Communication Protocol: All communications between devices require that the devices agree on the format of the data.

The set of rules defining a format is called a protocol. At the very least, a communications protocol must define the following: Rate of transmission (in baud or bps) whether transmission is to be synchronous or asynchronous whether data is to be transmitted in half-duplex or full-duplex mode In addition, protocols can include sophisticated techniques for detecting and recovering from transmission errors and for encoding and decoding data.

The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and similar networks, and generally the most popular protocol stack for wide area networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because of its most important protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first networking protocols defined in this standard. It is occasionally known as the DoD model due to the foundational influence of the ARPANET in the 1970s. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. It has four abstraction layers, each with its own protocols. From lowest to highest, the layers are: 1. 2. 3. 4. The link layer (commonly Ethernet) contains communication technologies for a local network. The internet layer (IP) connects local networks, thus establishing internetworking. The transport layer (TCP) handles host-to-host communication. The application layer (for example HTTP) contains all protocols for specific data communications services on a process-to-process level (for example how a web browser communicates with a web server).

The types of services performed and protocols used at each layer within the TCP/IP model are described in more detail in the following table.
Layer Application Description Defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface with transport layer services to use the network. Provides communication session management between host computers. Defines the level of service and status of the connection used when transporting data. Packages data into IP datagrams, which contain source and destination address information that is used to forward the datagrams between hosts and across networks. Performs routing of IP datagrams. Specifies details of how data is physically sent through the network, including how bits are electrically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted-pair copper wire. Protocols HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SNMP, DNS, SMTP, X Windows, other application protocols TCP, UDP, RTP

Transport

Internet

IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP

Network interface

Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay, RS-232, v.35

The TCP/IP model and related protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 1

The OSI reference model is not specific to TCP/IP. It was developed by the ISO in the late 1970s as a framework for describing all functions required of an open interconnected network. It is a widely known and accepted reference model in the data communications field and is used here only for comparison purposes.

Layer Name
Application

Common Components
HTTP, SMTP, POP3 FTP, DNS

OSI Reference
Application, Presentation, Session

Transport Network Physical

TCP, UDP IP, ICMP Ethernet, FDDI

Transport Network Data Link, Physical

Internet Addresses
There are two major types of addresses on the Internet. One is a person's e-mail address, and the other is a Web site address, which is known as a URL. E-Mail Address The format for addressing a message to an Internet user is USER NAME @ DOMAIN NAME. Email addresses are obtained from an Internet service provider (ISP). You can generally choose any name for the first part of the address as long as it is not already taken. The second part is the ISP's domain name. IP addresses: Networks and hosts There are two standards for IP addresses: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6 (IPv6). All computers with IP addresses have an IPv4 address, and many are starting to use the new IPv6 address system as well. Here's what these two address types mean: IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv4 address is expressed by four numbers separated by dots. Each number is the decimal (base-10) representation for an eight-digit binary (base-2) number, also called an octet. For example: 216.27.61.137 IPv6 uses 128 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv6 address is expressed by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons, as in 2001:cdba:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652. Groups of numbers that contain all zeros are often omitted to save space, leaving a colon separator to mark the gap (as in 2001:cdba::3257:9652). At the dawn of IPv4 addressing, the Internet was not the large commercial sensation it is today, and most networks were private and closed off from other networks around the world. When the Internet exploded, having only 32 bits to identify a unique Internet address caused people to panic that we'd
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 2

run out of IP addresses. Under IPv4, there are 232 possible combinations, which offers just under 4.3 billion unique addresses. IPv6 raised that to a panic-relieving 2128 possible addresses.
Class full Addressing (Class A-E networks)

The addressing scheme for class A through E networks is shown below. Note: We use the 'x' character here to denote don't care situations which includes all possible numbers at the location. It is many times used to denote networks.
Network Type Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E Address Range 001.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x 128.1.x.x to 191.254.x.x 192.0.1.x to 223.255.254.x 224.x.x.x to 239.255.255.255 240.x.x.x to 247.255.255.255 Normal Netmask 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0 Comments For very large networks For medium size networks For small networks Used to support multicasting

To understand how subnet masks are used to distinguish between hosts, networks, and subnetworks, examine an IP address in binary notation. For example, the dotted-decimal IP address 192.168.123.132 is (in binary notation) the 32 bit number 110000000101000111101110000100. This number may be hard to make sense of, so divide it into four parts of eight binary digits. These eight bit sections are known as octets. The example IP address, then, becomes 11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100. This number only makes a little more sense, so for most uses; convert the binary address into dotted-decimal format (192.168.123.132). The decimal numbers separated by periods are the octets converted from binary to decimal notation. For a TCP/IP wide area network (WAN) to work efficiently as a collection of networks, the routers that pass packets of data between networks do not know the exact location of a host for which a packet of information is destined. Routers only know what network the host is a member of and use information stored in their route table to determine how to get the packet to the destination host's network. After the packet is delivered to the destination's network, the packet is delivered to the appropriate host. For this process to work, an IP address has two parts. The first part of an IP address is used as a network address, the last part as a host address. If you take the example 192.168.123.132 and divide it into these two parts you get the following: 192.168.123. Network
Page 3

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

.132 Host -or192.168.123.0 - network address. 0.0.0.132 - host address. Subnet mask The second item, which is required for TCP/IP to work, is the subnet mask. The subnet mask is used by the TCP/IP protocol to determine whether a host is on the local subnet or on a remote network. In TCP/IP, the parts of the IP address that are used as the network and host addresses are not fixed, so the network and host addresses above cannot be determined unless you have more information. This information is supplied in another 32-bit number called a subnet mask. In this example, the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0. It is not obvious what this number means unless you know that 255 in binary notation equals 11111111; so, the subnet mask is: 11111111.11111111.11111111.0000000 Lining up the IP address and the subnet mask together, the network and host portions of the address can be separated: 11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100 -- IP address (192.168.123.132) 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 -- Subnet mask (255.255.255.0) The first 24 bits (the number of ones in the subnet mask) are identified as the network address, with the last 8 bits (the number of remaining zeros in the subnet mask) identified as the host address. This gives you the following: 11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000 -Network address (192.168.123.0) 00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100 -- Host address (000.000.000.132) So now you know, for this example using a 255.255.255.0 subnet mask, that the network ID is 192.168.123.0, and the host address is 0.0.0.132. When a packet arrives on the 192.168.123.0 subnet (from the local subnet or a remote network), and it has a destination address of 192.168.123.132, your computer will receive it from the network and process it.

Network classes
Internet addresses are allocated by the InterNIC (http://www.internic.net ), the organization that administers the Internet. These IP addresses are divided into classes. The most common of these are classes A, B, and C. Classes D and E exist, but are not generally used by end users. Each of the address classes has a different default subnet mask. You can identify the class of an IP address by looking at its first octet. Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C Internet addresses, each with an example address:

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 4

Class A networks use a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 and have 0-127 as their first octet. The address 10.52.36.11 is a class A address. Its first octet is 10, which is between 1 and 126, inclusive. Class B networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 and have 128-191 as their first octet. The address 172.16.52.63 is a class B address. Its first octet is 172, which is between 128 and 191, inclusive. Class C networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 and have 192-223 as their first octet. The address 192.168.123.132 is a class C address. Its first octet is 192, which is between 192 and 223, inclusive. In some scenarios, the default subnet mask values do not fit the needs of the organization, because of the physical topology of the network, or because the numbers of networks (or hosts) do not fit within the default subnet mask restrictions. The next section explains how networks can be divided using subnet masks.

Subnetting
A Class A, B, or C TCP/IP network can be further divided, or subnetted, by a system administrator. This becomes necessary as you reconcile the logical address scheme of the Internet (the abstract world of IP addresses and subnets) with the physical networks in use by the real world. A system administrator who is allocated a block of IP addresses may be administering networks that are not organized in a way that easily fits these addresses. For example, you have a wide area network with 150 hosts on three networks (in different cities) that are connected by a TCP/IP router. Each of these three networks has 50 hosts. You are allocated the class C network 192.168.123.0. (For illustration, this address is actually from a range that is not allocated on the Internet.) This means that you can use the addresses 192.168.123.1 to 192.168.123.254 for your 150 hosts. Two addresses that cannot be used in your example are 192.168.123.0 and 192.168.123.255 because binary addresses with a host portion of all ones and all zeros are invalid. The zero address is invalid because it is used to specify a network without specifying a host. The 255 address (in binary notation, a host address of all ones) is used to broadcast a message to every host on a network. Just remember that the first and last address in any network or subnet cannot be assigned to any individual host. You should now be able to give IP addresses to 254 hosts. This works fine if all 150 computers are on a single network. However, your 150 computers are on three separate physical networks. Instead of requesting more address blocks for each network, you divide your network into subnets that enable you to use one block of addresses on multiple physical networks. In this case, you divide your network into four subnets by using a subnet mask that makes the network address larger and the possible range of host addresses smaller. In other words, you are 'borrowing' some of the bits usually used for the host address, and using them for the network portion of the address. The subnet mask 255.255.255.192 gives you four networks of 62 hosts each. This works because in binary notation, 255.255.255.192 is the same as 1111111.11111111.1111111.11000000. The first two digits of the last octet become network addresses, so you get the additional networks 00000000 (0), 01000000 (64), 10000000 (128) and 11000000 (192). (Some administrators will only use two of the subnetworks using 255.255.255.192 as a subnet mask. For more information on this topic, see RFC 1878.) In these four networks, the last 6 binary digits can be used for host addresses. Using a subnet mask of 255.255.255.192, your 192.168.123.0 network then becomes the four networks 192.168.123.0, 192.168.123.64, 192.168.123.128 and 192.168.123.192. These four networks would have as valid host addresses: Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 5

192.168.123.1-62 192.168.123.65-126 192.168.123.129-190 192.168.123.193-254

Remember, again, that binary host addresses with all ones or all zeros are invalid, so you cannot use addresses with the last octet of 0, 63, 64, 127, 128, 191, 192, or 255. You can see how this works by looking at two host addresses, 192.168.123.71 and 192.168.123.133. If you used the default Class C subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, both addresses are on the 192.168.123.0 network. However, if you use the subnet mask of 255.255.255.192, they are on different networks; 192.168.123.71 is on the 192.168.123.64 network, 192.168.123.133 is on the 192.168.123.128 network.

Default gateways
If a TCP/IP computer needs to communicate with a host on another network, it will usually communicate through a device called a router. In TCP/IP terms, a router that is specified on a host, which links the host's subnet to other networks, is called a default gateway. This section explains how TCP/IP determines whether or not to send packets to its default gateway to reach another computer or device on the network. When a host attempts to communicate with another device using TCP/IP, it performs a comparison process using the defined subnet mask and the destination IP address versus the subnet mask and its own IP address. The result of this comparison tells the computer whether the destination is a local host or a remote host. If the result of this process determines the destination to be a local host, then the computer will simply send the packet on the local subnet. If the result of the comparison determines the destination to be a remote host, then the computer will forward the packet to the default gateway defined in its TCP/IP properties. It is then the responsibility of the router to forward the packet to the correct subnet.

RFCs 1518 and 1519 define a system called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) which is used to allocate IP addresses more efficiently. This may be used with subnet masks to establish networks rather than the class system shown above. A class C subnet may be 8 bits but using CIDR, it may be 12 bits.
There are some network addresses reserved for private use by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) which can be hidden behind a computer which uses IP masquerading to connect the private network to the internet. There are three sets of addresses reserved. These addresses are shown below:
10.x.x.x 172.16.x.x - 172.31.x.x 192.168.x.x

Other reserved or commonly used addresses:

127.0.0.1 - The loopback interface address. All 127.x.x.x addresses are used by the loopback interface which copies data from the transmit buffer to the receive buffer of the NIC when used. 0.0.0.0 - This is reserved for hosts that don't know their address and use BOOTP or DHCP protocols to determine their addresses.

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 6

255 - The value of 255 is never used as an address for any part of the IP address. It is reserved for broadcast addressing. Please remember, this is exclusive of CIDR. When using CIDR, all bits of the address can never be all ones.

IP Routing Concepts
Routing is the process of moving data from one network to another and is usually performed at the network layer in the OSI model. The routing function is performed by Internet Protocol on networks running TCP/IP. Routing involves the delivery of datagrams between end systems located on different networks. Without routers and routing protocols, end host communication would be limited to only those systems on the same physical segment. Routing occurs at layer and bridging occurs at layer 2. IP performs: search for a matching host address search for a matching network address search for a default entry Routing is done by IP router. When it searches the routing table and decides which interface to end a packet out. What is a Network? In the context of IP Routing, a Network is a virtual place where the IP Addresses of every workstation and host are exactly the same in the "network part,." differing only in the "host part." For example, if an organization has a single LAN with a single Class C Network, say, 192.168.2, then every device's IP Address will start with the same 24 bits or three octets: 192.168.2. The remaining octet provides space for 256 unique addresses, some of which are reserved. In addition, we need the concept of a "netmask." This array of bits contains "one" bits in each position of the "network part." In this example, where the network part is 24-bits long, the netmask consists of 24 one-bits and 8 zero-bits. This may be expressed in hex as 0xffffff00, but it is most often expressed in dotted-decimal as 255.255.255.0. Clients, hosts and routers use the netmask to decide if two machines are in the same network. The steps are very simple: 1. "AND" the source IP Address with the netmask, which keeps just the "network part.". 2. "AND" the destination IP Address with the netmask, to get the "network part.". 3. If the two results are identical, the two machines are in the same network. Computers in "the same network" may communicate with each other directly. They need no help from anyone. To communicate with a machine in another network, you need... Routers Routers are speciallized computers that can exist in more than one network at a time. In addition, they may have knowledge of other routers. Usually, a small network has a single router. Because that router is the "only way out" of the network, this router is said to be the "gateway" to this network. It is permitted to have more than one router in a network, and your computers usually know what each is for. One may be to reach other parts of you business or to reach customer sites. One may be to the Internet. That one is special.
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 7

Any computer with more than one network interface and which has hardware or software that performs routing is called a router. The primary reason for putting a router in a network is to reduce the amount of broadcast traffic by splitting the network into at least two parts. When you do the setup on your workstations and hosts, you have the option to specify a "default gateway." This is the router to use when you don't know a path to the desired destination. It is the job of this router to either know how to get to the destination, or to know a smarter router that may. This smarter router is your router's default gateway. This is how the entire Internet works, more or less. It all boils down to these steps: If the destination is in your network, send the message directly. If the destination is not in your network, and you know a route, send via that router. If you haven't a clue as to a route, send by way of your default gateway. Each computer and each router follows these same rules. Routing Tables Routing is carried out in a router by consulting routing table. No unique format for routing tables, typically table contains: address of a destination IP address of next hop router network interface to be used subnet mask for the this interface distance to the destination Routing Component There are three important routing elements: Algorithm Database Protocol Algorithm: can be differentiate based on several key characteristics Database: table in routers or routing table Protocol: the way information for routing to be gathered and distributed Routing algorithms Design goals Optimality - compute the best route Simplicity/low overhead - efficient with a minimum software and utilization overhead Robustness/stability- perform correctly in the face of unusual circumstances Rapid convergence- responds quickly when the network changes Flexibility- accurate adapt to a variety of network Routing algorithm types Static V.S. dynamic Source routing V.S. hop-by-hop Centralize V.S. distributed Distance vector V.S. link state
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 8

Static Routing: Manually config routing table and cant react dynamically to network change such as routers crash. It work well with small network or simple topology. Dynamic Routing: Network protocol adjusts automatically for topology or traffic changes Source routing: Source will determine the entire route and routers only act as sore-forward devices Hop-by- hop: Routers determine the path based on theirs own calculation Distance Vector: Distance means routing metric. Vector means destination. It floods routing table only to its neighbors. RIP is an example and also known as Bellmann-Ford algorithm or Ford-Fulkerson algorithm Link State: Flood routing information to all nodes. Each router finds who is up and floods this information to the entire routers and uses the link state to build a shortest path map to everybody. OSPF is an example and also known as Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm

Distance Vector

Pass a copy of pass links state update Add metric from router to router Frequent periodic update: Slow convergence

whole routing table calculate the shortest path to other routers Event updated: fast Converge

Link State

Routing Protocols Routing protocol allows the exchange of information between routers about the current state of the network Routing protocol jobs Create routing table entries Keep routing table up-to-date Compute the best choice for the next hop router What is Convergence? Dynamic routing protocols calculate routes by advertising the networks they are connected to and the routes they use to reach other routers connected to more networks. Once all the routers in a network know all routes to all destinations, the routing protocol has said to have 'converged'. If a user were to attempt to reach a destination before the routing protocol converged, the data might never get to its destination. There are two problems that occur when a network is having difficulty reaching the state of convergence: routing loops and black holes. Routing Loops If a packet reaches a router which does not know how to get to the destination and get dropped, or the packet might get forwarded through a circle of routers in what is called a 'routing loop'. If that happened, the packet would simply run around in circles till it grew old and died. Fortunately, most data is given a time to live. When data is forwarded from one router to the next, one more tick is taken off it's time to live. Eventually that time to live reaches zero and the data is thrown away. This prevents the network from becoming congested. Black Holes
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 9

Black holes are what happens when a route sends data to the wrong place or can't get to the destination. The data is simply dropped and vanishes from the network. Packets go in and they don't come out. Nearly all 'black holes' are unintentional and are caused by problems occurring on the network. However, Internet providers will sometimes intentionally black hole destinations belonging to those who abuse their Internet privledges. SPAMMERS beware! What are Advertisements? Advertisements are messages sent between routers that pass on information about how to reach destinations. Some routing protocols advertise the complete list of known routes; some protocols only advertise summarized lists of routes, or changes. What are Metrics? Routing metrics are a scoring system for routes used to indicate how good or bad the route is. Metrics are calculated by routers to prioritize routes from best to worst. Routers use the metrics to select the best possible route or routes to a given destination. Metrics can include hop count (how many stops there are between here and the destination), media type (serial, FDDI, Token Ring, ethernet, SONET etc.), availability (whether the machine is up or down) and several other factors including some set by the Network Administrator. A lower metric generally indicates a better route.

Table Driven and Next Hop Routing

Datagram Transmission: Host delivers datagrams to directly connected machines. Host sends datagrams that cannot be delivered directly to router. Routers forward datagrams to other routers. Final router delivers datagram directly. Choosing the path for a packet is called forwarding.

Table-Driven Routing:
Internet routing tables store information on possible destinations and how to reach each of them. Both hosts and gateways have routing tables. Routing tables only need to store the NETID portion of IP addresses for routing. This keeps them small and efficient. Entries in the routing tables take the following form: o (N, G) pairs, where: o N - Destination network IP address. o G - IP address of the next gateway along the route to the destination. Each pair specifies only one hop and always points to gateways that can be reached across a single network (directly connected). Tables only need to grow if new networks are attached, NOT hosts. An example internet with 4 networks and 3 routers, and the routing table in R

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 10

Consequences of this method: o Usually only use a static route and do not choose concurrent routes. o May not know the ultimate destination is down, so final gateway must report back if this is the case (complicated). o (A sends to B, B sends to A) may route over different paths. Gateways must cooperate to ensure two-way communication. The "default" gateway entry in routing tables helps keep table sizes down (less choices). When a gateway performs routing, it checks the local networks first. If they are not the correct destination, send to the default gateway.

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 11

Next-Hop Addresses:
When a datagram traverses an internetwork, the source and destination IP addresses are never changed. An IP address (usually of the next gateway) is computed by the IP routing algorithm and software, and is known as the next-hop address. The next-hop address is NOT put in the datagram or stored at all. It is passed to the Network Interface Layer which: o Binds next-hop address to its physical address. o Forms a frame using that physical address. o Encapsulates the datagram in the data field of the frame. o Transmits the frame. Next-hop address computation is a lengthy process, why not just store physical addresses (IP to hardware address bindings) and use them to compute routes? Two reasons: o IP software and routing tables reside above the address boundary. Routing tables provide a clean software interface between IP protocol and high-level routing software (helps in debugging by just checking the routing table). o The point (purpose) of IP is to build an abstraction that hides underlying details. Routing Table: Decisions will be based on table lookup and are extremely efficient. Routing tables keep only network portion of addresses (size proportional to number of networks, not number of hosts). Routing table (also called a forwarding table) used to decide how to send datagram. Routing table only stores address of next router along the path and scheme is known as next-hop forwarding or next-hop routing. In Next-Hop Forwarding, A routing table contains pairs (N,R) where N is the IP address of a destination network and R is the IP address of the next router along the path to N. The next hop must be a directly-connected router. Default route: Special entry in IP routing table only selected if no other match in table. Matches ''any'' destination address and only one default permitted Host-specific route: Entry that must match entire 32-bit value in IP routing table. Can be used to send traffic for a specific host along a specific path IP Routing Table A routing table is present on all IP nodes. The routing table stores information about IP networks and how they can be reached (either directly or indirectly). Because all IP nodes perform some form of IP routing, routing tables are not exclusive to IP routers. Any node loading the TCP/IP protocol has a routing table. There are a series of default entries according to the configuration of the node and additional entries can be entered either manually through TCP/IP utilities or dynamically through interaction with routers. When an IP packet is to be forwarded, the routing table is used to determine:

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 12

1. The forwarding or next-hop IP address: For a direct delivery, the forwarding IP address is the destination IP address in the IP packet. For an indirect delivery, the forwarding IP address is the IP address of a router. 2. The interface to be used for the forwarding: The interface identifies the physical or logical interface such as a network adapter that is used to forward the packet to either its destination or the next router.

IP Routing Table Entry Types

An entry in the IP routing table contains the following information in the order presented: Network ID. The network ID or destination corresponding to the route. The network ID can be classbased, subnet, or supernet network ID, or an IP address for a host route. Network Mask. The mask that is used to match a destination IP address to the network ID. Next Hop. The IP address of the next hop. Interface. An indication of which network interface is used to forward the IP packet. Metric. A number used to indicate the cost of the route so the best route among possible multiple routes to the same destination can be selected. A common use of the metric is to indicate the number of hops (routers crossed) to the network ID. Routing table entries can be used to store the following types of routes: Directly Attached Network IDs. Routes for network IDs that are directly attached. For directly attached networks, the Next Hop field can be blank or contain the IP address of the interface on that network. Remote Network IDs. Routes for network IDs that are not directly attached but are available across other routers. For remote networks, the Next Hop field is the IP address of a local router in between the forwarding node and the remote network. Host Routes. A route to a specific IP address. Host routes allow routing to occur on a per-IP address basis. For host routes, the network ID is the IP address of the specified host and the network mask is 255.255.255.255. Default Route. The default route is designed to be used when a more specific network ID or host route is not found. The default route network ID is 0.0.0.0 with the network mask of 0.0.0.0.

Route Determination Process

To determine which routing table entry is used for the forwarding decision, IP uses the following process: For each entry in a routing table, perform a bit-wise logical AND between the destination IP address and the network mask. Compare the result with the network ID of the entry for a match.
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 13

The list of matching routes is compiled. The route that has the longest match (the route that matched the most amount of bits with the destination IP address) is chosen. The longest matching route is the most specific route to the destination IP address. If multiple entries with the longest match are found (multiple routes to the same network ID, for example), the router uses the lowest metric to select the best route. If multiple entries exist that are the longest match and the lowest metric, the router is free to choose which routing table entry to use. The end result of the route determination process is the choice of a single route in the routing table. The route chosen yields a forwarding IP address (the next hop IP address) and an interface (the port). If the route determination process fails to find a route, IP declares a routing error. For the sending host, an IP routing error is internally indicated to the upper layer protocol such as TCP or UDP. For a router, an ICMP Destination Unreachable-Host Unreachable message is sent to the source host.

Example Routing Table for Windows 2000

Table 1.28 shows the default routing table for a Windows 2000based host (not a router). The host has a single network adapter and has the IP address 157.55.27.90, subnet mask 255.255.240.0 (/20), and default gateway of 157.55.16.1. Windows 2000 Routing Table Network Destination 0.0.0.0 127.0.0.0 157.55.16.0 157.55.27.90 157.55.255.255 224.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 Netmask 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 224.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 Gateway Interface Metric Purpose Default Route Loopback Network Directly Attached Network Local Host Network Broadcast Multicast Address Limited Broadcast

157.55.16.1 157.55.27.90 1 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 1 157.55.27.90 157.55.27.90 1 127.0.0.1 157.55.27.90 157.55.27.90 157.55.27.90 127.0.0.1 157.55.27.90 157.55.27.90 157.55.27.90 1 1 1 1

Default Route The entry corresponding to the default gateway configuration is a network destination of 0.0.0.0 with a network mask (netmask) of 0.0.0.0. Any destination IP address joined with 0.0.0.0 by a logical AND results in 0.0.0.0. Therefore, for any IP address, the default route produces a match. If the default route is chosen because no better routes were found, the IP packet is forwarded to the IP address in the Gateway column using the interface corresponding to the IP address in the Interface column. Loopback Network The loopback network entry is designed to take any IP address of the form 127.x.y.z and forward it to the special loopback address of 127.0.0.1. Directly Attached Network The local network entry corresponds to the directly attached network. IP packets destined for the directly attached network are not forwarded to a router but sent directly to the destination. Note that the Gateway and Interface columns match the IP address of the node. This indicates that the packet is sent from the network adapter corresponding to the node's IP address.
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 14

Local Host The local host entry is a host route (network mask of 255.255.255.255) corresponding to the IP address of the host. All IP datagrams to the IP address of the host are forwarded to the loopback address. Network Broadcast The network broadcast entry is a host route (network mask of 255.255.255.255) corresponding to the all-subnets directed broadcast address (all subnets of class B network ID 157.55.0.0). Packets addressed to the all-subnets directed broadcast are sent from the network adapter corresponding to the node's IP address. Multicast Address The multicast address, with its class D network mask, is used to route any multicast IP packets from the network adapter corresponding to the node's IP address. Limited Broadcast The limited broadcast address is a host route (network mask of 255.255.255.255). Packets addressed to the limited broadcast are sent from the network adapter corresponding to the node's IP address. To view the IP routing table on a Windows 2000-based computer, type route print at a Windows 2000 command prompt. When determining the forwarding or next-hop IP address from a route in the routing table: If the gateway address is the same as the interface address, the forwarding IP address is set to the destination IP address of the IP packet. If the gateway address is not the same as the interface address, the forwarding IP address is set to the gateway address. For example, when traffic is sent to 157.55.16.48, the most specific route is the route for the directly attached network (157.55.16.0/20). The forwarding IP address is set to destination IP address (157.55.16.48) and the interface is the network adapter, which has been assigned the IP address 157.55.27.90. When sending traffic to 157.20.0.79, the most specific route is the default route (0.0.0.0/0). The forwarding IP address is set to the gateway address (157.20.16.1) and the interface is the network adapter, which has been assigned the IP address 157.55.27.90.

Other Routing Related Protocols

Routed versus routing protocols A routed protocol can be routed by a router, i.e., it can be forwarded from one router to another. A routing protocol sends and receives packets containing routing information to and from other routers. In some cases, routing protocols can themselves run over routed protocols: for example, BGP runs over TCP which runs over IP; care is taken in the implementation of such systems not to create a circular dependency between the routing and routed protocols. That a routing protocol runs over particular transport mechanism does not mean that the routing protocol is of layer (N+1) if the transport mechanism is of layer (N). Routing protocols, according to the OSI Routing framework, are layer management protocols for the network layer, regardless of their transport mechanism:
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 15

IS-IS runs over the data link layer OSPF, IGRP, and EIGRP run directly over IP; OSPF and EIGRP have their own reliable transmission mechanism while IGRP assumed an unreliable transport RIP runs over UDP BGP runs over TCP Interior routing protocols Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) exchange routing information within a single routing domain. Examples of IGPs include: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) RIP (Routing Information Protocol) IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System) EIGRP (Cisco's proprietary Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) Note that IGRP, a Cisco proprietary routing protocol, is no longer supported. EIGRP accepts IGRP configuration commands, but the internals of IGRP and EIGRP are completely different. ARP - Address Resolution Protocol and RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol ARP: When an Ethernet frame is sent from one host on a LAN to another, it is the 48-bit Ethernet address that determines for which interface the frame is destined. The device driver software never looks at the destination IP address in the IP datagram. Address resolution provides a mapping between the two different forms of addresses: 32-bit IP addresses and whatever type of address the data link uses. ARP provides a dynamic mapping from an IP address to the corresponding hardware address. We use the term dynamic since it happens automatically and is normally not a concern of either the application user or the system administrator. RARP: Each system on a network has a unique hardware address, assigned by the manufacturer of the network interface. The principle of RARP is for the diskless system to read its unique hardware address from the interface card and send an RARP request (a broadcast frame on the network) asking for someone to reply with the diskless system's IP address (in an RARP reply). Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)- Web servers implement this protocol. Short for HyperText Transfer Protocol, the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web. HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)- Used by e-mail servers (and sometimes Web servers) to send e-mail. Short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages between servers. Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to send
Page 16

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

messages from one server to another; the messages can then be retrieved with an e-mail client using either POP or IMAP. In addition, SMTP is generally used to send messages from a mail client to a mail server. This is why you need to specify both the POP or IMAP server and the SMTP server when you configure your e-mail application. Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3)- A protocol used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server. Most e-mail applications (sometimes called an e-mail client) use the POP protocol, although some can use the newer IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol). There are two versions of POP. The first, called POP2, became a standard in the mid-80's and requires SMTP to send messages. The newer version, POP3, can be used with or without SMTP.

IMAP - Short for Internet Message Access Protocol, a protocol for retrieving e-mail messages. The latest version, IMAP4, is similar to POP3 but supports some additional features. For example, with IMAP4, you can search through your e-mail messages for keywords while the messages are still on mail server. You can then choose which messages to download to your machine. IMAP was developed at Stanford University in 1986. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)- The protocol for exchanging files over the Internet. FTP works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web pages from a server to a user's browser and SMTP for transferring electronic mail across the Internet in that, like these technologies, FTP uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer. FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g., uploading a Web page file to a server).

DNS- Short for Domain Name System (or Service or Server), an Internet service that translates domain names into IP addresses. Because domain names are alphabetic, they're easier to remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain name www.example.com might translate to 198.105.232.4. The DNS system is, in fact, its own network. If one DNS server doesn't know how to translate a particular domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct IP address is returned.

Internet Protocol (IP)- Provides addressing scheme.. IP specifies the format of packets, also called datagrams, and the addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with a higher-level protocol called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source. IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it in the system, but there's no direct link between you and the recipient. TCP/IP, on the other hand, establishes a connection between two hosts so that they can send messages back and forth for a period of time. The current version of IP is IPv4. A new version, called IPv6 or IPng.
Page 17

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)- Provides error messages, an extension to the Internet Protocol (IP) defined by RFC 792. ICMP supports packets containing error, control, and informational messages. The PING command, for example, uses ICMP to test an Internet connection. RFC - Short for Request for Comments, a series of notes about the Internet, started in 1969. An Internet Document can be submitted to the IETF by anyone, but the IETF decides if the document becomes an RFC. Eventually, if it gains enough interest, it may evolve into an Internet standard.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)- Does not establish a connection, just sends messages. A connectionless protocol that, like TCP, runs on top of IP networks. Unlike TCP/IP, UDP/IP provides very few error recovery services, offering instead a direct way to send and receive datagrams over an IP network. It's used primarily for broadcasting messages over a network.

Information a Router needs to know to route a packet Destination address. Neighbor routers. Possible routes to all remote networks. The best route to each network. How to maintain and verify routing information. Routers learn about remote networks from neighboring routers or an administrator. The router then builds a routing table that tells how to get to the remote networks. Routes are either directly connected, static, or dynamic. Static routes are entered in by the administrator. Dynamic routes are learned from neighboring routers using routing protocols. In dynamic routing, the routers update each other at set intervals. Changes cause the routers to update all the other routers. If a router receives a packet with a destination network not in its routing tables, it will discard the packet. To show the IP routing tables on a Cisco router use the show ip route command:

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 18

Internet Access through PPP and SLIP

The majority of people, not having lines (cable or Ethernet) linked directly to the Internet, must use telephone lines (the most widely used network) to connect to the Internet. The connection is made using a modem, a device capable of converting digital data from the

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 19

computer into analogue signals (that can circulate on telephone lines by amplitude or frequency modulation, in the same way as voice when you use the telephone). Considering that only two computers are communicating and the speed of a telephone line is slow in comparison to that of a local network, it is necessary to use a protocol enabling standard communication between the different machines using a modem, and not overload the telephone line. These protocols are called modem protocols. SLIP and PPP are examples. SLIP means Serial Line Internet Protocol. It is a simple Internet link protocol conducting neither address or error control, this is the reason that it is quickly becoming obsolete in comparison to PPP. It is an old protocol, low in controls. PPP means Point to Point Protocol. It is a much more developed protocol than SLIP (which is why it is replacing it), insofar as it transfers additional data, better suited to data transmission over the Internet (the addition of data in a frame is mainly due to the increase in bandwidth). It is the most widely used protocol for accessing the Internet via a modem, it authorises addressing machines Dial up Service: For Dialup connections you will need your account name, password and a phone number for your ISP. For broadband (DSL or Cable Modem for ISP it is PPPoE) account you do not need Phone number. PPP and SLIP allow one to establish an internet connection to a Internet Service Provider (ISP). PPP and SLIP are protocols that let your PC converse with the internet over a telephone line and modems. SLIP and PPP are relatively similar, but there are some key differences. PPP is a newer protocol, better designed, and more acceptable to the sort of people who like to standardize protocol specifications. SLIP/PPP provides the ability to transport TCP/IP traffic over serial lines, such as dial-up telephone lines, between two computers. Both computers run TCP/IP based network software. This allows a home user to get direct internet access from their own PC with just a simple modem and a telephone line. For many users, this is an exciting way to gain internet connectivity at a low cost. With SLIP/PPP, you can run your favourite GUI based web browser, ftp client, email client etc - right from your own PC. SLIP/PPP is really a form of direct internet connection in the sense that: Your computer has a communications link to the internet, even if it is via a service provider Your computer has the networking software that can speak TCP/IP with other computers on the internet Your computer has an identifying address (IP address) at which it can be contacted by other computers on the internet. With SLIP/PPP, your own PC is communicating using native IP with other computers on the internet while with normal host dial-up, your PC simply acts as a dumb terminal to the remote computer which then communicates with other computers on the internet using native IP. When you run a ftp client with host dial-up, the files you receive are stored on the remote computer. With SLIP, however, the files are received directly on your own PC. You can

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 20

run GUI based clients (telnet, web browsers, etc) on your own PC and directly make use of internet services. PPP has some additional benefits. Unlike SLIP (which can only transport TCP/IP traffic), PPP is a multi-protocol transport mechanism. This means that PPP not only transports TCP/IP traffic, but can also transport IPX and Appletalk traffic, to name just a few. Better yet, PPP lets you transport all of these protocols at the same time - on the same connection. This is often not a concern for most users since their purpose of either using SLIP or PPP is to connect to the internet and the internet uses TCP/IP only. Therefore, there is no need to transport other protocols. Configuring Dial-Up in Windows XP? 1. From the Start menu select Control Panels. Click on the blue underlined words to the left that say Show all Control Panels. Make sure that you are in Classic View (there's an option on the left panel). 2. Open Network Connections and click on Make new connection. 3. Click Next when the wizard pops up and choose the radio button for Connect to the Internet. Click Next and choose the radio button for Set up my connection manually. 4. Click Next and choose the radio button for Connect using a dial-up modem. Type in BSNL for the ISP name: and click Next. Type in 01274-240790 for the phone number and click Next. 5. Enter your username and password. Click Next and then Finished. 6. Now locate the dial-up connection icon that you just made and double-click on it. Make sure the phone number is correct. 7. Click the Networking tab at the top of the window. Make sure that the type of dial-up server you are calling is set to PPP. 8. Highlight Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and click the Properties button below that frame. Now that I've set up my dial up connection, how do I connect? First you'll need to plug your phone cable into your modem and the wall jack. Then, you need to locate the icon to connect. In Windows 2000, you may need to go to Start, then Settings, then Network and Dial-up Connections to select your connection. In Windows XP Professional, go to Start, then Connect to, and then Dial-up Connection. If your computer does not automatically begin dialing, click on the Connect or Dial button. You may be prompted for your username and password. Your computer will dial up. Once you are connected, you should be able to access the Internet.

www
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or W3, commonly known as the Web), is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. The World Wide Web consists of all the public Web sites connected to the Internet worldwide, including the client devices (such as computers and cell phones) that access Web content. The WWW is just one of many applications of the Internet and computer networks. The World Web is based on these technologies: HTML - Hypertext Markup Language Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 21

HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol Web servers and Web browsers

British engineer and computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee, now Director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), wrote a proposal in March 1989 for what would eventually become the World Wide Web. He helped build prototypes of the above Web technologies and coined the term "WWW."
Web sites and Web browsing exploded in popularity during the mid-1990s. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia, and navigate between them via hyperlinks. WEB BROWSER: A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and may be a web page, image, video, or other piece of content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. A web browser can also be defined as an application software or program designed to enable users to access, retrieve and view documents and other resources on the Internet. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems. The major web browsers are Firefox, Chrome, Internet Explorer, Opera, and Safari. Functions of Web Browser: The primary purpose of a web browser is to bring information resources to the user ("retrieval" or "fetching"), allow them to view the information ("display", "rendering"), and then access other information ("navigation", "following links"). This process begins when the user inputs a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), for example http://en.wikipedia.org/, into the browser. The prefix of the URL, the Uniform Resource Identifier or URI, determines how the URL will be interpreted. The most commonly used kind of URI starts with http: and identifies a resource to be retrieved over the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Many browsers also support a variety of other prefixes, such as https: for HTTPS, ftp: for the File Transfer Protocol, and file: for local files. Prefixes that the web browser cannot directly handle are often handed off to another application entirely. For example, mailto: URIs are usually passed to the user's default e-mail application, and news: URIs are passed to the user's default newsgroup reader. In the case of http, https, file, and others, once the resource has been retrieved the web browser will display it. HTML and associated content (image files, formatting information such as CSS, etc.) is passed to the browser's layout engine to be transformed from markup to an interactive document, a process known as "rendering". Aside from HTML, web browsers can generally display any kind of content that can be part of a web page. Most browsers can display images, audio, video, and XML files, and often have plug-ins to support Flash applications and Java applets. Upon encountering a file of an unsupported type or a file that is set up to be downloaded rather than displayed, the browser prompts the user to save the file to disk. Information resources may contain hyperlinks to other information resources. Each link contains the URI of a resource to go to. When a link is clicked, the browser navigates to the resource indicated by the link's target URI, and the process of bringing content to the user begins again. Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 22

The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. It was called WorldWideWeb (no spaces) and was later renamed Nexus. In 1993, browser software was further innovated by Marc Andreessen with the release of Mosaic (later Netscape), "the world's first popular browser", which made the World Wide Web system easy to use and more accessible to the average person. Andreesen's browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 one of the first graphical web browsers led to an explosion in web use. Andreessen, the leader of the Mosaic team at NCSA, soon started his own company, named Netscape, and released the Mosaic-influenced Netscape Navigator in 1994, which quickly became the world's most popular browser, accounting for 90% of all web use at its peak (see usage share of web browsers). Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industry's first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market; Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996; although it has never achieved widespread use, having less than 2% browser usage share as of February 2012 according to Net Applications. Its Opera-mini version has an additive share, in April 2011 amounting to 1.1% of overall browser use, but focused on the fast-growing mobile phone web browser market, being preinstalled on over 40 million phones. It is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendo's Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model. That browser would eventually evolve into Firefox, which developed a respectable following while still in the beta stage of development; shortly after the release of Firefox 1.0 in late 2004, Firefox (all versions) accounted for 7% of browser use. As of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apple's Safari had its first beta release in January 2003; as of April 2011, it had a dominant share of Apple-based web browsing, accounting for just over 7% of the entire browser market. WEB SERVER: Web servers are computers that deliver (serves up) Web pages. Every Web server has

an IP address and possibly a domain name. For example, if you enter the URL http://www.pcwebopedia.com/index.html in your browser, this sends a request to the Web server whose domain name is pcwebopedia.com. The server then fetches the page named index.html and sends it to your browser. A Web server is a program that, using the client/server model and the World Wide Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP. Every computer on the Internet that contains a Web site must have a Web server program. Two leading Web servers are Apache, the most widely-installed Web server, and Microsoft's Internet Information Server (IIS). Other Web servers include Novell's Web Server for users of its NetWare operating system and IBM's family of Lotus Domino servers, primarily for IBM's OS/390 and AS/400 customers. Web servers often come as part of a larger package of Internet- and intranet-related programs for serving e-mail, downloading requests for File Transfer Protocol (FTP) files, and building and publishing Web
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 23

pages. Considerations in choosing a Web server include how well it works with the operating system and other servers, its ability to handle server-side programming, security characteristics, and publishing, search engine, and site building tools that may come with it. A computer connected to the Internet for providing the services to a small company or a departmental store may contain the HTTP server (to access and store the web pages and files), SMTP server (to support mail services), FTP server ( for files downloading) and NNTP server (for newsgroup). The computer containing all the above servers is called the web server. Internet service providers and large companies may have all the servers like HTTP server, SMTP server, FTP server and many more on separate machines. In case of Java, a web server can be defined as the server that only supports to the web component like servlet and jsp. The most common web server software today, that is, the program that actually does the receiving and answering of page requests, is Apache. This open-source software handles more than half of all websites in existence today - many developers of web-based applications and technologies use Apache as their default environment when designing new products. The second most common is Internet Information Services (IIS), released by Microsoft, which accounts for nearly 25% of all websites, leaving various other smaller applications to compete for the remaining niche. Shared hosting: Shared hosting is Web hosting in which the service provider serves pages for multiple
Web sites, each having its own Internet domain name, from a single Web server. Port 80: On a Web server or Hypertext Transfer Protocol daemon, port 80 is the port that the server "listens to" or expects to receive from a Web client, assuming that the default was taken when the server ...

Dedicated server: In the Web hosting business, a dedicated server refers to the rental and exclusive use
of a computer that includes a Web server, related software, and connection to the Internet, housed in the Web

Here is a detailed and updated list of the most important and popular web servers:

Apache web server - the HTTP web server

Free and the most popular web server in the world developed by the Apache Software Foundation. Apache web server is an open source software and can be installed and made to work on almost all operating systems including Linux, Unix, Windows, FreeBSD, Mac OS X and more. About 60% of the web server machines run the Apache web server.

Apache Tomcat
The Apache Tomcat has been developed to support servlets and JSP scripts. Though it can serve as a standalone server, Tomcat is generally used along with the popular Apache HTTP web server or any other web server. Apache Tomcat is free and open source and can run on different operating systems like Linux, Unix, Windows, Mac OS X, Free

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 24

BSD.

Microsoft's Internet Information Services (IIS) Windows Server

IIS Windows Web Server has been developed by the software giant, Microsoft. It offers higher levels of performance and security than its predecessors. It also comes with a good support from the company and is the second most popular server on the web.

Nginx web server

Free open source popular web server including IMAP/POP3 proxy server. Hosting about 7.5% of all domains worldwide, Nginx is known for its high performance, stability, simple configuration and low resource usage. This web server doesn't use threads to handle requests rather a much more scalable event-driven architecture which uses small and predictable amounts of memory under load.

lighttpd
lighttpd, pronounced "lighty" (don't ask me why), is a free web server distributed with the FreeBSD operating system. This open source web server is fast, secure and consumes much less CPU power. Lighttpd can also run on Windows, Mac OS X, Linux and Solaris operating systems.

Jigsaw
Jigsaw (W3C's Server) comes from the World Wide Web Consortium. It is open source and free and can run on various platforms like Linux, Unix, Windows, Mac OS X Free BSD etc. Jigsaw has been written in Java and can run CGI scripts and PHP programs.

Klone
Klone, from KoanLogic Srl, includes a web server and an SDK for creating static and dynamic web sites. It is a web application development framework especially for embedded systems and appliances. No additional components are required when using Klone; thus, one can do away with an HTTP/S server or the active pages engine (PHP, Perl, ASP).

Abyss web server

Abyss compact web server runs on all popular platforms - Windows, Mac OS X, Linux and FreeBSD. The personal edition is (X1) 100% free while the professional Abyss Web
Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI Page 25

Server X2 has a small price tag of $60. Supports HTTP/1.1, secure connections, CGI/FastCGI, custom error pages, password protection and much more. The server also has an automatic antihacking system and a multiligual remote web management interface.

Oracle Web Tier

Includes two web server options with reverse proxy and caching solutions that lead to quick serving of web pages and easy handling of even the most demanding http traffic. The iPlanet Web Server, for example, is a high-performance server with enhanced security and mutithreaded architechture that scales well on modern 64-bit multiprocessors.

X5 (Xitami) web server

The cross-platform X5 from iMatrix Corporation is the latest generation web server using the company's own multithreading technology (Base2) that makes it scalable to multi cores. As per the iMatrix, X5 can handle thousands of connections without difficulty and thus is useful for long polling in which connections from clients remain open for extended durations.

Zeus web server

The Zeus web server runs on Linux and Free BSD operating systems among others. It has been developed by Zeus technology Ltd. and is known for its speed, reliability, security and flexibility. The web server is used on some of the busiest web sites of the world including Ebay. Zeus web server is not free and costs more than a thousand pounds.

Designed by: Mahesh Yadav, MRKIET, REWARI

Page 26