Chemistry 1312 Chemistry 1312

Bruce Gnade
MP 3 210 MP 3.210
gnade@utdallas.edu
Office Hours MW9:00 11:00 Office Hours MW 9:00-11:00
Logistics g
E S h d l Exam Schedule
Wed Sept 21 Exam 1 7 to 8:30pm HH 2.402
Wed Oct 12 Exam 2 7 to 8:30pm HH 2.402
Wed Nov 9 Exam 3 7 to 8:30pm HH 2 402 Wed Nov 9 Exam 3 7 to 8:30pm HH 2.402
Wed Nov 30 Exam 4 7 to 8:30pm HH 2.402
Wed Dec 14 Final Exam 7 to 9:45pm (NOTE TIME CHANGE)
Course Evaluation: (i) Quizzes 15%
(ii) Midterm Exams (4 x 15%) 60%
(iii) Final Exam 25%
Logistics g
Homework assignments (end of chapter problems):
assigned for each chapter from end-of-chapter exercises in Burdge
large number of problems selected to cover majority of important
concepts
these will not be collected or graded
all homework assignments for the next section will be posted the day all homework assignments for the next section will be posted the day
after the previous exam
2Quizzes (in class): they will be at the beginning of class about 10 15 minutes 2Quizzes (in class): they will be at the beginning of class, about 10-15 minutes
one per chapter date of quiz will be announced one day before
I will drop your 2 lowest quiz scores; the others will be averaged together to
give your quiz average
there will be no makeup quizzes given (you will receive a zero for any quiz
you miss)
Peer Instructional Support
It is critical to attend every sessionskipping a PLTL session limits the
utility of that session for everybody else. We want people who sign up
for the program to be fully committed to attending. You are allowed
only 2 absences during the whole semester; students in the PLTL
th t i th 2 PLTL i ill t b ll d program that miss more than 2 PLTL sessions will not be allowed
to drop their 2 lowest quiz grades. Bottom line: only sign up for
PLTL if you are committed to attending every session.
To participate in a PLTL group, you will need to apply online. More details
of this program will be announced in class. You can learn more about
PLTL and the GEMS Center at the following link:
http://www utdallas edu/GEMS/ http://www.utdallas.edu/GEMS/
CHEM 1312 Fall 2011 Homework Assignments
Section 1 [Chemistry (2
nd
ed): Burdge] Section 1 [Chemistry (2
nd
ed): Burdge]

Chapter 13:

1, 3, 4, 7, 10, 12, 16, 18, 22, 24, 26, 32, 36, 37, 40, 43, 46, 50, 52, 56,
58, 60(a,b), 62, 65, 66, 68, 74 76, 82, 84, 88, 94, 99, 102, 133
______________________________________________________
Ch t 14 Chapter 14:

1, 2, 5, 810, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32, 35, 36, 42,
44, 47, 51, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 61, 66, 72, 84, 85, 88, 115, 122, 123 44, 47, 51, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 61, 66, 72, 84, 85, 88, 115, 122, 123
Physical Properties of Physical Properties of Solutions Solutions Next 4 classes Next 4 classes
Chapter 13 Chapter 13
13
Chapter 13 Chapter 13
13.1 Types of Solutions
13.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process
The Importance of Intermolecular Forces The Importance of Intermolecular Forces
Energy and Entropy in Solution Formation
13.3 Concentration Units
Molality
Percent by Mass
Comparison of Concentration Units
13.4 Factors that Affect Solubility
Temperature Temperature
Pressure
13.5 Colligative Properties
Vapor-Pressure Lowering
ili i l i Boiling-Point Elevation
Freezing-Point Depression
Osmotic Pressure
Electrolyte Solutions ect o yte So ut o s
13.6 Calculations Using Colligative Properties
13.7 Colloids
Types of Solutions Types of Solutions 13.1
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Asolution consists of a solvent and one or more solutes A solution consists of a solvent and one or more solutes.
Types of Solutions Types of Solutions
Solutions can be classified by the amount of solute dissolved.
An unsaturated solution is one that contains less solute than the
solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a specific temperature.
Types of Solutions Types of Solutions
Solutions can be classified by the amount of solute dissolved.
A saturated solution is one that contains the maximum amount of
solute that will dissolve in a solvent at a specific temperature.
Types of Solutions Types of Solutions
Supersaturated solutions are generally unstable.
A Molecular View of the Solution Process A Molecular View of the Solution Process 13.2
Solvation occurs when solute molecules are separated from one
another and surrounded by solvent molecules. y
Solvation depends on three types of interactions:
1) Solute-solute interactions
2) S l l i i 2) Solvent-solvent interactions
3) Solute-solvent interactions )
The Importance of Intermolecular Forces The Importance of Intermolecular Forces
Like dissolves like
Two substances with similar type and magnitude of intermolecular Two substances with similar type and magnitude of intermolecular
forces are likely to be soluble in each other.
Toluene, C
7
H
8
Octane, C
8
H
18 7 8 8 18
Both non-polar liquids,
solution forms when mixed
Two liquids are said to be miscible if they are completely soluble in
each other in all proportions.
The Importance of Intermolecular Forces The Importance of Intermolecular Forces
Like dissolves like
Two substances with similar type and magnitude of intermolecular Two substances with similar type and magnitude of intermolecular
forces are likely to be soluble in each other.
Water, H
2
O Octane, C
8
H
18
Polar and non-polar liquids,
solution does not form when mixed
2 8 18
solution does not form when mixed
The Importance of Intermolecular Forces The Importance of Intermolecular Forces
Like dissolves like
Two substances with similar type and magnitude of intermolecular Two substances with similar type and magnitude of intermolecular
forces are likely to be soluble in each other.
Water, H
2
O
Ethanol, C
2
H
6
O
2
Both polar liquids,
solution forms when mixed
Worked Example 13.1
Determine for each solute whether the solubility will be greater in water, which is
polar, or in benzene (C
6
H
6
), which is nonpolar: (a) Br
2
, (b) sodium iodide (NaI),
( ) b t t hl id d (d) f ld h d (CH O)
Strategy Consider the structure of each solute to determine whether or not it is
l F l l l t t t ith L i t t d l th VSEPR
(c) carbon tetrachloride, and (d) formaldehyde (CH
2
O).
polar. For molecular solutes, start with a Lewis structure and apply the VSEPR
theory. We expect polar solutes, including ionic compounds, to be more soluble in
water. Nonpolar solutes will be more soluble in benzene.
Solution (a) Bromine is a homonuclear diatomic molecule and is nonpolar.
Bromine is more soluble in benzene.
(b) Sodium iodide is ionic and more soluble in water.
Worked Example 13.1 (cont.)
Solution (c) Carbon tetrachloride has the following Lewis structure:
With four electron domains around the central atom, we expect a tetrahedral
arrangement. A symmetrical arrangement of identical bonds results in a nonpolar
molecule. Carbon tetrachloride is more soluble in benzene.
Think About It Remember that molecular formula alone is not
sufficient to determine the shape or polarity of a polyatomic
molecule It must be determined by starting with a correct Lewis
(d) Formaldehyde has the following Lewis structure:
molecule. It must be determined by starting with a correct Lewis
structure and applying VSEPR theory.
Crossed arrows represent individual bond dipoles This molecule is polar and Crossed arrows represent individual bond dipoles. This molecule is polar and
can form hydrogen bonds in water. Formaldehyde is more soluble in water.
Concentration Units Concentration Units 13.3
The amount of solute relative to the volume of a solution or to the
amount of solvent in a solution is called concentration.
Molarity:
mol es of sol ut e
mol arit y = =
lit ers of sol uti on
M
Mole fraction: f
A
mol es of A
mol e fr acti on of component A = =
sumof mol es of all component s
_
Concentration Units Concentration Units
Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg
(1000 g) solvent: ( g)
( )
mol es of sol ut e
mol alit y = =
mass of sol vent i n kg
m
( )
mass of sol vent i n kg
Percent by Mass:
f l t mass of sol ut e
percent by mass = 100 %
mass of sol ut e + mass of sol vent

Worked Example 13.2
A solution is made by dissolving 170.1 g of glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
) in enough water to
make a liter of solution. The density of the solution is 1.062 g/mL. Express the
t ti i ( ) l lit (b) t b d ( ) t illi
Strategy Use the molar mass of glucose to determine the number of moles of
glucose in a liter of solution. Use the density (in g/L) to calculate the mass of a
concentration in (a) molality, (b) percent by mass, and (c) parts per million.
glucose in a liter of solution. Use the density (in g/L) to calculate the mass of a
liter of solution. Subtract the mass of glucose from the mass of solution to
determine the mass of water. The molar mass of glucose is 180.2 g/mol.
170 1 g
Solution (a)
1 liter of solution
170.1 g
180.2 g/mol
= 0.9440 mol glucose per liter of solution
1062 g
L
= 1062 g
1062 g 170.1 g = 892 g water = 0.892 kg water
L
0 9440 mol glucose 0.9440 mol glucose
0.892 kg water
= 1.06 m
Worked Example 13.2 (cont.)
Solution
(b) 170.1 g
1062 g solution
100% = 16.02% glucose by mass
(c)
1062 g solution
170.1 g
1 000 000 1 60210
5
ppm gl cose
( )
1062 g solution
1,000,000 = 1.60210
5
ppm glucose
Think About It Pay careful attention to units in problems such as this. Most
require conversions between grams and kilograms and/or liters and milliliters.
Worked Example 13.3
Rubbing alcohol is a mixture of isopropyl alcohol (C
3
H
7
OH) and water that is
70 percent isopropyl alcohol by mass (density = 0.79 g/mL at 20C). Express
th t ti f bbi l h l i ( ) l it d (b) l lit
Strategy (a) Use density to determine the total mass of a liter of solution, and
use percent by mass to determine the mass of isopropyl alcohol in a liter of
the concentration of rubbing alcohol in (a) molarity and (b) molality.
use percent by mass to determine the mass of isopropyl alcohol in a liter of
solution. Convert the mass of isopropyl alcohol to moles, and divide moles by
liters of solution to get molarity.
(b) Subtract the mass of C
3
H
7
OH from the mass of solution to get the mass of
water. Divide moles of C
3
H
7
OH by the mass of water (in kg) to get molality.
The mass of a liter of rubbing alcohol is 790 g, and the molar mass of isopropyl
alcohol is 60.09 g/mol.
Worked Example 13.3 (cont.)
Solution
(a) 790 g solution
L solution

70 g C
3
H
7
OH
100 g solution
=
553 g C
3
H
7
OH
L solution L solution 100 g solution L solution
553 g C
3
H
7
OH
L solution

1 mol
60.09 g C
3
H
7
OH
=
9.20 mol C
3
H
7
OH
L solution
= 9.2 M
(b) 790 g solution 553 g C
3
H
7
OH = 237 g water = 0.237 kg water
9 20 mol C H OH
R bbi l h l i 9 2 M d 39 i i l l h l
9.20 mol C
3
H
7
OH
0.237 kg water
= 39 m
Rubbing alcohol is 9.2 Mand 39 m in isopropyl alcohol.
Think About It Note the large difference between molarity and molality in this
case Molarity and molality are the same (or similar) only for very dilute case. Molarity and molality are the same (or similar) only for very dilute
aqueous solutions.
Factors That Affect Solubility Factors That Affect Solubility 13.4
Temperature affects the solubility of most substances.
Factors That Affect Solubility Factors That Affect Solubility
Pressure greatly influences the solubility of a gas.
Henrys law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is
proportional to the pressure of the gas over the solution.
c = kP
c molar concentration
(mol/L) ( )
P pressure (atm)
k proportionality k proportionality
constant called
Henrys law constant
Worked Example 13.4
Calculate the concentration of carbon dioxide in a soft drink that was bottled
under a partial pressure of 5.0 atm CO
2
at 25C (a) before the bottle is opened
and (b) after the soda has gone flat at 25C . The Henrys law constant for CO
2
in water at this temperature is 3.110
-2
mol/Latm. Assume that the partial
pressure of CO
2
in air is 0.0003 atm and that Henrys law constant for the soft
Strategy Use c = kP and the given Henrys law constant to solve for the molar
concentration (mol/L) of CO
2
at 25C and the two pressures given
drink is the same as that for water.
concentration (mol/L) of CO
2
at 25 C and the two pressures given.
Solution (a) c = (3.110
-2
mol/Latm)(5.0 atm) = 1.610
-1
mol/L
(b) c = (3.110
-2
mol/Latm)(0.0003 atm) = 910
-6
mol/L
Think About It With a pressure approximately 15,000 smaller in part (b) than
in part (a) we expect the concentration of CO to be approximately 15 000 in part (a), we expect the concentration of CO
2
to be approximately 15,000
times smallerand it is.
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties 13.5
Colligative properties are properties that depend on the number of
solute particles in solution. p
Colligative properties do not depend on the nature of the solute
particles particles.
The colligative properties are:
l i vapor-pressure lowering
boiling-point elevation g p
freezing-point depression
osmotic pressure
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Raoults law states that the partial pressure of a solvent over a
solution is given by the vapor pressure of the pure solvent times the g y p p p
mole fraction of the solvent in the solution.
P P _ =

P P _ A =

P
1
partial pressure of
l l i
P P _ =
1 1 1
P P _ A =
2 1
solvent over solution
P vapor pressure of
pure solvent pure solvent

1
mole fraction of solvent
P l i P vapor pressure lowering

2
mole fraction of solute
Worked Example 13.5
Calculate the vapor pressure of water over a solution made by dissolving 225 g of
glucose in 575 g of water at 35C. (At 35C, P= 42.2 mmHg.)
H
2
O
Strategy Convert the masses of glucose and water to moles, determine the mole
fraction of water, and use P
1
=
1
P
1
to find the vapor pressure over the solution.
The molar masses of glucose and water are 180.2 and 18.02 g/mol, respectively. The molar masses of glucose and water are 180.2 and 18.02 g/mol, respectively.
Solution
225 g glucose 575 g water
Think About It This problem can also be solved using Equation
13 5 to calculate the vapor pressure lowering P 225 g glucose
180.2 g/mol
= 1.25 mol glucose
575 g water
18.02 g/mol
= 31.9 mol water and
31.9 mol water
0 962 =
13.5 to calculate the vapor-pressure lowering, P.
P =
water
P = 0.962 42.4 mmHg = 40.6 mmHg
1.25 mol glucose + 31.9 mol water
= 0.962
H
2
O
H
2
O

water
=
The vapor pressure of water over the solution is 40.6 mmHg.
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
If both components of a solution
are volatile, the vapor pressure of
the solution is the sum of the
individual partial pressures.
o
P P
o
P P
o
A A A
P P _ =
o
B B B
P P _ =
o o
T A A B B
P P P _ _ = +
Benzene Toluene
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Benzene Toluene
o o
T A A B B
P P P _ _ = +
An ideal solution obeys Raoults An ideal solution obeys Raoult s
law.
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Solutions boil at a higher
temperature than the pure p p
solvent.
o
b b b
T T T A =
b b b
T K m A =
T
b
boiling point elevation
b b
T K m A =
b
g p
K
b
boiling point elevation
constant (C/m)
m molality
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Solutions freeze at a lower
temperature than the pure p p
solvent.
o
f f f
T T T A =
f f f
f f
T K m A =
T
f
freezing point
depression p
K
f
freezing point
depression constant
(C/m)
m molality
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Worked Example 13.6
Ethylene glycol [CH
2
(OH)CH
2
(OH)] is a common automobile antifreeze. It is
water soluble and fairly nonvolatile (b.p. 197C). Calculate (a) the freezing
i t d (b) th b ili i t f l ti t i i 685 f th l l l i
Strategy Convert grams of ethylene glycol to moles, and divide by the mass of
point and (b) the boiling point of a solution containing 685 g of ethylene glycol in
2075 g of water.
gy g y g y , y
water in kilograms to get molal concentration. Use molal concentrations and T
b
= K
b
m and T
f
= K
f
m, respectively. The molar mass of ethylene glycol (C
2
H
6
O
2
)
is 62.07 g/mol. K
f
and K
b
for water are 1.86C/m and 0.52C/m, respectively.
Think About It Because it both lowers the freezing point and
raises the boiling point, antifreeze is useful at both temperature
Solution
685 g C
2
H
6
O
2
62.07 g/mol
= 11.04 mol C
2
H
6
O
2
11.04 mol C
2
H
6
O
2
2.075 kg water
= 5.32 m C
2
H
6
O
2
and
extremes.
(a) T
f
= K
f
m = (1.86C/m)(5.32 m) = 9.89C
The freezing point of the solution is (0 9.89)C = 9.89C
g g
(b) T
b
= K
b
m = (0.52C/m)(5.32 m) = 2.8C
The boiling point of the solution is (100.0 + 2.8)C = 102.8C
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Osmosis is the selective passage of solvent
molecules through a porous membrane from a molecules through a porous membrane from a
more dilute solution to a more concentrated one.
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Osmotic pressure (t) of a solution is the pressure required to stop
osmosis.
= MRT t
t Osmotic pressure (atm)
M molarity (moles/L)
R gas constant (0.08206 Latm/molK)
T absolute temperature (kelvins)
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Electrolytes undergo dissociation when dissolved in water.
The vant Hoff factor (i) accounts for this effect.
act ual number of parti cl es i n sol uti on aft er di ssoci ati on
i =
p
number of f or mul as unit s i niti all y di ssol ved i n sol uti on
i
A =
f f
T iK m
A =
b b
T iK m
=iMRT t
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
The vant Hoff factor (i) is 1 for all nonelectrolytes:
1 particle dissolved i = 1
C
12
H
22
O
11
(s)
C
12
H
22
O
11
(aq)
H
2
O
For strong electrolytes i should be equal to the number of ions:
1 particle dissolved, i 1
NaCl(s)
Na
+
(aq) + Cl

(aq)
H
2
O
Na
2
SO
4
(s)
2Na
+
(aq) + SO
4
2
(aq)
H
2
O
2 particles dissolved, i = 2
Na
2
SO
4
(s)
2Na (aq) + SO
4
(aq)
3 particles dissolved, i = 3
Colligative Colligative Properties Properties
The vant Hoff factor (i) is usually smaller than predicted due to the
formation of ion pairs. p
An ion pair is made up of one or more cations and one or more
anions held together by electrostatic forces.
ion pair ion pair
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
The vant Hoff factor (i) is usually smaller than predicted due to the
formation of ion pairs. p
An ion pair is made up of one or more cations and one or more
anions held together by electrostatic forces.
Colligative Properties Colligative Properties
Concentration has an effect on experimentally measured vant Hoff
factors (i). f ( )
Worked Example 13.7
The osmotic pressure of a 0.0100 Mpotassium iodide (KI) solution at 25C is
0.465 atm. Determine the experiment vant Hoff factor for KI at this
t ti
Strategy Use osmotic pressure to calculate the molar concentration of KI, and
divide by the nominal concentration of 0.01000 M. R = 0.08206 Latm/Kmol,
concentration.
divide by the nominal concentration of 0.01000 M. R 0.08206 L atm/K mol,
and T = 298 K.
Solution Solving = MRT for M,
Think About It The calculated vant Hoff factor for KI is 2. The
experimental vant Hoff factor must be less than or equal to the
g
M= =

RT
= 0.0190 M
0.465 atm
(0.08206 Latm/Kmol)(298 K)
calculated value.
i =
Th i t l t H ff f t f KI t thi t ti i 1 90
0.0190 M
0.0100 M
= 1.90
The experimental vant Hoff factor for KI at this concentration is 1.90.
Worked Example 13.8
Quinine was the first drug widely used to treat malaria, and it remains the
treatment of choice for severe cases. A solution prepared by dissolving 10.0 g of
i i i 50 0 L f th l h f i i t 1 55C b l th t f quinine in 50.0 mL of ethanol has a freezing point 1.55 C below that of pure
ethanol. Determine the molar mass of quinine. (The density of ethanol is 0.789
g/mL.) Assume that quinine is a nonelectrolyte.
Strategy Use T
f
= K
f
m to determine the molal concentration of the solution.
Use the density of ethanol to determine the mass of the solvent. The molal
concentration of quinine multiplied by the mass of ethanol (in kg) gives moles of q p y ( g) g
quinine. The mass of quinine (in grams) divided by moles of quinine gives the
molar mass. K
f
for ethanol is 1.99C/m.
S l ti f h l 50 0 L 0 789 / L 39 5 3 95 10
2
k Solution mass of ethanol = 50.0 mL 0.789 g/mL = 39.5 g or 3.9510
-2
kg
Solving T
f
= K
f
m for molal concentration
m = =
T
f
K
f
= 0.779 m
1.55C
1.99C/
m
Worked Example 13.8 (cont.)
Solution The solution is 0.779 m in quinine (i.e., 0.779 mol of quinine/kg
ethanol solvent.)
(3.9510
-2
kg ethanol)
0.779 mol quinine
kg ethanol
10 0 i i
= 0.00308 mol quinine
molar mass of quinine = = 325 g/mol
10.0 g quinine
0.00308 mol quinine
Think About It Check the result using the molecular formula of quinine: bout t C ec t e esu t us g t e o ecu a o u a o qu e:
C
20
H
24
N
2
O
2
(324.4 g/mol). Multistep problems such as this one require careful
tracking of units at each step.
Worked Example 13.9
A solution is prepared by dissolving 50.0 g of hemoglobin (Hb) in enough water
to make 1.00 L of solution. The osmotic pressure of the solution is measured and
f d t b 14 3 H t 25C C l l t th l f h l bi found to be 14.3 mmHg at 25 C. Calculate the molar mass of hemoglobin.
(Assume that there is no change in volume when the hemoglobin is added to
water.)
Strategy Use = MRT to calculate the molarity of the solution. Because the
solution volume is 1 L, the molarity is equal to the number of moles of
hemoglobin. Dividing the given mass of hemoglobin by the number of moles g g g g y
gives the molar mass. R = 0.08206 Latm/Kmol, T = 298 K, and
= 14.3 mmHg/(760 mmHg/atm) = 1.8810
-2
atm.
Worked Example 13.9 (cont.)
Solution Rearranging = MRT to solve for molarity we get,
M= =

= 7 6910
-4
M
1.8810
-2
atm
( / l)( )
M
Thus, the solution contains 7.6910
-4
moles of hemoglobin.
RT
7.6910 M
(0.08206 Latm/Kmol)(298 K)
50 0
molar mass of hemoglobin =
50.0 g
7.6910
-4
mol
= 6.5010
4
g/mol
Think About It Biological molecules can have very high molar masses Think About It Biological molecules can have very high molar masses.
Calculations Using Colligative Properties Calculations Using Colligative Properties 13.6
Percent dissociation is the percentage of dissolved molecules (or
formula units, in the case of an ionic compound) that separate into , p ) p
ions in a solution.
Strong electrolytes should have complete or 100% dissociation Strong electrolytes should have complete, or 100%, dissociation,
however, experimentally determined vant Hoff factors indicate that
this is not the case.
Percent dissociation of a strong electrolyte is more complete at lower
concentration.
Percent ionization of weak electrolytes is also dependent on
concentration concentration.
Worked Example 13.10
A solution that is 0.100 Min hydrofluoric acid (HF) has an osmotic pressure of
2.64 atm at 25C. Calculate the percent ionization of HF at this concentration.
Strategy Use the osmotic pressure and = MRT to determine the molar
concentration of the particles in solution. Compare the concentration of particles
to the nominal concentration (0.100 M) to determine what percentage of the ( ) p g
original HF molecules are ionized. R = 0.08206 Latm/Kmol, and T = 298 K.
Solution Rearranging = MRT to solve for molarity,
M= =

RT
= 0.108 M
2.64 atm
(0.08206 Latm/Kmol)(298 K)
Worked Example 13.10 (cont.)
Solution The concentration of dissolved particles is 0.108 M. Consider the
ionization of HF:
HF(aq) H
+
(aq) + F
-
(aq) HF(aq) H (aq) + F (aq)
According to this equation, if x HF molecules ionize, we get x H
+
ions and x F
-
ions. Thus, the total concentration of particles in solution will be the original , p g
concentration of HF minus x, which gives the concentration of intact HF
molecules, plus 2x, which is the concentration of ions (H
+
and F
-
):
Think About It For weak acids, the lower the concentration, the
greater the percent ionization. A 0.010 Msolution of HF has an
osmotic pressure of 0.30 atm, corresponding to 23 percent
(0.100 x) + 2x = 0.100 + x
Therefore, 0.108 = 0.100 + x and x = 0.008. Because we earlier defined x as the
t f HF i i d th t i i ti i i b
ionization. A 0.0010 Msolution of HF has an osmotic pressure of
3.810
-2
atm, corresponding to 56 percent ionization.
amount of HF ionized, the percent ionization is given by
percent ionization =
0.008 M
0.100 M
100% =8%
At this concentration HF is 8 percent ionized.
Colloids Colloids 13.7
A colloid is a dispersion of particles of one substance throughout
another substance. Colloid particles are much larger than the normal p g
solute molecules.
Categories of colloids: Categories of colloids:
aerosols
foams foams
emulsions
sols
gels
Colloids Colloids
Examples of colloids
Colloids Colloids
Colloids with water as the dispersing medium can be categorized as
hydrophilic (water loving) or hydrophobic (water fearing). y p ( g) y p ( f g)
Hydrophilic groups on the
surface of a large molecule surface of a large molecule
stabilize the molecule in
water.
Colloids Colloids
Colloids with water as the dispersing medium can be categorized as
hydrophilic (water loving) or hydrophobic (water fearing). y p ( g) y p ( f g)
Negative ions are adsorbed onto the surface of hydrophobic colloids.
The repulsion between like charges prevents aggregation of the
articles.
Colloids Colloids
Hydrophobic colloids can be stabilized by the presence of
hydrophilic groups on their surface. y p g p
Colloids Colloids
Emulsification is the process of stabilizing a colloid that would
otherwise not stay dispersed. y p
Key Concepts Key Concepts
13
Types of Solutions
A Molecular View of the Solution Process
The Importance of Intermolecular Forces The Importance of Intermolecular Forces
Energy and Entropy in Solution Formation
Concentration Units
Molality
Percent by Mass
Comparison of Concentration Units
Factors that Affect Solubility
Temperature Temperature
Pressure
Colligative Properties
Vapor-Pressure Lowering
ili i l i Boiling-Point Elevation
Freezing-Point Depression
Osmotic Pressure
Electrolyte Solutions ect o yte So ut o s
Calculations Using Colligative Properties
Colloids