithnumbersfrom1to5,with1=noperceiveddrainto5=seriousdrain. Gotoworkabroad Junioracademicstaff Gotoworkinprivate highereducation institutions Gotoworkinprivate businessinthehome country
Senioracademicstaff
46. Please describe any active policies or programmes that try to reduce braindrain (scholarships, reintegrationpolicies,improvedconditionsforresearch,etc.)
47. Are there any estimates regarding the percentage of young people that leave the country after graduation?_________
20
Staffleavingpublichighereducationinstitutionsinordertoworkelsewhere. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
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SectionIIHumanresourcepoliciesatnationallevel
IHumanresourcepolicies
48. Is management of human resources in public higher education institutions considered essentially thetaskofthenationalauthorities,oroftheinstitutionsthemselves? Institutions Nationalauthorities Collaboration/sharedresponsibilityofthetwo Comments:
49. Isthereanationalstrategyrelatedtohumanresourcesinhighereducation?Ifyes,pleasedescribe themainprinciples.
50. What national guidelines or requirements are there on human resources management and developmentattheinstitutionallevel?Pleasedescribethemainprinciples.
51. Whatspecificpoliciesaretheretoimprovetherecruitmentandopportunitiesofunderrepresented groups (e.g. women, members of minorities, disabled persons) into higher education institutions? Pleaseindicatewhichgroupsareaddressedbythesepolicies.
52. Whatactivenationallevelpoliciesorincentiveschemesaretheretoincreasetheattractivenessof workinginpublichighereducationand/orsupporttheretentionofstaff,i.e.togiveincentivesto stafftostayinpublichighereducationinstitutions?
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53. To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to academic staff in publichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Pleasegradetheissuesaccordingtotheimportanceyougivethem:1notveryproblematic,5prevents thehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher educationinstitutions Agingstaff Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff InsufficientITskillsofstaff Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff Genderimbalance 1 2 3 4 5
54. Towhatextentarethefollowingissuesconsideredasaprobleminrelationtoadministrativeand technicalstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Pleasegradetheissuesaccordingtotheimportanceyougivethem:1notveryproblematic,5prevents thehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher educationinstitutions Agingstaff Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting
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andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff InsufficientITskillsofstaff Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff Genderimbalance Pleasecomment:
55. Please indicate any recent (+/ last 5 years) reforms in higher education in your country, which relate to the issues addressed in this questionnaire. Please give references to relevant websites and/orpublications.
56. Are there any reforms foreseen in the near future in the areas addressed in this questionnaire? Whichandwhen?
57. What are the main priorities and objectives in terms of human resources in higher education in yourcountryforthenext5years?
58. Please feel free to write here any other comments you consider relevant in the context of this questionnaire.
Pleaseindicateorsubmitasattachmentsanyrelevantdocumentsrelatedtothequestionsaddressedinthis questionnaire.
Thankyou!
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ANNEX3 Theonlinequestionnaire(addressedtoindividuals)
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Onlinequestionnaire
*=mandatoryquestion Firstsectionofthequestionnaire Abouttherespondent A.* There are three different questionnaires in this survey, please indicate below the type of institution/organisationwhereyouwork;sothattherelevantquestionsaredisplayed? PublichighereducationinstitutioninaTempusPartnerCountry Other institutions / organisation in a Tempus Partner Country which is not a public higher educationinstitution HighereducationinstitutionorotherorganisationintheEuropeanUnion
TempusPartnerCountriesare:Albania,Algeria,Armenia,Azerbaijan,Belarus,BosniaandHerzegovina,Croatia,Egypt, Georgia,Israel,Jordan,Kazakhstan,Kosovo,Kyrgyzstan,Lebanon,formerYugoslavRepublicofMacedonia,Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, Russia, Serbia, Syria, Tajikistan, the occupied Palestinian territory, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine,andUzbekistan Higher education institution: any state recognised, postsecondary educational and vocational establishment which offersqualificationsordiplomasatISCEDlevel5and/or6,regardlessofwhatsuchestablishmentiscalled(University, Polytechnic,Institute,Collegeetc.).
B.*YouhaveindicatedthatyouworkinapublichighereducationinstitutioninaTempusPartner Country.Thequestionnaireiscomposedofquestionsaimingatgathering: I.yourperceptionsonpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry; II.informationabouthumanresourcesandtheirmanagementatyourinstitution; III.informationaboutyourownpositioninyourinstitution. Pleaseconfirmyourchoicetoproceed. IconfirmthatIworkinapublichighereducationinstitutioninaTempusPartnerCountry IconfirmthatIworkinaninstitution/organisationinaTempusPartnerCountrywhichisnot apublichighereducationinstitution IconfirmthatIworkinahighereducationinstitutionorotherorganisationintheEuropean Union. C.*Pleasechooseyourstaffcategory Academicstaff Administrativeandtechnicalstaff Managementstaff(Dean/Rector) D.*Pleaseindicateinwhichcountryyourinstitution/organisationislocated: E.*Pleaseindicatethetypeofinstitution/organisationyouworkfor: (questiondisplayedonlyfortherespondentshavingindicatedthattheyworkinahighereducation institutionorotherorganisationintheEuropeanUnion) F.* Please choose the Tempus Partner Country that you are most familiar with, in order to give yourperceptionsaboutpublichighereducationinthatcountry (questiondisplayedonlyfortherespondentshavingindicatedthattheyworkinahighereducation institutionorotherorganisationintheEuropeanUnion)
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G.Pleaseindicateyouryearofbirth H.Pleaseindicateyourgender I.Pleaseindicateyournationality J.Whendidyoubegintoworkatyourinstitution?(pleaseindicatetheyear) K.Pleaseindicateyourcurrentfunction Secondsectionofthequestionnaire Generalperceptions A1. In your country, to what extent is academic staff working in public higher education institutionsconsideredadvantaged? 1(notanadvantage) 1 2 3 4 5 5(significantadvantage) Goodsalaries Goodworkinghours Goodsocialstatus Goodholidays Goodsocialprotection Goodnonsalarybenefits A2.Inyourcountry,towhatextentisadministrativeandtechnicalstaffworkinginpublichigher educationinstitutionsconsideredadvantaged? 1(notanadvantage) 1 2 3 4 5 5(significantadvantage) Goodsalaries Goodworkinghours Goodsocialstatus Goodholidays Goodsocialprotection Goodnonsalarybenefits
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A3.Inyourcountry,towhatextentarethefollowingissuesconsideredasaprobleminrelation toacademicstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions? 1(notveryproblematic) 5(preventsHEfromperformingasitshould) JobsinpublicHEnotsufficientlyattractive Agingstaff NeedtoholdmultiplepositionsduetolowsalariesinpublicHE Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments "Internationalbraindrain"toworkabroad Competitionfromprivatehighereducationinstitutions Competitionfromprivatebusinesses Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientskillsofstaff Staffresistancetochangeandreforms Genderimbalance 1 2 3 4 5
A4.Inyourcountry,towhatextentarethefollowingissuesconsideredasaprobleminrelation toadministrativeandtechnicalstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions? 1(notveryproblematic) 5(preventsHEfromperformingasitshould) JobsinpublicHEnotsufficientlyattractive Agingstaff NeedtoholdmultiplepositionsduetolowsalariesinpublicHE Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments "Internationalbraindrain"toworkabroad Competitionfromprivatehighereducationinstitutions Competitionfromprivatebusinesses Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientskillsofstaff Staffresistancetochangeandreforms Genderimbalance 1 2 3 4 5
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A5.Inyouropinion,whicharethetwomainadvantagesofajobasacademicstaffinapublic highereducationinstitutioninyourcountry? Wellregardedsocialstatus Employmentstability Goodsalary Interestingnonsalarybenefits Reasonableworkinghours Longholidays Goodsocialprotection Interestingwork Researchopportunities Careerdevelopmentperspectives Interactionwithstudents Opportunitiesforinternationalmobility A6.Inyouropinion,whicharethetwomaindisadvantagesofajobasacademicstaffinapublic highereducationinstitutioninyourcountry? Lowsocialstatus Insecurityofemployment Lowsalary Absenceofnonsalarybenefits Highnumberofworkinghours Notenoughholidays Insufficientsocialprotection Lackofautonomyinthework Lackofresearchopportunities Lackofcareerdevelopmentperspectives Difficultiesintheinteractionwithstudents Lackofopportunitiesforinternationalmobility A7.Inyouropinion,whicharethetwomainadvantagesofajobasadministrativeortechnical staffinapublichighereducationinstitutioninyourcountry? Wellregardedsocialstatus Employmentstability Goodsalary Interestingnonsalarybenefits Reasonableworkinghours Longholidays Goodsocialprotection Interestingwork Careerdevelopmentperspectives Interactionwithstudents Varietyoftasks
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A8. In your opinion, which are the two main disadvantages of a job as administrative or technicalstaffinapublichighereducationinstitutioninyourcountry? Lowsocialstatus Insecurityofemployment Lowsalary Absenceofnonsalarybenefits Highnumberofworkinghours Notenoughholidays Insufficientsocialprotection Lackofautonomyinthework Lackofcareerdevelopmentperspectives Difficultiesintheinteractionwithstudents Lackofchallengeandmonotonyoftasks A9.Inyouropinion,whicharethetwomainadvantagesofajobasRectororDeaninapublic highereducationinstitutioninyourcountry? Wellregardedsocialstatus Employmentstability Goodsalary Interestingnonsalarybenefits Interestingwork Highlevelofresponsibility Capacitytoinfluencechangeintheinstitution A10. In your opinion, which are the two main disadvantages of a job as Rector or Dean in a publichighereducationinstitutioninyourcountry? Lowsocialstatus Insecurityofemployment Lowsalary Absenceofnonsalarybenefits Highnumberofworkinghours Lackofautonomyinthework Lackofrealinfluencetobringaboutchange Highlevelofresponsibility Highpoliticalpressure Lackofchallengeandmonotonyoftasks A11. In your opinion, is the age structure of academic staff in public higher education institutionsaprobleminyourcountry? Yes No Noopinion A11.aPleasedescribetheproblem
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A11.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A11.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A11.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A11.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A12. In your opinion, is there, or will there be in the coming 5 to 10 years, an insufficient numberofacademicstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Yes No Noopinion A12.aPleasedescribetheproblem A12.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A12.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A12.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A12.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem 13.Inyouropinion,istheagestructureofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffaprobleminpublic highereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Yes No Noopinion A13.aPleasedescribetheproblem A13.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A13.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A13.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A13.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem
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A14. In your opinion, is there, or will there be in the coming 5 to 10 years, an insufficient numberofadministrativeandtechnicalinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Yes No Noopinion A14.aPleasedescribetheproblem A14.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A14.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A14.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A14.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A15.Toyourknowledge,doallacademicstaffemployedbypublichighereducationinstitutions inyourcountryreceivesimilarsalariesforequivalentpositions? Yes No Idon'tknow A15.aPleaseexplain A16. To your knowledge, do all administrative and technical staff employed by public higher educationinstitutionsinyourcountryreceivesimilarsalariesforequivalentpositions? Yes No Idon'tknow A16.aPleaseexplain A17.Inyouropinion,is"internationalbraindrain"ofacademicstaff(staffleavingpublichigher educationinstitutionsinordertoworkabroad)aprobleminyourcountry? Yes No Noopinion A17.aPleasedescribetheproblem A17.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A17.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A17.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A17.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem
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A18.Inyouropinion,iscompetitionfromprivatehighereducationinstitutionsinrecruitingand retaining(keeping)academicstaffaprobleminyourcountry? Yes No Noopinion A18.aPleasedescribetheproblem A18.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A18.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A18.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A18.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A19.Inyouropinion,iscompetitionfromprivatebusinessinrecruitingandretaining(keeping) academicstaffaprobleminyourcountry? Yes No Noopinion A19.aPleasedescribetheproblem A19.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A19.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A19.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A19.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A20. In your opinion, do academic staff in your country see themselves as autonomous in decidingoneducationalcontentandteachingmethods? Yes No Noopinion A20.aPleasedescribetheproblem A20.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A20.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A20.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel
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A20.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A21.Inyouropinion,dopublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountryseethemselvesas autonomouswithregardstotheorganisationofstudies? Yes No Noopinion A21.aPleasedescribetheproblem A21.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A21.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A21.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A21.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A22.Inyouropinion,doesthemajorityofacademicstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions in your country have sufficient motivation to develop and improve their work (teaching and research)? Yes No Noopinion A22.a.Inyouropinion,whatarethetwomainreasonsforthelackofmotivationofacademic staff? Inadequatesalaries Lackoftime/heavyworkload Lackofcareerperspectives Lackofrewardmechanisms Lackofresearchopportunities Administrativeburden A22.bWhatwouldbeinyouropinionthebestincentive(s)toboostmotivationofacademicstaff inyourcountry? Idon'tknow Financialincentives Careerperspectives Researchopportunities Increasedlevelofautonomy/responsibility A23. In your opinion, does the majority of administrative and technical staff in public higher education institutions in your country have sufficient motivation to develop their work (e.g. implementingnewprocesses,approachesandrules)? Yes No Noopinion
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A23.a. In your opinion, what are the two main reasons for the lack of motivation of administrativeandtechnicalstaff? Inadequatesalaries Lackoftime/heavyworkload Lackofcareerperspectives Lackofrewardmechanisms Administrativeburden A23.b. What would be in your opinion the best incentive(s) to boost motivation of administrativeandtechnicalstaffinyourcountry? Idon'tknow Financialincentives Careerperspectives Increasedlevelofautonomy/responsibility A24.Inyouropinion,doesthemajorityofacademicstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions inyourcountryhavethenecessaryprofessionalskillstocarryouttheirtasks? Yes No Noopinion A24.a.Inyouropinion,themainreasonsforthislackofskillsofacademicstaffare: Recruitmentcriteria(standardsaretoolow) Careerperspectivesarenotinterestingenoughtomotivatestafftoimprovetheirskills Lackoftraining(notenoughlifelonglearningopportunities) A24.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A24.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A24.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A24.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A25. In your opinion, does the majority of administrative and technical staff in public higher education institutions in your country have the necessary professional skills to carry out their tasks? Yes No Noopinion A25.a. In your opinion, the main reasons for this lack of skills of administrative and technical staffare: Recruitmentcriteria(standardsaretoolow) Careerperspectivesarenotinterestingenoughtomotivatestafftoimprovetheirskills Lackoftraining(notenoughlifelonglearningopportunities)
145
A25.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A25.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A25.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A25.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A26. In your opinion, do the majority of Rectors and Deans in public higher education institutionsinyourcountryhavethenecessaryprofessionalskillstocarryouttheirtasks? Yes No Noopinion A26.a.Inyouropinion,themainreasonsforthislackofskillsofRectorsandDeansstaffare: Recruitmentcriterianotsufficientlyfocusedoncompetencesandskills Recruitmentcriteriamostlybasedonpoliticalconsiderations Lackoftraining(notenoughtrainingopportunities) Other(pleasespecify) A26.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A26.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A26.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A26.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A27. In your opinion, to what extent does staff of public higher education institutions in your countryhavethefollowingskillsanddisplaythefollowingattitudes? Adminis 1(mostofthestaffdonothavethisskill/attitude) Academic trativeand Rectors 5(mostofthestaffhavethisskill/attitude) staff technical andDeans staff Foreignlanguageskills Computerliteracy Communicationskills Teamworkingskills Willingnesstoimplementchanges Feelingthecapacitytoproposeandimplement changes
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A28.Inyouropinion,isthegenderbalanceofstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyour countryaproblem? Yes No Noopinion A28.aPleaseexplain A28.bToyourknowledge,haveconcretemeasuresbeentakentoaddressthisissue? Yes No Idontknow A28.cPleasedescribethesemeasures A28.dAtwhatlevelhavethesemeasuresbeentaken? Atuniversitylevel Atministry/governmentlevel A28.ePleasedescribeyourideasformeasurestoaddressthisproblem A29. Are there trade unions in your country that represent staff working in public higher education? Yes No Idon'tknow A29.a.Inyouropinion,towhatextentdotradeunionsatnationalandinstitutionallevelplaya rolein: 1(notatallinvolved) 1 2 3 4 5 5(stronglyinvolved) Raisingawarenessofpolicymakersaboutcurrentproblems relatedtohumanresourcesinpublicHE RaisingawarenessofthemanagementofpublicHEIsabout currentproblemsrelatedtohumanresources Contributingtoreformsrelatedtohumanresourcesatnational level Contributingtoreformsrelatedtohumanresourcesat institutionallevel Monitoringandevaluatingreformsrelatedtohumanresources atnationallevel Monitoringandevaluatingreformsrelatedtohumanresources atinstitutionallevel A29.b.Inyouropinion,shouldthetradeunionsplayamoresignificantroleinhumanresource managementissuesinthepublichighereducationsectorofyourcountry? Yes No Noopinion
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ThirdSectionoftheQuestionnaire Institutionspecificinformation B1. To what extent is the career progression (promotion from one category to the next) of academicstaffinyourinstitutionbasedonthefollowingcriteria? 1(notveryimportant) 1 2 3 4 5 5(veryimportant) Yearsofseniority Researchoutputs(publications) Qualityofteaching Internationalexperience Continuedtrainingandeducation Responsibilitiesincollectiveactivities(coordinatingworking groups,leadingteams,etc.) Resultsofperformanceevaluationscarriedoutbythe institution Politicalconsiderationsandpersonalrelations B2.Doesyourinstitutioncarryoutperiodicperformanceevaluationsofacademicstaff? Yes No Idon'tknow B2.a.Atwhatfrequencyaretheseperformanceevaluationscarriedout? Everyyear Every2years Lessfrequently Idon'tknow B2.b.Arestudentfeedback/evaluationstakenintoaccountintheseperformanceevaluations? Yes No Idon'tknow B2.c.Whichofthefollowingactorsareinvolvedintheperformanceevaluations? Headofdepartment Dean Rector Other(e.g.ministry/governmentinstitution) Idon'tknow B3.Doesyourinstitutionoffertrainingopportunitiesforacademicstaff? Yes No Idon'tknow
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B3.a.Whattypeoftrainingopportunitiesdoesyourinstitutionofferforacademicstaff? Foreignlanguages Pedagogy,teachingmethods Researchmethodology InformationTechnology(IT) Projectmanagement Teambuilding Communicationskills B4. To what extent is the career progression (promotion from one category to the next) of administrativeandtechnicalstaffinyourinstitutionbasedonthefollowingcriteria? 1(notveryimportant) 1 2 3 4 5 5(veryimportant) Yearsofseniority Continuedtrainingandeducation Responsibilitiesincollectiveactivities(coordinatingworking groups,leadingteams,etc.) Resultsofperformanceevaluationscarriedoutbythe institution Politicalconsiderationsandpersonalrelations B5. Does your institution carry out periodic performance evaluations of administrative and technicalstaff? Yes No Idon'tknow B5.a.Atwhatfrequencyaretheseperformanceevaluationscarriedout? Everyyear Every2years Lessfrequently Idon'tknow B5.b.Areyearlyobjectivesdefinedandassessedduringtheseperformanceevaluations? Yes No Idon'tknow B5.c.Whichofthefollowingactorsareinvolvedintheperformanceevaluations? Headofunit/department Dean/Headofadministration Rector Other(e.g.ministry/governmentinstitution) Idon'tknow B6.Doesyourinstitutionoffertrainingopportunitiesforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff? Yes No Idon'tknow
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B6.a. What type of training opportunities does your institution offer for administrative and technicalstaff? Foreignlanguages Software/equipmentuse Projectmanagement Teambuilding Communicationskills B7.DoesyourinstitutioncarryoutperiodicperformanceevaluationsofDeans? Yes No Idon'tknow B7.a.Atwhatfrequencyaretheseperformanceevaluationscarriedout? Everyyear Every2years Lessfrequently Idon'tknow B7.b. Are staff feedbacks / evaluations taken into account during these performance evaluations? Yes No Idon'tknow B7.c.Whichofthefollowingactorsareinvolvedintheperformanceevaluations? Rector Other(e.g.ministry/governmentinstitution) Idon'tknow B8. Does your institution offer training opportunities for management staff (Rectors and Deans)? Yes No Idon'tknow B8.a. What type of training opportunities does your institution offer for management staff (RectorsandDeans)? Foreignlanguages InformationTechnology(IT) Projectmanagement Leadership Institutionalmanagement(strategy,finance,HR) Teambuilding Communicationskills B9. Please indicate the minimum number of contacthours with students academic staff is expectedtoperformonayearlybasisinyourinstitution (textanswers)
150
B10. In your institution, on average, how many jobs does a typical member of academic staff hold(includingjobsinotherhighereducationinstitutions,ministriesandbusiness): (textanswers) B11. In your institution, on average, how many jobs does a typical member of administrative and technical staff hold (including jobs in other higher education institutions, ministries and business): (textanswers) B12.a.Pleaseestimatethepercentageofacademicstaffinyourinstitutionbetweentheagesof: 25and35 35and45 45and60 Over60 B12.b. Please estimate the percentage of administrative and technical staff in your institution betweentheagesof: 25and35 35and45 45and60 Over60 B12.c. Please estimate the percentage of management staff (Rectors and Deans) in your institutionbetweentheagesof: 25and35 35and45 45and60 Over60 FourthSectionoftheQuestionnaire Respondentspecificinformation B13.Whatisyourcurrentstatus? Civilservant Contractstaff Other B13.a.Whatisthedurationofyourcontract? B13.b.Whosignedyourcontract? Faculty University Ministry/governmentinstitution Other
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B13.c.Whatarethecriteriaforrenewalofthecontract? Performance Availablebudget Automaticrenewal Other B14.Pleaseestimateyoureffectiveworkload Numberofcontacthourswithstudentswithinyourinstitutiononayearlybasis Numberofcontacthourswithstudentswithinanotherhighereducationinstitutionona yearlybasis Numberofdaysspentonotherremuneratedactivitiesperyear,ifany B14.aPleasespecifythenatureofyourotherremuneratedactivity(ies) (textanswers) B15.Whopaysyoursalary? Faculty University Ministry/governmentinstitution Other B15.a.Isyoursalarypaidforthewholecalendaryear,includingthesummerbreak? Yes No Idon'tknow B15.b. How does your salary compare with other jobs potentially available to people with a similareducationandlevelofexperience? No Lower Equal Higher opinion Comparedtootherpublichighereducation institutions,yoursalaryis: Comparedtoprivatehighereducationinstitutions, yoursalaryis: ComparedtotheMinistryofeducation,yoursalaryis: Comparedtoprivatebusiness(excludinginternational companies),yoursalaryis: B15.c.Ifyouhavebeenworkinginyourpositionfortenyearsormore,doesyourpresentsalary allowyouto: Livebetterthanyoudidtenyearsago Liveinroughlythesameconditionsasyoudidtenyearsago Liveinworseconditionsthanyoudidtenyearsago B16.Areyoupaidforovertime? Yes No Idon'tknow
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B16.a.Thedecisionaboutthepaymentofovertimeismadeat: Facultylevel Universitylevel Other B16.b.Criteriaforthepaymentofovertimearedefinedat: Facultylevel Universitylevel Ministry/governmentlevel B17.Issocialprotectionincludedinyourremunerationscheme? Yes No Idon'tknow B17.a.Doesthesocialprotectionincludedinyourremunerationschemecomprise: Healthinsurance Retirementfund Maternityleave B17.b.Pleasespecifythedurationofmaternityleave(numberofweeks) B18.Pleaseindicatetheothernonsalarybenefitsyoureceive: None Accesstofree/subsidisedchildcare Freeorsubsidisedorreimbursedtransportexpenses Subsidisedmealsormealcheques Freeorsubsidisedhousing Childallowance Holidayallowance Other B19.Arethererewardmechanismsinplaceforyourcategoryofstaff? Yes No Idon'tknow B19.a.Theserewardmechanismsareofa: Financialnature Nonfinancialnature B19.b.Pleasespecifythenatureofnonfinancialrewards B19.c.Decisionabouttheserewardsismadeat: Facultylevel Universitylevel Other B19.d.Criteriaforawardingtheserewardsaredefinedat: Facultylevel Universitylevel Ministry/governmentinstitutionlevel Other
153
B19.e.Theprocedurefortheawardoftheserewardsrequires: Arequestfromthestaffmember Aproposalfromthehierarchy B19.f.Inyouropinionaretheserewardsmechanismsanefficientwaytobooststaffmotivation? Yes No Noopinion B19.g.Inyouropinionshouldrewardmechanismsbeputinplace? Yes No Noopinion B19.h.Shouldtheserewardsbeofa: Financialnature Nonfinancialnature B19.i. Please describe the non financial rewards mechanisms which in your opinion should be putinplace Concludingquestions A. Please identify the four main challenges / obstacles you encounter in your work concentratingonissuesdependingonhumanresourcemanagement (textanswers) B. Other issues and problems related to human resources and their management in public highereducationthatyouwouldliketopointout. (textanswers)
154
155
ANNEX4 Overviewtablesofresponsescollected throughthenationalquestionnaires
156
157
Annex 4.1 Duration of contract and formal employer of staff at public higher education institutionsAcademicstaff
Country Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine Russia Algeria Morocco Tunisia Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon Oc.Palestinianter. Syria Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo Montenegro Serbia FormerYugoslav Republicof Macedonia
21
Formalemployer national authorities/the state x x x x x25 x
Formalemployer institution/school/ faculty x x x x x x x x x x x
Permanent /undetermined contractduration
Determined contractduration x x x x x x x x x x x x21 x22 x24 x x26 x27 x28 x29
x x x x x x x23 x x x x x x x x
x30
22 23
24 25
26 27
28 29 30
In Israel contractual practice varies between institutions. The universities and a part of the colleges offer permanentcontractstoseniorstaff.Theremaininginstitutionsdonotofferpermanentcontractsatall. Associateprofessorscanbecometenured/getpermanentcontracts. Lessthan30%ofacademicstaffmembersarestateemployees. Aminorityofstaffmayhavepermanentcontracts. Recentlyinstitutionshavebeenenabledtorecruitacademicstaffalsodirectlyonshorttermcontractsof14 years. Fullprofessorscanbecometenured/getpermanentcontracts. Fullprofessorscanbecometenured/getpermanentcontracts. Fullprofessorscanbecometenured/getpermanentcontracts. Fullprofessorscanbecometenured/getpermanentcontracts. Fullprofessorscanbecometenured/getpermanentcontracts. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
158
Annex 4.2 Duration of contract and formal employer of staff at public higher education institutionsAdministrativeandtechnicalstaff
Country Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine Russia Algeria Morocco Tunisia Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon occupied Palestinian territory Syria Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo Montenegro Serbia formerYugoslav Republicof Macedonia Formalemployer state x x x x x x Formalemployer institution/faculty x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x33 x x x x x x x x x x35 x36 x x Permanent contract x x Determined contract x x x x x x x31 x32 x34 x x x37
31
32 33
34
35 36
37
ThepracticevariesbetweeninstitutionsinIsrael.Someofthemofferpermanentcontracts,whileothershave contractsofdeterminedduration. Contractscanbecomepermanentaftersomeyearsinservice. Insomecases,contractsmaybeconcludeddirectlybythenationalauthorities. Alsosomepermanentcontractsexistforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff,buttemporarycontractsarethe mainmodel. Alsotemporarycontractsexist,dependingoninstitutionalneeds. Contracts vary in duration and some staff may have determined duration contracts. However, permanent contractsaremorecommonforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff. Dependingoninstitutionalneeds,contractsmaybealsopermanent. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
159
Annex 4.3 The most significant nonsalary benefits of public higher education institution employeesbystaffcategoryandregion38
Numbersindicatethenumberofcountriesthathaveselectedeachoftheitems. Academicstaff Administrativestaff 5 Pensions/retirementfunds CentralAsia 5 Pensions/retirementfunds 5 Childallowance Totalcountries5 5 Childallowance 3 Freeorsubsidisedchildcare 3 Freeorsubsidisedchildcare 5 Holidayallowance 5 Holidayallowance 1 Freeorsubsidisedhousing 1 Freeorsubsidisedhousing 2 Free,subsidisedorreimbursed 2 Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses transportexpenses 1 Accesstosubsidised 1 Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal meals/mealcheques cheques 1 Healthinsurance 1 Healthinsurance 5 Maternityleave 5 Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Otherallowances.Which? EasternEurope Totalcountries6 4 3 3 1 5 Maghreb Totalcountries3 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? 4 3 3 1 1 5 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which?
38
Informationonthistableisbasedentirelyonthenationalquestionnaires.Aseachcountrycouldindicatein thenationalquestionnairethebenefitsenjoyedbystaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions,itisdifficultto evaluatewhetherinsomecasescertainbenefitswerenotselected,astheywerenotconsideredspecificto thehighereducationsector,orbecausesuchbenefitsdonotexistatall. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
160
MiddleEast Totalcountries6
5 5 1 3 3 5 5
Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidised meals/mealcheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which?
5 5 1 3 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 6 4 2 2 5 6
Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which? Pensions/retirementfunds Childallowance Freeorsubsidisedchildcare Holidayallowance Freeorsubsidisedhousing Free,subsidisedorreimbursed transportexpenses Accesstosubsidisedmeals/meal cheques Healthinsurance Maternityleave Otherallowances.Which?
Russia
1 1 1 1
WesternBalkans Totalcountries6
6 4 2 2 5 6
161
Annex4.4Theroleofnationalauthoritiesinsalarydecisionsbyregion
CentralAsia Eastern Europe Moldova Belarus Ukraine Moldova Azerbaijan Armenia Maghreb Middle East Russia Western Balkans Kosovo, Bosniaand Herzegovina Montenegro
Decidingontotal spentonstaffcosts Setting minimum/maximum limitsbystaff category
Tajikistan
Egypt
Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan
Jordan Israel
Russia Serbia theformer Yugoslav Republicof Russia Macedonia, Albania, Bosniaand Herzegovina
Determiningpay scaleswithinstaff categories
Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Kazakhstan
Moldova Azerbaijan
Jordan Lebanon Israel
Determining individualsalaries
Uzbekistan
Azerbaijan
Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia
Syria, the occupied Palestinian territory, Israel
Notinvolvedin decisionsaboutstaff costs
Georgia
162
Annex 4. 5 Average number of student contacthours by category of academic staff and by region
Country Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine Russia Algeria Morocco Tunisia Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon occupied Palestinian territory Syria Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo Montenegro Serbia formerYugoslav Republicof Macedonia Senioracademic staff 350450 750 550 850 400700 150 300400 450 120 240300 300 500600 192 256 165 500600 n/a 288384 250 n/a 500 200 150 270 200 180 140 Junioracademic staff 450550 800850 650 850 500800 500 300400 750 150 420520 450 740900 192 448 285330 8001000 n/a 480512 300 n/a 750 260 300 450 400 180300 170
163
Annex4.6Overviewofcareerprogressionbyregion:evaluation,trainingandpromotion
Academicstaff Mainbasisof Intervalsof promotions regular (formal39, evaluations training, (inyears) performance) 1 Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Training Performance Formal Performance Formal Availability of systematic training40 Yes Administrativeandtechnicalstaff Mainbasisof Intervalsof promotions Availabilityof regular (formal, systematic evaluations training, training (inyears) performance) Formal 1 Training Yes Performance 5 Atendof contract Nodata Formal Formal Training Formal Training Performance Formal Training Formal Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Training Formal Training Formal Training Performance Training Performance Formal Formal Yes
Country
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Yes
Tajikistan
Yes
Yes
Turkmenistan
Yes
Yes
Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan
Varies Noregular evaluation 5
Yes Yes No
Varies Noregular evaluation 5
Yes No No
Belarus Georgia Moldova
5 1 5
Yes No Yes
5 Noregular evaluation 5 Noregular evaluation Noregular evaluation 3 Noregular
Yes No No
Ukraine Russia Algeria Morocco

39 40
57 35 3 Noregular
Yes Yes No No
No No Yes No
Formalcriteria,suchasyearsofservice. Onlysystematicandregularschemeshavebeenincluded.Smallerscaleorlessthanregularprogrammesmay beonofferincountrieswithoutregularschemes. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
164
Tunisia Egypt Israel
evaluation Noregular evaluation 5 1
Jordan Lebanon occupied Palestinian territory Syria Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo
1 Noregular evaluation 1 Noregular evaluation 1 56 4
Formal Performance Formal Training Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Performance Formal Performance Formal Performance Formal Training Performance Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Performance
No Yes No41
evaluation Noregular evaluation 1 1
Formal Formal Training Formal Training Performance Formal Training Performance Formal Formal Training Training Performance Formal Training Formal Training Formal Training Performance Training Formal Training
No No No
Yes No Yes Yes No No No
1 Noregular evaluation 1 Noregular evaluation 1 Noregular evaluation 1
Yes No Yes Yes No No No
Montenegro
142
No
1 Noregular evaluation
No
Serbia former Yugoslav Republicof Macedonia
35
No
No
No
nodata
No
41
42
Nosystematicschemesareofferedatthenationallevel.However,practicesvarybetweeninstitutions,some ofthemofferingregulartrainingprogrammestooneorbothstaffcategories. For junior staff: annually by their mentors. For the rest of the staff evaluation is ongoing and student evaluationsarecarriedouttwiceayear. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
165
Annex4.7ProceduresfortheappointmentofmanagementstaffRectors
Country Elected Notelected43 Approval Approval ofnational Open Noopen ofnational authorities selection/ selection/ authorities NOT appointment appointment required required x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine Russia Algeria Morocco Tunisia Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon occupied Palestinian territory Syria Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo Montenegro Serbia formerYugoslav Republicof Macedonia
x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x44 x x x x x
43
44
Thisincludesbothopenselections,aswellasdirectappointments,i.e.allothermethodsapartfromelection byamajorbodyoftheinstitution. Dependingoninstitutions HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
166
Annex4.8ProceduresfortheappointmentofmanagementstaffDeans
Country Elected Notelected45 Approval Approval ofnational Open Noopen ofnational authorities selection/ selection/ authorities NOT appointment appointment required required x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x47 x x x x x
Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine Russia Algeria Morocco Tunisia Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon occupied Palestinian territory Syria Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo Montenegro Serbia formerYugoslav Republicof Macedonia
x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x46 x
45
46 47
Thisincludesbothopenselections,aswellasdirectappointments,i.e.allothermethodsapartfromelection byamajorbodyoftheinstitution. Variesbyinstitution Variesbyinstitution HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
167
Annex4.9Percentageoffemalestaffinpublichighereducationinstitutions
Country Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine Russia Algeria Morocco Tunisia Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon occupied Palestinian territory Syria Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo Montenegro Serbia formerYugoslav Republicof Macedonia Academicstaff 55% 77% 33% n/a 43% 49% n/a 55% 55% 53% 55% 60% 35% 25% n/a 40% 27%48 6% 34% 17% 32% 54% 38% 28% 44% 40% 39% Administrative staff 65% 37% n/a n/a n/a 54% n/a 45% 77% 72% n/a 40% 25% 39% n/a n/a n/a 40% 58% 33% 56% 57% n/a 50% 60% 60% 63%
48
34%incolleges. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
168
Annex4.10Divisionofresponsibilitiesandinstitutionalautonomyinhumanresourcemanagementissuesinhighereducation
NA=nationalauthorities,includingnationallaws HEI=highereducationinstitutions Both=jointdecisionmaking,orinfluencesfrombothinstitutionalandnationallevel Contractual conditions Individual salaries Annualstudent contacthours Promotion decisions academicstaff
Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan x
Promotion decision Promotion administrative requirements staff NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both NA HEI both x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Numberof postsinHEI
Recruitment requirements
x x x
x x
x x
Uzbekistan x
x x

x x
x x

x49 x

x x x x x
x
x x x x50
x
x

x x x x

x x

x x
Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine x x x x x x

x x
x x x
x x
Russia

x x x
x x
x x x x
x x
Algeria Morocco Tunisia
x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x
x x x x
49
50
Foracademicstaffnationalauthoritiesandforadministrativestaffinstitutions Institutionsaloneforadministrativestaff. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
169

x x x x x x
x x

x x x x x

x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x
x x x x
x x
x51

x x

x x x
x x
x
Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon occupied Palestinian territory Syria
x x x x x x

x52
x
x x

x x

x x

x x x x x
x
x x x

x53
x
x x x x
x x
x
x
x x x x
Albania Bosniaand Herzegovina Kosovo Montenegro Serbia former Yugoslav Republicof Macedonia
51
52
53
Nationalauthoritiesforadministrativestaff Recruitmentrequirementsforacademicstaffaresetbynationalauthorities. Institutionsaloneforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
170
Annex4.11Mainchallengestothemodernisationofhighereducationbyregionandstaff category
CentralAsia54
To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to academic staff in publichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher x xx x educationinstitutions Agingstaff x x xx Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore x xx x thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting x xx staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad x xx x Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic xx x staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting x x xx andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff xx x x Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff xxx x Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff x xx x Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff x xx x InsufficientITskillsofstaff xx x x Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff xx xx Genderimbalance xxx x To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to administrative and technicalstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher x x xx educationinstitutions Agingstaff xx xx Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore x x xx thanonejob)
54
TherewasnoreplytothisquestionfromTurkmenistan. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
171
Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff InsufficientITskillsofstaff Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff Genderimbalance
xx x xx
xx x xx x x x
x x xx x xx
x x x xx xx xx xx xxx xxxx xx
x x x
172
EasternEurope
To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to academic staff in publichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher x xxx x educationinstitutions Agingstaff xxx x x Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore xx xx x thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting x xx x staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad x xx xx Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic x xx xx staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting xx xx x andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff xxx x x Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff xxx xx Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff x xxxx Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff xx xx x InsufficientITskillsofstaff xx x xx Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff x x xxx Genderimbalance xxx xx To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to administrative and technicalstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher x x xxx educationinstitutions Agingstaff x x xx x Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore x xx xx thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting xxx x staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad xxx x x Competitionfromprivatehighereducation x xxx x
173
institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff InsufficientITskillsofstaff Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff Genderimbalance
x xx
xxx xx x x xx
xxx x x xxx xx xxx xxx x
x xx x xx x xx
x x
174
Maghreb55
To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to academic staff in publichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher xx educationinstitutions Agingstaff x x Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore x x thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting x x staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad x x Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic x x staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting x x andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff xx Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff x Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff x Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff x InsufficientITskillsofstaff x Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff x x Genderimbalance x To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to administrative and technicalstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher x educationinstitutions Agingstaff x Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore x thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting x staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad x
55
Algeria:onlypartialresponseswerereceived,andonlyforacademics HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
175
Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff InsufficientITskillsofstaff Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff Genderimbalance
x x x
x x x x
x x
176
MiddleEast56
To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to academic staff in publichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher xxxx x educationinstitutions Agingstaff x x x xx Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore x x xxx thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting x x x xx staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad x x xx x Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic xx x xx staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting xx x x x andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff xx xx x Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff x xxx x Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff xx xx x Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff xx xx x InsufficientITskillsofstaff xx xx x Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff xx x x x Genderimbalance xx x x x To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to administrative and technicalstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher x xxxx educationinstitutions Agingstaff x x xx x Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore x x x xx thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting x x x x x staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe
56
AsseparateresponseswerereceivedfromallpublicinstitutionsinIsrael,itwasdecidednottoinclude theresponsesofIsraelinthisregionaloverview,inordernottodistorttheoverallresult. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries
177
institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff InsufficientITskillsofstaff Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff Genderimbalance
xx x x xx xxx
xx x x x
x xxx xxx x xx xx xx xx
x xx xxx x
x x x x x xx xx xxx x
178
WesternBalkans
To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to academic staff in publichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher xxxx xx educationinstitutions Agingstaff x xx xxx Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore xx x x xx thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting xxx xx x staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad xx xx xx Competitionfromprivatehighereducation institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic x xx xx x staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting x xxx xx andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff xx xxxx Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff xx xx x x Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff xx xxx x Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff x xxxx x InsufficientITskillsofstaff x xxxxx Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff x xxxx x Genderimbalance xxx xx x To what extent are the following issues considered as a problem in relation to administrative and technicalstaffinpublichighereducationinstitutionsinyourcountry? Please grade the issues according to the importance you give them: 1 not very problematic, 5 preventsthehighereducationsystemfromperformingasitshould 1 2 3 4 5 Insufficientattractivenessofjobsinhigher xx xxxx educationinstitutions Agingstaff xxx xxx Needtoholdmultiplepositions(tohavemore xxx xx x thanonejob) Highfrequencyofinternalrecruitments(public highereducationinstitutionsmainlyrecruiting xx x xxx staffalreadyworkingorhavingstudiedinthe institution) "InternationalBraindrain"toworkabroad xxxx x x Competitionfromprivatehighereducation xxx xx x
179
institutionsinattractingandrecruitingacademic staff Competitionfromprivatebusinessesinattracting andrecruitingacademicstaff Insufficientautonomygiventostaff Insufficientflexibility/adaptabilityofstaff Insufficientprofessionalskillsofstaff Insufficientforeignlanguageskillsofstaff InsufficientITskillsofstaff Resistancetochangeandreformsofstaff Genderimbalance
x x x xx x x x xxx
xxxx xxx xxx x xx xx xx xxx
x xx xx xxx x xx
xx xx x
180
181
"ATEMPUSSTUDY"
"A Tempus Study" is a series of studies providing an indepth overview of the management, achievementsandimpactoftheTempusprogramme Reilly, John and Ard Jongsma, 'Changing Rules: A Review of Tempus Support to University Governance',ATempusStudy,No1,February2010,EACEA,Brussels. Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency. 'State of Play of the Bologna Process in the TempusCountries(20092010)',ATempusStudy,No2,March2010,EACEA,Brussels. Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency. 'State of Play of the Bologna Process in the TempusCountriesoftheSouthernMediterranean(20092010)',ATempusStudy,No3,April2010, EACEA,Brussels. Education,AudiovisualandCultureExecutiveAgency.'OverviewoftheHigherEducationSystemsin theTempusPartnerCountries:EasternEurope',ATempusStudy,No4,April2011,EACEA,Brussels. Education,AudiovisualandCultureExecutiveAgency.'OverviewoftheHigherEducationSystemsin theTempusPartnerCountries:CentralAsia',ATempusStudy,No5,April2011,EACEA,Brussels. Education,AudiovisualandCultureExecutiveAgency.'OverviewoftheHigherEducationSystemsin theTempusPartnerCountries:WesternBalkans',ATempusStudy,No6,April2011,EACEA,Brussels. Education,AudiovisualandCultureExecutiveAgency.'OverviewoftheHigherEducationSystemsin theTempusPartnerCountries:SouthernMediterranean',ATempusStudy,No7,April2011,EACEA, Brussels. Education,AudiovisualandCultureExecutiveAgency.'RegionalSeminarsonUniversityGovernance intheTempusPartnerCountries(20102011)Conclusions',ATempusStudy,No8,October2011, EACEA,Brussels. Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency. 'State of Play of the Bologna Process in the TempusPartnerCountries(2012)',ATempusStudy,No9,April2012,EACEA,Brussels. ThesedocumentsareavailableontheTempuswebsite: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/tempus
EC-32-12-256-EN-C
Education, Audiovisual & Culture Executive Agency

Write to us: Tempus Programme Avenue du Bourget, 1 (BOUR 02/017) 1140 Brussels Belgium Phone: +(32 2) 299 6867 Fax: +(32 2) 299 4530 Website: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/tempus General questions about the programme: EACEA-Tempus-Info@ec.europa.eu Questions about a specific Call for Proposals: EACEA-Tempus-Calls@ec.europa.eu
Tempus & Bilateral Cooperation with Industrialised Countries

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A TEMPUS STUDY

Issue 10 June 2012

Introduction ExecutiveSummary Methodology Nationalpoliciesandframeworksinhumanresourcemanagement

Academic staff recruitment, career management and working conditions

Administrative and technical staff recruitment, career management, andworkingconditions

Otherinstitution/organisationinaTempus PartnerCountry(includingprivatehigher educationinstitutions)(CAT2)

76 34 13 2 4 23 121 18 6 12 21 19 45 60 30 11 12 7 77 16 10 21 11 12 7 186 16 23 20 35 7 16 69 550

Remark:Thestatisticaldocumentinannex(availableonlyontheTempuswebsite)dedicatedtothe detailedresultsoftheonlinesurveyalsocontainsdatabycountry.Sincenotallcountriesgathered enoughreplies,thestatisticscoveronlyalimitednumberofthem(table4).

Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan x x x x5 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Uzbekistan Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Georgia Moldova Ukraine Russia

Contractual conditions Individual salaries Annualstudent contacthours Promotion decisions academicstaff

Nationalauthoritiesforadministrativestaff OccupiedPalestinianterritory Recruitmentrequirementsforacademicstaffaresetbynationalauthorities Highereducationinstitutionsaloneforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff

Source:Nationalquestionnaires Increaseofover100% Increaseofbetween30and100%: Increaseofupto30%between2000and2010 Nocomparabledataprovided

Voluntaryservicestotheuniversitycommunitymayincludee.g.responsibilityforcollectiveactivitiessuchas coordinationofworkinggroups,animationofteams,etc. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries

Project management 11% Research methodology 14%

Information Technology(IT) 22%

Pedagogy, teaching methods 21% Foreign languages 20%

Source:Nationalquestionnaires Permanentcontractissuedbythenationalauthorities Determineddurationcontractbyinstitution/subunitsofinstitutions11 Nodataavailable

AtoneinstitutioninIsraelinstitutionalcontractsforacademicstaffarepermanent.InSerbia,Montenegro, JordanandBosniaandHerzegovinasenioracademics/fullprofessorsmayhavepermanentcontracts. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries

Source:Nationalquestionnaires Permanentcontracts Fiveyearcontracts Threeyearcontracts Oneyearcontracts Varieddurations

Decidingontotalspent Tajikistan onstaffcosts

Moldova Belarus Ukraine Moldova Azerbaijan Armenia Ukraine

Setting minimum/maximum limitsbystaffcategory

Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan

Serbia theformer Yugoslav Republicof Macedonia, Albania, Bosniaand Herzegovina

Uzbekistan Determiningpayscales Turkmenistan withinstaffcategories Kazakhstan

Moldova Azerbaijan Ukraine

Jordan Lebanon Israel

Syria, the occupied Palestinian territory, Israel

Notinvolvedin decisionsaboutstaff costs Source:Nationalquestionnaires

Chart5Comparisonofsalariesofacademicstaffwithsalariesinprivatehighereducationinstitutions Comparedtoprivatehighereducationinstitutions,yoursalary is:

1 Between1and3 Morethan3 0 20 40 Numberofresponses 60 80

Inthisregion,thesamenumberofrespondentsdeclaredeitherthatitwasnotaproblematicissueorthatit preventshighereducationfromperformingasitshould. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries

Averagenumberof contacthourswith studentswithinyour institution,onayearly basis.

Averagenumberof contacthourswith studentswithinanother highereducation institution,onayearly basis,ifany.

Averagenumberofdays spentonother remuneratedactivities peryear,ifany.

CentralAsia EasternEurope Maghreb MiddleEast RussianFed. WesternBalkans Source:Onlinesurvey

640 600 270 420 640 400

200 80 100 50 180 50

Team building 9% Software/ equipmentuse 34%

Project management 17% Foreign languages 26% Source:Onlinesurvey,questionB6.a."Whattypeoftrainingopportunitiesdoesyour institutionofferforadministrativeandtechnicalstaff?".Thepercentagesrepresentthe proportionofthenumberoftimeseachchoicewasselectedasanswertothequestion

IntheWesternBalkans,48%oftheonlinesurveyrespondentsansweredthatnotrainingopportunitieswere offeredbytheirinstitutionsand24%indicatedthattheydidnotknow. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries

Yearsof seniority 22%

Responsibilities incollective activities 21%

Permanentcontractbythenationalauthorities Permanentcontractbyinstitutions/subunitsofinstitutions Determineddurationcontractbyinstitutions/subunitsofinstitutions16 Nodataavailable

TheMapdescribesthemosttypicalsituationineachofthecountries. InIsrael,theuniversitiesandpartofthecollegesprovideseniorstaffwithpermanentcontracts. HumanResourceManagementinPublicHigherEducationintheTempusPartnerCountries

Source:Nationalquestionnaires ElectedRector,approvalbythenationalauthoritiesrequired ElectedRector,noapprovalbythenationalauthoritiesrequired Noelection,approvalorappointmentbynationalauthorities Noelection,noapprovalbynationalauthoritiesrequired

Team building 9% Project management 14%

Information Technology(IT) 17%

Source:Nationalquestionnaires Overallolderstaffthan10yearsago Agestructureofstaffsimilarto10yearsago Overallyoungerstaffthan10yearsago Nodataavailable

Countriessufferingmainlyfrominternalbraindraintoprivateinstitutionsandbusinesses Countrieswhichperceivebothinternalandinternationalbraindrainasaproblemforpublichighereducation Countrieswhichsufferprincipallyfrominternationalbraindrain Braindrainisnotconsideredasaproblemforpublichighereducation

11. Attractiveness of jobs in higher education institutionsstrengthsandchallenges

Employmentstability Socialstatus Interestingwork Employmentstability Interestingwork Employmentstability

Lackofautonomy Highnrofworkinghours Lackofresearchopport. Lowsalary

Lowsalary Lackofresearchopport. Lackofautonomy

Goodsocialprotection Employmentstability Interestingwork

Lackofautonomy Lowsalary Lackofcareerdev. perspectives Lowsalary

Lackofchallengeandmonotonyoftasks Lackofautonomyinthework Highnumberofworkinghours Lowsalary

Lackofcareerdevelopmentperspectives Insufficientsocialprotection Absenceofnonsalarybenefits Lowsocialstatus

Inadequate salaries 32%

Lackof research oppor tunities 15%

Lackof reward mechanisms 23%