1

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY Whereas the 19th century was the century of the steam engine and the 20th century was that of the internal combustion engine. It is likely that the 21st century will be the century of the fuel cell. Fuel cells are now on the verge of being introduced commercially, revolutionizing the way we presently produce power. Fuel cells can use hydrogen as fuel, offering the purpose of supplying the world with clean, sustainable electrical power.[1] The concept of a hydrogen fuel cell can be summarized as a means of converting hydrogen containing fuels directly into electrical energy. This is represented in the reaction equation 2H2
(gas)

+ O2

(gas)

2H2O + energy

The above reaction implies so many possibilities, and advantages over other methods of power production. Fuel cells are categorized under a class of non-conventional power

producing methods known as Green-technology. Green-tech is a

cognomen for any form of energy production with non-toxic (pollutant free) by product; in more colloquial terms green-tech is an earth friendly process of production. In a green-tech production method the application green of one or more of

environmental

science,

chemistry,

environmental

monitoring, and electronic devices to model, monitor and conserve the natural environment and resources, as well as to curb the negative impact of human application of scientific knowledge.
[2]

Fuel cell technology is a form of green-tech that has shown much promise and is a possible replacement for fossil fuel systems of power generation. As already stated the fuel cell converts hydrogen or hydrogen containing fuels, directly into electrical energy. The process is that of electrolysis in reverse, because hydrogen and oxygen gases are electrochemically converted into water, fuel cells have many advantages over heat engines. For a fuel cell, in the burning of a hydrocarbon, as the hydrogen content of the fuel being fed to the fuel cell increases, the formation of water becomes more significant while there is a resulting proportional emission reduction of carbondioxide.

1.1 STATEMENT OF STUDY Within the last century many developments have lead to the much needed research to find a new means of power generation, problems that have lead to such endeavors includes: GLOBAL WARMING: This is a rise in the average temperature of the earth due to rising level of green house gases .Heat engines and most conventional methods of power generation emit greenhouse gases; inadvertently speeding up global warming. POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT: One of the drawbacks of most methods of power generation is the release of different pollutants into the environment. Some examples of such pollutants include hot water, toxic waste, carbonmonoxide and green house gases,

radio active by products etc. SEARCH FOR HIGHER LEVELS OF EFFICIENCY: For machines the total input energy is not used for work, some portion of it (input energy) is lost as losses. In a bid to conserve the available

resources, higher levels of efficiency are sort after in the design of machines. SUSTAINABILITY OF ENERGY RESOURCES: After World War II scientists became highly aware of the need to conserve fossil fuel, since then many efforts have been made to find a more sustainable energy source, or at least, a more conservative method of using energy resources. 1.2 PURPOSE OF STUDY This research work is aimed at studying and describing fuel cell technology. This includes taking into perspective the following features of a fuel cell: History and developments in fuel cell technology Working principles of a fuel cell Types of fuel cells and various applications most suited for the various types.

Fuel cell systems.

Performance and efficiency of fuel cells

Fuel cells are referred to as the replacement for heat engines; this work looks into the cause of such claims, the feasibility, and final economic impact. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The various conclusions drawn from this study will act as a theoretical backing for the implementation of fuel cell technology in the Nigerian electrical infrastructure, as applies to distributed generation, cogeneration, and sustainable power in the country. 1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study covers all the fundamental knowledge and concepts upon which the fuel cell is built upon, as well as a theoretical approach to the technology itself. Various charts and equations are used in the write-up, all of which are gotten from trusted and reputable sources. 1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS

COGENERATION: This is a process where by a power production unit simultaneously generates both electricity and useful heat.

POWER DENSITY: This is the amount of power (time rate of energy transfer) per unit volume in energy transformers, expressed as W m3 .

PART-LOAD: This is the partial load value of a system. It is a load value less than the fuel load but greater than no load.

STANDARD POTENTIAL: A measure of individual potential of a reversible electrode at standard state i.e. solute

concentration of 1 mol dm-3, temperature of 250c (298k), and pressure of 1 atm.

ELECTRODES: This an electrical conductor used to make contract with a nonmetallic part of a circuit i.e.

semiconductor, electrolyte, or vacuum. The electrodes are either; Anode: This is the electrode at which electrons leave a cell and oxidation occurs.

Cathode: This is the electrode at which electrons enter the cell and reduction occurs.

ELECTROLYTES: This is a liquid, gel, or solid which contains ions and can be decomposed by electrolysis.

CHEMICAL KINETICS: This is the rate of chemical processes (chemical reaction) with regards to changes brought about by environmental conditions (pressure, temperature,

volume, light etc.)

OXIDATION: Loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state of a molecule, atom or ion

REDUCTION: Gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state of a molecule atom or ion.

MEMBRANE: A selective barrier that allows the movement of some selected particles or chemical through it, while blocking out others.

CATALYST: A reagent that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

ENTROPY: Measure of a systems thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing work.

EXOTHERMIC: Reaction process that releases energy from a system in the form of heat.

ENTHALPY: This is the measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic reaction

ACTIVATION ENERGY: The energy that must be overcome in order for a chemical reaction to occur.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 HISTORY OF FUEL CELLS The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by German Scientist Christian Friedrich schonbein in 1838 and published in one of the Scientific Magazines of the time
[2]

. Based on this work,

the actual first running fuel cell was developed by Sir William Grove in 1839. The principle was discovered by accident during an electrolysis experiment. When Sir William disconnected the battery from the electrolyser and connected the two electrodes together, it was observed that current was flowing in the other direction (opposite direction) consuming gases of hydrogen and oxygen. He called this device a gas battery. This fuel cell he made used many similar materials to todays phosphoric-acid fuel cell. The set up consisted of platinum electrodes placed in test tubes of hydrogen and oxygen, immersed in a bath of dilute

10

sulphuric acid. It generated voltage of about 1V. However due to problems of corrosion of the electrodes and instability of the materials the cell (gas battery) was not very practical. As a result their was little research and further development of fuel cells for many years to follow. Significant work on fuel cells began again in the 1930s, by Francis Bacon, a chemical engineer at the university of

Cambridge. In the 1950s Bacon Successfully produced the first practical fuel cell, which was an alkaline version. It used an alkaline electrolyte (Molten KOH) potassium hydroxide instead of dilute sulphuric acid. The electrodes were constructed of porous sintered nickel powder so as to let the gases diffuse through the electrodes and be in contract with the aqueous electrolyte on the other side. This design greatly increased the surface area of contact between the electrodes, gas, and the electrolyte. Thus increasing the power density of the fuel cell, the chemical reactions were
[1]

. 4H2O + 4e4OH-

Anode: 2H2 + 4OHCathode: O2 + 4e- + 2H20

11

Overall reaction 2H2+ O2

2H20

Fuel cell research picked up again after the Bacon module was inspected and seen to have potential. Fuel cells under went some more changes and where found very viable for space travel applications. For space applications, fuel cells have the advantage over conventional batteries in that they produce several times more energy per equivalent unit of weight. In 1960s, international fuel cells in Windsor, Connecticut, USA, developed a fuel cell power plant for the Apollo spacecraft, which provided both electricity as well as drinking water for the astronauts on their journey to the moon. The fuel cell could supply 1 to 5 kW of continuous electrical power. The fuel cell which was used on the Apollo mission lasted over 10000 hours of operation after 18 missions without a single-in-flight incident. It should be known that there were no back-up batteries on the space shuttle, thus the fuel cells must be highly reliable. The reliability of fuel cells used for space missions (such as the Apollo shuttle or the orbiter space shuttle) is as high as 99%.

12

The fuel cells that where used for space missions where the alkaline fuel cells type. Compared with the other types of fuel cells, the alkaline variety offered the advantage of a high power to weight ratio. This was primarily due to intrinsically faster kinetics for oxygen reduction to the hydroxyl anions in an alkaline environment. This made alkaline fuel cells ideal for space applications. However, for terrestrial use, the alkaline fuel cells where not the best of choices. This is due to the carbondioxide poisoning of the electrolyte. Carbondioxide is not only present in the air but also present in reformate gas (the hydrogen rich gas produced from the reformation of hydrocarbon fuels. In the poisoning of an alkaline fuel cell, the carbondioxide reacts with the hydroxide ion in the electrolyte to form a carbonate, thereby reducing the efficiency of the fuel cell by reducing the hydroxide ion concentration of the electrolyte
[1]

. An example of such a

reaction is as thus (using KOH as the case study alkaline). 2KOH + CO2 K2 CO3 + H20

13

Because of the complexities involved in isolating carbondioxide from the alkaline electrolyte in fuel cells, most fuel cell developers have focused on new types of electrolytes that are non-alkaline.

2.2 THE CHEMISTRY OF A SINGLE CELL In a fuel cell, two half-cell reactions take place

simultaneously, an oxidation reaction (loss of electrons) at the anode and a reduction reaction (gain of elections) at the cathode. These two reactions known as a redox reaction (reductionoxidation) are what fuel cell works on to form water from hydrogen and oxygen. As an electolyser, the anode and cathode are separated by an electrolyte, which allows ions to be transferred from one side to the other. The electrolytes (which for PEM and PAEC are acids) which is supported with a membrane and normally uses platinum as an electrode catalysis, is wedged between the anode and the

14

cathode and the hydrogen and oxygen gases allowed to flow over their various electrodes. The normal chemical reactions for a PEM fuel, cell is: Anode reaction: H2 2H+ + 2eH2 O H2O (l)
(l)

Cathode reaction: 1/2O2 + 2e- + 2H+ Overall reaction: H2 + 1/2O2

At the anode, the hydrogen molecules first come into contact with a platinum catalyst on the electrode surface. The hydrogen molecules brake apart, bonding to the platinum surface forming weak H-Pt (Hydrogen Platinum) bonds. As the hydrogen molecule is now broken the oxidation reaction can proceed. Each hydrogen atom releases its election, which travels around the external circuit to the cathode (it is this flow of electrons that is referred to as electrical current). The remaining hydrogen proton bonds with a water molecule on the membrane surface, forming a hydronium ion (H3O+).The hydronium ion travels through the membrane material to the cathode, leaving the platinum catalysis site free for the next hydrogen molecule.

15

At the cathode, oxygen molecules come into contact with a platinum catalyst on the electrode surface. The oxygen molecules break apart bonding to the platinum surface forming weak O-Pt bonds, enabling the reduction reaction to proceed. Each oxygen atom then leaves the platinum catalyst site, combining with two hydrogen proton atoms (these have traveled through the electrolyte membrane) to form one molecule of water. The redox reaction has now been completed. The platinum catalyst on the cathode electrode is again free for the next oxygen molecule to arrive. The process is exothermic and leads to the formation of water from the hydrogen and oxygen gases, along with heat energy given off to the environment. The reaction has an enthalpy of 286kj of energy per mole of water formed. The free energy available to perform work decreases as a function of temperature
[2]

2.3 WHY FUEL CELLS? Very extensive competitive efforts to build practical fuel cells started after World War 1 but came to an end in the mid-nineteen

16

thirties without much practical results. This was mainly due to the arrival of the improved heat engine (the engine made much advancement during the First World War), in spite of the efficiency limit set by the Carnots cycle, the heat engine had gone through the process of mass production during the war and thus manufacturing processes leading to its eventual

commercialization were very favorable. After the Second World War scientists became strongly aware of the need to preserve fossil fuels by obtaining higher energy conversion efficiencies. As time went on the negative effects of the gases and by products of various methods of power production became apparent, thus giving the already fundamental problem of finding green-tech substitutes more momentum. In the twenty first century the impact of technology on nature is now a highly controversial topic. The world has turned to finding substitutes for power production that have minimal and if possible no effect on the environment. So far, fuel cells have shown the greatest potential, why with its high efficiency and practically zero emission characteristics, it seems to be the sure bet for future power production.

17

Since fuel cells convert chemical energy directly, to electrical energy the intermediate steps of producing heat and mechanical work typical of other more conventional power generation methods are avoided, fuel cells are not limited by thermodynamic limitation of heat engines such as the Carnot efficiency. Also unlike batteries the reductant and oxidant in fuel cells must be replenished to allow continuous operation at optimal power output thus re-charging is not necessary.

2.4 TYPES OF FUEL CELLS Fuel cells are characterized generally by the type of electrolyte used in the stack. The most promising fuel cell types are: Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)

18

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) For all cells except the DMFC, the net cell reaction is H2 +
1 O2 2

H20

Although these five major fuel cell structures have similar structure and net reaction, they are very different with respects to operating characteristics, materials of construction, and potential application. The following sections discuss the

characteristics of each fuel cell type.

2.4.1 PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL The proton exchange membrane fuel cell is one of the most promising and certainly the best known of the fuel cell types. The PEMFC consists of porous electrodes bonded to a very thin sulphonated polymer membrane; this membrane electrode

assembly is sandwiched between two collector plates, which provide an electrical path from the electrodes to the external circuit. Flow channels cut into the collector plate distribute reactant gases over the surface of the electrode. Individual cells

19

consisting of collector plates and membrane electrode assembly are assembled in series to form a fuel cell stack. Like other fuel cells, the PEMFC is very efficient. The efficiency for a PEMFC stack operating on hydrogen and pressurized air at typical operating current conditions is

approximately 50%. The PEMFC also provide a very high power density. Automotive fuel cell systems based on the PEMFC technology have power density as high as 1.35KW/liter
[3]

, which is

comparable to that of the internal combustion engine. This power is produced while the cell is operated at a relatively low temperature ranging between 600c to 800c. This low temperature of operation permits the fuel cell to reach operating temperature quickly. The combination of high efficiency, high power density, and rapid start-up makes the PEMFC curative as a replacement for conventional automobile engines. Unfortunately, the low temperatures of the PEMEC leads to very slow chemical kinetics, precious metal catalysts, typically platinum, must be used at the electrodes to facilitate the reactions. As recent as 10 years ago the cost of the catalyst alone

20

was as high as N29500 per kilowatt electrode. This makes the PEMFC too expensive for most applications The most commonly used
(3)

. for the proton

electrolyte

exchange membrane fuel cell is nifon which is normally produced and cut into sheets of the ranged of 50-175 m (equivalent to the thickness of 2-7 sheets of paper) it basically consists of polytetrafluoroethylene chains (Teflon) which acts as the

backbons of the membrane; Attached to the Teflon chain are side chains ending with sulphonic acid (HSO3) group. The chemical structure is as shown

F C

F C

F C

F C

F C F F

O C C C O

F C F F

F C

F C

F C

F F O =

C C S

F F = O

O-H+

21

Fig, 1 structure of a sulfonated flouroethylene. An interesting feature of this molecule is that, where as the long chain molecules are highly hydrophobic (repeal water) the sulphonate side chain is highly hydrophilic. For the membrane to conduct ions efficiently the sulphonate chains must absorb large quantities of water, when this is done the hydrogen ions of the sulphonated group can move freely enabling the membrane to transfer hydrogen ions, in the form of hydronium ions from one side of the membrane to the other
[1]

. One major advantage of the

polymeric solid electrolyte used in a PEMFC is that the solid electrolyte forms a thin electronic insulator and a barrier for gases between electrodes, allowing fast proton transport and high current while still allowing the fuel cell to operate in any special position
[4]

22

Fig 2. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell. As can be seen from the above diagram the fuel cell stacking for the PEMFC is almost universally the planar bipolar type PROS AND CONS OF THE PEMFC
[5]

23

PROS The PEMFC has a solid electrolyte which provides excellent resistance to gas cross over. The PEMFCs low operating temperature allows rapid start-up

The use of exotic materials used in other fuel cell types is

not required in PEMFC PEMFCs give off a by product of pure water (exhaust) when the fuel used is strictly hydrogen.

When compared to other fuel cells, PEMFC technology has a

very high current density, while most technologies operate up to approximately 1amp/cm2 the PEMFC can operate up to 4amp/cm2. No corrosive fuel hazards are connected with PEMFC. PEMFC has a very rapid response to load changes. CONS

24

Due to the low temperature of operation there is little, if

any, heat available from the fuel cell. Thus PEMFC are not a good choice for co-generation. Water management is another significant challenge in PEMFC design as engineers must balance ensuring sufficient hydration for the electrolyte against flooding the electrolyte.

The cost of production for PEMFCs is quite high, considering

the use of platinum catalysts.

The low temperature of operation leads to a higher

activation energy needed for the redox reaction to take place.

2.4.2 DIRECT METHANOL FUEL CELLS Like the PEMFC, the direct methanol fuel cell uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte. However in the DMFC the fuel used is methanol which is dissolved in water and delivered to the anode. Since methanol is a liquid, it is easy to transport, and since the methanol is used directly in the stack there is no need for a

25

fuel processor. The reactions that occur in a typical DMFC is as follows: Anode reaction: CH2OH + H2O Mobile ion: H+ Cathode reaction: 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e3H20 6H+ + 6e- + CO2

The main problem with the DMFC is that the reaction rate of methanol is slow. Thus DMFC has a relatively low efficiency and power rating. In other to compensate for such problems other catalysts in addition to platinum are required on the anode side of the membrane to break the methanol bond in the reaction, this forms carbondioxide hydrogen ion and a free electron. Though the problem of slow reaction seems taken care of the extra cost that is required to make such reactions speed up out ways the very problem that the catalysis try to solve[3]. However the DMFC seems to be a sustainable replacement for batteries in small portable power applications where the simplicity of the DMFC system and the portability of the liquid methanol fuel out weigh the relatively low efficiency
[3]

26

PROS AND CONS OF THE PEMFC PROS Methanol fuel used in DMFC is liquid, thus transport and supply to anode is simplified. Methanol fuel can easily be stored in a storage tank, just like gasoline. DMFC has relatively high storage density.

CONS Reaction rate of methanol is slow, thus the efficiency of DMFC is relatively low Methanol is soluble in the polymer membrane, so it can easily cross over to the cathode where it reacts without producing any electricity.

Extra cost is incurred by the added catalysts needed for operation.

27

2.4.3 PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL The phosphoric acid fuel cell was the first fuel cell technology to be commercialized. There have only been minor changes in the design of the PAFC. The conventional porous electrodes were polyterafluoroethylene-bound platinum black, and loading was about 9 mg pt/cm2. In the last two decades however platinum supported on carbon black has replaced the platinum-black in porous polytetrafluoroethylene-bound electrode structure. The operating temperature of a PAFC is about 2000c with an acid concentration of about 100% H3PO4. The present day PAFC consists of porous carbon electrodes surrounding a porous matrix (silicon carbide) that retains the liquid phosphoric acid electrolyte, the PAFC structure resemble the PEMFC structure in terms of electrode material. A fluid such as air, water, oil is circulated between the collector plates to cool the stack assembly. Phosphoric acid fuel cells operate with
[3]

efficiencies

comparable in PEMFCs but at power densities that are lower. The operating temperature of the PAFC is approximately 2000C, and

28

although the present practice is to operate at atmospheric pressure, the operating pressure of PAFCs can surpass 8atm. This is due to various results from tests which have confirmed an increase in power plant efficiency when pressure is applied. However it must be noted that though pressurization increases efficiency, it complicates the power-unit, thus resulting in higher cost. The economic trade-off
[5]

favors

simpler,

atmospheric

operation for commercial units.

Another very important issue

with pressurization in PAFCs is that pressure promotes corrosion. The phosphoric acid electrolyte, H3PO4, produces a vapour. The vapour, which forms over the electrolyte, is corrosive to cell locations other than the active cell layer. The limit at which corrosion occurs in a PAFC is at a voltage of 0.8v/cell. If voltage rises above such a value the H3P04 vapour will lead to massive corrosion. An increase in cell total pressure causes the partial pressure of the H3PO4 vapour to increase, thus causing increased corrosion in the cell.
[5]

One of the most advantageous characteristics of the PAFC is its operating temperature. Apart from the fact that higher temperature of operation lead to faster reactions and decreased

29

activation energy for the redox reaction process, the heat that is generated during cell operation can be harnessed for cogeneration. PROS AND CONS OF PAFC PROS PAFCs are more tolerant to CO than other fuel cell types, they tolerate about one percent of CO as a dilutent The operating temperature is high enough to speed up reactions but still low enough to allow the use of common construction materials. The waste heat from PAEC can be readily used in most commercial and industrial cogeneration applications. CONS Although less complex than PEMFC, PAFCs still need

extensive fuel processing, including typically a water gas shift reactor to achieve good performance.

30

The highly corrosive nature of phosphoric acid requires the use of expensive materials in stack. 2.4.4 MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL (MCFC) Molten carbonate fuel cells are typically designed for midsized to large stationary power applications. The MCFC consist of nickel and nickel oxide electrode surrounding a porous substrate which retains the molten

carbonate electrolyte. Collector plates and cell separator plates are typically fabricated from stainless, steel, which can be formed less expensively than the carbon plates in the PEMFC and PCFC cells. Thermal energy produced within the cell stack is transferred to the reactant and product gases, and a separate cooling system is not usually required.
[3]

The half cell electro chemical reactions are; At the anode: H2+ CO32H20 + CO2 + 2eCO3=
(cathode)

At the cathode: 1/2O2 + CO2 + 2eOverall reaction: H2 + 1/2O2 + CO2

H2O + CO2(anode)

31

Fig 3: Molten carbonate fuel cell The mobile reaction in the MCFC is the CO32- ion, unlike in the PEMFC and PAFC where H+ is the mobile ion. The MCFC differ from PAFCs in many ways because of its operating temperature which is approximately 6000-7000. At this temperature (6500c), precious metal catalysts are not required for the fuel cell reactions. In addition, the heat available from the

32

stack can be used to produce steam and hot water in building cogeneration applications. Furthermore, at this temperature, fuel gases other than hydrogen can be used by reforming the fuel within in the cell stack in a process called internal reforming. For example with the proper catalyst, carbon monoxide

introduced into the anode compartment of the fuel cell will react with the water produced by the fuel cell, this will in turn lead to production of hydrogen and carbondioxide through the water gas shift reaction: CO + H2O CO2 + H2

For the reason above molten carbonate fuel cells are being developed mainly for natural gas and coal-based power plants, since it can be seen that the MCFC operates more efficiently with CO2 containing bio-fuel derived gases.
[5]

Since the mobile ion is

CO32- performance losses on the anode due to fuel dilution is compensated by cathode side performance enhancement

resulting from CO2 enrichment. The MCFCs ability to undergo the process of internal reforming simplifies a lot of matters. For example, internal

33

reforming can be accomplished with carbon monoxide and simple hydrocarbon fuel such as methane (This is simpler to obtain than pure hydrogen), though heavier hydrocarbons still have to undergo external fuel processing. Obviously the increased operating temperature of the MCFC brings along with it various advantages, however the higher operating temperature places severe demands on the corrosion stability and life of cell components, particularly in the aggressive environment of the molten carbonate electrolyte. PROS AND CONS OF THE MCFC PROS

[5]

No expensive electro-catalysts are needed as the nickel

[5]

electrodes provide sufficient activity

Both CO and certain hydrocarbons can be used as fuel for

the MCFC, as they are converted to hydrogen within the stack (internal reforming).

[5]

The high temperature waste heat allows the use of a

[5]

bottoming cycle to further boost the system efficiency.

34

The waste heat can be harnessed for cogeneration.

[5]

CONS The main challenge of MCFC stems from the very corrosive and mobile electrolyte. The higher temperature promotes materials problems, thus impacting mechanical stability and stack life.

The

cells

have

high

contact

resistance

and

cathode

resistance; these resistances limit the power density of the MCFC.

[5]

2.4.5 SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS (SOFC) The solid oxide fuel cell has an electrolyte that is a solid, non porous metal oxide. The electrolyte is normally a yttria stabilized zirconia (Y2O3 stabilized ZrO2). The cell operates with a

temperature of 6000c to 10000c at which ionic conduction by oxygen ions take place. Typically, the anode is nickel Zirconia cermet (Ni-ZrO2 cermets) and the cathode is constructed from lanthanum manganite (LAMnO3)
[5][3]

. There is no liquid electrolyte

with its attendant material corrosion or electrolyte management

35

problems. The cell is constructed with two porous electrodes that sandwich an electrolyte. Airflows along the cathode, when an oxygen molecule contacts the cathode/electrolyte interface; it acquires electrons from the cathode. The oxygen ion diffuses into the electrolyte material and migrates to the other side of the cell where they contact the anode. The oxygen ion encounters the fuel at the anode/electrolyte interface and reacts catalytically, giving off water, carbondioxide, heat, and elections. The electrons transport through the external circuit, providing electrical energy. The reactions can be summarized as: Cathode reaction: 1 2 O2 + Anode reaction: H2 + O2Mobile ion: O2The most common cell configuration for the SOFC is of tubular geometry. In such a configuration as that shown in figure 4 the cathode is a hollow tube constructed in such a way as to support the electrolyte. The anode then surrounds the electrolyte, encasing both the electrolyte and cathode. Fuel enters the cell 2eO2H2O + 2e-

36

from the outer surface and air enters the cell from the inner surface.
[3]

Fig 4: Tubular stacked solid oxide fuel cell. SOFC allow conversion of a wide range of fuels, including various hydrocarbon fuels. The relatively high operating

temperature allows for highly efficient conversion of power, internal reforming, and high quality by-products of heat for cogeneration. Both simple and hybrid SOFC system have

demonstrated among the highest efficiencies of any power

37

generation system, combined with minimal pollutant emissions and low greenhouse gas emissions. These capabilities have made SOFC an attractive emerging technology for stationary power generation in the 2KW to 100MW capacity range.
[5]

Development efforts for SOFC are focused on reducing manufacturing cost, improving system integration and lowering the operating temperature to the range of 5500c-7500c. The lower operating temperature would still provide the advantage of reforming while still reducing the material problems associated with high operation temperature.

2.5 FUEL CELL PERFORMANCE Theoretically, the maximum electrical work obtainable in a fuel cell operating at constant temperature and pressure is given by the change in Gibbs free energy ( G) of the electrochemical reaction: G=H - TS

38

Where H is the enthalpy change and S is the entropy change.

[5]

In the fuel cell , the reaction is exothermic thus the system change in enthalpy is the energy released as heat. On the other hand S is the internal energy used by the system. The entropy change does not give energy to the surrounding. For a fuel cell system using cogeneration methods the Gibbs free energy can be harnessed to its fullest. The following discussion expatiates on the efficiency, and losses that are involved during the operation of a fuel cell.

2.5.1 FUEL CELL VOLTAGE The standard potential E0 is a quantitative measurement of the maximum cell potential i.e. the open circuit voltage. For a hydrogen-oxygen cell, in which there is a transfer of two electrons by each water molecule. The standard potential E0 = 1.229v if the produced water is in liquid and EO = 1.8V if the produced water is in gaseous state. These values are obtained at a temperature of 298k (250c, which is the approximate room temperature value) and pressure of 1 atmosphere.
[4]

39

The potential (E0) is the change in Gibbs free energy resulting from the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. The difference between the 1.229v and 1.18v for the standard potential of water in liquid state and water in gaseous state respectively is the Gibbs free energy change of Vaporization of water at standard conditions.
[5]

2.5.2 LOSSES IN FUEL CELLS Although the theoretical values of voltage for a fuel cell is 1.229v, in practice the cell potential is significantly lower than this. This is due to some losses in the system even when no external load is connected. Moreover, when a load is connected to the fuel cell, the voltage in the terminals decreases still due to a number of factors; these include polarization losses and

interconnection losses. The primary losses that contribute to a reduction in cell voltage are: Activation losses: Activation losses are a result of the energy required to initiate the reaction. This is a result of the catalyst. The better the catalyst the less activation energy is required.

40

Platinum forms an excellent catalyst; however there is much research under way in search of better and less expressive materials. A limiting factor to power density available from a cell is the speed at which the reaction can take place. The cathode reaction (the reduction of oxygen) is about 100 times slower than that of the reaction at the anode, thus it is the cathode reaction that limits power density. Fuel cross over and internal currents: fuel crossover and internal currents are a result of the fuel that crosses directly through the electrolyte, from the anode to the cathode without releasing electrons through the external circuit, thereby

decreasing the efficiency of the fuel cell. Ohmic losses: Ohmic losses are a result of the combined resistance of various components of the fuel cell. This includes the resistance of the electrode materials, the resistance of the electrolyte membrane and the resistance of the various interconnections. Concentration losses: These are also referred to as mass transport, thee losses result from the reduction of the

41

concentration of hydrogen and oxygen gases at the electrode. For example, following the reaction new gases must be made immediately available at the catalyst sites. With the build up of water at the cathode, catalyst sites can become clogged, restricting oxygen access. It is therefore important to remove this excess water, hence the term mass transport.
[1]

. Another way of

looking at this is that concentration losses are caused by the diffusion of ions through the electrolyte which produces an increase in the concentration gradient, diminishing the speed of transport. The relation between the voltage of the cell and the current density is voltage of the cell and the current density is approximately linear up to a limit value, beyond which the losses grow quickly.
[4]

The fuel cell voltage of a simple cell can be expressed as VFC = E0 - Vohm Vact Vconc. Where Vfc = Voltage of a simple fuel cell E0 = Standard potential Ohmic losses

Vohm =

42

Vact = Vconc =

Activation losses concentration losses

2.5.3 FUEL CELL STACKING In practice, successions of cells are connected in series in order to provide the necessary voltage and power output, constituting a fuel cell stack. Generally the stacking involves connecting multiple unit cells in series via electrically conductive interconnects. Different stacking arrangements have been

developed, these include:PLANAR- BIPOLAR STACKING: The most common fuel cell stack design is the so-called planar-bipolar arrangement

individual unit cells are electrically connected as shown in figure 5. Because of the configuration of a flat plate cell the interconnect becomes a separator plate with two functions: To provide an electrical series connection between adjacent cells, specifically for flat plates cells

43

To provide a gas barrier that separates the fuel and oxidant of adjacent cells. In many planar-bipolar designs, the interconnect also includes channels that distribute the gas flow over the cells. The planar-bipolar design is electrically simple and leads to short electronic current pats, this helps to minimize cell resistance.

Fig 5: Planar-bipolar stacking. TUBULAR CELLS STACKING: This is used especially for high temperature fuel cells; stacks with tubular cells have been developed. Tubular cells have the significant advantages in sealing and in the structural integrity of the cells. In the earliest tubular designs the current is conducted tangentially around the

44

tube-interconnections between the tubes are used to form rectangular arrays of tubes. Alternatively, the current can be conducted along the axis of the tube, in which case

interconnection is done at the end of the tubes.

2.6 THEORETICAL AND REAL FUEL EFFICIENCY The efficiency of any energy conversion device is the ratio between the useful energy output and the energy input. In a fuel cell, the useful energy output is the generated electrical energy and the energy input is the energy content in the mass of hydrogen supplied. The energy content of an energy carrier is called the higher heat value which will be represented as HHHV. The HHHV of hydrogen is 286.02kjmol-1 or 141.0mjkg-1. This is the amount of heat that may be generated by a complete combustion of 1kg of hydrogen.
[4]

Assuming that all the Gibbs free energy of hydrogen, G, can be converted into electrical energy, the maximum possible

45

(theoretical) efficiency of a fuel cell, taking G of hydrogen as 237.34 kjmol-1, would be

= G H
= 237.34 = 83% 286.02

HHV

The Gibbs free energy G is used to represent the available energy to do external work. The change in Gibbs free energy is negative because in a fuel cell reaction energy is released.
[4]

Using faradays constant the voltage generated by both G and HHHV can be calculated. Dividing by 2f, where 2 is the number of electrons per molecule of H2 and F is faradays number, then. V G = G 2 F = 1.23 V H = H 2 f = 1.482 Using these values the fuel cell efficiency can be expressed as a ratio of two potentials
V 2 F = FC H / 2 F 1.482 = G

= G

Where V G = the generated voltage

46

V G = the thermo neutral potential The efficiency of fuel cells are very high but in practice efficiencies of 83%are not so feasible. The lower efficiency of the practical fuel cell is mainly due to losses and various auxiliary systems attached to the fuel cell. These take up a portion of the total output power and so lower the real efficiency value. In practice when the power consumed by incorporate auxiliary systems is taken into account. Then the equation for power becomes
Pfc Paux PH 2

Where Paux = power consumed by auxiliary system PH2 =power input P fc = power output of fuel cell. In real life the fuel cell efficiency is between the ranges of 47% to 50%. This is quite high when compared to other forms of power generation. Plus, with co-generation methods efficiency

47

can get to values between 70% and 80%. That is one reason that makes fuel cells unique. 2.7 FUEL CELL SYSTEMS Although a fuel cell produces electricity a fuel cell system requires the integration of many components beyond the fuel cell stack itself, for the fuel cell will produce only DC power and utilizes only certain processed fuels. Various system components are incorporated into power systems to allow operation with conventional fuels, tie into ac power grids, or to utilize rejected heat to achieve high efficiency. The basic features of a fuel cell system are illustrated in figure 6.

Fig 6.fuel cell system schematics

48

The figure indicates that a fuel cell system is composed of six basic subsystems: The fuel cell stack Fuel processor Air management Water management Thermal management Power conditioning subsystems The design of each subsystem must be integrated with the characteristics of the fuel cell stack to provide a complete system. Optimal integration of these subsystems is key to the

development of cost effective fuel cell system. Seeing as the fuel cell stack has been discussed in previous chapters; the rest of the subsystems will be looked into. [3] 2.7.1 FUEL PROCESSOR Since most fuel cells use hydrogen as a fuel and most primary energy sources are hydrocarbons, a fuel processor is

49

required to convert the source fuel to a hydrogen rich fuel stream. The complexity of the fuel processor depends on the type of fuel cell system and the composition of the source fuel. For low temperature fuel cells such as PEMFCs and PAFCS, the fuel processor is relatively complex and usually includes a

desulphurizer, a stream reformer or partial oxidation reactor, shift converters, and a gas clean-up system to remove carbon monoxide from the anode gas stream. The development of a compact economical reformer to supply hydrogen rich fuel for low temperature fuel cells in building applications and automotive applications is a formidable challenge in higher temperature fuel cells such as MCFC and SOFC the fuel processing for simple fuels such as methane many consist simply of a desulphurizing and preheating the fuel stream before introducing it into the internally reforming anode compartment of the fuel cell stack. More complex fuels may require additional steps of clean-up and reforming before they can be used even by the higher

temperature cells. For all types of fuels, the higher operating temperature associated with the MCFC and SOFC systems provide

50

better thermal integration of the fuel cell with the fuel processor.
[3]

2.7.2 AIR MANAGEMENT In addition to fuel, the fuel cell requires an oxidant, which is typically air. Air is provided to the fuel cell cathode at low pressure by a blower or at high pressure by an air compressor. The choice of whether to use low or high pressure air is a complicated one. Increasing the pressure of the air improves the kinetics of the electrochemical reactions and leads to higher power density and higher stack efficiency. Furthermore, in PEMFC stacks, increasing the air pressure reduces the capacity of the air for holding water and consequently reduces the requirements for humidification. On the other hand, the power needed to compress the air to high pressure reduces the net available power from the cell system. Some of this energy can be record by expanding the cathode exhaust through a turbine before expelling it to the atmosphere. Nevertheless, the air compressor typically uses more power than any other auxiliary device in the system. Furthermore, while the fuel cell stack performance actually improves at low

51

power, the performance of the air compressor is usually poor at very low loads. Currently most fuel cell stacks design call for operating pressures in the range of 1-8atm. To achieve high power densities and to improve water management, most automotive fuel cell systems based on PEMFC technology are operated at pressures of 2-3atm. 2.7.3 WATER MANAGEMENT Water is required for a variety of purposes in a fuel cell system. The fuel reforming processes require water to react with hydrocarbon fuels in the fuel steam reforming reaction. In PEMFC systems the reactant gases must be humidified in order to avoid drying out the fuel cell membrane. Water is available from the fuel cell reaction, but it must be removed from the exhaust gas, stored and pumped to a pressure suitable for the various operations.in automotive applications it is critical that the system operates in such a way that water condensed from the exhaust streams are sufficient for reforming and reactant humidification. Otherwise the vehicle must periodically be recharged with water as well as fuel
[3]

52

2.7.4 THERMAL MANAGEMENT A fuel cell stack releases thermal energy at a rate that is roughly equivalent to the electrical power that it produces. This thermal energy can be used for a variety of purposes within the fuel cell system, transferred externally to meet the thermal needs of a particular application, or rejected to the surrounding. Low temperature fuel cell systems are cooled by either air or a circulating liquid. In some low temperature, low power (below 200w) system, the excess air flowing over the cathode is sufficient to transfer thermal energy from the cell. In larger low temperature systems, additional flow channels are provided within the cell stack and either air or liquid coolant (typically deionized water is circulated through the channels to remove thermal energy. It a liquid coolant is used the stack is made to be more compact. Furthermore, with a liquid coolant, it is easier to transfer energy for other purposes such as space heating or water heating in cogeneration applications. In high temperature such as the MCFC and SOFC, and fuel cell stack operates at such high temperature that all the thermal energy from the cell reaction can be transferred to the reactant gases without heating the exhaust

53

beyond the operating temperature limit of the stack. Thermal energy from the stack exhaust can also be used to preheat the incoming air stream. Thermal energy that is not needed for reforming or air preheating can be used to make stream or hot water for cogeneration in a heat recovery boiler. Proper

integration of the fuel cell system is essential to insure that thermal energy available from the stack is used for the most appropriate application.
[3]

2.7.5 POWER MANAGEMENT The final component of the fuel cell systems is the power management system. This system converts the electricity

available from the fuel cell to a current and voltage that is suitable for a particular application and supplies power to the other auxiliary systems. Fuel cell stacks produce direct current at a voltage that varies with load. A switching power converter is used to match the voltage produced by the fuel cell to the application and to protect the fuel cell from over current or under voltage conditions. If the application requires alternating current, the electricity is processed through an inverter, which constructs

54

single or three-phase wave form as required by the application. If the application involves interconnection with the utility grid, then the power management system must also be able to synchronize the frequency of the fuel cell system power with the utility power and provide safety features to prevent the fuel cell system from feeding power back into the utility grid if the grid is offline. The IEEE is currently developing IEEE 1547 (standards for Distributed Resources Interconnection with Electric power

Systems). This standard being developed so as to address synchronization issue in distributed generation of which fuel cells are one of such.

2.7.6 FUEL CELL SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS Fuel cell systems promise to provide a number of

advantages when compared to conventional power systems. These advantages couple with projected cost reductions will make fuel cells attractive in a variety of applications.

55

The major component of a fuel cell system, the fuel cell stack, is composed of individual fuel cells assembled in repetition. Thus, the fuel cell stack is modular and can be constructed in sizes ranging from a few watts, to a megawatt or more. Other components of the fuel cell system, particularly the fuel processor, do not scale as well as the stack. However, even fuel cell systems incorporating fuel processors can be constructed to meet a variety of applications with power needs as small as 10kw. Across the entire range of applicable sizes, fuel cell systems offer attractive electrical conversion efficiencies. Furthermore, the fuel cell system efficiency for various fuel cell systems ranges from 40% to 50% for simple systems in a broad range of sizes. Few small to medium-sized conventional systems can achieve

efficiencies comparable to those provided by fuel cell systems at design conditions. Furthermore, no conventional systems can maintain efficiencies comparable to fuel cell systems at part-load operation. More complex fuel cell systems can yield even higher efficiencies for a combined system consisting of a pressurized SOFC with the exhaust gas driving a gas turbine, the overall efficiency can be up to 60% if not more.
[3]

The combined gas

56

turbine/steam cycle is the only conventional cycle that can approach, at least at design load, a level of 60% efficiency. Since fuel cells can operate at high efficiency even in relatively small sizes, they are attractive in small-scale as generation By and

cogeneration

applications

such

buildings.

producing

electricity and thermal energy for applications such as water heating or space heating, fuel cells can offer cogeneration efficiencies as high as 80% (from a first law of thermodynamics standpoint). Fuel cells are also attractive because of their low

environmental impact relative to conventional systems. The fuel cell stack itself operates on hydrogen giving water as its by product. Emissions of currently regulated pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides, oxides of sulpur, and

particulates are well below current are quality regulations and typically nearly non existent. Even carbondioxide which is produced when hydrocarbon fuels are used and reformed are well below any conventional system emission value.

57

In addition to minimizing emissions of regulated pollutants, fuel cell systems are also relatively quiet and unobtrusive so that the overall impact on the environment is small. This permits fuel cells to be located in a variety of settings that would not be acceptable for conventional power plants.
[3]

In a number of areas, including response time, useful life maintainability and cost, fuel cell systems promise to exhibit performance comparable to existing system. Fuel cells which are already operating at their design temperature typically respond quickly to load changes with demonstrated response rates on the order of 0.3% to 10%.
[3].

The rate of response is more of a

function of the auxiliary systems than the fuel cell stack it self. For high temperature fuel cells such as the MCFC, the time taken to reach optimal operating temperature can be significant and these systems tend to be more appropriate for generating power for building applications and large-scale transportation

applications. While the low temperature fuel cells, PEMFC, can reach its operating temperature quickly making it a more suitable fuel cell type for automotive power application.

58

Maintenance tasks for the fuel cell system typically focuses on the auxiliary systems including rotating machinery (tans, compressors, pumps). The stack itself has no moving parts and is not field serviceable. The stack simply consumes fuel and produces heat and electricity throughout its useful work life. At the end of its useful life, the fuel cell stack can be removed and recycled while a new stack can be installed in its place. Demonstration projects, primarily conducted with PAFC systems, confirm that service and maintenance issues associated with the stack are almost nonexistent while those that exist with the support systems have declined as the system technology has matures.
[3]

2.8 FUEL CELL SYSTEM APPLICATIONS 2.8.1 PORTABLE POWER Portable power typically refers to systems that can be transported by a person and that can generate power of a few watts to a few hundred watts. Examples include power for camping and recreational vehicles, power, for portable electronic devices such as computers and cellular phones, and power for

59

soldiers deployed in the field. File cells based on DMFC technology of PEMFC technology are well suited for many of these applications. DMFC systems are particularly attractive because, as a liquid, methanol can be conveniently transported. In portable power applications, the fuel cell would be incorporated into electronic devices. A small container of methanol or a cylinder of compressed hydrogen would be inserted into an inlet port. Air would be supplied to the fuel cell by natural convection or a very small blower. When the fuel is depleted, the fuel container would be removed and a new one stalled in its place. Recharging would not be necessary and carrying extra canisters would be lighter and expensive than transporting extra batteries.

2.8.2 TRANSPORTATION Arguably, the major driving force behind recent interest in fuel cell technology is the potential for using fuel cells in transportation applications including personal vehicles.

Automakers in North America, Europe, and Japan have invested several billion dollars in advancing the state of PEMFC technology

60

with the goal of producing a fuel cell power plant that provides the efficiency and low emission characteristic of fuel cells at low cost that is competitive with the existing internal combustion engine. Today many of the technical objectives that are related to the fuel cell stack have been met or a close to being met and current development efforts are focused on decreasing cost and resolving issues related to fuel supply and systems integration. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell systems operating on hydrogen and having power densities as high as 1.35KW/liter have been demonstrated. A good example of a fuel cell powered vehicle is the Honda FCX clarity (FCX stands for fuel cell experimental). The Honda FCX has a rated power of 100KW (134hp) which is gotten from a vertical flow hydrogen fuel cell stack that supplies electrical energy on demand. As in electric cars, waste energy from braking and deceleration are captured by the motor/Generator and stored in a battery (in the case lithium ion unit)
[2]

. The FCX provides quite steady acceleration and high

torque. The range of a full hydrogen tank is EPA certified at about 386km.
[6]

The main problem that has limited the use of fuel

vehicles is the problem of storage. Hydrogen gas has to be stored

61

at a temperature of -2480c, this introduces many complexities additional cost, and obvious safety issues. Apart from material cost and storage, fuel cell powered transportation is best means of carrying on with human comfort and machinery with out damaging the environment (emissions). Cost reduction efforts include development of improved materials used for the membrane electrode assembly, better design of the gas flow channels, and development of less expensive materials and methods of fabrication for the collector plates. 2.8.3 STATIONARY POWER In many respects stationary power applications are even more favourable for fuel cell systems than transportation application. In stationary applications, most systems will operate continuously so the time to reach operating temperature from a cold start is not typically an important criterion. Thus, higher temperature systems including MCFC and SOFC systems can be considered in addition to PAFC and PEMFC systems. Another great feature of fuel cell in stationary power applications is that the fuel

62

source is likely to be natural gas. Natural gas is primarily methane which is a light hydrocarbon and relatively easy to reform. In addition, a distribution infrastructure for natural gas is already in place. Promising stationary applications include premium power systems; cogeneration systems for residency, commercial

buildings, and industrial facilities, as well as distributed power generation for utilities. Many facilities that house data processing centers or telecommunications equipment require very high quality power. With their high efficiency, low noise, minimal emissions, fuel cell systems can operate consciously to supplement or replace utility power. Even without the need for backup power, fuel cell systems can be attractive when both heat and electricity are required. For example during the summer, a fuel cell serving a residence can provide electricity for lights, appliances, and air conditioning while supplying thermal energy for heating water this is a simple form of cogeneration. CHAPTER THREE

63

METHODOLOGY The research works methodology is centered on calculation, collation, and analysis of data which has be gotten from various journals and online resources. 3.1 DATA ACQUISITION Data used in the following parts was gotten from the named online journals and resources.
(1)

WWW.IEEE.org [/ieee/xplore/member home.] WWW.Wikipedia.org/Wiki/ WWW.fuelcells.org [charts and articles.] United States department of defense fuel cell demonstration program[http://www.dodfuelcell.com]

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Fuel cell Handbook, 5th ed; U.S Department of Energy. Description of PEM fuel cell systems [ieee report], diego ferold; and Marta Basualdo

(6)

Charts gotten from these sources include

64

Honda FCX clarity comparison to fuel injection heat engine vehicles of equivalent specifications.

U.S

Department

of

Energy

comparison

of

fuel

cell

technologies table. 3.2 FUEL CELL MATHEMATICAL MODEL Based on the principles described on fuel cell performance, A mathematical model for fuel cell performance assessment is given below. The model is based on electrochemical engineering fundamentals assumptions.

and

has

been

developed

on

the

following

Fuel and oxidant are perfect gases Fuel is H2 and oxidant is O2 Temperature and pressure are uniform along the electrodes The conversion of energy occurs isothermally and in constant volume.

65

The following steps are identified for modeling fuel cells. The step are used to analyze the voltage and current of a PEMFC but is applicable to all types of FC. STEP1 Define the chemical reaction equations and the corresponding stoichiometric coefficients. H2 + 1/2 02 H20

Thus VH2 = 1, VO2 = 1 2 ,VH2O = 1 STEP 2 Define the half cell reactions and find valency (electron count.) Anode: H2 2H+ + + 2e2H+ H2 O

Cathode: 1/2O2 + 2e-

Valancy = Z = 2 (number of electrons) STEPS 3 Establish operating temperature of cell (TFC) and partial pressures of H2, O2 and H20

66

STEP 4 Establish equilibrium constant, K, at the operating temperature, of cell T: For H2 + 1 2 02 H20

K = [pressure of H20]

[Pressure of H2] [Pressure of 02] 2 STEP 5 Calculate standard fuel cell EMF and actual cell emf: Using change in Gibbs free energy of H2 and O2 reacting to give water
G[H2,02] = 237.14

[source wikipedia.com]

But,
G = nFEmf

Where n = number of electrons F = faradays constant (96,485.33c/gmolelecron) Emf = electromotive force generated

67

G = Gibbs free energy

Substituting values, 237.14 = 2 x 96485.33 x Emf EMF = 237.14/2 x 96485.33 = 1.22888 1.229 Emf = E0cell = standard potential = 1.229 Calculate electromotive force of cell using Nernst equation [8] Ecell = Eocell R T Z F K E0 = = = = = =
RT ZF

ln(k) universal gas constant, 8.314 absolute temperature electrons faradays constant 9.648533 x 104 cmol-1 equilibrium constant open circuit voltage: 1.229

Thus for a fuel cell, using H2 as fuel and O2 as oxidant

68

[ PH 2 ][ P02 ] 1 RT 2 Ecell = 1.229 + = ln 0 2F [ PH 2 ] 1 a

Note : logba = logb [ ] Since R = 8.314 JK-1 mol -1, T = Tfc, Z = 2, F = 9.648533X104 cmol-1 The constants can be calculate and replace Thus
[ PH 2 ][ P02 ] 1 [ PH 2 ]
0

Ecell =

1229 + 4.3085 x 10 Tfc (In

-5

2)

STEP 6 Determine fuel rate in gm-moles/sec STEP 7 Determine the exchange current density, which is one out of important factors of efficiency. The current density is proportional to the catalyst, area, electrode area, partial pressure of the reactant, temperature and activity energy. It is derived as

69

I0 = I0R aclc ( P ref )r exp c 1 RT Tref r Where, IO ac lc r

ref

Pr

reference exchange current density the catalyst specific area the catalyst leading the reaction order with respect to the reactant the reference pressure the reference temperature

is is is

Prref is Tref is

With above values calculated power (IV) can be calculated

3.3 DATA COLLATION Table 1 EERE fuel cell comparison chart from U.S

70

Department of energy: updated on 5 Oct 2011 at 6:45 [2]

Table 2

Honda FCX clarity comparisons chart. [9]

71

CHAPTER FOUR DISCUSSIONS

72

Using table 1 of chapter three as a guide line, various inferences can be pulled on the appropriateness of particular fuel cells. Discussions will be carried out based on, application of fuel cells, availability of infrastructure and advantages over other forms of power generation that serve the same demand niche. PORTABLE DEVICES These include computer, cellular phones and other low power consuming devices that run on a few watts. Fuel cells based on DMFC will do very well in such applications. Owing to the fact that DMFC runs on methanol and other low carbon hydrocarbons, the fuel is already available and is normally one of the products gotten from the decomposition of fossil fuel. Owing to the fact that such devices use relatively less material for construction, economy of scales can be gotten from the use of catalyst materials. DMFC has a working temperature of 700 and since the methanol fuel undergoes internal reforming the fuel cell systems can be made more compact. Various efforts to find a better catalyst materials and less cost is the main obstacle to DMFC commercialization for portable devices.

73

TRANSPORTATION Fuel cells are likely the next step in transportation. Taking table 2 of chapter 3 into consideration it can be seen that fuel cell cars give of more power and handle part-land better than their heat engine counterparts. Using the Honda FCX clarity as a case study, the fuel cell vehicle has a mileage rating estimate of 56km in both city and high way journeys. This is a lot better than the milage range of 22km-30km of its counterparts. The main advantage of fuel cell vehicles over other transportation means is their efficiency, which ranges from 40% to 60% which is a far better rating that the 25%-30% range rating of current heat engine powered vehicles. The most suited type of fuel cell for transportation is the PEMFC, with a power rating of 100-500kw, Low operating temperature of 900c, and high system efficiency of up to 50% the PEMFC seems to be destined to take over the transportation industry, so much so that billions are being pushed into research to find means, materials and production process to bring the cost of PEMFC cells to as low as N8000/kw (10)

74

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION Distributed generation is an approach that employs smallscale technologies to produce electricity. Due to the fact that fuel cells have low emissions and high efficiency, with the added advantage that they can be coupled to an already existing power grid, and undergo cogeneration. Fuel cells are so reliable for distributed generation applications that there are more than 300 DG fuel cell installation worldwide. From the data given in table 1 chapter 3, it is easy to see that the most convenient fuel cell type for distributed generation would be SOFC. With its high efficiency of 60% (stand alone) to 85% (cogeneration) the SOFC gives the best output power for DG applications. Another great advantage of the SOFC is that the operating temperature of the cell is high enough to be harnessed for steam generation, thus giving it extra advantage of being used to power an added on steam turbine system (hybrid power system layout). The main problem with the SOFC is that of corrosion and breakdown. If better materials can be found for the fabrication of the stack, the SOFC will become a major player in the stationary power generation sector. Tests are

75

being carried out all over the world to see which steps can be taken to improve on the SOFC.

CHAPTER FIVE 5.1 PRINCIPLE FINDINGS

76

The principle findings made in the process of writing this technical write-up include: The various types of fuel cells and their differences in terms of materials and operating characteristics

Electrochemical principles governing the operation of a fuel cell

The various problems that have lead to the need to commercialize fuel cell technology

The losses incurred in a fuel cell Components/subsystems of a fuel cell system Operating characteristics, degrees of efficiency, and feasible applications of fuel cells

5.2 CONCLUSION Fuel cell systems promise to provide benefits in a variety of applications. Systems based on fuel cell technology show great

77

potential in making power more portable and convenient. Fuel cell systems based on PEMFC technology promise to make more efficient, cleaner means of providing power in the auto mobile industry. MCFC and SOFC are likely to be applied in building cogeneration systems. With cogeneration efficiencies as high as 80%, these applications promise to reduce energy use and environmental impact. Many research developments and

regulatory agencies are working to insure that fuel cell systems fulfill there potentials. Fuel cells are the way to power production of the future, so much so that the new world trade center is to run on fuel cell units rated to generate a total of 4.8MW for the towers, the cells are said to run on natural gas. This further goes to show that fuel cells are a convenient, conceivable, and reliable means of power generation of the future.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations are made;

78

The implementation of fuel cells into the Nigerian grid system. As natural gas (70%-90% methane and other light hydrocarbons) is one of the resources available in the country, fuel cells technology will have the resources needed to sustain it.

From the Electric Power Sector Reform (EPSR) Act of 2005, government made emphasizes on the role of distributed generation electricity in the overall energy mix. Fuel cells infrastructure should have high priority as they are well suited for distributed generation and hybrid plant designs . Fuel cells such as the SOFC have high power densities meaning that they can serve more consumers without having large infrastructural areas allocated to them. They thus will act to reduce the demand on the national grid and also help to break up the single transmission grid system of the country into smaller autonomous grid systems.

Fuel cell technology if not run as base load plants in the country can act as peak load suppliers or power outage

79

regulators by being used as stand by systems in various plants. The cogeneration properties of fuel cells mean that they can be installed at already existing power generating

infrastructure. This means that fuel cell technology can be coupled into the Nigerias already existing power system, thus helping provide more power and help utilize the energy being wasted at current plants so as to gain higher efficiency levels.

REFERENCES

80

[1]

Introduction to fuel cells, brain cook, (2012, June 14,) [online]: Available: http://www.IEEE.org/xplore

[2]

Fuel

cells

(2013,

Sept

21)

[online];

Available:

http://www.wikipedia.com [3] Fuel cells consistent energy for the future (2012, Sept 14) [online]: Available: http//www.IEEE.org/xplore [4] PEM fuel cells, Diego Feroldi and Marta Basualdo (2012, Sept12) [online]: Available; http;//www.IEEE.org/xplore [5] Fuel cell handbook, 7th ed.; Morgantown. WV: EGBG technical services, inc., for U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy technology laboratory, November 2004. [6] Honda fcx-clarity (2012, Sept.26) [online]: available:

http;//www.automobiles-honda.com/fcx-clarity/reviews [7] Fuel cells: modeling, control and applications Bei Gou, woon Ki Na. CRC press, 2010 [8] Nernst equation (2012,Sept.29) [online]: Available:

www.wikipedia.com/Nernstequaation.htm.

81

[9]

Fuel

cells

2000

Home

page

(2012,

May.20)

[online]:

Available: http://.fuelcells.org. [10] US DOD fuel cell demonstration program Home page (2012, may) [online]: http://www.dod fuelcell.com