- Chuong V -

Chng 5
Ma hoa knh
Theo quan im cua nganh thng tin, tai nguyn thng tin chu yu la cng sut, thi gian va
bng thng cua tn hiu. i vi mt mi trng thng tin cho trc, ba tai nguyn nay co th
mu thun ln nhau. Vic cn i cac mu thun nay tuy vao tng trng hp cu th. Tuy
nhin, nhn chung th ta co th at c tc truyn s liu cao nht trong mt bng thng
nho nht trong khi gi cho cht lng truyn dn mc chp nhn c. Trong thng tin s
th cht lng truyn dn co lin quan mt thit vi xac sut li bit P
b
tai u thu.
nh ly v thng lng knh cua Shannon- Hartley:
) N / S 1 ( log B C
2
+ = (bit/s)
a ch ra gii han ly thuyt cua tc truyn s liu t b phat co cng sut cho trc, qua
mt knh vi bng thng cho trc, hoat ng trong mi trng co nhiu a bit. Tuy nhin,
thc hin c gii han ly thuyt nay, ta phai tm c mt phng phap ma hoa phu hp
(theo Shannon th phng phap nay co tn tai).
Trong thc t, yu cu cua vic thit k la phai thc hin c mt tc truyn s liu yu
cu (thng c xac nh bi dch vu cung cp) trong mt bng thng han ch cua mt knh
truyn sn co va mt cng sut han ch tuy ng dung cu th. Hn n a, con phai at c tc
nay vi mt ty s BER (Bit Error Rate) va thi gian tr chp nhn c. Nu mt tuyn
truyn dn PCM khng at c ty s BER yu cu vi cac rang buc nay th cn phai s
dung cac phng phap ma hoa iu khin li (error control coding).
Ma hoa iu khin li, con c goi la ma hoa knh (channel encoding) c s dung
phat hin va sa cac ky t hay cac bit thu b li. Ma hoa phat hin li (error detection
coding) c s dung nh la bc u tin cua qua trnh sa li bng ca ch kch cho u cui
thu phat ra tn hiu yu cu lp lai t ng ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest), truyn theo
hng ngc lai v cho u cui phat. Nu qua trnh truyn lai thanh cng th coi nh la a
sa c li. Nu ky thut ARQ khng thch hp, chng han nh khi tr truyn dn qua ln
th se s dung ky thut ma hoa sa li khng phan hi FECC (Forward Error Correction
Coding). Ca ma phat hin li va ma sa li u a thm d vao d liu phat, trong o
d thm vao trong ma sa li nhiu hn trong ma phat hin li. Ly do la i vi ma sa li,
d thm vao phai u cho bn thu khng ch phat hin c li ma con sa c li, khng
cn phai truyn lai.
Phn u cua chng nay se trnh bay tng quan v iu khin li ap dung trong h thng
thng tin s, bao gm gii thiu v cac phng phap iu khin li, phn loai cac ma iu
khin li.
Phn sau cua chng tp trung vao cac loai ma iu khin li, bao gm hai loai chnh la ma
khi (block code) va ma chp (convolutional code).
- 105 -
- Chuong V -
Phn ma khi se nu mt loai ma khi n gian nht la ma kim tra chn le parity.
Phn ma khi tuyn tnh (linear block code) se tp trung trnh bay v ma vong (cyclic code)
va mt loai ma vong n gian la ma Hamming.
Phn ma chp cui chng se trnh bay phng phap dung s cy (tree diagram), s
li (trellis diagram) va s trang thai (state diagram) minh hoa cho qua trnh ma hoa
ma chp. Phn giai ma ma chp trnh bay thut toan Viterbi dung s li.
Cac ni dung v ma hoa c trnh bay y theo quan i m la danh cho ngi a nm c
ly thuyt ma hoa, ch nu thut toan ma hoa va giai ma, a ra v du minh hoa, ch khng
nu c s toan hoc.
5.1 Tng quan v iu khin li
5.1.1 Cac phuong phap diu khin li
ai lng o li thng thng la ty l li bit BER (Bit Error Rate) hay xac sut li bit (P
b
). P
b

n gian la xac sut mt bit nh phn bt ky truyn i b li. BER la ty s li trung bnh, c
tnh la tch cua P
b
va R
b
, y R
b
la tc bit trong knh. P
b
in hnh trong mt h thng
PCM tuyn tnh la 10
-7
, trong h thng PCM nen phi tuyn la 10
-5
, trong h thng ADPCM
la 10
-4
.
iu khin li nhm muc ch la lam giam ty l li trong mt h thng khi ty l nay ln qua
mc cho phep. Nhn chung co nm phng phap iu khin li.
Giai phap u tin va d thy nht la tng cng sut phat, nhng khng phai luc nao cung co
th thc hin c. V du nh, i vi mt may in thoai bo tui th khng chp nhn khi
lng cua pin qua ln.
Giai phap th hai, rt hiu qua trong vic chng lai li chum gy bi fading, la s dung phn
tp (diversity). Co ba kiu phn tp chnh la phn tp khng gian, phn tp tn s va phn tp
th i gian. Ca ba kiu phn tp nay u a thm d vao trong d liu phat bng cach
truyn gp i: qua hai ng, tai hai tn s hay vao hai thi im khac nhau. Trong phn
tp khng gian, s dung hai hay nhiu antenna t tai nhng v tr u xa co mt trong cac
antenna o thu c tn hiu tt nht, t b fading nht. Phn tp tn s s dung hai hay nhiu
tn s khac nhau phat cung mt tin. Phn tp tn s co th la trong bng hay ngoai bng
tuy vao khoang cach tn s gia cac song mang. Trong h thng phn tp thi gian, phat
cung mt tin nhng vao hai hay nhiu thi im khac nhau.
Giai phap th ba la truyn song cng, hay con go i la kim tra echo (echo checking). y,
khi b phat phat tin n b thu, tin c phat ngc v b phat trn mt knh hi tip ring.
Nu tin phat ngc v khac vi tin phat i th bit la co li. Phng phap nay co khuyt im
la yu cu bng thng gp i so vi truyn trn mt hng nn khng chp nhn khi cn tn
dung ph.
Phng phap th t i pho vi BER cao la yu cu lp lai t ng ARQ (Automatic
Repeat reQuest). Trong h thng ARQ, ma phat hin li (error detecting code) c s dung
bn thu kim tra li trong khi s liu thu va tra li cho bn phat trn mt knh hi tip.
- 106 -
- Chuong V -
Tn hiu tra li la chp nhn ACK (ACKnowledgment) khi s liu thu ung va khng chp
nhn NAK (Non - AcKnowledgment) khi s liu thu sai. Nu bn phat nhn NAK, bn phat
phai tin hanh truyn lai khi s liu b li. Co hai ky thut ARQ chnh la ARQ dng va i
(stop and wait ARQ) va ARQ lin tuc (continuous ARQ). Trong h thng ARQ dng va i,
sau khi phat khi s liu i, bn phat dng lai va ch nhn tra li t bn thu, ri tuy theo tra
li o la ACK hay NAK ma bn phat phat khi s liu tip theo hay phat lai khi s liu va
ri. Nu thi gian ch qua thi gian quy nh (goi la time-out), bn phat coi nh la khi s
liu va phat b li va vn tin hanh phat lai. Han ch cua phng phap nay la thi gian tr
truyn dn ln. Trong h thng ARQ lin tuc, cac khi s liu u mang s th t - N - va
ban tin tra li ACK/NAK cung mang s th t N tng ng. Bn phat lin tuc phat i cac
khi s liu ma khng ch nhn tra li t bn thu. Bn thu kim tra li cac khi s liu thu va
tra li v cho bn phat ban tin ACK/NAK kem theo s th t cua khi tin tng ng. Khi nao
bn phat nhn tra li NAK t bn thu, bn phat se phat lai tt ca cac khi s liu k t khi s
liu b li i vi ARQ lui lai N (go-back-N ARQ), hoc bn phat se ch phat lai khi s liu
b li i vi ARQ chon loc (selective ARQ). Mc du ARQ chon loc rt hiu qua trong s
dung bng thng nhng yu cu dung lng b nh ln hn ARQ lui lai N, c bit trong cac
kt ni tc cao. ARQ phu hp vi cac h thng thng tin may tnh, v o co sn knh
song cng bn thu co th phat lai cho bn phat ban tin ACK/NAK. Tuy nhin, trong cac
ng truyn dai vi tc cao, in hnh nh thng tin v tinh th rt kho thc hin ARQ.
Phng phap th nm giam BER la thc hin ma hoa sa li khng phan hi FECC
(Forward Error Correction Coding). Trong lch s , vic chp nhn s dung rng rai FECC
co tr hn so vi cac phng phap khac, bi v phc tap va gia ca cua no cao hn. Ngay
nay, phc tap a giam xung nh vao s gia tng cac chip ma hoa/ giai ma VLSI. FECC
li dung s khac nhau gia tc truyn dn va thng lng knh giam xac sut li P
b
.
Vic giam xac sut li b tra gia bng vic tng thi gian tr truyn dn, do tng d cho u
ma co th phat hin va sa c li va do mt thi gian kim tra khi s liu thu sa
li. Tuy nhin, li ch cua FECC co c thng nhiu hn khuyt im v tr ln.









Ma khi
Ma khng vong
Ma Golay RS
Hamming (e=1) e>1
BCH nh phn
Ma vong
Ma tuyn tnh
(Ma nhom)
Ma khng
tuyn tnh
Ma chp
Ma hoa diu khin li
Hinh 5.1 Phn loai ma iu khin li
- 107 -
- Chuong V -
5.1.2 Phn loai ma diu khin li
Nhn chung, co th phn loai ma phat hin va sa li (goi chung la ma hoa knh - ma hoa
iu khin li) theo s trong hinh 5.1.
a) Ma khi
Ma khi c c trng bi hai s nguyn n va k, va mt ma trn sinh hay a thc sinh.
Hinh 5.2 minh hoa mt b ma hoa ma khi vi k bit tin vao va n bit ma hoa ra. T ma n bit
c tao ra duy nht t k bit tin va (n-k) la s bit kim tra d. Ty l ma (coder rate) la R =
k/n, la tiu chun anh gia d cua ma. Ty l ma thng t 1/2 n 1. Ma h thng
(systematic code) la ma co mt cac bit tin cung vi cac bit d trong t ma. Trong cac tai liu
v ma hoa th co hai nh ngha v ma h thng. nh ngha nghim ngt hn cho rng ma co
tnh h thng khi k bit tin phai nm lin tuc thanh mt khi va cac bit d phai nm lin tuc
trong mt khi khac. nh ngha t nghim ngt hn th ch yu cu trong t ma co mt cac
bit tin ch khng cn phai nm lin tuc thanh khi.

B ma hoa khi
n bit
ma hoa
k
bit
tin




T ma n bit
(n-k) bit k bit
Phn tin Phn du
Hinh 5.2 Ma khi h thng (n, k)
Ma khi tuyn tnh (liear block code) - con goi la ma nhom (group code) - co cac t ma co
tng ng 1-1 vi cac phn t thuc nhom toan hoc. Ma tuyn tnh co cha t ma gm toa n
s 0 va co tnh cht ong, chng han i vi ma tuyn tnh nh phn, vi hai t ma va
bt ky, ta lun co , cung la mt t ma. Vic co cha t ma gm toan s
0 va tnh cht ong lam cho vic tnh toan i vi ma tuyn tnh c bit d. Hinh 5.3 la mt
v du n gian v ma tuyn tnh. No minh hoa cho tnh cht ong cua ma. Co 4 ky t ngun
la a, b, c, va d, k = 2, n = 5. y la ma (5, 2)
i
C
j
C
k j i
C C C = +
k
C
a = 00 00000
b = 01 00111
c = 10 11100
Ma ho a
d = 11 11011
c d b , b d c , d b c = = =
Hinh 5.3 Minh hoa tnh cht ong cua ma khi tuyn tnh
Ma vong (cyclic code) la mt lp con cua ma khi tuyn tnh khng co t ma gm toan s 0.
- 108 -
- Chuong V -
Mt ma khi tuyn tnh c goi la ma vong nu sau mt ln dch vong mt t ma th cung
c mt t ma thuc cung b ma. V du cac t ma sau y c goi la ma vong:
1101000, 0110100, 0011010, 1000110, 0001101, 1010001, 0100011.
Ma Golay la mt loai ma vong sa c sai nhiu li. Ma Golay (23, 12) co kha nng sa
c 3 li cho t ma dai 23 bit. Ma nay c Golay phat minh nm 1949 va c nhiu
chuyn gia quan tm nghin cu ti cu truc va c ch giai ma. Thc t ang co hai phng
phap giai ma la phng phap Kasami va giai ma tm kim co h thng (systematic search
decoding). Ma Golay (23, 12) c s dung kha ph bin trong mt s h thng thng tin.
Ma BCH nh phn (binary BCH code) la mt loai ma vong c Hocquenghem tm ra nm
1959, sau o c Bose va Chaudhuri tm ra mt cach c lp vao nm 1960. Ma BCH co
th sa c t li trong t ma dai n bit, vi . V du ma
BCH (15, 7) co th sa sai ti a 2 li.
1 t 2 d , mt k n , 1 2 n
min
m
+ =
Ma RS c Reed va Solomon gii thiu ln u tin vao nm 1960. Theo ly thuyt ma, co
th xem ma RS la ma BCH khng nh phn. Ma RS c t chc theo ky t. Ma RS tao
thanh n ky t, mi ky t dai m bit, m tuy thuc vao ng dung cu th, v du m = 8 th mi ky
t chnh la mt byte. Ma RS hoat ng trn ky t nhiu bit ch khng phai trn tng bit nh
cac ma vong khac. Mt c im quan trong cua ma RS la kha nng sa li chum. Ma RS co
th sa sai t li, vi
2
k n
t

= . y n va k la s ky t ma hoa va s ky t mang tin ch
khng phai s bit. V du ma RS (31, 15) co 15 ky t vao, mi ky t 5 bit, tc la 75 bit tin va
31 ky t ma hoa, mi ky t 5 bit. Ma nay co th sa c 8 li bit c lp hoc 4 li chum dai
khng qua 5 bit. Ma RS c dung rng rai trong cac u CD va trong b nh may tnh.
Ma Hamming la mt trng hp ring n gian nht cua ma BCH nh phn. Ma nay c
R.W. Hamming a ra va c dung trong mt s h thng thng tin. Ma Hamming co kha
nng sa sai 1 li. Quan h gia n va k thoa man bt ng thc:
1 n
2
2
n
k
+

b) Ma chp
Ma chp cung c c trng bi hai s nguyn la n va k nh ma khi, nhng n bit ra khoi
b ma hoa khng ch phu thuc vao k bit vao ma con phu thuc vao K-1 b k bit vao trc
o. K c goi la dai rang buc (constraint length). Ma chp (n, k, K) c xy dng t
cac thanh ghi dch kK bit. Vy co th xem ma chp la ma co nh, o la im khac bit c ban
cua ma chp so vi ma khi.
Ma chp c Elias xut ln u tin vao nm 1955. Sau o, Wozencraft a ra mt thut
toan giai ma tng i hiu qua. Nm 1963, Massey a ra cach giai ma t hiu qua hn
nhng d th c hin. Nm 1967, Viterbi a a ra thut toan giai ma ti u c goi la thut
toan Viterbi. T y, ma chp c ng dung rng rai trong nganh vin thng.
5.1.3 Kha nng phat hin va sua li cua ma khi
- 109 -
- Chuong V -
a) Mi quan h giua khoang cach Hamming va kha nng phat hin va sua li
Ly thuyt ma a chng minh rng: khoang cach Hamming gia cac t ma trong mt b ma co
lin quan n kha nng phat hin sai va sa sai cua b ma o, cu th la:
1 s r d + +
trong o d la khoang cach Hamming, r la s li phat hin c, s la s li sa c, r s .
Ta kim tra iu nay qua mt v du minh hoa sau y:
Gia s ta co b ma u M. M co 8 t ma nh sau:

Ky tu A B C D E F G H
Tu ma 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
T M, ta lp b ma M
1
co khoang cach Hamming u la 2. Nu chon t ma B (001) lam t
ma xut phat th b ma M
1
bao gm 4 t ma sau:

Ky tu B C E H
Tu ma 001 010 100 111
Goi 4 t ma trn la t ma dung va 4 t ma con lai la t ma cm.
Trong trng hp sai 1 li, ro rang cac t ma dung c truyn i se chuyn thanh cac t ma
cm bn thu. Cu th la B (001) chuyn thanh F (101), D (011), A (000); C chuyn thanh
G(110), A (000), D (011); E chuyn thanh A (000), G (110), F (101); H chuyn thanh D
(011), F (101), G (110). Luc nay co th d dang phat hin c li. Nu bn thu nhn c t
ma la A, co th kt lun la t ma truyn i b li nhng khng th kt lun c t ma nao (B,
C hay E) a truyn i. Noi cach khac, khi s trng hp sai nhiu hn s t ma cm th
khng th pha t hin c li. Trong trng hp sai 2 li, ta thy t ma dung nay se chuyn
thanh t ma dung khac nn khng th phat hin c li.
T M, ta lp b ma M
2
co khoang cach Hamming u la 3. Nu chon t ma B (001) lam t
ma xut phat th b ma M
2
bao gm 2 t ma sau:

Ky tu B G
Tu ma 001 110
Trong trng hp sai 1 li, ro rang cac t ma dung c truyn i se chuyn thanh cac t ma
cm bn thu. Cu th la B (001) chuyn thanh F (101), D (011), A (000); G chuyn thanh
C(010), E (100), H (111). Luc nay co th d dang phat hin c li va do s trng hp sai
- 110 -
- Chuong V -
khng trung nhau va bng s t ma cm nn co th sa c li. Trong trng hp sai 2 li,
ta thy t ma dung chuyn thanh t ma cm nhng trung vi t ma cm trong trng hp sai
1 li ch phat hin c li ch khng sa c li.
Tom lai, t v du trn ta co th kt lun: nu khoang cach Hamming la 2 th co kha nng phat
hin c 1 li, nu khoang cach Hamming la 3 th co kha nng phat hin va sa c 1 li
va phat hin c 2 li. iu nay hoan toan ung chng minh trn v mi quan h gia
khoang cach Hamming va kha nng phat hin va sa l i cua ma.
Cung qua v du trn v b ma M
2
ta thy rng: vi s lng t ma trong b ma la 2 thc s
trong mi t ma ch co 1 bit tin. Nhng y chiu dai t ma la 3. Nh vy trong 3 bit o co
2 bit d. "D" y hiu theo ngha la khng mang tin nhng c thm vao nhm muc ch
kim tra li. Phn sau ta se xet tng quat v mi quan h gia dai tng cng cua t ma va
s bit tin.
b) Mi quan h giua d dai tng cng cua tu ma va s bit tin
tm ra mi quan h gia dai tng cng cua t ma va s bit tin, trc ht ta a ra khai
nim vector li e. Vector li la vector biu din v tr cac bit li xut hin trong t ma thu, qui
c bit khng li c biu din la 0 va bit li c biu din la 1.
V du t ma phat la 1110010 va t ma thu la 1100110. Luc nay vector li la e 0010100
Goi dai tng cng cua t ma la: n; suy ra s t ma tng cng la: 2
n

Goi s bit tin trong t ma la : k; suy ra s t ma dung la: 2
k
Vy s t ma cm la: 2
n
- 2
k
Goi E la s lng vector li, ta co:
n 3 2 1
E ... E E E E + + + + =
y E
i
la vector li biu din trng hp sai i li.
)! i n ( ! i
! n
C E
i
n i

= =
Vi mi t ma dung truyn i th ti a co th xay ra E trng hp li. Vy vi s t ma dung
la 2
k
th ti a co th xay ra Ex2
k
trng hp li. co th phat hin va sa ht tt ca cac li
nay th yu cu mi trng hp sai phai chuyn t ma dung sang mt t ma cm khac nhau,
noi cach khac, s trng hp sai khng c vt qua s lng t ma cm, ngha la:
k n k
2 2 2 Ex .
Trong trng hp sai 1 li, ta co:
n E E
1
= =
Vy quan h gia n va k phai thoa man bt ng thc sau:
- 111 -
- Chuong V -
1 n
2
2
n
k
+

5.2 Ma khi
5.2.1 Ma kim tra chn le (parity)
y la loai ma khi n gian nht. Ma nay c dung ph bin trong truyn s liu dang
ASCII. Vi phng phap nay, mi ky t trc khi truyn i c thm vao mt bit chn le,
goi la bit parity (P). Bit P c tnh toan da vao ky t phat sao cho tng s bit 1 trong ky t
(k ca bit P) la s chn nu parity la loai chn ( even parity) va la s le nu parity la loai le
(odd parity). Dung ma parity le se tranh c trng hp truyn t ma g m toan s 0, tuy
nhin, ma parity chn lai c dung ph bin hn.
Hinh 5.4 la mt v du minh hoa cho ma kim tra chn le. Bit parity chn la 1, bit parity le la
0 vi ky t 1001001. Ty l ma la 7/8, mt mc d rt thp.

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 P


Hinh 5.4 V du ma parity
B
0
B
1
B
2
B
3
B
4
B
5
B
6

P chn 1
P le 0
R k/n 7/8
7 bit tin 1bit
kim tra












B
6
B
5
B
4
B
3
B
2
B
1
B
0
P le P chn
Hinh 5.5 Mach tnh toan bit parity
- 112 -
- Chuong V -
Khi nhn ky t, bn thu se thc hin tnh toan bit parity tng t nh bn phat va so sanh.
Nu chung bng nhau th kt lun khng co li, nu khac nhau th kt lun co li.
Mach tnh toan bit parity cho ca bn phat va bn thu n gian la tp cac cng XOR nh trn
hinh 5.5.
By gi ta xet n kha nng phat hin li cua ma parity. Gia s dung P chn, cac t ma mang
tin la 7 bit t 0000000 n 1111111, cac t ma lin tip trong b ma nay se la:
0000000 0
0000001 1
0000010 1
..................
Ta thy khoang cach Hamming cua b ma nay la 2. Vy theo ly thuyt ma, ma nay ch phat
hin c 1 li. Tuy nhin, thc t ma na y phat hin c tt ca cac li n hay cac li xut
hin vi s li le, khng phat hin c cac li xut hin vi s li chn.
5.2.2 Ma kim tra tng khi BCC(Block sum Check Character)
Khi truyn i mt khi ky t, mt ky t trong khi co th b li, va v vy coi nh khi o b
li. Xac sut khi ky t b li goi la xac sut li khi (block error rate). Khi truyn i khi ky
t, ta co th cai thin kha nng kha nng phat hin li cua ma parity bng cach khng ch
thm bit P cho ring tng ky t n le ma con thm tp cac bit P tnh trn ca mt khi hoan
chnh.
V i phng phap nay, mi ky t trong khi c thm vao mt bit P, goi la bit parity hang
(row parity), mi v tr cua bit trong khi c thm mt bit P goi la bit parity ct (column
parity). Tp cac bit parity ct tao thanh ky t kim tra tng khi BCC.
Hinh 5.6 trnh bay mt v du dung parity chn cho hang va parity le cho ct.


B
0
B
1
B
2
B
3
B
4
B
5
B
6
P
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
BCC =
Cac bit parity ct
Cac

bit

Parity

hang
Ni

dung

khung
1
Bit P cho BCC


Hinh 5.6 V du kim tra tng modulo-2
- 113 -
- Chuong V -
Qua v du trn ta thy mc du hai bit li trong mt ky t khng c phat hin nh bit parity
hang nhng se c phat hin nh bit parity ct. Ma nay khng phat hin c hai bit li
trong cung ky t xay ra cung ct vao cung thi im (v du nh cac bit li xut hin cac
v tr nh anh du trong hnh). Tuy nhin, kha nng nay rt t xay ra nn ma kim tra tng a
cai thin c kha nng phat hin li cua ma parity n. Nu xay ra li n th cn c vao bit
P hang va P ct thu sai khac so vi P hang va P ct tnh, ta co th xac nh c v tr bit li,
do o co th sa li.
Phng phap kim tra tng thng c dung trong trng h p s liu truyn i la mt mang
ky t ASCII.
Phng phap nay co mt bin th la s dung tng bu 1 tnh BCC thay cho tng modulo-2.
Trong phng phap mi nay, xem cac ky t trong khi cn truyn nh la cac s nh phn
khng du. Trc ht, cng cac s nay lai dung thut toan bu 1, sau o ao ngc kt qua lai
tao thanh BCC. Bn thu tin hanh tnh tng bu 1 cua tt ca cac ky t trong khi (k ca BCC),
nu khng co li xut hin th kt qua phai bng 0. Lu y rng, vi thut toan bu 1, bit nh
cui cung c quay vong ri cng vao tng ang co cho nn s 0 se c biu din hoc la
toan s 0 hoc la toan s 1.
Phng phap mi nay c trnh bay qua v du trn hinh 5.7. T v du ta thy phng phap
mi nay phat hin li tt hn phng phap tng modulo-2.
Bn phat Bn thu
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 tng bu 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = s 0 trong s bu 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 = BCC
ao bit
1
1
Hinh 5.7 V du kim tra tng bu 1
Ma kim tra tng bu 1 thng c tnh toan bng phn mm, dung kim tra li cho cac
ban tin giao thc qua internet.
5.2.3 Ma khi tuyn tinh
a) Ji du v ma khi tuyn tinh
Hinh 5.8 minh hoa mt mach ta o ma khi tuyn tnh (4, 7) gm 4 bit tin (I
1
n I
4
) va 3
bit kim tra chn le (P
1
n P
3
).
- 112 -
- Chuong V -
Gia s dung parity chn, mi quan h gia cac bit tin va bit kim tra la:
3 2 1 3
4 2 1 2
4 3 1 1
I I I P
I I I P
I I I P
=
=
=

Nu cac bit tin la I
1
= 1, I
2
= 0, I
3
= 1, I
4
= 1, cac bit P tnh c se la P
1
= 1, P
2
= 0 va P
3
= 0.


I
1
I
2
I
3
I
4
P
1
P
2
P
3




Hinh 5.8 Mach tao ma khi (4, 7)
Ta co th vit lai quan h gia cac bit tin va bit kim tra trong v du trn nh sau:
4 3 2 1 1
4 3 2 1 1
4 3 2 1 1
xI 0 xI 1 xI 1 xI 1 P
xI 1 xI 0 xI 1 xI 1 P
xI 1 xI 1 xI 0 xI 1 P
=
=
=

T cac phng trnh quan h nay, ta rut ra ma trn kim tra H nh sau:

=
1 0 0 : 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 : 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 : 1 1 0 1
H
Phn bn trai cua ng chm chm la cac h s cua cac bit tin I
1
n I
4
, phn bn phai
ng chm chm la ma trn 3x3 co ng cheo la 1 (ma trn n v).
b) Ma trn sinh (generator matrix)
Ma trn sinh, ky hiu la G, la mt ma trn 4 x 7, c tao ra bng cach kt hp mt ma trn
n v 4 x 4 vi ma trn hoan v cua ma trn bn trai ng chm chm cua H. Trong v du
trn, ma trn sinh la:

=
0 1 1 : 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 : 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 : 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 : 0 0 0 1
G
Nh ma trn sinh G, ta co th tnh toan c t ma bng cach nhn vector hang m biu din
- 113 -
- Chuong V -
cho t ma mang tin vi G. Trong v du trn, day mang tin la 1011, t ma khi tuyn tnh (4,7)
c tao ra la:
[ ] [1011100
0001110
0010101
0100011
1000111
1011 =

]
Ta nhn thy ma trn kt qua chnh la vector biu din cho t ma khi (4, 7) gm co hai
phn: 4 bit bn trai la 4 bit tin I
1
n I
4
, 3 bit bn phai chnh la 3 bit kim tra P
1
n P
3
.
Theo cach lp ma nay, ta nhn thy khoang cach Hamming ti thiu la 3, do o ma nay sa
sai c 1 li.
c) Bang syndrome dgiai ma sua li
Syndrome la mt t ma c lp vi t ma phat va ch phu thuc vao day thu b li, ky hiu
vector syndrome la s. Bang syndrome la tp hp tt ca cac syndrome co th co. Goi c la
vector biu din cho t ma khi (n, k) . Ta co quan h:
c G x m =
Goi e la vector li va r la t ma thu, ta co:
e c r =
Syndrome c tnh nh sau:
T T T T T T
H x e H x e 0 H x e H x c H x ) e c ( H x r s = = = = =
Bang syndrome c tnh sn vi gia thit la truyn i t ma gm toan bit 0. V du bang
syndrome trong trng hp sai 1 li nh hinh 5.9:
Vector li Syndrome
001 0000001
010 0000010
100 0000100
110 0001000
101 0010000
011 0100000
111 1000000
000 0000000

Hinh 5.9 Bang syndrome hoan chnh cho tt ca cac li n
Nhn vao bang hnh 5.9 ta thy: khi khng co li syndrome la 0, khi co li syndrome khac 0
- 114 -
- Chuong V -
va cac syndrome khng ging nhau nn co th cn c vao syndrome bit v tr bit li, t
o sa c li. V du trn, gia s thu c t ma 1011101, t ma ung sa c se la c nh
sau:
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [1011100 c 001
001
010
100
110
101
011
111
1011101 s
1011101 r
= =

=
=
]

Trng hp xut hin li chum, ngi ta s dung ky thut tao loan (interleaving): xao trn
th t cac bit tin trong ban tin ma hoa trc khi phat va sp xp lai sau khi thu, tach chum
li thanh cac li n ri mi a n b giai ma.
5.3 Ma vong
5.3.1 Dc dim cua ma vong
Nh a gii thiu trn (5.1.2), ma vong la mt lp con cua ma khi tuyn tnh. Ma vong co
cac c im sau:
- Cu truc toan hoc cua ma vong cho phep kha nng sa li cao.
- Co th thc hin ma vong d dang bng phn cng, bng cac thanh ghi dch va cac cng
XOR
- Dch vong mt t ma cung c mt t ma thuc cung b ma.
- Co th biu din ma vong bng a thc
- Co th tao ra t ma vong bng cach nhn modulo-2 vector mang tin vi a thc sinh. Luc
nay ma vong c goi la ma vong khng h thng
5.3.2 Ma kim tra d du vong CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
Ma CRC la mt loai ma vong c s dung rng rai trn cac knh truyn ni tip bit phat
hin li (khng sa li). Trong CRC, mt tp bit kim tra c tnh toan cho mi khung tin
da vao ni dung khung, sau o c gn thm vao ui khung truyn i. Bn thu thc
hin tnh toan tng t nh bn phat phat hin li. Cac bit kim tra goi la day kim tra
khung FCS (Frame Check Sequence). Thut toan cu th nh sau:
a) 1inh toan tao ma CRC bn phat va kim tra li bn thu
Goi M(x) la a thc tin bc k-1, G(x) la a thc sinh bc r
- 115 -
- Chuong V -
Thc hin phep chia cho G(x), se c:
r
x ) x ( M
) x ( G
) x ( R
) x ( Q
) x ( G
x ) x ( M
r
+ = , vi Q(x) la thng s va R(x) la s d
T y suy ra:
) x ( Q
) x ( G
) x ( R x ) x ( M
r
=
+

t la a thc biu din cho t ma CRC phat. Ro rang la nu
khng co li xut hin th bn thu, sau khi chia t ma thu cho a thc sinh ta se c phn d
la 0.
) x ( R x ) x ( M ) x ( T
r
+ =
b) Ji du
V du cn truyn i mt khung tin 8 bit 11100110 qua ng truyn s liu, s dung ma CRC
phat hin li, a thc sinh s dung la 11001.
T ma CRC c tao ra nh hnh 5.10 sau:

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1


1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0


1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0


1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0
Du (FCS)
Hinh 5.10 V du tao ma CRC
Sau khi thc hin tnh toan nh trn, ta tm c t ma CRC la: 11100110 0110, trong o 8
bit u la 8 bit tin va 4 bit sau la 4 bit kim tra.
Gia s tai bn thu, ta thu c t ma: 111001101111. Hinh 5.11 trnh bay vic thc hin
phep chia a thc thu cho a thc sinh nh trn.
- 116 -
- Chuong V -
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1


1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0


1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 1


1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1

1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1
Du 0 nn phat hin c li
Hinh 5.11 V du giai ma CRC va phat hin li
Vic la chon a thc sinh rt quan trong v no xac nh cac kiu li co th phat hin. Mt a
thc sinh bc r co t nht 3 s 1 se phat hin c tt ca cac li n, tt ca cac li i, tt ca
cac li xay ra vi s le, tt ca cac li chum ngn hn r va hu ht cac li chum dai hn hoc
bng r. Sau y la mt vai a thc sinh thng dung trong thc t:
CRC - 16: G(x) = x
16
+ x
15
+ x
2
+ 1
CRC - CCITT: G(x) = x
16
+ x
12
+ x
5
+ 1
CRC - 32: G(x) = x
32
+ x
26
+ x
23
+ x
16
+ x
12
+ x
11
+ x
10
+ x
8
+ x
7
+ x
5
+ x
4
+ x
2
+ x + 1
CRC - 16 va CRC - CCITT c dung rng rai trong WAN, CRC - 32 c dung trong hu
ht cac LAN. Kha nng t sa li cua CRC thp nhng kha nng phat hin li rt cao nn
thng c dung kt hp vi ARQ sa li.
c) Mach thuc hin ma CRC
Hinh 5.12 trnh bay s thc hin CRC bn phat.
Ta xet cu th v du trn. S bit trong FCS la 4 nn cn mt thanh ghi dch 4 bit (goi la thanh
ghi FCS) biu din x
3
, x
2
, x
1
va x
0
trong a thc sinh (goi la cac bit tch cc - active bit).
Vi a thc sinh nay th cac s x
3
va x
0
la 1 con x
2
va x
1
la 0. Trang thai mi cua x
1
va x
2
c
thay bng trang thai trc o cua x
0
va x
1
. Trang thai mi cua x
0
va x
3
c xac nh bi trang
thai cua ng phan hi a XOR vi s trc o.
Mach hoat ng nh sau: trc tin xoa thanh ghi dch FCS va nap song song 8 bit u tin
trong khung tin vao thanh ghi vao song song - ra ni tip PISO (Parallel Input - Serial
Output). Tn hiu iu khin phan hi la 1. Theo tc cua ng h phat TxC, cac bit nay
c dch ra ng truyn ln lt t msb n lsb. Cung luc nay, dong bit nay c XOR vi
- 117 -
- Chuong V -

Tn hiu in khin phan hi
(t 1 thanh 0 sau 8 N TxC)
FCS
PISO
lsb msb
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
TxD
Nap song song tng byte trong N byte
trong khung tin
TxC












Thanh ghi PISO Thanh ghi FCS
TxC

lsb msb X
0
X
1
X
2
X
3
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
4 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hinh 5.12 S mach tao CRC bn phat
x
3
qua ng phan hi tr lai cac u vao chon loc cua FCS. Sau khi 8 bit u (byte u tin
- 118 -
- Chuong V -
trong khung tin) i qua ht thanh ghi PISO, thu tuc nay c lp lai. Sau khi xut ra byte tin
cui cung trong khung tin, thanh ghi PISO c nap toan la s 0, tn hiu iu khin phan hi
t 1 tr thanh 0, do o ni dung cua thanh ghi FCS - la cac bit kim tra - i theo sau khung
tin phat ra ng truyn. Trong hnh 5.12, ta a gia s khung tin ch co 1 byte (N 1)










Thanh ghi SIPO Thanh ghi FCS
RxC RxD
lsb msb X
0
X
1
X
2
X
3
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
4 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
5 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
7 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
8 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
9 1 0 1 0 1
10 1 0 0 1 1
11 0 0 0 0 0
12

0 0 0 0

Hinh 5.13 S mach kim tra CRC bn thu
Doc byte
FCS
SIPO
lsb msb
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
RxC
oc song song byte (xN)
RxD
Du 0
- 119 -
- Chuong V -
Hinh 5.13 trnh bay s kim tra CRC bn thu. S liu thu RxD ln lt c dch vao
thanh ghi vao ni tip - ra song song SIPO ( Serial Input - Parallel Output) gia mi bit.
Cac bit RxD ln lt c XOR vi x
3
va phan hi tr lai thanh ghi SIPO, mi khi nhn c
byte 8 bit, thit b iu khin se iu khin oc byte.
d) Giai ma ma CRC bng phuong phap by li
Xet trng hp ma CRC c thanh lp vi s bit tin k va s bit tng cng n thoa man bt
ng thc:
1 n
2
2
n
k
+
. V du k 4, n 7
Phn tch ra cac tha s nguyn t ri chon tha s bc r lam a thc sinh. V du: 1 x
n
+
) 1 x x )( 1 x x )( 1 x ( 1 x
3 2 3 7
+ + + + + = + .
Chon a thc sinh la hoc la 1 x x ) x ( G
2 3
+ + = 1 x x ) x ( G
3
+ + =
Ma CRC trong trng hp nay co kha nng sa c li, cu th la 1 li.
Y
N
DM= 0
Dch vong T'(x) sang trai
Chia T'(x) cho G(x) - d la R'(x)
T'(x) T'(x) R'(x)
Dch vong T'(x) sang phai DMln
Tng DM
ln 1
W 1 ?
Tnh trong lng d W
End
Begin

















Hinh 5.14 Thut toan sa li ma CRC bng phng phap by li
- 120 -
- Chuong V -
Hinh 5.14 trnh bay thut toan sa li cho ma CRC bng phng phap by li. Goi T'(x) la
a thc biu din cho t ma thu. Qua trnh sa li bt u bng vic dch vong T'(x) sang
trai, sau o chia cho G(x) tm s d R'(x). Vic dch vong se din ra nhiu ln cho n khi
trong lng d nho hn hoc bng 1. Trong lu trn, ta dung bin DM m s ln
dch vong trai. Sau o cng T'(x) vi R'(x), li c by va sa sau phep cng nay. Tuy
nhin, ta cn phai sa lai v tr cac bit trong T'(x) do nhng ln dch vong trai. Do o, phai
dch vong T'(x) ng c lai sang phai vi s ln bng s ln trc o a dch vong sang trai (s
ln dch vong phai y chnh la DM).
Vi du tin la 4 bit 1100, a thc sinh chon la 1 x x
2 3
+ + . Thc hin ma hoa ta c t ma
phat la 1100 101. Gia s bn thu thu c t ma 1110 101. Kim tra li bng cach chia T'(x)
cho G(x), ta thy phep chia con d nn kt lun co li. Vy tin hanh sa li nh sau:
Dch vong trai ln th nht c 1101011, chia cho G(x) d la 011.
Dch vong trai ln th hai c 1010111, chia cho G(x) d la 110.
Dch vong trai ln th ba c 0101111, chia cho G(x) d la 001.
Thc hin phep cng modulo-2: 0101111 001 ta c 0101110, ri dch vong sang phai 3
ln ta c lai t ma 1100101 ging nh bn phat.
5.3.3 Ma Hamming
Ma Hamming la mt trng hp ring n gian nht cua ma vong. Ma Hamming co d 3, co
kha nng sa c 1 li.
Mt t ma Hamming c biu din di dang tng quat . y i la cac
bit tin va c la cac bit kim tra.
.... i ic i i c i c c
8 4 2 1
Cac bit c chnh la kt qua cua phep XOR gia tr ch v tr cua cac bit 1 vi nhau. Qua trnh
kim tra li bn thu din ra tng t nh bn phat. Nu kt qua cua phep XOR la mt gia tr
khac 0 th o chnh la v tr cua bit li.
Vi du xet kha nng sa li n cua ma Hamming (7, 11) trong trng hp t ma mang tin la
1011101.
T ma Hamming co dang: . 101 c 011 c 1 c c
8 4 2 1
Cac bit 1 cac v tr: 3, 6, 9 va 11. i cac s nay sang nh phn:
1011 11 , 1001 9 , 0111 7 , 0110 6 , 0011 3
Tnh XOR:
1001 1011 1001 0111 0110 0011 = .
Vy t ma Hamming phat i la: 10100110101
Gia s bn thu, thu c t ma: 10000110101. i gia tr ch v tr cua cac bit 1 sang nh
phn ri tnh XOR tng t nh bn phat:
- 121 -
- Chuong V -
1011 11 , 1001 9 , 0111 7 , 0110 6 , 0001 1
3 0011 1011 1001 0111 0110 0001 =
T y xac nh c bit li la bit v tr th 3. Vy t ma thu c sa lai la: 10100110101
ging nh t ma phat.
5.4 Ma chp
5.4.1 Ma hoa ma chp
Nh trnh bay muc 5.1.2, ma chp c c trng bi ba s nguyn la n, k va K. Ma chp
(n, k, K) c xy dng t cac thanh ghi dch kK bit. y ta xet loai ma chp ph bin
nht la ma chp co k 1. B ma hoa la thanh ghi dch K bit. u ra cua cac v tr trong thanh
ghi c la chon cng modulo-2 vi nhau. S lng b cng modulo-2 chnh la n. Mt
b chuyn mach se ln lt ly mu mi u ra cua b cng modulo-2 theo nhp cua ng h
thanh ghi dch.
Hinh 5.15 minh hoa mt b ma hoa ma chp vi k 1, K 3, n 2.







a) Biu din ma chp bng da thuc sinh
2
1
T
0
T
0
T
0
Vao 1 1 0 1
Ra 11 10 11 01
Hinh 5.15 V du b ma hoa ma chp ty l 1/2
Co th biu din b ma hoa ma chp bng cac a thc sinh. Mi a thc sinh biu din cho
mt b cng modulo-2. a thc sinh co bc 1 K miu ta s kt ni gia u ra cua mt
v tr trong thanh ghi dch vi b cng modulo-2. Theo v du trn, hai a thc sinh
la va
2
1
x 1 ) x ( G + = x 1 ) x ( G
2
+ =
Gia s day tin vao b ma hoa la 1100, day ma hoa se la 11101101 . . ., ngha la ng vi mt
bit tin vao co hai bit ma hoa ra. Do o, ty l ma la 1/2.
nh ngha ap ng xung cua ma hoa la ap ng cua b ma hoa khi bit vao la 1. Trong v du
trn, ap ng xung se la: 110110. Vi day vao la 1101, ta thy day ra co th c tnh la chp
day vao vi ap ng xung. Do o ma nay co tn la ma chp.
b) Biu din ma chp bng so d cy
Hinh 5.16 trnh bay s cy biu din ma ch p cho v du trn. Gia s ban u toan b
thanh ghi c xoa v 0. oc s cy theo phng ngang t trai qua phai, mi nhanh cy
- 122 -
- Chuong V -
biu din mt t ma hai bit ra ng vi mt bit vao. Mi khi co bit vao la 0, i sang nhanh
phai tip theo pha trn, nu bit vao la 1 th i sang nhanh phai tip theo pha di.
01
11
00
10
10
11
01
00
10
01
11
00
11
00
0
1








Hinh 5.16 S cy biu din b ma hoa ma chp hnh 5.15
Gia s day vao la 110, i theo ng net m trn s cy, ta c day ra la 111011. Nu
s bit vao la L th s nhanh trong s cy se la 2
L
. Nh vy, khi s bit vao tng th s
cy rt cng knh.
c) Biu din ma chp bng so d luoi
Nhn trong s cy ta thy thc t la b ma hoa ma chp ch co 4 trang thai phn bit, ky
hiu la a, b, c va d tng ng vi cac cp bit nh phn 00, 10, 01 va 11.
T s cy, ta thy: ln phn nhanh u tin, tao ra hai nut, ln phn nhanh th hai tao ra
bn nut va c sau mi ln phn nhanh s nut tng gp i. Sau ln phn nhanh th ba, ta thy
na trn va na di cua cy ging ht nhau. Nh vy, vao thi im t
i
nao o, hai nut bt ky
co cung trang thai u co th kt hp vi nhau thanh mt nut. Ap dung iu nay cho s
cy trn hnh 5.16, ta c s li trn hinh 5.17.
Cac nut trong li biu din trang thai cua b ma hoa. Cac nut cung hang biu din cung
trang thai. T mi nut li co hai nhanh ra: mt nhanh ng vi bit vao la 0 (ng net lin),
mt nhanh ng vi bit vao la 1 (ng net t). Tng quat, sau ct nut th K, cu truc li
c lp lai.

10
01 01 01
10 10 10
11 11
11 11 11 11
00 00
00 00 00 00
d
c
b
10
a






Hinh 5.17 S li biu din b ma hoa ma chp hnh 5.15
- 123 -
- Chuong V -
5.4.2 Giai ma ma chp bng thut toan Viterbi
Khac vi ma khi co dai t ma c nh, ma chp khng co kch thc c thu. Tuy vy,
ma chp cung b ep vao mt cu truc khi bng cach gn thm mt s bit 0 vao cui mt day
tin am bao ui day tin c dch ht qua thanh ghi dch. Cac bit 0 nay khng mang tin
nn ty l ma se nho hn k/n. gi cho ty l ma xp x vi k/n, chu ky gn thm bit 0
thng rt dai. Chng han trong v du trn y, sau 300 bit tin mi gn thm 2 bit 0. Vy ty l
ma la 300/604 xp x 1/2.
Co ba kiu giai ma chp chnh la kiu tun t, ngng va Viterbi, trong o Viterbi la ph
bin nht.
Thut toan Viterbi da trn c s giai ma ln cn gn nht (nearest neighbour). Thut toan
tnh khoang cach Hamming (goi la metric) gia tn hiu thu vao thi im t
i
va tt ca cac
ng trong li dn n mi trang thai cung thi im t
i
. Khi hai ng cung dn n mt
trang thai, chon ra ng co khoang cach Hamming ngn hn, goi la ng sng (surviving
path). Vic chon ng sng c thc hin cho tt ca cac trang thai vao tt ca cac thi im.
Ta xet lai v du ma hoa ma chp hnh 5.15. Gia s day thu la 1010001010, day vao b ma hoa
la 5 bit, trong o co 3 bit tin va 2 bit 0 thm vao.
Trc ht ta xy dng li giai ma nh hinh 5.18.









1
1
0
0
2
1
1
1
2 1 2
0 1 0
1 2
1 2 1 1
1 0
1 0 1 1
0
a = 00
b = 10
c = 01
d = 11
Hinh 5.18 S li giai ma
Thc hin so sanh, chon ng co metric thp hn, cui cung ta con lai ng sng la ng
in m (net t va net lin) trn hinh 5.19. T y suy ra day tin giai ma la: 11100

1
2
0
1
0





Hinh 5.19 ng sng va kt qua giai ma
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Trong thc t, b giai ma Viterbi gm co ba khi chnh. Th nht la khi tnh gia tr metric
nhanh BMV (Branch Metric Value), th hai la khi tnh metric ng PMV (Path Metric
Vaue) - la tng cac metric nhanh doc theo mt ng trong li va th ba la khi xac nh
u ra - chon ng co metric nho nht.

TOM TT CHUONG
1. ai lng o li thng thng la ty l li bit BER hay xac sut li bit (P
b
).
2. iu khin li nhm muc ch la lam giam ty l li trong mt h thng khi ty l nay ln
qua mc cho phep. Nhn chung co nm phng phap iu khin li.
3. Giai phap u tin va d thy nht la tng cng sut phat, nhng khng phai luc nao cung
co th thc hin c.
4. Giai phap th hai, rt hiu qua trong vic chng lai li chum gy bi fading, la s dung
phn tp. Co ba kiu phn tp chnh la phn tp khng gian, phn tp tn s va phn tp
thi gian
5. Giai phap th ba la truyn song cng, hay con go i la kim tra echo
6. Phng phap th t i pho vi BER cao la yu cu lp lai t ng ARQ Trong h
thng ARQ, ma phat hin li c s dung bn thu kim tra li trong khi s liu thu
va tra li cho bn phat trn mt knh hi tip. Tn hiu tra li la chp nhn ACK khi s
liu thu ung va khng chp nhn NAK khi s liu thu sai. Nu bn phat nhn NAK, bn
phat phai tin hanh truyn lai khi s liu b li.
7. Phng phap th nm giam BER la thc hin ma hoa sa li khng phan hi FECC
(Forward Error Correction Coding).
8. Ma hoa knh, con c goi la ma hoa iu khin li, c s dung phat hin va sa
cac ky t hay cac bit thu b li, bao gm ma hoa phat hin li va ma hoa sa li khng
phan hi FECC
9. Nhn chung, co th phn loai ma phat hin va sa li thanh ma khi va ma chp
10. Ma khi c c trng bi hai s nguyn n va k, va mt ma trn sinh hay a thc sinh.
Ma khi tuyn tnh - con goi la ma nhom - co cac t ma co tng ng 1-1 vi cac ph n t
thuc nhom toan hoc.
11. Ma kim tra chn le (parity) la loai ma khi n gian nht. Ma nay c dung ph bin
trong truyn s liu dang ASCII
12. Ma vong (cyclic code) la mt lp con cua ma khi tuyn tnh khng co t ma gm toan s
0. Mt ma khi tuyn tnh c goi la ma vong nu sau mt ln dch vong mt t ma th
cung c mt t ma thuc cung b ma.
13. Ma CRC la mt loai ma vong c s dung rng rai trn cac knh truyn ni tip bit
phat hin l i. Trong CRC, mt tp bit kim tra c tnh toan cho mi khung tin da vao
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- Chuong V -
ni dung khung, sau o c gn thm vao ui khung truyn i. Bn thu thc hin
tnh toan tng t nh bn phat phat hin li.
14. Ma Hamming la mt trng hp ring n gian nht cua ma vong. Ma Hamming co kha
nng sa sai 1 li.
15. Ma chp cung c c trng bi hai s nguyn la n va k nh ma khi, nhng n bit ra cua
b ma hoa khng ch phu thuc vao k bit vao ma con phu thuc vao K-1 b k bit vao
trc o.
16. Ma chp (n, k, K) c xy dng t cac thanh ghi dch kK bit. Vy co th xem ma chp
la ma co nh, o la im khac bit c ban cua ma chp so vi ma khi.
17. Co nhiu cach khac nhau biu din b ma hoa ma chp nh a thc sinh, s cy, s
li.
18. Thut toan giai ma chp c dung rng rai nht la thut toan Viterbi. Cng vic c ban
nht trong thut toan Viterbi la la chon ng co metric nho nht va loai bo cac ng
khac.



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