Beck home India 30 BC-320 CE Gupta Empire and India 320-750 Plays of Bhasa, Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti Hindu Kingdoms

750-1000 Tibetan Buddhism India and Muslim Invaders 1000-1300 Literature of Medieval India India 30 BC To 1300 India 30 BC-320 CE In the Andhra land Satavahana king Simuka overthrew the last Kanva king in 30 BC and according to the Puranas reigned for 23 years. The Andhras were called Dasy us in the Aitareya Brahmana, and they were criticized for being degraded Brahmin s or outcastes by the orthodox. For three centuries the kingdom of the Satavahan as flourished except for a brief invasion by the Shaka clan of Kshaharata led by Bhumaka and Nahapana in the early 2nd century CE. The latter was overthrown as the Satavahana kingdom with its caste system was restored by Gautamiputra Sataka rni about 125 CE; his mother claimed he rooted out Shakas (Scythians), Yavanas ( Greeks and Romans), and Pahlavas (Parthians), and records praised Gautamiputra f or being virtuous, concerned about his subjects, taxing them justly, and stoppin g the mixing of castes. His successor Pulumavi ruled for 29 years and extended S atavahana power to the mouths of the Krishna River. Trade with the Romans was active from the first century CE when Pliny complained that 550 million sesterces went to India annually, mostly for luxuries like spi ces, jewels, textiles, and exotic animals. The Satavahana kingdom was ruled in s mall provinces by governors, who became independent when the Satavahana kingdom collapsed. An inscription dated 150 CE credits Shaka ruler Rudradaman with suppo rting the cultural arts and Sanskrit literature and repairing the dam built by t he Mauryans. Rudradaman took back most of the territory the Satavahana king Gaut amiputra captured from Nahapana, and he also conquered the Yaudheya tribes in Ra jasthan. However, in the next century the warlike Yaudheyas became more powerful . The indigenous Nagas also were aggressive toward Shaka satraps in the 3rd cent ury. In the Deccan after the Satavahanas, Takataka kings ruled from the 3rd cent ury to the 6th. Probably in the second half of the first century BC Kharavela conquered much ter ritory for Kalinga in southeastern India and patronized Jainism. He was said to have spent much money for the welfare of his subjects and had the canal enlarged that had been built three centuries before by the Nandas. In addition to a larg e palace, a monastery was built at Pabhara, and caves were excavated for the Jai ns. Late in the 1st century BC a line of Iranian kings known as the Pahlavas ruled n orthwest India. The Shaka (Scythian) Maues, who ruled for about 40 years until 2 2 CE, broke relations with the Iranians and claimed to be the great king of king s himself. Maues was succeeded by three Shaka kings whose reigns overlapped. The Parthian Gondophernes seems to have driven the last Greek king Hermaeus out of the Kabul valley and taken over Gandhara from the Shakas, and it was said that h e received at his court Jesus' disciple Thomas. Evidence indicates that Thomas a lso traveled to Malabar about 52 CE and established Syrian churches on the west coast before crossing to preach on the east coast around Madras, where he was op posed and killed in 68. However, the Pahlavas were soon driven out by Scythians Chinese historians calle d the Yue-zhi. Their Kushana tribal chief Kujula Kadphises, his son Vima Kadphis es, and Kanishka (r. 78-101) gained control of the western half of northern Indi a by 79 CE. According to Chinese history one of these kings demanded to marry a

Han princess, but the Kushanas were defeated by the Chinese led by Ban Chao at t he end of the 1st century. Kanishka, considered the founder of the Shaka era, su pported Buddhism, which held its 4th council in Kashmir during his reign. A new form of Mahayana Buddhism with the compassionate saints (bodhisattvas) helping t o save others was spreading in the north, while the traditional Theravada of sai nts (arhats) working for their own enlightenment held strong in southern regions . Several great Buddhist philosophers were favored at Kanishka's court, includin g Parshva, Vasumitra, and Ashvaghosha; Buddhist missions were sent to central As ia and China, and Kanishka was said to have died fighting in central Asia. Kusha na power decreased after the reign of Vasudeva (145-176), and they became vassal s in the 3rd century after being defeated by Shapur I of the Persian Sasanian dy nasty. In the great vehicle or way of Mahayana Buddhism the saint (bodhisattva) is conc erned with the virtues of benevolence, character, patience, perseverance, and me ditation, determined to help all souls attain nirvana. This doctrine is found in the Sanskrit Surangama Sutra of the first century CE. In a dialog between the B uddha and Ananda before a large gathering of monks, the Buddha declares that kee ping the precepts depends on concentration, which enhances meditation and develo ps intelligence and wisdom. He emphasizes that the most important allurement to overcome is sexual thought, desire, and indulgence. The next allurement is pride of ego, which makes one prone to be unkind, unjust, and cruel. Unless one can c ontrol the mind so that even the thought of killing or brutality is abhorrent, o ne will never escape the bondage of the world. Killing and eating flesh must be stopped. No teaching that is unkind can be the teaching of the Buddha. Another p recept is to refrain from coveting and stealing, and the fourth is not to deceiv e or tell lies. In addition to the three poisons of lust, hatred, and infatuatio n, one must curtail falsehood, slander, obscene words, and flattery. Ashvaghosha was the son of a Brahmin and at first traveled around arguing agains t Buddhism until he was converted, probably by Parshva. Ashvaghosha wrote the ea rliest Sanskrit drama still partially extant; in the Shariputra-prakarana the Bu ddha converts Maudgalyayana and Sariputra by philosophical discussion. His poem Buddhacharita describes the life and teachings of the Buddha very beautifully. The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana is ascribed to Ashvaghosha. That treatise distinguishes two aspects of the soul as suchness (bhutatathata) and the cycle of birth and death (samsara). The soul as suchness is one with all things, but t his cannot be described with any attributes. This is negative in its emptiness ( Sunyata) but positive as eternally transcendent of all intellectual categories. Samsara comes forth from this ultimate reality. Multiple things are produced whe n the mind is disturbed, but they disappear when the mind is quiet. The separate ego-consciousness is nourished by emotional and mental prejudices (ashrava). Si nce all beings have suchness, they can receive instructions from all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and receive benefits from them. By the purity of enlightenment the y can destroy hindrances and experience insight into the oneness of the universe . All Buddhas feel compassion for all beings, treating others as themselves, and they practice virtue and good deeds for the universal salvation of humanity in the future, recognizing equality among people and not clinging to individual exi stence. Thus the prejudices and inequities of the caste system were strongly cri ticized. Mahayana texts were usually written in Sanskrit instead of Pali, and the Prajnap aramita was translated into Chinese as early as 179 CE by Lokakshema. This dialo g of 8,000 lines in which the Buddha spoke for himself and through Subhuti with his disciples was also summarized in verse. The topic is perfect wisdom. Bodhisa ttvas are described as having an even and friendly mind, being amenable, straigh t, soft-spoken, free of perceiving multiplicity, and free of self-interest. Deta ched, they do not want gain or fame, and their hearts are not overcome by anger nor do they seek a livelihood in the wrong way. Like an unstained lotus in the w

ater they return from concentration to the sense world to mature beings and puri fy the field with compassion for all living things. Having renounced a heavenly reward they serve the entire world, like a mother taking care of her child. Thou ght produced is dedicated to enlightenment. They do not wish to release themselv es in a private nirvana but become the world's resting place by learning not to embrace anything. With a mind full of friendliness and compassion, seeing countl ess beings with heavenly vision as like creatures on the way to slaughter, a Bod hisattva impartially endeavors to release them from their suffering by working f or the welfare of all beings. Nagarjuna was also born into a Brahmin family and in the 2nd century CE founded the Madhyamika (Middle Path) school of Mahayana Buddhism, although he was concer ned about Hinayanists too. He was a stern disciplinarian and expelled many monks from the community at Nalanda for not observing the rules. A division among his followers led to the development of the Yogachara school of philosophy. Nagarju na taught that all things are empty, but he answered critics that this does not deny reality but explains how the world happens. Only from the absolute point of view is there no birth or annihilation. The Buddha and all beings are like the sky and are of one nature. All things are nothing but mind established as phanto ms; thus blissful or evil existence matures according to good or evil actions. Nagarjuna discussed ethics in his Suhrllekha. He considered ethics faultless and sublime as the ground of all, like the earth. Aware that riches are unstable an d void, one should give; for there is no better friend than giving. He recommend ed the transcendental virtues of charity, patience, energy, meditation, and wisd om, while warning against avarice, deceit, illusion, lust, indolence, pride, gre ed, and hatred. Attaining patience by renouncing anger he felt was the most diff icult. One should look on another's wife like one's mother, daughter or sister. It is more heroic to conquer the objects of the six senses than a mass of enemie s in battle. Those who know the world are equal to the eight conditions of gain and loss, happiness and suffering, fame and dishonor, and blame and praise. A wo man (or man), who is gentle as a sister, winning as a friend, caring as a mother , and obedient as a servant, one should honor as a guardian goddess (god). He su ggested meditating on kindness, pity, joy, and equanimity, abandoning desire, re flection, happiness, and pain. The aggregates of form, perception, feeling, will , and consciousness arise from ignorance. One is fettered by attachment to relig ious ceremonies, wrong views, and doubt. One should annihilate desire as one wou ld extinguish a fire in one's clothes or head. Wisdom and concentration go toget her, and for the one who has them the sea of existence is like a grove. During the frequent wars that preceded the Gupta empire in the 4th century the T ext of the Excellent Golden Light (Suvarnaprabhasottama Sutra) indicated the Bud dhist attitude toward this fighting. Everyone should be protected from invasion in peace and prosperity. While turning back their enemies, one should create in the earthly kings a desire to avoid fighting, attacking, and quarreling with nei ghbors. When the kings are contented with their own territories, they will not a ttack others. They will gain their thrones by their past merit and not show thei r mettle by wasting provinces; thinking of mutual welfare, they will be prospero us, well fed, pleasant, and populous. However, when a king disregards evil done in his own kingdom and does not punish criminals, injustice, fraud, and strife w ill increase in the land. Such a land afflicted with terrible crimes falls into the power of the enemy, destroying property, families, and wealth, as men ruin e ach other with deceit. Such a king, who angers the gods, will find his kingdom p erishing; but the king, who distinguishes good actions from evil, shows the resu lts of karma and is ordained by the gods to preserve justice by putting down rog ues and criminals in his domain even to giving up his life rather than the jewel of justice. On the island of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Vattagamani recovered his kingdom from the T amil invasion in 29 BC and ruled for twelve years during which the extensive Bud

dhist Tripitaka was written down along with the Atthakatha. Vattagamani was succ eeded by two sons, but the second, Choranaga, had Buddhist sanctuaries destroyed . He and several succeeding kings were poisoned by his wife Anula; then she was killed by Kutkannatissa (r. 16-38 CE). Many kings ruled Sri Lanka during a serie s of succession fights until Vasabha (r. 127-171) of the Lambakanna sect establi shed a new dynasty that would rule more than three centuries. The island was div ided briefly by his son and his two brothers, as the Chola king Karikala invaded ; but Gajabahu (r. 174-196) united the country and invaded the Chola territory. A treaty established friendly relations, and Hindu temples were built on Sri Lan ka, including some for the chaste goddess immortalized in the Silappadikaram. Sr i Lanka experienced peace and prosperity for 72 years, and King Voharikatissa (r . 269-291) even abolished the punishment of mutilation. However, when the Buddhi st schism divided people, the king suppressed the new Mahayana doctrine and bani shed its followers. Caught in an intrigue with the queen, his brother Abhayanaga (r. 291-299) fled to India, and then with Tamils invaded Sri Lanka, defeated an d killed his brother, took the throne, and married the queen. Gothabhaya (r. 309 -322) persecuted the new Vetulya doctrine supported by monks at Abhayagirivihara by having sixty monks branded and banished. Their accounts of this cruelty led Sanghamitta to tutor the princes in such a way that when Mahasena (r. 334-362) b ecame king, he confiscated property from the traditional Mahavihara monastery an d gave it to Abhayagirivihara. (These dates of Sri Lanka rulers are based on a r evised chronology. For example the traditional reign of Mahasena was 276-303.) The Tamil epic poem called The Ankle Bracelet (Silappadikaram) was written about 200 CE by Prince Ilango Adigal, brother of King Shenguttuvan, who ruled the wes tern coast of south India. Kovalan, the son of a wealthy merchant in Puhar, marr ies Kannaki, the beautiful daughter of a wealthy shipowner. The enchanting Madha vi dances so well for the king that he gives her a wreath that she sells to Kova lan for a thousand gold kalanjus, making her his mistress. They sing songs to ea ch other of love and lust until he notices hints of her other loves; so he withd raws his hands from her body and departs. Kovalan returns to his wife in shame f or losing his wealth; but she gives him her valuable ankle bracelet, and they de cide to travel to Madurai. Kannaki courageously accompanies him although it caus es her feet to bleed. They are joined by the saintly woman Kavundi, and like goo d Jains they try not to step on living creatures as they walk. They meet a saint ly man who tells them that no one can escape reaping the harvest grown from the seeds of one's actions. In the woods a charming nymph tries to tempt Kovalan with a message from Madhavi , but his prayer causes her to confess and run away. A soothsayer calls Kannaki the queen of the southern Tamil land, but she only smiles at such ignorance. A p riest brings a message from Madhavi asking for forgiveness and noting his leavin g his parents. Kovalan has the letter sent to his parents to relieve their angui sh. Leaving his wife with the saint Kavundi, Kovalan goes to visit the merchants , while Kavundi warns him that the merits of his previous lives have been exhaus ted; they must prepare for misfortune. Reaping what is sown, many fall into pred icaments from pursuing women, wealth, and pleasure; thus sages renounce all desi re for worldly things. A Brahmin tells Kovalan that Madhavi has given birth to h is baby girl; he has done good deeds in the past, but he warns him he must pay f or some errors committed in a past existence. Kovalan feels bad for wasting his youth and neglecting his parents. He goes to town to sell the ankle bracelet; a goldsmith tells him only the queen can purchase it, but the goldsmith tells King Korkai that he has found the man who stole his royal anklet. The king orders th e thief put to death, and Kovalan is killed with a sword. Kannaki weeping observes the spirit of her husband rise into the air, telling he r to stay in life. She goes to King Korkai and proves her husband did not steal the anklet by showing him their anklet has gems not pearls. Filled with remorse for violating justice at the word of a goldsmith, the king dies, followed quickl

y in this by his queen. Kannaki goes out and curses the town as she walks around the city three times. Then she tears her left breast from her body and throws i t in the dirt. A god of fire appears to burn the city, but she asks him to spare Brahmins, good men, cows, truthful women, cripples, the old, and children, whil e destroying evildoers. As the four genii who protect the four castes of Madurai depart, a conflagration breaks out. The goddess of Madurai explains to Kannaki that in a past life as Bharata her husband had renounced nonviolence and caused Sangaman to be beheaded, believing he was a spy. His wife cursed the killer, and now that action bore fruit. Kannaki wanders desolate for two weeks, confessing her crime. Then the king of heaven proclaims her a saint, and she ascends with K ovalan in a divine chariot. King Shenguttuvan, who had conquered Kadambu, leaves Vanji and hears stories abo ut a woman with a breast torn off suffering agony and how Madurai was destroyed. The king decides to march north to bring back a great stone on the crowned head s of two kings, Kanaka and Vijaya, who had criticized him; the stone is to be ca rved into the image of the beloved goddess. His army crosses the Ganges and defe ats the northern kings. The saintly Kavundi fasts to death. The fathers of Koval an and Kannaki both give up their wealth and join religious orders, and Madhavi goes into a Buddhist nunnery, followed later in this by her daughter. Madalan ad vises King Shenguttuvan to give up anger and criticizes him for contributing to war, causing the king to release prisoners and refund taxes. The Chola king note s how the faithful wife has proved the Tamil proverb that the virtue of women is of no use if the king fails to establish justice. Finally the author himself ap pears in the court of his brother Shenguttuvan and gives a list of moral precept s that begins: Seek God and serve those who are near Him. Do not tell lies. Avoid slander. Avoid eating the flesh of animals. Do not cause pain to any living thing. Be charitable, and observe fast days. Never forget the good others have done to you.1 In a preamble added by a later commentator three lessons are drawn from this sto ry: First, death results when a king strays from the path of justice; second, ev eryone must bow before a chaste and faithful wife; third, fate is mysterious, an d all actions are rewarded. Many sanctuaries were built in southern India and Sr i Lanka to the faithful wife who became the goddess of chastity. The Jain philosopher Kunda Kunda of the Digambara sect lived and taught sometime between the first and fourth centuries. He laid out his metaphysics in The Five Cosmic Constituents (Panchastikayasara). He noted that karmic matter brings abo ut its own changes, as the soul by impure thoughts conditioned by karma does too . Freedom from sorrow comes from giving up desire and aversion, which cause karm ic matter to cling to the soul, leading to states of existence in bodies with se nses. Sense objects by perception then lead one to pursue them with desires or a version, repeating the whole cycle. High ideals based on love, devotion, and jus tice, such as offering relief to the thirsty, hungry, and miserable, may purify the karmic matter; but anger, pride, deceit, coveting, and sensual pleasures int erfere with calm thought, perception, and will, causing anguish to others, sland er, and other evils. Meditating on the self with pure thought and controlled sen ses will wash off the karmic dust. Desire and aversion to pleasant and unpleasan t states get the self bound by various kinds of karmic matter. The knowing soul associating with essential qualities is self-determined, but the soul led by des ire for outer things gets bewildered and is other-determined. Kunda Kunda discussed ethics in The Soul Essence (Samayasara). As long as one do es not discern the difference between the soul and its thought activity, the ign

orant will indulge in anger and other emotions that accumulate karma. The soul d iscerning the difference turns back from these. One with wrong knowledge takes t he non-self for self, identifies with anger, and becomes the doer of karma. As t he king has his warriors wage war, the soul produces, causes, binds, and assimil ates karmic matter. Being affected by anger, pride, deceit, and greed, the soul becomes them. From the practical standpoint karma is attached in the soul, but f rom the real or pure perspective karma is neither bound nor attached to the soul ; attachment to the karma destroys independence. The soul, knowing the karma is harmful, does not indulge them and in self-contemplation attains liberation. The soul is bound by wrong beliefs, lack of vows, passions, and vibratory activity. Kunda Kunda suggested that one does not cause misery or happiness to living bei ngs by one's body, speech, mind, or by weapons, but living beings are happy or m iserable by their own karma (actions). As long as one identifies with feelings o f joy and sorrow and until soul realization shines out in the heart, one produce s good and bad karma. Just as an artisan does not have to identify with performi ng a job, working with organs, holding tools, the soul can enjoy the fruit of ka rma without identifying. In The Perfect Law (Niyamsara), Kunda Kunda described right belief, right knowle dge, and right conduct that lead to liberation. The five vows are non-injury, tr uth, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession. Renouncing passion, attachment, aversion, and other impure thoughts involves controlling the mind and speech wi th freedom from falsehood and restraining the body by not causing injury. The ri ght conduct of repentance and equanimity is achieved by self-analysis, by avoidi ng transgressions and thoughts of pain and ill-will, and by self-contemplation w ith pure thoughts. Renunciation is practiced by equanimity toward all living bei ngs with no ill feelings, giving up desires, controlling the senses, and disting uishing between the soul and material karma. A saint of independent actions is c alled an internal soul, but one devoid of independent action is called an extern al soul. The soul free from obstructions, independent of the senses, and liberat ed from good and bad karma is free from rebirth and eternal in the nirvana of pe rfect knowledge, bliss, and power. Gupta Empire and India 320-750 After the disintegration in northern India in the third century CE, the Kushanas still ruled over the western Punjab and the declining Shakas over Gujurat and p art of Malwa. Sassanian king Shapur II fought and made a treaty with the Kushana s in 350, but he was defeated by them twice in 367-368. After two previous kings of the Gupta dynasty, Chandra-gupta I by marrying Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi prin cess, inaugurated the Gupta empire in 320, launching campaigns of territorial co nquest. This expansion was greatly increased by their son Samudra-gupta, who rul ed for about forty years until 380, conquering nine republics in Rajasthan and t welve states in the Deccan of central India. Many other kingdoms on the frontier s paid taxes and obeyed orders. The Guptas replaced tribal customs with the cast e system. Rulers in the south were defeated, captured, and released to rule as v assals. Local ruling councils under the Guptas tended to be dominated by commerc ial interests. Even Sri Lanka king Meghavarna (r. c. 352-379) sent gifts and ask ed permission to build a large monastery north of the Bodhi tree for Buddhist pi lgrims that eventually housed more than a thousand priests. In addition to his m ilitary abilities Samudra-gupta was a poet and musician, and inscriptions praise d his charity. His son Chandra-gupta II (r. 380-414) finally ended the foreign Shaka rule in th e west so that his empire stretched from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. H e allied his family with the Nagas by marrying princess Kubernaga; after marryin g Vakataka king Rudrasena II, his daughter ruled as regent there for 13 years. I n the south the Pallavas ruled in harmony with the Guptas. The Chinese pilgrim F a-hien described a happy and prosperous people not bothered by magistrates and r ules; only those working state land had to pay a portion, and the king governed

without using decapitation or corporal punishments. Kumara-gupta (r. 414-455) wa s apparently able to rule this vast empire without engaging in military campaign s. Only after forty years of peace did the threat of invading Hunas (White Huns) cause crown prince Skanda-gupta (r. 455-467) to fight for and restore Gupta for tunes by defeating the Huns about 460. After a struggle for the Gupta throne, Bu dha-gupta ruled for at least twenty years until about 500. Trade with the Roman empire had been declining since the 3rd century and was being replaced by commer ce with southeast Asia. The empire was beginning to break up into independent st ates, such as Kathiawar and Bundelkhand, while Vakataka king Narendra-sena took over some Gupta territory. Gupta decline continued as Huna chief Toramana invaded the Punjab and western In dia. His son Mihirakula succeeded as ruler about 515; according to Xuan Zang he ruled over India, and a Kashmir chronicle credited Mihirakula with conquering so uthern India and Sri Lanka. The Chinese ambassador Song-yun in 520 described the Hun king of Gandara as cruel, vindictive, and barbarous, not believing in the l aw of Buddha, having 700 war-elephants, and living with his troops on the fronti er. About ten years later the Greek Cosmas from Alexandria wrote that the White Hun king had 2,000 elephants and a large cavalry, but his kingdom was west of th e Indus River. However, Mihirakula was defeated by the Malwa chief Yashodharman. The Gupta king Narasimha-gupta Baladitya was also overwhelmed by Yashodharman a nd was forced to pay tribute to Mihirakula, according to Xuan Zang; but Baladity a later defeated Mihirakula, saving the Gupta empire from the Huns. Baladitya wa s also credited with building a great monastery at Nalanda. In the middle of the 6th century the Gupta empire declined during the reigns of its last two emperor s, Kumara-gupta III and Vishnu-gupta. Gupta sovereignty was recognized in Kaling a as late as 569. In the 4th century Vasubandhu studied and taught Sarvastivadin Buddhism in Kashm ir, analyzing the categories of experience in the 600 verses of his Abhidharma-k osha, including the causes and ways to eliminate moral problems. Vasubandhu was converted to the Yogachara school of Mahayana Buddhism by his brother Asanga. Va subandhu had a long and influential career as the abbot at Nalanda. As an idealist Vasubandhu, summing up his ideas in twenty and thirty verses, fou nd all experience to be in consciousness. Seeds are brought to fruition in the s tore of consciousness. Individuals are deluded by the four evil desires of their views of self as real, ignorance of self, self-pride, and self-love. He found g ood mental functions in belief, sense of shame, modesty, absence of coveting, en ergy, mental peace, vigilance, equanimity, and non-injury. Evil mental functions he listed as covetousness, hatred, attachment, arrogance, doubt, and false view ; minor ones included anger, enmity, concealment, affliction, envy, parsimony, d eception, fraud, injury, pride, high-mindedness, low-mindedness, unbelief, indol ence, idleness, forgetfulness, distraction, and non-discernment. For Vasubandhu life is like a dream in which we create our reality in our consciousness; even t he tortures of hell have no outward reality but are merely projections of consci ousness. Enlightenment is when mental obstructions and projections are transcend ed without grasping; the habit-energies of karma, the six senses and their objec ts, and relative knowledge are all abandoned for perfect wisdom, purity, freedom , peace, and joy. Vasubandhu wrote that we can know other minds and influence ea ch other for better and worse, because karma is intersubjective. In 554 Maukhari king Ishana-varman claimed he won victories over the Andhras, Su likas, and Gaudas. A Gurjara kingdom was founded in the mid-6th century in Rajpu tana by Harichandra, as apparently the fall of empires in northern India caused this Brahmin to exchange scriptures for arms. Xuan Zang praised Valabhi king Shi laditya I, who ruled about 580, for having great administrative ability and comp assion. Valabhi hosted the second Jain council that established the Jain canon i n the 6th century. Valabhi king Shiladitya III (r. 662-684) assumed an imperial title and conquered Gurjara. However, internal conflicts as well as Arab invasio

n destroyed the Valabhi kingdom by about 735. The Gurjara kingdom was also overr un by Arabs, but Pratihara king Nagabhata is credited with turning back the Musl im invaders in the northwest; he was helped in this effort by Gurjara king Jayab hata IV and Chalukya king Avanijanashraya-Pulakeshiraja in the south. After Thaneswar king Prabhakara-vardhana (r. 580-606) died, his son Rajya-vardha na marched against the hostile Malava king with 10,000 cavalry and won; but acco rding to Banabhatta, the king of Malava after gaining his confidence with false civilities had him murdered. His brother Harsha-vardhana (r. 606-647) swore he w ould clear the earth of Gaudas; starting with 5,000 elephants, 2,000 cavalry, an d 50,000 infantry, his army grew as military conquests enabled him to become the most powerful ruler of northern India at Kanauj. Somehow Harsha's conflicts wit h Valabhi and Gurjara led to his war with Chalukya king Pulakeshin II; but his s outhern campaign was apparently a failure, and Sindh remained an independent kin gdom. However, in the east according to Xuan Zang by 643 Harsha had subjugated Kongoda and Orissa. That year the Chinese pilgrim observed two great assemblies, one at Kanauj and the other a religious gathering at Prayaga, where the distribution o f accumulated resources drew twenty kings and about 500,000 people. Xuan Zang cr edited Harsha with building rest-houses for travelers, but he noted that the pen alty for breaching the social morality or filial duties could be mutilation or e xile. After Gauda king Shashanka's death Harsha had conquered Magadha, and he ev entually took over western Bengal. Harsha also was said to have written plays, a nd three of them survive. Xuan Zang reported that he divided India's revenues in to four parts for government expenses, public service, intellectual rewards, and religious gifts. During his reign the university in Nalanda became the most ren owned center of Buddhist learning. However, no successor of Harsha-vardana is kn own, and apparently his empire ended with his life. Wang-Xuan-zi gained help from Nepal against the violent usurper of Harsha's thro ne, who was sent to China as a prisoner; Nepal also sent a mission to China in 6 51. The dynasty called the Later Guptas for their similar names took over Magadh a and ruled there for almost a century. Then Yashovarman brought Magadha under h is sovereignty as he also invaded Bengal and defeated the ruler of Gauda. In 713 Kashmir king Durlabhaka sent an envoy to the Chinese emperor asking for aid aga inst invading Arabs. His successor Chandrapida was able to defend Kashmir agains t Arab aggression. He was described as humane and just, but in his ninth year as king he was killed by his brother Tarapida, whose cruel and bloody reign lasted only four years. Lalitaditya became king of Kashmir in 724 and in alliance with Yashovarman defeated the Tibetans; but Lalitaditya and Yashovarman could not ag ree on a treaty; Lalitaditya was victorious, taking over Kanauj and a vast empir e. The Arabs were defeated in the west, and Bengal was conquered in the east, th ough Lalitaditya's record was tarnished when he had the Gauda king of Bengal mur dered after promising him safe conduct. Lalitaditya died about 760. For a centur y Bengal had suffered anarchy in which the strong devoured the weak. Arabs had been repelled at Sindh in 660, but they invaded Kabul and Zabulistan d uring the Caliphate of Muawiyah (661-680). In 683 Kabul revolted and defeated th e Muslim army, but two years later Zabul's army was routed by the Arabs. After A l-Hajjaj became governor of Iraq in 695 the combined armies of Zabul and Kabul d efeated the Arabs; but a huge Muslim army returned to ravage Zabulistan four yea rs later. Zabul paid tribute until Hajjaj died in 714. Two years before that, Ha jjaj had equipped Muslim general Muhammad-ibn-Qasim for a major invasion of Sind h which resulted in the chiefs accepting Islam under sovereignty of the new Cali ph 'Umar II (717-720). Pulakeshin I ruled the Chalukyas for about thirty years in the middle of the 6th century. He was succeeded by Kirtivarman I (r. 566-597), who claimed he destroy ed the Nalas, Mauryas, and Kadambas. Mangalesha (r. 597-610) conquered the Kalac

huris and Revatidvipa, but he lost his life in a civil war over the succession w ith his nephew Pulakeshin II (r. 610-642). Starting in darkness enveloped by ene mies, this king made Govinda an ally and regained the Chalukya empire by reducin g Kadamba capital Vanavasi, the Gangas, and the Mauryas, marrying a Ganga prince ss. In the north Pulakeshin II subdued the Latas, Malavas, and Gurjaras; he even defeated the mighty Harsha of Kanauj and won the three kingdoms of Maharashtra, Konkana, and Karnata. After conquering the Kosalas and Kalingas, an Eastern Cha lukya dynasty was inaugurated by his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana and absorbed t he Andhra country when Vishnukundin king Vikramendra-varman III was defeated. Mo ving south Pulakeshin II allied himself with the Cholas, Keralas, and Pandyas in order to invade the powerful Pallavas. By 631 the Chalukya empire extended from sea to sea. Xuan Zang described the Chalukya people as stern and vindictive tow ard enemies, though they would not kill those who submitted. They and their elep hants fought while inebriated, and Chalukya laws did not punish soldiers who kil led. However, Pulakeshin II was defeated and probably killed in 642 when the Pal lavas in retaliation for an attack on their capital captured the Chalukya capita l at Badami. For thirteen years the Pallavas held some territory while Chalukya successors fo ught for the throne. Eventually Vikramaditya I (r. 655-681) became king and reco vered the southern part of the empire from the Pallavas, fighting three Pallava kings in succession. He was followed by his son Vinayaditya (r. 681-696), whose son Vijayaditya (r. 696-733) also fought with the Pallavas. Vijayaditya had a ma gnificent temple built to Shiva and donated villages to Jain teachers. His son V ikramaditya II (r. 733-747) also attacked the Pallavas and took Kanchi, but inst ead of destroying it he donated gold to its temples. His son Kirtivarman II (r. 744-757) was the last ruler of the Chalukya empire, as he was overthrown by Rash trakuta king Krishna I. However, the dynasty of the Eastern Chalukyas still rema ined to challenge the Rashtrakutas. In the early 8th century the Chalukyas gave refuge to Zarathustrians called Parsis, who had been driven out of Persia by Mus lims. A Christian community still lived in Malabar, and in the 10th century the king of the Cheras granted land to Joseph Rabban for a Jewish community in India . Pallava king Mahendra-varman I, who ruled for thirty years at the beginning of t he 7th century lost northern territory to the Chalukyas. As a Jain he had persec uted other religions, but after he tested and was converted by the Shaivite myst ic Appar, he destroyed the Jain monastery at Pataliputra. His son Narasimha-varm an I defeated Pulakeshin II in three battles, capturing the Chalukya capital at Vatapi in 642 with the aid of the Sri Lanka king. He ruled for 38 years, and his capital at Kanchi contained more than a hundred Buddhist monasteries housing ov er 10,000 monks, and there were many Jain temples too. During the reign (c. 670695) of Pallava king Parameshvara-varman I the Chalukyas probably captured Kanch i, as they did again about 740. On the island of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) the 58th and last king listed in the Mahavam sa was Mahasena (r. 334-362). The first of 125 kings listed up to 1815 in the Cu lavamsa, Srimeghavarna, repaired the monasteries destroyed by Mahasena. Mahanama n (r. 409-431) married the queen after she murdered his brother Upatishya. Buddh aghosha was converted to Buddhism and went to Sri Lanka during the reign of Maha naman. There he translated and wrote commentaries on numerous Buddhist texts. Hi s Visuddhimagga explains ways to attain purity by presenting the teachings of th e Buddha in three parts on conduct, concentration, and wisdom. Buddhaghosha also collected parables and stories illustrating Buddhist ethics by showing how karm a brings the consequences of actions back to one, sometimes in another life. One story showed how a grudge can cause alternating injuries between two individual s from life to life. Yet if no grudge is held, the enmity subsides. In addition to the usual vices of killing, stealing, adultery, and a judge taking bribes, oc cupations that could lead to hell include making weapons, selling poison, being a general, collecting taxes, living off tolls, hunting, fishing, and even gather

ing honey. The Buddhist path is encouraged with tales of miracles and by showing the benefits of good conduct and meditation. The clan chief Dhatusena (r. 460-478) became king of Sri Lanka and expelled fore igners from the island, but his eldest son Kashyapa (r. 478-496) took him prison er and usurped the throne but lost it with his life to his brother Maudgalyayana (r. 496-513), who had the coast guarded to prevent foreign attacks and gave his umbrella to the Buddhist community as a token of submission. His son Kumaradasa (r. 513-522) was succeeded by his son, who was quickly deposed by a usurping un cle soon killed by Upatishya (r. 522-524), who was succeeded by his son Shilakal a (r. 524-537). Maudgalyayana II (r. 537-556) had to fight for the throne; but h e was a poet and was considered a pious ruler loved by the people. Two rulers we re killed before Agrabodhi I (r. 559-592) and Agrabodhi II (r. 592-602) built mo nasteries and dug water tanks for irrigation. A revolt by the general Maudgalyay ana III (r. 602-608) led to a series of civil wars and succession battles suffer ed by the Sri Lanka people that continued until Manavarman managed to rule Sri L anka for 35 years (668-703). Included in a didactic Tamil collection of "Eighteen Minor Poems" are the Naladi yar and the famous Kural. The Naladiyar consists of 400 quatrains of moral aphor isms. In the 67th quatrain the wise say it is not cowardice to refuse a challeng e when men rise in enmity and wish to fight; even when enemies do the worst, it is right not to do evil in return. Like milk the path of virtue is one, though m any sects teach it. (118) The treasure of learning needs no safeguard, for fire cannot destroy it nor can kings take it. Other things are not true wealth, but l earning is the best legacy to leave one's children. (134) Humility is greatness, and self-control is what the gainer actually gains. Only the rich who relieve t he need of their neighbors are truly wealthy. (170) The good remember another's kindness, but the base only recall fancied slights. (356) The Tamil classic, The Kural by Tiru Valluvar, was probably written about 600 CE , plus or minus two centuries. This book contains 133 chapters of ten pithy coup lets each and is divided into three parts on the traditional Hindu goals of dhar ma (virtue or justice), artha (success or wealth), and kama (love or pleasure). The first two parts contain moral proverbs; the third is mostly expressions of l ove, though there is the statement that one-sided love is bitter while balanced love is sweet. Valluvar transcends the caste system by suggesting that we call B rahmins those who are virtuous and kind to all that live. Here are a few of Valluvar's astute observations on dharma. Bliss hereafter is t he fruit of a loving life here. (75) Sweet words with a smiling face are more pl easing than a gracious gift. (92) He asked, "How can one pleased with sweet word s oneself use harsh words to others?"2 Self-control takes one to the gods, but i ts lack to utter darkness. (121) Always forgive transgressions, but better still forget them. (152) The height of wisdom is not to return ill for ill. (203) "Th e only gift is giving to the poor; all else is exchange." (221) If people refrai n from eating meat, there will be no one to sell it. (256) "To bear your pain an d not pain others is penance summed up." (261) In all the gospels he found nothi ng higher than the truth. (300) I think the whole chapter on not hurting others is worth quoting. The pure in heart will never hurt others even for wealth or renown. The code of the pure in heart is not to return hurt for angry hurt. Vengeance even against a wanton insult does endless damage. Punish an evil-doer by shaming him with a good deed, and forget. What good is that sense which does not feel and prevent all creatures' woes as its own? Do not do to others what you know has hurt yourself. It is best to refrain from willfully hurting anyone, anytime, anyway. Why does one hurt others knowing what it is to be hurt?

The hurt you cause in the forenoon self-propelled will overtake you in the afternoon. Hurt comes to the hurtful; hence it is that those don't hurt who do not want to be hurt.3 Valluvar went even farther when he wrote, "Even at the cost of one's own life on e should avoid killing." (327) For death is but a sleep, and birth an awakening. (339) In the part on artha (wealth) Valluvar defined the unfailing marks of a king as courage, liberality, wisdom and energy. (382) The just protector he deemed the L ord's deputy, and the best kings have grace, bounty, justice, and concern. "The wealth which never declines is not riches but learning." (400) "The wealth of th e ignorant does more harm than the want of the learned." (408) The truly noble a re free of arrogance, wrath, and pettiness. (431) "A tyrant indulging in terrori sm will perish quickly." (563) "Friendship curbs wrong, guides right, and shares distress." (787) "The soul of friendship is freedom, which the wise should welc ome." (802) "The world is secure under one whose nature can make friends of foes ." (874) Valluvar believed it was base to be discourteous even to enemies (998), and his chapter on character is also worth quoting. All virtues are said to be natural to those who acquire character as a duty. To the wise the only worth is character, naught else. The pillars of excellence are five-love, modesty, altruism, compassion, truthfulness. The core of penance is not killing, of goodness not speaking slander. The secret of success is humility; it is also wisdom's weapon against foes. The touchstone of goodness is to own one's defeat even to inferiors. What good is that good which does not return good for evil? Poverty is no disgrace to one with strength of character. Seas may whelm, but men of character will stand like the shore. If the great fail in nobility, the earth will bear us no more.4 Kamandaka's Nitisara in the first half of the 8th century was primarily based on Kautilya's Arthashastra and was influenced by the violence in the Mahabharata, as he justified both open fighting when the king is powerful and treacherous fig hting when he is at a disadvantage. Katyayana, like Kamandaka, accepted the trad ition of the king's divinity, although he argued that this should make ruling ju stly a duty. Katyayana followed Narada's four modes of judicial decisions as the dharma of moral law when the defendant confesses, judicial proof when the judge decides, popular custom when tradition rules, and royal edict when the king dec ides. Crimes of violence were distinguished from the deception of theft. Laws pr evented the accumulated interest on debts from exceeding the principal. Brahmins were still exempt from capital punishment and confiscation of property, and mos t laws differed according to one's caste. The Yoga-vasishtha philosophy taught t hat as a bird flies with two wings, the highest reality is attained through know ledge and work. The famous Vedanta philosopher Shankara was born into a Brahmin family; his trad itional dates are 788-820, though some scholars believe he lived about 700-750. It was said that when he was eight, he became an ascetic and studied with Govind a, a disciple of the monist Gaudapala; at 16 he was teaching many in the Varanas i area. Shankara wrote a long commentary on the primary Vedanta text, the Brahma Sutra, on the Bhagavad-Gita, and on ten of the Upanishads, always emphasizing t he non-dual reality of Brahman (God), that the world is false, and that the atma n (self or soul) is not different from Brahman. Shankara traveled around India and to Kashmir, defeating opponents in debate; he criticized human sacrifice to the god Bhairava and branding the body. He perfor

med a funeral for his mother even though it was considered improper for a sannya sin (renunciate). Shankara challenged the Mimamsa philosopher Mandana Mishra, wh o emphasized the duty of Vedic rituals, by arguing that knowledge of God is the only means to final release, and after seven days he was declared the winner by Mandana's wife. He tended to avoid the cities and taught sannyasins and intellec tuals in the villages. Shankara founded monasteries in the south at Shringeri of Mysore, in the east at Puri, in the west at Dvaraka, and in the northern Himala yas at Badarinath. He wrote hymns glorifying Shiva as God, and Hindus would late r believe he was an incarnation of Shiva. He criticized the corrupt left-hand (s exual) practices used in Tantra. His philosophy spread, and he became perhaps th e most influential of all Hindu philosophers. In the Crest-Jewel of Wisdom Shankara taught that although action is for removin g bonds of conditioned existence and purifying the heart, reality can only be at tained by right knowledge. Realizing that an object perceived is a rope removes the fear and sorrow from the illusion it is a snake. Knowledge comes from percep tion, investigation, or instruction, not from bathing, giving alms, or breath co ntrol. Shankara taught enduring all pain and sorrow without thought of retaliati on, dejection, or lamentation. He noted that the scriptures gave the causes of l iberation as faith, devotion, concentration, and union (yoga); but he taught, "L iberation cannot be achieved except by direct perception of the identity of the individual with the universal self."5 Desires lead to death, but one who is free of desires is fit for liberation. Shankara distinguished the atman as the real self or soul from the ahamkara (ego), which is the cause of change, experiences karma (action), and destroys the rest in the real self. From neglecting the real self spring delusion, ego, bondage, and pain. The soul is everlasting and full of wisdom. Ultimately both bondage and liberation are illusions that do not exis t in the soul. Plays of Bhasa, Kalidasa, and Bhavabhuti Indian drama was analyzed by Bharata in the Natya Shastra, probably from the thi rd century CE or before. Bharata ascribed a divine origin to drama and considere d it a fifth Veda; its origin seems to be from religious dancing. In the classic al plays Sanskrit is spoken by the Brahmins and noble characters, while Prakrit vernaculars are used by others and most women. According to Bharata poetry (kavy a), dance (nritta), and mime (nritya) in life's play (lila) produce emotion (bha va), but only drama (natya) produces "flavor" (rasa). The drama uses the eight b asic emotions of love, joy (humor), anger, sadness, pride, fear, aversion, and w onder, attempting to resolve them in the ninth holistic feeling of peace. These are modified by 33 less stable sentiments he listed as discouragement, weakness, apprehension, weariness, contentment, stupor, elation, depression, cruelty, anx iety, fright, envy, arrogance, indignation, recollection, death, intoxication, d reaming, sleeping, awakening, shame, demonic possession, distraction, assurance, indolence, agitation, deliberation, dissimulation, sickness, insanity, despair, impatience, and inconstancy. The emotions are manifested by causes, effects, an d moods. The spectators should be of good character, intelligent, and empathetic . Although some scholars date him earlier, the plays of Bhasa can probably be plac ed after Ashvaghosha in the second or third century CE. In 1912 thirteen Trivand rum plays were discovered that scholars have attributed to Bhasa. Five one-act p lays were adapted from situations in the epic Mahabharata. Dutavakya has Krishna as a peace envoy from the Pandavas giving advice to Duryodhana. In Karnabhara t he warrior Karna sacrifices his armor by giving it to Indra, who is in the guise of a Brahmin. Dutaghatotkacha shows the envoy Ghatotkacha carrying Krishna's me ssage to the Kauruvas. Urubhanga depicts Duryodhana as a hero treacherously atta cked below the waist by Bhima at the signal of Krishna. In Madhyama-vyayoga the middle son is going to be sacrificed, but it turns out to be a device used by Bh ima's wife Hidimba to get him to visit her. Each of these plays seems to portray

didactically heroic virtues for an aristocratic audience. The Mahabharata also furnishes the episode for the Kauravas' cattle raid of Virata in the Pancharatra , which seems to have been staged to glorify some sacrifice. Bhasa's Abhisheka f ollows the Ramayana closely in the coronation of Rama, and Pratima also reworks the Rama story prior to the war. Balacharita portrays heroic episodes in the chi ldhood of Krishna. In Bhasa's Avimaraka the title character heroically saves princess Kurangi from a rampaging elephant, but he says he is an outcast. Dressed as a thief, Avimarak a sneaks into the palace to meet the princess, saying, Once we have done what we can even failure is no disgrace. Has anyone ever succeeded by saying, "I can't do it"? A person becomes great by attempting great things.6 He spends a year there with Kurangi before he is discovered and must leave. Avim araka is about to jump off a mountain when a fairy (Vidyadhara) gives him a ring by which he can become invisible. Using invisibility, he and his jester go back into the palace just in time to catch Kurangi before she hangs herself. The tru e parentage of the royal couple is revealed by the sage Narada, and Vairantya ki ng Kuntibhoja gives his new son-in-law the following advice: With With With With tolerance be king over Brahmins. compassion win the hearts of your subjects. courage conquer earth's rulers. knowledge of the truth conquer yourself.7

Bhasa uses the story of legendary King Udayana in two plays. In Pratijna Yaugand harayana the Vatsa king at Kaushambi, Udayana, is captured by Avanti king Pradyo ta so that Udayana can be introduced to the princess Vasavadatta by tutoring her in music, a device which works as they fall in love. The title comes from the v ow of chief minister Yaugandharayana to free his sovereign Udayana; he succeeds in rescuing him and his new queen Vasavadatta. In Bhasa's greatest play, The Dre am of Vasavadatta, the same minister, knowing his king's reluctance to enter a n eeded political marriage, pretends that he and queen Vasavadatta are killed in a fire so that King Udayana will marry Magadha princess Padmavati. Saying Vasavad atta is his sister, Yaugandharayana entrusts her into the care of Padmavati, bec ause of the prophecy she will become Udayana's queen. The play is very tender, a nd both princesses are noble and considerate of each other; it also includes an early example of a court jester. Udayana is still in love with Vasavadatta, and while resting half asleep, Vasavadatta, thinking she is comforting Padmavati's h eadache, gently touches him. The loving and grieving couple are reunited; Padmav ati is also accepted as another wife; the kingdom of Kaushambi is defended by th e marriage alliance. Bhasa's Charudatta is about the courtesan Vasantasena, who initiates a love affa ir with an impoverished merchant, but the manuscript is cut off abruptly after f our acts. However, this story was adapted and completed in The Little Clay Cart, attributed to a King Sudraka, whose name means a little servant. In ten acts th is play is a rare example of what Bharata called a maha-nataka or "great play." The play is revolutionary not only because the romantic hero and heroine are a m arried merchant and a courtesan, but because the king's brother-in-law, Sansthan aka, is portrayed as a vicious fool, and because by the end of the play the king is overthrown and replaced by a man he had falsely imprisoned. Vasantasena reje cts the attentions of the insulting Sansthanaka, saying that true love is won by virtue not violence; she is in love with Charudatta, who is poor because he is honest and generous, as money and virtue seldom keep company these days. Vasanta sena kindly pays the gambling debts of his shampooer, who then becomes a Buddhis t monk. Charudatta, not wearing jewels any more, gives his cloak to a man who sa ved the monk from a rampaging elephant.

Vasantasena entrusts a golden casket of jewelry to Charudatta, but Sharvilaka br eaking into his house to steal, is given it so that he can gain the courtesan gi rl Madanika. So that he won't get a bad reputation, Charudatta's wife gives a va luable pearl necklace to her husband, and he realizes he is not poor because he has a wife whose love outlasts his wealthy days. Madanika is concerned that Shar vilaka did something bad for her sake and tells him to restore the jewels, and h e returns them to Vasantasena on the merchant's behalf, while she generously fre es her servant Madanika for him. Charudatta gives Vasantasena the more valuable pearl necklace, saying he gambled away her jewels. As the romantic rainy season approaches, the two lovers are na turally drawn together. Charudatta's child complains that he has to play with a little clay cart as a toy, and Vasantasena promises him a golden one. She gets i nto the wrong bullock cart and is taken to the garden of Sansthanaka, where he s trangles her for rejecting his proposition. Then he accuses Charudatta of the cr ime, and because of his royal influence in the trial, Charudatta is condemned to be executed after his friend shows up with Vasantasena's jewels. However, the m onk has revived Vasantasena, and just before Charudatta's head is to be cut off, she appears to save him. Sharvilaka has killed the bad king and anointed a good one. Charudatta lets the repentant Sansthanaka go free, and the king declares V asantasena a wedded wife and thus no longer a courtesan. Although he is considered India's greatest poet, it is not known when Kalidasa l ived. Probably the best educated guess has him flourishing about 400 CE during t he reign of Chandragupta II. The prolog of his play Malavika and Agnimitra asks the audience to consider a new poet and not just the celebrated Bhasa and two ot hers. In this romance King Agnimitra, who already has two queens, in springtime falls in love with the dancing servant Malavika, who turns out to be a princess when his foreign conflicts are solved. The king is accompanied throughout by a c ourt jester, who with a contrivance frees Malavika from confinement by the jealo us queen. The only female who speaks Sanskrit in Kalidasa's plays is the Buddhis t nun, who judges the dance contest and explains that Malavika had to be a serva nt for a year in order to fulfill a prophecy that she would marry a king after d oing so. In celebration of the victory and his latest marriage, the king orders all prisoners released. In Kalidasa's Urvashi Won by Valor, King Pururavas falls in love with the heaven ly nymph Urvashi. The king's jester Manavaka reveals this secret to the queen's maid Nipunika. Urvashi comes down to earth with her friend and writes a love poe m on a birch-leaf. The queen sees this also but forgives her husband's guilt. Ur vashi returns to paradise to appear in a play; but accidentally revealing her lo ve for Pururavas, she is expelled to earth and must stay until she sees the king 's heir. The queen generously offers to accept a new queen who truly loves the k ing, and Urvashi makes herself visible to Pururavas. In the fourth act a moment of jealousy causes Urvashi to be changed into a vine, and the king in searching for her dances and sings, amorously befriending animals and plants until a ruby of reunion helps him find the vine; as he embraces the vine, it turns into Urvas hi. After many years have passed, their son Ayus gains back the ruby that was st olen by a vulture. When Urvashi sees the grown-up child she had sent away so tha t she could stay with the king, she must return to paradise; but the king gives up his kingdom to their son so that he can go with her, although a heavenly mess enger indicates that he can remain as king with Urvashi until his death. The most widely acclaimed Indian drama is Kalidasa's Shakuntala and the Love Tok en. While hunting, King Dushyanta is asked by the local ascetics not to kill dee r, saying, "Your weapon is meant to help the weak not smite the innocent."8 The king and Shakuntala, who is the daughter of a nymph and is being raised by ascet ics, fall in love with each other. The king is accompanied by a foolish Brahmin who offers comic relief. Although he has other wives, the king declares that he

needs only the earth and Shakuntala to sustain his line. They are married in the forest, and Shakuntala becomes pregnant. Kanva, who raised her, advises the bri de to obey her elders, treat her fellow wives as friends, and not cross her husb and in anger even if he mistreats her. The king returns to his capital and gives his ring to Shakuntala so that he will recognize her when she arrives later. Ho wever, because of a curse on her from Durvasas, he loses his memory of her, and she loses the ring. Later the king refuses to accept this pregnant woman he cann ot recall, and in shame she disappears. A fisherman finds the ring in a fish; wh en the king gets it back, his memory of Shakuntala returns. The king searches fo r her and finds their son on Golden Peak with the birthmarks of a universal empe ror; now he must ask to be recognized by her. They are happily reunited, and the ir child Bharata is to become the founding emperor of India. An outstanding political play was written by Vishakhadatta, who may also have li ved at the court of Chandragupta II or as late as the 9th century. Rakshasa's Ri ng is set when Chandragupta, who defeated Alexander's successor Seleucus in 305 BC, is becoming Maurya emperor by overcoming the Nandas. According to tradition he was politically assisted by his minister Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, su pposed author of the famous treatise on politics, Artha Shastra. Rakshasa, whose name means demon, had sent a woman to poison Chandragupta, but Chanakya had her poison King Parvataka instead. Rakshasa supports Parvataka's son Malayaketu; Ch anakya cleverly assuages public opinion by letting Parvataka's brother have half the kingdom but arranges for his death too. Chanakya even pretends to break wit h Chandragupta to further his plot. Chanakya is able to use a Jain monk and a secretary by pretending to punish them and have Siddarthaka rescue the secretary; with a letter he composed written by the secretary and with Rakshasa's ring taken from the home of a jeweler who gav e Rakshasa and his family refuge, they pretend to serve Malayaketu but make him suspect Rakshasa's loyalty and execute the allied princes Rakshasa had gained fo r him. Ironically Rakshasa's greatest quality is loyalty, and after he realizes he has been trapped he decides to sacrifice himself to save the jeweler from bei ng executed. By then Malayaketu's attack on Chandragupta's capital has collapsed from lack of support, and he is captured. Chanakya's manipulations have defeate d Chandragupta's rivals without a fight, and he appoints chief minister in his p lace Rakshasa, who then spares the life of Malayaketu. Chanakya (Kautilya) annou nces that the emperor (Chandragupta) grants Malayaketu his ancestral territories and releases all prisoners except draft animals. Ratnavali was attributed to Harsha, who ruled at Kanauj in the first half of the 7th century. This comedy reworks the story of King Udayana, who though happily married to Vasavadatta, is seduced into marrying her Simhalese cousin Ratnavali for the political motivations contrived by his minister Yaugandharayana. Ratnava li, using the name Sagarika as the queen's maid, falls in love with the king and has painted his portrait. Her friend then paints her portrait with the king's, which enamors him after he hears the story of the painting from a mynah bird tha t repeats the maidens' conversation. Queen Vasavadatta becomes suspicious, and t he jester is going to bring Sagarika dressed like the queen, who learning of it appears veiled herself to expose the affair. Sagarika tries to hang herself but is saved by the king. The jealous queen puts Sagarika in chains and the noose ar ound the jester's neck. Yet in the last act a magician contrives a fire, and the king saves Sagarika once again. A necklace reveals that she is a princess, and the minister Yaugandharayana explains how he brought the lovers together. Also attributed to Harsha: Priyadarshika is another harem comedy; but Joy of the Serpents (Nagananda) shows how prince Jimutavahana gives up his own body to sto p a sacrifice of serpents to the divine Garuda. A royal contemporary of Harsha, Pallava king Mahendravikarmavarman wrote a one-act farce called "The Sport of Dr unkards" (Mattavilasa) in which an inebriated Shaivite ascetic accuses a Buddhis t monk of stealing his begging bowl made from a skull; but after much satire it

is found to have been taken by a dog. Bhavabhuti lived in the early 8th century and was said to have been the court po et in Kanauj of Yashovarman, a king also supposed to have written a play about R ama. Bhavabhuti depicted the early career of Rama in Mahavira-charita and then p roduced The Later Story of Rama. In this latter play Rama's brother Lakshmana sh ows Rama and Sita murals of their past, and Rama asks Sita for forgiveness for h aving put her through a trial by fire to show the people her purity after she ha d been captured by the evil Ravana. Rama has made a vow to serve the people's go od above all and so orders Sita into exile because of their continuing suspicion s. Instead of killing the demon Sambuka, his penance moves Rama to free him. Sit a has given birth to two sons, Lava and Kusha, and twelve years pass. When he he ard about his daughter Sita's exile, Janaka gave up meat and became a vegetarian ; when Janaka meets Rama's mother Kaushalya, she faints at the memory. Rama's di vine weapons have been passed on to his sons, and Lava is able to pacify Chandra ketu's soldiers by meditating. Rama has Lava remove the spell, and Kusha recites the Ramayana taught him by Valmiki, who raised the sons. Finally Sita is joyful ly reunited with Rama and their sons. Malati and Madhava by Bhavabhuti takes place in the city of Padmavati. Although the king has arranged for Nandana to marry his minister's daughter Malati, the B uddhist nun Kamandaki manages eventually to bring together the suffering lovers Madhava and Malati. Malati has been watching Madhava and draws his portrait; whe n he sees it, he draws her too. Through the rest of the play they pine in love f or each other. Malati calls her father greedy for going along with the king's pl an to marry her to Nandana, since a father deferring to a king in this is not sa nctioned by morality nor by custom. Madhava notes that success comes from educat ion with innate understanding, boldness combined with practiced eloquence, and t act with quick wit. Malati's friend Madayantika is attacked by a tiger, and Madh ava's friend Makaranda is wounded saving her life. In their amorous desperation Madhava sells his flesh to the gods, and he saves the suicidal Malati from being sacrificed by killing Aghoraghanta, whose pupil Kapalakundala then causes him m uch suffering. Finally Madhava and Malati are able to marry, as Makaranda marrie s Madayantika. These plays make clear that courtly love and romance were thrivin g in India for centuries before they were rediscovered in Europe. Hindu Kingdoms 750-1000 The Rashtrakuta Dantidurga married a Chalukya princess and became a vassal king about 733; he and Gujarat's Pulakeshin helped Chalukya emperor Vikramaditya II r epulse an Arab invasion, and Dantidurga's army joined the emperor in a victoriou s expedition against Kanchi and the Pallavas. After Vikramaditya II died in 747, Dantidurga conquered Gurjara, Malwa, and Madhya Pradesh. This Rashtrakuta king then confronted and defeated Chalukya emperor Kirtivarman II so that by the end of 753 he controlled all of Maharashtra. The next Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I co mpleted the demise of the Chalukya empire and was succeeded about 773 by his eld est son Govinda II. Absorbed in personal pleasures, he left the administration t o his brother Dhruva, who eventually revolted and usurped the throne, defeating the Ganga, Pallava, and Vengi kings who had opposed him. The Pratihara ruler of Gurjara, Vatsaraja, took over Kanauj and installed Indray udha as governor there. The Palas rose to power by unifying Bengal under the ele cted king Gopala about 750. He patronized Buddhism, and his successor Dharmapala had fifty monasteries built, founding the Vikramashila monastery with 108 monks in charge of various programs. During the reign of Dharmapala the Jain scholar Haribhadra recommended respecting various views because of Jainism's principles of nonviolence and many-sidedness. Haribhadra found that the following eight qua lities can be applied to the faithful of any tradition: nonviolence, truth, hone sty, chastity, detachment, reverence for a teacher, fasting, and knowledge. Dhar mapala marched into the Doab to challenge the Pratiharas but was defeated by Vat

saraja. When these two adversaries were about to meet for a second battle in the Doab, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva from the Deccan defeated Vatsaraja first and then Dharmapala but did not occupy Kanauj. Dhruva returned to the south with booty and was succeeded by his third son Govin da III in 793. Govinda had to defeat his brother Stambha and a rebellion of twel ve kings, but the two brothers reconciled and turned on Ganga prince Shivamira, whom they returned to prison. Supreme over the Deccan, Govinda III left his brot her Indra as viceroy of Gujurat and Malava and marched his army north toward Kan auj, which Vatsaraja's successor Nagabhata II had occupied while Dharmapala's no minee Chakrayudha was on that throne. Govinda's army defeated Nagabhata's; Chakr ayudha surrendered, and Dharmapala submitted. Govinda III marched all the way to the Himalayas, uprooting and reinstating local kings. Rashtrakuta supremacy was challenged by Vijayaditya II, who had become king of V engi in 799; but Govinda defeated him and installed his brother Bhima-Salukki on the Vengi throne about 802. Then Govinda's forces scattered a confederacy of Pa llava, Pandya, Kerala, and Ganga rulers and occupied Kanchi, threatening the kin g of Sri Lanka, who sent him two statues. After Govinda III died in 814, Chaluky a Vijayaditya II overthrew Bhima-Salukki to regain his Vengi throne; then his ar my invaded Rashtrakuta territory, plundering and devastating the city of Stambha . Vijayaditya ruled for nearly half a century and was said to have fought 108 ba ttles in a 12-year war with the Rashtrakutas and the Gangas. His grandson Vijaya ditya III ruled Vengi for 44 years (848-892); he also invaded the Rashtrakuta em pire in the north, burning Achalapura, and it was reported he took gold by force from the Ganga king of Kalinga. His successor Chalukya-Bhima I was king of Veng i for 30 years and was said to have turned his attention to helping ascetics and those in distress. Struggles with his neighbors continued though, and ChalukyaBhima was even captured for a time. Dharmapala's son Devapala also supported Buddhism and extended the Pala empire i n the first half of the 9th century by defeating the Utkalas, Assam, Huns, Dravi das, and Gurjaras, while maintaining his domain against three generations of Pra tihara rulers. His successor Vigrahapala retired to an ascetic life after ruling only three years, and his son Narayanapala was also of a peaceful and religious disposition, allowing the Pala empire to languish. After the Pala empire was de feated by the Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas, subordinate chiefs became independent ; Assam king Harjara even claimed an imperial title. Just before his long reign ended in 908 Narayanapala did reclaim some territories after the Rashtrakuta inv asion of the Pratihara dominions; but in the 10th century during the reign of th e next three kings the Pala kingdom declined as principalities asserted their in dependence in conflicts with each other. Chandella king Yashovarman invaded the Palas and the Kambojas, and he claimed to have conquered Gauda and Mithila. His successor Dhanga ruled through the second half of the 10th century and was the first independent Chandella king, calling himself the lord of Kalanjara. In the late 8th century Arab military expeditions had attempted to make Kabul pay tribute to the Muslim Caliph. In 870 Kabul and Zabul were conquered by Ya'qub ibn Layth; the king of Zubalistan was killed, and the people accepted Islam. Ghazni sultan Sabutkin (r. 977-997) invaded India wi th a Muslim army and defeated Dhanga and a confederacy of Hindu chiefs about 989 . South of the Chandellas the Kalachuris led by Kokkalla in the second half of the 9th century battled the Pratiharas under Bhoja, Turushkas (Muslims), Vanga in e ast Bengal, Rashtrakuta king Krishna II, and Konkan. His successor Shankaragana fought Kosala, but he and Krishna II had to retreat from the Eastern Chalukyas. In the next century Kalachuri king Yuvaraja I celebrated his victory over Vallab ha with a performance of Rajshekhara's drama Viddhashalabhanjika. Yuvaraja's son Lakshmanaraja raided east Bengal, defeated Kosala, and invaded the west. Like h

is father, he patronized Shaivite teachers and monasteries. Near the end of the 10th century Kalachuri king Yuvaraja II suffered attacks from Chalukya ruler Tai la II and Paramara king Munja. After many conquests, the aggressive Munja, disre garding the advice of his counselor Rudraditya, was defeated and captured by Tai la and executed after an attempted rescue. In 814 Govinda III was succeeded as Rashtrakuta ruler by his son Amoghavarsha, o nly about 13 years old; Gujarat viceroy Karkka acted as regent. Three years late r a revolt led by Vijayaditya II, who had regained the Vengi throne, temporarily overthrew Rashtrakuta power until Karakka reinstated Amoghavarsha I by 821. A d ecade later the Rashtrakuta army defeated Vijayaditya II and occupied Vengi for about a dozen years. Karkka was made viceroy in Gujarat, but his son Dhruva I re belled and was killed about 845. The Rashtrakutas also fought the Gangas for abo ut twenty years until Amoghavarsha's daughter married a Ganga prince about 860. In addition to his military activities Amoghavarsha sponsored several famous Hin du and Jain writers and wrote a book himself on Jain ethics. Jain kings and sold iers made an exception to the prohibition against killing for the duties of hang ing murderers and slaying enemies in battle. He died in 878 and was succeeded by his son Krishna II, who married the daughter of Chedi ruler Kokkalla I to gain an ally for his many wars with the Pratiharas, Eastern Chalukyas, Vengi, and the Cholas. Krishna II died in 914 and was succeeded by his grandson Indra III, who marched his army north and captured northern India's imperial city Kanauj. However, Chan della king Harsha helped the Pratihara Mahipala regain his throne at Kanauj. Ind ra III died in 922; but his religious son Amoghavarsha II had to get help from h is Chedi relations to defeat his brother Govinda IV, who had usurped the throne for fourteen years. Three years later in 939 Krishna III succeeded as Rashtrakut a emperor and organized an invasion of Chola and twenty years later another expe dition to the north. The Rashtrakutas reigned over a vast empire when he died in 967; but with no living issue the struggle for the throne despite the efforts o f Ganga king Marasimha III resulted in the triumph of Chalukya king Taila II in 974. That year Marasimha starved himself to death in the Jain manner and was suc ceeded by Rajamalla IV, whose minister Chamunda Raya staved off usurpation. His Chamunda Raya Purana includes an account of the 24 Jain prophets. In the north in the middle of the 9th century the Pratiharas were attacked by Pa la emperor Devapala; but Pratihara king Bhoja and his allies defeated Pala king Narayanapala. Bhoja won and lost battles against Rashtrakuta king Krishna II. Th e Pratiharas were described in 851 by an Arab as having the finest cavalry and a s the greatest foe of the Muslims, though no country in India was safer from rob bers. Bhoja ruled nearly a half century, and his successor Mahendrapala I expand ed the Pratihara empire to the east. When Mahipala was ruling in 915 Al Mas'udi from Baghdad observed that the Pratiharas were at war with the Muslims in the we st and the Rashtrakutas in the south, and he claimed they had four armies of abo ut 800,000 men each. When Indra III sacked Kanauj, Mahipala fled but returned af ter the Rashtrakutas left. In the mid-10th century the Pratiharas had several ki ngs, as the empire disintegrated and was reduced to territory around Kanauj. A history of Kashmir's kings called the Rajatarangini was written by Kalhana in the 12th century. Vajraditya became king of Kashmir about 762 and was accused of selling men to the Mlechchhas (probably Arabs). Jayapida ruled Kashmir during t he last thirty years of the 8th century, fighting wars of conquest even though h is army once deserted his camp and people complained of high taxes. Family intri gue and factional violence led to a series of puppet kings until Avanti-varman b egan the Utpala dynasty of Kashmir in 855. His minister Suvya's engineering proj ects greatly increased the grain yield and lowered its prices. Avanti-varman's d eath in 883 was followed by a civil war won by Shankara-varman, who then invaded Darvabhisara, Gurjara, and Udabhanda; but he was killed by people in Urasha, wh o resented his army being quartered there. More family intrigues, bribery, and s

truggles for power between the Tantrin infantry, Ekanga military police, and the Damara feudal landowners caused a series of short reigns until the minister Kam alavardhana took control and asked the assembly to appoint a king; they chose th e Brahmin Yashakara in 939. Yashakara was persuaded to resign by his minister Parvagupta, who killed the new Kashmir king but died two years later in 950. Parvagupta's son Kshemagupta beca me king and married the Lohara princess Didda. Eight years later she became rege nt for their son Abhimanyu and won over the rebel Yashodhara by appointing him c ommander of her army. When King Abhimanyu died in 972, his three sons ruled in s uccession until each in turn was murdered by their grandmother, Queen Didda; she ruled Kashmir herself with the help of an unpopular prime minister from 980 unt il she died in 1003. In the south the Pandyas had risen to power in the late 8th century under King N edunjadaiyan. He ruled for fifty years, and his son Srimara Srivallabha reigned nearly as long, winning victories over the Gangas, Pallavas, Cholas, Kalingas, M agadhas, and others until he was defeated by Pallava Nandi-varman III at Tellaru . The Pandya empire was ruined when his successor Varaguna II was badly beaten a bout 880 by a combined force of Pallavas, western Gangas, and Cholas. The Chola dynasty of Tanjore was founded by Vijayalaya in the middle of the 9th century. A s a vassal of the Pallavas, he and his son Aditya I helped their sovereign defea t the Pandyas. Aditya ruled 36 years and was succeeded as Chola king by his son Parantaka I (r. 907-953). His military campaigns established the Chola empire wi th the help of his allies, the Gangas, Kerala, and the Kodumbalur chiefs. The Pa ndyas and the Sinhalese king of Sri Lanka were defeated by the Cholas about 915. Parantaka demolished remaining Pallava power, but in 949 the Cholas were decisi vely beaten by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III at Takkolam, resulting in the loss o f Tondamandalam and the Pandya country. Chola power was firmly established durin g the reign (985-1014) of Rajaraja I, who attacked the Kerala, Sri Lanka, and th e Pandyas to break up their control of the western trade. When the Pandyas invaded the island, Sri Lanka king Sena I (r. 824-844) fled as the royal treasury was plundered. His successor Sena II (r. 844-879) sent an arm y in retaliation, besieging Madura, defeating the Pandyas, and killing their kin g. The Pandya capital was plundered, and the golden images were taken back to th e island. The Chola army that invaded Sri Lanka about 915 apparently stayed unti l the Rashtrakutas invaded their country in 949. Sri Lanka king Mahendra IV (r. 953-969) had some of the monasteries burnt by the Cholas restored. During the re ign (969-979) of Sena V a rebellion supported by Damila forces ravaged the islan d. Mahendra V (r. 979-1027) had to escape from discontented mercenaries, which l ed in 1017 to a Chola invasion that once again carried away valuables. In India during this period Hindu colleges (ghatikas) were associated with the t emples, and gradually the social power of the Brahmins superseded Buddhists and Jains, though the latter survived in the west. Jain gurus, owning nothing and wa nting nothing, were often able to persuade the wealthy to contribute the four gi fts of education, food, medicine, and shelter. In the devotional worship of Vish nu and Shiva and their avatars (incarnations), the Buddha became just another av atar for Hindus. Amid the increasing wars and militarism the ethical value of ah imsa (non-injury) so important to the Jains and Buddhists receded. The examples of the destroyer Shiva or Vishnu's incarnations as Rama and Krishna hardly promo ted nonviolence. Village assemblies tended to have more autonomy in south India. The ur was open to all adult males in the village, but the sabha was chosen by lot from those qualified by land ownership, aged 35-70, knowing mantras and Brah manas, and free of any major crime or sin. Land was worked by tenant peasants, w ho usually had to pay from one-sixth to one-third of their produce. Vegetarian d iet was customary, and meat was expensive. Women did not have political rights and usually worked in the home or in the fie

lds, though upper caste women and courtesans could defy social conventions. Wome n attendants in the temples could become dancers, but some were exploited as pro stitutes by temple authorities. Temple sculptures as well as literature were oft en quite erotic, as the loves of Krishna and the prowess of the Shiva lingam wer e celebrated, and the puritanical ethics of Buddhism and Jainism became less inf luential. Feminine creative energy was worshiped as shakti, and Tantra in Hinduism and Tib etan Buddhism celebrated the union of the sexual act as a symbol of divine union ; their rituals might culminate in partaking of the five Ms - madya (wine), mats ya (fish), mamsa (flesh), mudra (grain), and maithuna (coitus). Although in the early stages of spiritual development Tantra taught the usual moral avoidance of cruelty, alcohol, and sexual intercourse, in the fifth stage after training by the guru secret rites at night might defy such social taboos. Ultimately the asp irant is not afraid to practice openly what others disapprove in pursuing what h e thinks is true, transcending the likes and dislikes of earthly life like God, to whom all things are equal. However, some argued that the highest stage, symbo lized as the external worship of flowers, negates ignorance, ego, attachment, va nity, delusion, pride, calumniation, perturbation, jealousy, and greed, culminat ing in the five virtues of nonviolence (ahimsa), control of the senses, charity, forgiveness, and knowledge. The worker caste of Sudras was divided into the clean and the untouchables, who were barred from the temples. There were a few domestic slaves and those sold to the temples. Brahmins were often given tax-free grants of land, and they were f orbidden by caste laws to work in cultivation; thus the peasant Sudras provided the labor. The increasing power of the Brahmin landowners led to a decline of me rchants and the Buddhists they often had supported. Commentaries on the Laws of Manu by Medhatithi focused on such issues as the dut y of the king to protect the people, their rights, and property. Although follow ing the tradition that the king should take up cases in order of caste, Medhatit hi believed that a lower caste suit should be taken up first if it is more urgen t. Not only should a Brahmin be exempt from the death penalty and corporal punis hment, he thought that for a first offense not even a fine should be imposed on a Brahmin. Medhatithi also held that in education the rod should only be used mi ldly and as a last resort; his attitude about a husband beating his wife was sim ilar. Medhatithi believed that a woman's mind was not under her control, and tha t they should all be guarded by their male relations. He upheld the property rig hts of widows who had been faithful but believed the unfaithful should be cast o ut to a separate life. Widow suicide called sati was approved by some and critic ized by others. During this period marriages were often arranged for girls befor e they reached the age of puberty, though self-choice still was practiced. The Jain monk Somadeva in his Nitivakyamrita also wrote that the king must chast ise the wicked and that kings being divine should be obeyed as a spiritual duty. However, if the king does not speak the truth, he is worthless; for when the ki ng is deceitful and unjust, who will not be? If he does not recognize merit, the cultured will not come to his court. Bribery is the door by which many sins ent er, and the king should never speak what is hurtful, untrustworthy, untrue, or u nnecessary. The force of arms cannot accomplish what peace does. If you can gain your goal with sugar, why use poison? In 959 Somadeva wrote the romance Yashast ilaka in Sanskrit prose and verse, emphasizing devotion to the god Jina, goodwil l to all creatures, hospitality to everyone, and altruism while defending the un popular practices of the Digambara ascetics such as nudity, abstaining from bath ing, and eating standing up. Tibetan Buddhism The indigenous Bon religion of Tibet was animistic and included the doctrine of

reincarnation. Early in the 7th century Tibet conquered Assam and Nepal. Tibetan king Sron-btsan-sgam-po married Buddhist princesses from Nepal and China, causi ng his conversion, the building of temples and 900 monasteries, and the translat ion of Buddhist texts. His people were instructed how to write the Tibetan diale ct with adapted Sanskrit letters. During a royal power struggle with the powerfu l Gar ministers, Tibetans' peace with China was broken in 670, and for two centu ries their frontier was in a state of war. Allied with Turks by regaining four T urkestan garrisons in 692, Tibetan king 'Dus-srong (r. 676-704) defeated the Gar army seven years later. Nepal and northern India revolted in 702, and two years later the Tibetan king was killed in battle. Khri-Ide-btsug-brtan, who ruled Ti bet 705-755, retaliated with more raids; he married a Chinese princess and, need ing help against Arab invasions, made peace with China in 730. During a plague i n 740-741 all the foreign monks were expelled from Tibet. Nan-chao, suffering fr om Chinese armies, formed an alliance with Tibet in 750. Tibetans collected trib ute from the Pala king of Bengal in 755 and ruled Nan-chao in the second half of the 8th century; they even invaded China's capital at Chang-an in 763. The red-hat Adi-yoga school was founded by Indian Tantric master Padmasambhava, who translated many Sanskrit books into Tibetan. A mythic account of his superna tural life that lasted twelve centuries was written by the Tibetan lady Yeshe Ts ogyel. As his name implies, Padmasambhava was said to have been born miraculousl y on a lotus. His extraordinary and unconventional experiences included being ma rried to 500 wives before renouncing a kingdom, several cases of cannibalism, su rviving being burned at the stake, killing butchers, attaining Buddhahood, and t eaching spirits and humans in many countries. In the guise of different famous t eachers he taught people how to overcome the five poisons of sloth, anger, lust, arrogance, and jealousy. The legendary Padmasambhava is given the greatest cred it for bringing Buddhism to Tibet in the middle of the 8th century. At this time The Tibetan Book of the Dead was first committed to writing. Its ti tle Bardol Thodol more literally means "liberation by hearing on the after-death plane." Similar in many ways to the Egyptian Book of the Dead, it likely contai ns many pre-Buddhist elements, as it was compiled over the centuries. The first part, chikhai bardo, describes the psychic experiences at the moment of death an d urges one to unite with the all-good pure reality of the clear light. In the s econd stage of the chonyid bardo karmic illusions are experienced in a dream-lik e state, the thought-forms of one's own intellect. In the sidpa bardo, the third and last phase, one experiences the judgment of one's own karma; prayer is reco mmended, but instincts tend to lead one back into rebirth in another body. The p urpose of the book is to help educate one how to attain liberation in the earlie r stages and so prevent reincarnation. Tibetan king Khri-slon-Ide-brtsan (r. 755-797) invited Buddhist teachers from Ch ina and India to train monks in the great temple of Bsam-yas. Shantarakshita fro m the university at Nalanda was named high priest of Tibet, and he introduced th e "ten virtues." When Padmasambhava was unable to refute the different doctrines of a Chinese Buddhist, Kmalashila was imported from India to defeat the Chinese philosopher. After the king's declaration of Buddhism as the official religion of Tibet in 791 the debate between the Chinese sudden path of enlightenment and India's gradual path of good works was won by the latter and approved by the kin g. The next king Mu-ne-btsan-po was murdered in 804. After his brother Sad-na-le gs ruled until 817, Ral-pa-can (r. 817-837) made peace with the Arabs and in 822 with the Chinese but conquered India as far as the Ganges River. He devoted him self to religious activities; but during the blood feuds between the followers o f Bon-po and Buddhism he was assassinated. After King Glang-dar-ma protecting th e Bon-po followers persecuted Buddhists for five years, he too was murdered by a Buddhist monk. Buddhists then helped Glang-dar-ma's son (r. 842-870) gain the t hrone, and he promoted their religion. As their empire disintegrated into separa te warring territories, Tibetan occupation in Turkestan was ended by Turks, Uigh urs, and Qarluqs.

Atisha (982-1054) came to Tibet from India in 1042 and reformed the Tantric prac tices by introducing celibacy and a higher morality among the priests; he founde d the Kadam-pa order, which later evolved into the yellow-hat Geluk-pa order of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas. However, Drogmi (992-1074) taught the use of sexual practices for mystical realization, and his scholarly disciple Dkon-mchog Rgyal -po founded the Sakya monastery in 1073. The Kagyu-pa school traces its lineage from the celestial Buddha Dorje-Chang to Tilopa (988-1069), who taught Naropa (1016-1100) in India. From a royal family i n Bengal, Naropa studied in Kashmir for three years until he was fourteen. Three years later his family made him marry a Brahmin woman; but they were divorced a fter eight years, though she became a writer too. In 1049 Naropa won a debate at Nalanda and was elected abbot there for eight years. He left to find the guru h e had seen in a vision and was on the verge of suicide when Tilopa asked him how he would find his guru if he killed the Buddha. Naropa served Tilopa for twelve years, during which he meditated in silence most of the time. However, twelve t imes he followed his guru's irrational suggestions and caused himself suffering. Each time Tilopa pointed out the lesson and healed him, according to the biogra phy written about a century later. The twelve lessons taught him about the ordin ary wish-fulfilling gem, one-valueness, commitment, mystic heat, apparition, dre am, radiant light, transference, resurrection, eternal delight (learned from Tan tric sex), mahamudra (authenticity), and the intermediate state (between birth a nd death). Naropa then went to Tibet where he taught Marpa (1012-1096), who brou ght songs from the Tantric poets of Bengal to his disciple Milarepa. Milarepa was born on the Tibetan frontier of Nepal in 1040. When he was seven ye ars old, Milarepa's father died; his aunt and uncle taking control of the estate , his mother and he had to work as field laborers in poor conditions. When he ca me of age, his sister, mother, and he were thrown out of their house. So Milarep a studied black magic, and his mother threatened to kill herself if he failed. M ilarepa caused the house to fall down, killing 35 people. Next his teacher taugh t him how to cause a hail storm, and at his mother's request he destroyed some c rops. Milarepa repented of this sorcery and prayed to take up a religious life. He found his way to the lama Marpa the translator, who said that even if he impa rted the truth to him, his liberation in one lifetime would depend on his own pe rseverance and energy. The lama was reluctant to give the truth to one who had d one such evil deeds. So he had Milarepa build walls and often tear them down, wh ile his wife pleaded for the young aspirant. Frustrated, Milarepa went to anothe r teacher, who asked him to destroy his enemies with a hail storm, which he did while preserving an old woman's plot. Milarepa returned to his guru Marpa and was initiated. Then he meditated in a ca ve for eleven months, discovering that the highest path started with a compassio nate mood dedicating one's efforts to universal good, followed by clear aspirati on transcending thought with prayer for others. After many years Milarepa went b ack to his old village to discover that his mother had died, his sister was gone , and his house and fields were in ruins. Describing his life in songs, Milarepa decided, "So I will go to gain the truth divine, to the Dragkar-taso cave I'll go, to practice meditation."9 He met the woman to whom he was betrothed in child hood, but he decided on the path of total self-abnegation. Going out to beg for food he met his aunt, who loosed dogs on him; but after talking he let her live in his house and cultivate his field. Milarepa practiced patience on those who h ad wronged him, calling it the shortest path to Buddhahood. Giving up comfort, m aterial things, and desires for name or fame, he meditated and lived on nettles and water. He preached on the law of karma, and eventually his aunt was converte d and devoted herself to penance and meditation. His sister found his nakedness shameful, but Milarepa declared that deception and evil deeds are shameful, not the body. Believing in karma, thoughts of the misery in the lower worlds may ins pire one to seek Buddhahood.

It was said that Milarepa had 25 saints among his disciples, including his siste r and three other women. In one of his last songs he wrote, "If pain and sorrow you desire sincerely to avoid, avoid, then, doing harm to others."10 Many miracu lous stories are told of his passing from his body and the funeral; Milarepa die d in 1123, and it was claimed that for a time no wars or epidemics ravaged the E arth. The biography of his life and songs was written by his disciple Rechung. A contemporary of Milarepa, the life of Nangsa Obum was also told in songs and p rose. She was born in Tibet, and because of her beauty and virtue she was marrie d to Dragpa Samdrub, son of Rinang king Dragchen. She bore a son but longed to p ractice the dharma. Nangsa was falsely accused by Dragchen's jealous sister Ani Nyemo for giving seven sacks of flour to Rechung and other lamas. Beaten by her husband and separated from her child by the king, Nangsa died of a broken heart. Since her good deeds so outnumbered her bad deeds, the Lord of Death allowed he r to come back to life. She decided to go practice the dharma; but her son and a repentant Ani Nyemo pleaded for her to stay. She remained but then visited her parents' home, where she took up weaving. After quarreling with her mother, Nangsa left and went to study the sutras and p ractice Tantra. The king and her husband attacked her teacher Sakya Gyaltsen, wh o healed all the wounded monks. Then the teacher excoriated them for having anim al minds and black karma, noting that Nangsa had come there for something better than a Rinang king; her good qualities would be wasted living with a hunter; th ey were trying to make a snow lion into a dog. The noblemen admitted they had ma de their karma worse and asked to be taught. Sakya replied that for those who ha ve done wrong repentance is like the Sun rising. They should think about their s uffering and the meaninglessness of their lives and how much better they will be in the field of dharma. Dragchen and his father retired from worldly life, and Nangsa's 15-year-old son was given the kingdom. Machig Lapdron (1055-1145) was said to be a reincarnation of Padmasambhava's con sort Yeshe Tsogyel and of an Indian yogi named Monlam Drub. Leaving that body in a cave in India the soul traveled to Tibet and was born as Machig. As a child, she learned to recite the sutras at record speed, and at initiation she asked ho w she could help all sentient beings. In a dream an Indian teacher told her to c onfess her hidden faults, approach what she found repulsive, help those whom she thinks cannot be helped, let go of any attachment, go to scary places like ceme teries, be aware, and find the Buddha within. A lama taught her to examine the m ovement of her own mind carefully and become free of petty dualism and the demon of self-cherishing. She learned to wander and stay anywhere, and she absorbed v arious teachings from numerous gurus. She married and had three children but soo n retired from the world. By forty she was well known in Tibet, and numerous mon ks and nuns came from India to challenge her; but she defeated them in debate. I t was said that 433 lepers were cured by practicing her teachings. A book on the supreme path of discipleship was compiled by Milarepa's disciple L harje (1077-1152), who founded the Cur-lka monastery in 1050. This book lists yo gic precepts in various categories. Causes of regret include frittering life awa y, dying an irreligious and worldly person, and selling the wise doctrine as mer chandise. Requirements include sure action, diligence, knowledge of one's own fa ults and virtues, keen intellect and faith, watchfulness, freedom from desire an d attachment, and love and compassion in thought and deed directed to the servic e of all sentient beings. "Unless the mind be disciplined to selflessness and in finite compassion, one is apt to fall into the error of seeking liberation for s elf alone."11 Offering to deities meat obtained by killing is like offering a mo ther the flesh of her own child. The virtue of the holy dharma is shown in those , whose heavy evil karma would have condemned them to suffering, turning to a re ligious life.

The black-hat Karma-pa order was founded in 1147 by Tusum Khyenpa (1110-1193), a native of Kham who studied with Milarepa's disciples. This sect claims to have started the system of leadership by successive reincarnations of the same soul, later adopted by the Dalai and Panchen Lamas. Tibet peacefully submitted to Geng his Khan. In 1244 Sakya Panchen (1182-1251) went to Mongolia where he initiated Genghis Khan's grandson Godan and is credited with devising a Mongolian alphabet . After the Mongols invaded Tibet in 1252, Kublai Khan made the Sakya-pas rulers over all thirteen provinces of Tibet; but the Drigung-pas allied with Kublai's brother Hula'u in Iran. These Iran Mongols invaded southern Tibet in 1285 but we re defeated by the Sakya-pas and a Chinese army from Zang, burning the Drigung t emple in 1290. India and Muslim Invaders 1000-1300 Between 1000 and 1027 Ghazni ruler Mahmud invaded India with an army at least tw elve times. About 15,000 Muslims took Peshawar and killed 5,000 Hindus in battle . Shahi king Jayapala was so ashamed of being defeated three times that he burne d himself to death on a funeral pyre. In 1004 Mahmud's forces crossed the Indus River, then attacked and pillaged the wealth of Bhatiya. On the way to attack th e heretical Abu-'l-Fath Daud, Mahmud defeated Shahi king Anandapala. Daud was fo rced to pay 20,000,000 dirhams and was allowed to rule as a Muslim if he paid 20 ,000 golden dirhams annually. Mahmud's army again met Anandapala's the next year ; after 5,000 Muslims lost their lives, 20,000 Hindu soldiers were killed. Mahmu d captured an immense treasure of 70,000,000 dirhams, plus gold and silver ingot s, jewels, and other precious goods. After Mahmud defeated the king of Narayan a nd the rebelling Daud, Anandapala made a treaty that lasted until his death, all owing the Muslims passage to attack the sacred city of Thaneswar. In 1013 Mahmud attacked and defeated Anandapala's successor Trilochanapala, annexing the weste rn and central portions of the Shahi kingdom in the Punjab. Next the Muslims plu ndered the Kashmir valley, though Mahmud was never able to hold it. To attack Kanauj in the heart of India Mahmud raised a force of 100,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry. Most Hindu chiefs submitted, but in Mahaban nearly 5,000 we re killed, causing Kulachand to kill himself. Next the Muslims plundered the sac red city of Mathura, destroying a temple that took two centuries to build and es timated to be worth 100,000,000 red dinars. After conquering more forts and obta ining more booty, Mahmud ordered the inhabitants slain by sword, the city plunde red, and the idols destroyed in Kanauj that was said to contain almost 10,000 te mples. In 1019 Mahmud returned to Ghazni with immense wealth and 53,000 prisoner s to be sold as slaves. When Mahmud's army returned again to chastise Chandella ruler Vidyadhara for kil ling the submitting Pratihara king Rajyapala, the resistance of Trilochanapala w as overcome, making all of Shahi part of Mahmud's empire. Although he had 45,000 infantry, 36,000 cavalry, and 640 elephants, Vidyadhara fled after a minor defe at. The next year Mahmud and Vidyadhara agreed to a peace. 50,000 Hindus were ki lled in 1025 defending the Shaivite temple of Somanatha in Kathiawar, as Mahmud captured another 20,000,000 dirhams. In his last campaign Mahmud used a navy of 1400 boats with iron spikes to defeat the Jats with their 4,000 boats in the Ind us. Mahmud's soldiers often gave people the choice of accepting Islam or death. These threats and the enslavement of Hindus by Muslims and the Hindus' consequen t attitude of considering Muslims impure barbarians (mlechchha) caused a great d ivision between these religious groups. During this time Mahipala I ruled Bengal for nearly half a century and founded a second Pala empire. In the half century around 1100 Ramapala tried to restore t he decreasing realm of the Palas by invading his neighbors until he drowned hims elf in grief in the Ganges. Buddhists were persecuted in Varendri by the Vangala army. In the 12th century Vijayasena established a powerful kingdom in Bengal; but in spite of the military victories of Lakshmanasena, who began ruling in 117

8, lands were lost to the Muslims and others early in the 13th century. Military campaigns led by the Paramara Bhoja and the Kalachuri Karna against Mus lims in the Punjab discouraged Muslim invasions after Punjab governor Ahmad Niya ltigin exacted tribute from the Thakurs and plundered the city of Banaras in 103 4. Bhoja and a Hindu confederacy of chiefs conquered Hansi, Thaneswar, Nagarkot, and other territories from the Muslims in 1043. Bhoja also wrote 23 books, patr onized writers, and established schools for his subjects. Karna won many battles over various kingdoms in India but gained little material advantage. About 1090 Gahadavala ruler Chandradeva seems to have collaborated with the Muslim governo r of the Punjab to seize Kanauj from Rashtrakuta ruler Gopala. In the first half of the 12th century Gahadavala ruler Govindachandra came into conflict with the Palas, Senas, Gangas, Kakatiyas, Chalukyas, Chandellas, Chaulukyas, the Karnata kas of Mithila, and the Muslims. The Ghuzz Turks made Muhammad Ghuri governor of Ghazni in 1173; he attacked the Gujurat kingdom in 1178, but his Turkish army was defeated by the Chaulukya king Mularaja II. Chahamana Prithviraja III began ruling that year and four years la ter defeated and plundered Paramardi's Chandella kingdom. In 1186 Khusrav Malik, the last Yamini ruler of Ghazni, was captured at Lahore by Muhammad Ghuri. The next year the Chahamana king Prithviraja made a treaty with Bhima II of Gujurat. Prithviraja's forces defeated Muhammad Ghuri's army at Tarain and regained Chah amana supremacy over the Punjab. Muhammad Ghuri organized 120,000 men from Ghazn i to face 300,000 led by Prithviraja, who was captured and eventually executed a s the Muslims demolished the temples of Ajmer in 1192 and built mosques. From th ere Sultan Muhammad Ghuri marched to Delhi, where he appointed general Qutb-ud-d in Aybak governor; then with 50,000 cavalry Muhammad Ghuri defeated the Gahadava la army of Jayachandra before leaving for Ghazni. Prithviraja's brother Hariraja recaptured Delhi and Ajmer; but after losing them again to Aybak, he burned him self to death in 1194. Next the local Mher tribes and the Chaulukya king of Gujurat, Bhima II, expelled the Turks from Rajputana; but in 1197 Aybak invaded Gujurat with more troops fr om Ghazni, killing 50,000 and capturing 20,000. In 1202 Aybak besieged Chandella king Paramardi at Kalanjara and forced him to pay tribute. In the east a Muslim named Bakhtyar raided Magadha and used the plunder to raise a larger force that conquered much of Bengal; his army slaughtered Buddhist monks, thinking they we re Brahmins. However, the Khalji Bakhtyar met tough resistance in Tibet and had to return to Bengal where he died. The Ghuri dynasty ended soon after Muhammad G huri was murdered at Lahore in 1206 by his former slave Aybak, who assumed power but died in 1210. The struggle for power was won by Aybak's son-in-law Iltutmish, who defeated and killed Aybak's successor. Then in 1216 Iltutmish captured his rival Yildiz, who had been driven by Khwarezm-Shah from Ghazni to the Punjab; the next year he ex pelled Qabacha from Lahore. In 1221 Mongols led by Genghis Khan pushed KhwarezmShah and other refugees across the Indus into the Punjab. Iltutmish invaded Beng al and ended the independence of the Khalji chiefs; but he met with Guhilot resi stance in Rajputana before plundering Bhilsa and Ujjain in Malwa. Chahadadeva ca ptured and ruled Narwar with an army of over 200,000 men, defeating Iltutmish's general in 1234, but he was later defeated by the Muslim general Balban in 1251. After Qabacha drowned in the Indus, Iltutmish was recognized as the Baghdad Cal iph's great sultan in 1229 until he died of disease seven years later. Factional strife occurred as Iltutmish's daughter Raziyya managed to rule like a man for three years before being killed by sexist hostility; his sons, grandson , and the "Forty" officials, who had been his slaves, struggled for power and pu shed back the invading Mongols in 1245. After Iltutmish's son Mahmud became king , the capable Balban gained control. In 1253 the Indian Muslim Raihan replaced B alban for a year until the Turks for racist reasons insisted Balban and his asso

ciates be restored. When Mahmud died childless in 1265, Balban became an effecti ve sultan. He said, "All that I can do is to crush the cruelties of the cruel an d to see that all persons are equal before the law."12 Mongols invaded again in 1285 and killed Balban's son; two years later the elderly Balban died, and in 12 90 the dynasty of Ilbari Turks was replaced by the Khalji Turks with ties to Afg hanistan. Chola king Rajendra I (r. 1012-1044) ruled over most of south India and even inv aded Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. His son Rajadhiraja I's reign (1018-1052) overlapped his father's, as he tried to put down rebellions in Pandya and Chera, invading western Chalukya and sacking Kalyana. Cholas were criticized for viola ting the ethics of Hindu warfare by carrying off cows and "unloosing women's gir dles." Rajadhiraja was killed while defeating Chalukya king Someshvara I (r. 104 3-1068). In the Deccan the later Chalukyas battled their neighbors; led by Vikra maditya, they fought a series of wars against the powerful Cholas. After battlin g his brother Vikramaditya, Someshvara II reigned 1068-1076; in confederacy with Chaulukya Karna of Gujurat, he defeated the Paramara Jayasimha and occupied Mal ava briefly. Becoming Chalukya king, Vikramaditya VI (r. 1076-1126) invaded the Cholas and took Kanchi some time before 1085. When the Vaishnavites Mahapurna and Kuresha had their eyes put out, probably by Kulottunga I in 1079, the famous philosopher Ramanuja took refuge in the Hoysala country until Kulottunga died. Ramanuja modified Shankara's nondualism in his B hasya and emphasized the way of devotion (bhakti). He believed the grace of God was necessary for liberation. Although he practiced initiations and rituals, Ram anuja recognized that caste, rank, and religion were irrelevant to realizing uni on with God. He provided the philosophical reasoning for the popular worship of Vishnu and was thought to be 120 when he died in 1137. During Chola turmoil Sri Lanka king Vijayabahu (r. 1055-1110) became independent and invaded the Cholas but made peace with Chola king Kulottunga I (r. 1070-112 0) in 1088. Vijayabahu restored irrigation and centralized administration as he patronized Buddhism. The Hoysala king Vinayaditya (r. 1047-1101) acknowledged Ch alukya supremacy; but after his death, the Hoysalas tried to become independent by fighting the Chalukyas. Kulottunga ordered a land survey in 1086. The Cholas under Kulottunga invaded Kalinga in 1096 to quell a revolt; a second invasion in 1110 was described in the Kalingattupparani of court poet Jayangondar. After Vikramaditya VI died, Vikrama Chola (r. 1118-1135) regained Chola control over the Vengi kingdom, though the Chalukyas ruled the Deccan until the Kalachur i king Bijjala took Kalyana from Chalukya king Taila III in 1156; the Kalachuris kept control for a quarter century. Gujurat's Chalukya king Kumarapala was conv erted to Jainism by the learned Hemachandra (1088-1172) and prohibited animal sa crifices, while Jain king Bijjala's minister Basava (1106-1167) promoted the Vir a Shaiva sect that emphasized social reform and the emancipation of women. Basav a disregarded caste and ritual as shackling and senseless. When an outcaste marr ied an ex-Brahmin bride, Bijjala sentenced them both, and they were dragged to d eath in the streets of Kalyana. Basava tried to convert the extremists to nonvio lence but failed; they assassinated Bijjala, and the Vira Shaivas were persecute d. Basava asked, "Where is religion without loving kindness?" Basava had been ta ught by Allama Prabhu, who had completely rejected external rituals, converting some from the sacrifice of animals to sacrificing one's bestial self. In his poem, The Arousing of Kumarapala, which describes how Hemachandra convert ed King Kumarapala, Somaprabha warned Jains from serving the king as ministers, harming others and extorting their fortunes that one's master may take. In the m id-12th century the island of Sri Lanka suffered a three-way civil war; then Kin g Parakramabahu I (r. 1153-1186) used heavy taxation to rebuild Pulatthinagara a nd Anuradhapura that had been destroyed by the Cholas. He developed trade with B urma, and Sri Lanka aided a Pandya ruler in 1169 when Kulashekhara Pandya defeat

ed and killed Parakrama Pandya, seizing Madura; but Chola king Rajadhiraja II (r . 1163-1179) brought the Pandya civil war to an end. Hoysala king Ballala II proclaimed his independence in 1193. Chola king Kulottun ga III (r. 1178-1216) ravaged the Pandya country about 1205, destroying the coro nation hall at Madura; but a few years later he was overpowered by the Pandyas a nd saved from worse defeat by Hoysala intervention, as Hoysala king Ballala II ( r. 1173-1220) had married a Chola princess. In the reign (1220-1234) of Narasimh a II the Hoysalas fought the Pandyas for empire, as Chola power decreased. Naras imha's son Someshvara (r. 1234-1263) was defeated and killed in a battle led by Pandya Jatavarman Sundara. Chola king Rajendra III (r. 1246-1279) was a Pandyan feudatory from 1258 to the end of his reign. The Cholas had inflicted much miser y on their neighbors, even violating the sanctity of ambassadors. The Pandyas un der their king Maravarman Kulashekhara, who ruled more than forty years until 13 10, overcame and annexed the territories of the Cholas and the Hoysalas in 1279 and later in his reign gained supremacy over Sri Lanka. The dualist Madhva (1197-1276) was the third great Vedanta philosopher after Sha nkara and Ramanuja. Madhva also opened the worship of Vishnu to all castes but m ay have picked up the idea of damnation in hell from missionary Christians or Mu slims. He taught four steps to liberation: 1) detachment from material comforts, 2) persistent devotion to God, 3) meditation on God as the only independent rea lity, and 4) earning the grace of God. Marco Polo on his visit to south India about 1293 noted that climate and ignoran t treatment did not allow horses to thrive there. He admired Kakatiya queen Rudr amba, who ruled for nearly forty years. He noted the Hindus' strict enforcement of justice against criminals and abstention from wine, but he was surprised they did not consider any form of sexual indulgence a sin. He found certain merchant s most truthful but noted many superstitious beliefs. Yet he found that ascetics , who ate no meat, drank no wine, had no sex outside of marriage, did not steal, and never killed any creature, often lived very long lives. Marco Polo related a legend of brothers whose quarrels were prevented from turning to violence by t heir mother who threatened to cut off her breasts if they did not make peace. Nizam-ud-din Auliya was an influential Sufi of the Chishti order that had been f ounded a century before. He taught love as the means to realize God. For Auliya universal love was expressed through love and service of humanity. The Sufis fou nd music inflamed love, and they interpreted the Qur'an broadly in esoteric ways ; the intuition of the inner light was more important to them than orthodox dogm a. Auliya was the teacher of Amir Khusrau (1253-1325), one of the most prolific poets in the Persian language. Many of Khusrau's poems, however, glorified the b loody the conquests of the Muslim rulers so that "the pure tree of Islam might b e planted and flourish" and the evil tree with deep roots would be torn up by fo rce. He wrote, The whole country, by means of the sword of our holy warriors, has become like a forest denuded of its thorns by fire. The land has been saturated with the water of the sword, and the vapors of infidelity have been dispersed. The strong men of Hind have been trodden under foot, and all are ready to pay tribute. Islam is triumphant; idolatry is subdued. Had not the law granted exemption from death by the payment of poll-tax, the very name of Hind, root and branch, would have been extinguished. From Ghazni to the shore of the ocean you see all under the dominion of Islam.14

In 1290 the Khalji Jalal-ud-din Firuz became sultan in Delhi but refused to sacr ifice Muslim lives to take Ranthambhor, though his army defeated and made peace with 150,000 invading Mongols. Genghis Khan's descendant Ulghu and 4,000 others accepted Islam and became known as the "new Muslims." This lenient sultan sent a thousand captured robbers and murderers to Bengal without punishment. His more ambitious nephew 'Ala-ud-din Khalji attacked the kingdom of Devagiri, gaining bo oty and exacting from Yadava king Ramachandra gold he used to raise an army of 6 0,000 cavalry and as many infantry; in 1296 he lured his uncle into a trap, had him assassinated, and bribed the nobles to proclaim him sultan. Several politica l adversaries were blinded and killed. The next year 'Ala-ud-din sent an army he aded by his brother Ulugh Khan to conquer Gujurat; according to Wassaf they slau ghtered the people and plundered the country. Another 200,000 Mongols invaded in 1299, but they were driven back. Revolts by his nephews and an old officer were ruthlessly crushed. Money was extorted; a spy network made nobles afraid to spe ak in public; alcohol was prohibited; gatherings of nobles were restricted. Orde rs were given that Hindus were not to have anything above subsistence; this prej udicial treatment was justified by Islamic law. Literature of Medieval India In addition to his three plays we also have four poems by Kalidasa. The Dynasty of Raghu is an epic telling the story not only of Rama but of his ancestors and descendants. King Dilipa's willingness to sacrifice himself for a cow enables hi m to get a son, Raghu. Consecrated as king, Raghu tries to establish an empire w ith the traditional horse sacrifice in which a horse for a year is allowed to wa nder into other kingdoms, which must either submit or defend themselves against his army. His son Aja is chosen by the princess Indumati. Their son Dasharatha h as four sons by three wives; but for killing a boy while hunting, he must suffer the banishment of his eldest son Rama, whose traditional story takes up a third of the epic. His son Kusha restores the capital at Ayodhya; but after a line of 22 kings Agnivarna becomes preoccupied with love affairs before dying and leavi ng a pregnant queen ruling as regent. Another epic poem, The Birth of the War-god tells how the ascetic Shiva is event ually wooed by Parvati, daughter of the Himalaya mountains, after the fire from Shiva's eye kills the god of Love and she becomes an ascetic. After being entert ained by nymphs, Shiva restores the body of Love. Their son Kumara is made a gen eral by the god Indra; after their army is defeated by Taraka's army, Kumara kil ls the demon Taraka. Kalidasa's elegy, The Cloud-Messenger, describes how the Ya ksha Kubera, an attendant of the god of Wealth, who has been exiled from the Him alayas to the Vindhya mountains for a year, sends a cloud as a messenger to his wife during the romantic rainy season. Kalidasa is also believed to be the autho r of a poem on the six seasons in India. Bana wrote an epic romance on the conquests of Harsha in the 7th century and ano ther called Kadambari. Bana was not afraid to criticize the idea of kings being divine nor the unethical and cruel tactics of the political theorist Kautilya. B ana was one of the few Indian writers who showed concern for the poor and humble . About the 6th or 7th century Bhartrihari wrote short erotic poems typical of tho se later collected into anthologies. He reminded himself that virtue is still im portant. Granted her breasts are firm, her face entrancing, Her legs enchanting - what is that to you? My mind, if you would win her, stop romancing. Have you not heard, reward is virtue's due?15 Torn between sensual and spiritual love, Bhartrihari found that the charms of a

slim girl disturbed him. Should he choose the youth of full-breasted women or th e forest? Eventually he moved from the dark night of passion to the clear vision of seeing God in everything. He noted that it is easier to take a gem from a cr ocodile's jaws or swim the ocean or wear an angry serpent like a flower in one's hair or squeeze oil from sand, water from a mirage, or find a rabbit's horn tha n it is to satisfy a fool whose opinions are set. Bhartrihari asked subtle quest ions. Patience, better than armor, guards from harm. And why seek enemies, if you have anger? With friends, you need no medicine for danger. With kinsmen, why ask fire to keep you warm? What use are snakes when slander sharper stings? What use is wealth where wisdom brings content? With modesty, what need for ornament? With poetry's Muse, why should we envy kings?16 The erotic poetry of Amaru about the 7th century often expressed the woman's vie wpoint. When someone questioned her pining and faithfulness, she asked him to sp eak softly because her love living in her heart might hear. In another poem the narrator tries to hide her blushing, sweating cheeks but found her bodice splitt ing of its own accord. This poet seemed to prefer love-making to meditation. The erotic and the religious were combined in 12th century Bengali poet Jayadeva's "Songs of the Cowherd" (Gita Govinda) about the loves of Krishna. A poet observe d that most people can see the faults in others, and some can see their virtues; but perhaps only two or three can see their own shortcomings. In the late 11th century Buddhist scholar Vidyakara collected together an anthol ogy of Sanskrit court poetry, Treasury of Well-Turned Verse (Subhasitaratnakosa) , with verses from more than two hundred poets, mostly from the previous four ce nturies. Although it begins with verses on the Buddha and the bodhisattvas Lokes vara and Manjughosa, Vidyakara also included verses on Shiva and Vishnu. One poe t asked why a naked ascetic with holy ashes needed a bow or a woman. (103) After these chapters the poetry is not religious, with verses on the seasons and othe r aspects of nature. Love poetry is ample, and it is quite sensual, though none of it is obscene. Women's bodies are described with affection, and sections incl ude the joys of love as well as the sad longing of love-in-separation. An epigra m complains of a man whose body smells of blood as his action runs to slaughter because his sense of right and wrong is no better than a beast's. Only courage i s admired in a lion, but that makes the world seem cheap. (1091) Another epigram warns that the earth will give no support nor a wishing tree a wish, and one's efforts will come to nothing for one whose sin accumulated in a former birth. (1 097) Shardarnava described peace in the smooth flow of a river; but noting uproo ted trees along the shore, he inferred concealed lawlessness. (1111) Dharmakirti's verses describe the good as asking no favors from the wicked, not begging from a friend whose means are small, keeping one's stature in misfortune , and following in the footsteps of the great, though these rules may be as hard to travel as a sword blade. (1213) Another poet found that he grew mad like a r utting elephant when knowing little he thought he knew everything; but after con sorting with the wise and gaining some knowledge, he knew himself a fool, and th e madness left like a fever. (1217) Another proclaimed good one who offers aid t o those in distress, not one who is skillful at keeping ill-gotten gains. (1226) A poet noted that countless get angry with or without a cause, but perhaps only five or six in the world do not get angry when there is a cause. (1236) The gre at guard their honor, not their lives; fear evil, not enemies; seek not wealth b ut those who ask for it. (1239) Small-minded people ask if someone is one of the m or an outsider, but the noble mind takes the whole world for family. (1241) An anonymous poet asked these great questions:

Can that be judgment where compassion plays no part, or that be the way if we help not others on it? Can that be law where we injure still our fellows, or that be sacred knowledge which leads us not to peace?17 A poet advised that the wise, considering that youth is fleeting, the body soon forfeited and wealth soon gone, lays up no deeds, though they be pleasurable her e, that will ripen into bitter fruit in future lives. (1686) Although collected from ancient myths and folklore, the eighteen "great" Puranas were written between the 4th and 10th centuries. Originally intended to describ e the creation of the universe, its destruction and renewal, genealogies, and ch ronicles of the lawgivers and the solar and lunar dynasties, they retold myths a nd legends according to different Vaishnavite and Shaivite sects with assorted r eligious lore. The Agni Puranam, for example, describes the avatars Rama and Kri shna, religious ceremonies, Tantric rituals, initiation, Shiva, holy places, dut ies of kings, the art of war, judicature, medicine, worship of Shiva and the God dess, and concludes with a treatise on prosody, rhetoric, grammar, and yoga. Muc h of this was apparently taken from other books. The early Vishnu Purana explains that although all creatures are destroyed at ea ch cosmic dissolution, they are reborn according to their good or bad karma; thi s justice pleased the creator Brahma. In this Purana Vishnu becomes the Buddha i n order to delude the demons so that they can be destroyed. The gods complain th at they cannot kill the demons because they are following the Vedas and developi ng ascetic powers. So Vishnu says he will bewitch them to seek heaven or nirvana and stop evil rites such as killing animals. Then reviling the Vedas, the gods, the sacrificial rituals, and the Brahmins, they went on the wrong path and were destroyed by the gods. The Vishnu Purana describes the incarnations of Vishnu, including his future life as Kalkin at the end of the dark age (Kali yuga) when evil people will be destroyed, and justice (dharma) will be re-established in th e Krita age. The gradual ethical degeneration is reflected in the change in Hind u literature from the heroic Vedas to the strategic epics and then to deception and demonic methods in the Puranas. The Padma Purana explains the incarnations o f Vishnu as fulfilling a curse from lord Bhrigu, because Vishnu killed his wife. Thus Vishnu is born again and again for the good of the world when virtue has d eclined. By appearing as a naked Jain and the Buddha, Vishnu has turned the demo ns away from the Vedas to the virtue (dharma) of the sages. The most popular of all the Puranas, the Srimad Bhagavatam was attributed to the author of the Mahabharata, Vyasa, given out through his son Suta. However, scho lars consider this work emphasizing the way of devotion (bhakti) one of the late r great Puranas and ascribe it to the grammarian Vopadeva. Bhagavatam retells th e stories of the incarnations of the god Vishnu with special emphasis on Krishna . Even as a baby and a child the divine Krishna performs many miracles and defea ts demons. The young Krishna is not afraid to provoke the wrath of the chief god Indra by explaining that happiness and misery, fear and security, result from t he karma of one's actions. Even a supreme Lord must dispense the fruits of other s' karma and thus is dependent on those who act. Thus individuals are controlled by their dispositions they have created by their former actions. Karma, or we m ight say experience, is the guru and the supreme Lord. Brahmins should maintain themselves by knowledge of the Veda, Kshatriyas by protecting the country, Vaish yas by business, and Sudras by service. Krishna also notes that karma based on d esire is the product of ignorance, of not understanding one's true nature. The king who is listening to the stories of Krishna asks how this Lord could spo rt with other men's wives; but the author excuses these escapades by explaining that although the superhuman may teach the truth, their acts do not always confo rm to their teachings. The intelligent understand this and follow only the teach ings. The worshiping author places the Lord above good and evil and claims that

the men of Vajra did not become angry at Krishna because they imagined their wiv es were by their sides all the time. Krishna also fought and killed many enemies , "as the lord of the jungle kills the beasts."18 He killed Kamsa for unjustly a ppropriating cows. Krishna fought the army of Magadha king Jarasandha seventeen times and presented the spoils of war to the Yadu king. He killed Satadhanva ove r a gem. Krishna carried off by force and thus wed Rukmini by the demon mode. Se veral other weddings followed, and Krishna's eight principal queens were said to have bore him ten sons each. The author claimed he had 16,000 wives and lived w ith them all at the same time in their own apartments or houses. In the 18th battle Jarasandha's army finally defeated Krishna's, and it was said that he captured 20,800 kings; but Krishna got Bhima to kill Jarasandha, and al l the confined Kshatriyas were released. Krishna cut off the head of his foe Sis hupala with his razor-sharp discus; he also destroyed the Soubha and killed Salv a, Dantavakra and his brother. Although the methods of action (karma) and knowle dge (jnani) are discussed in relation to Samkhya philosophy and yoga, in the Bha gavatam the practice of devotion (bhakti) to God in the form of Krishna is favor ed as the supreme means of salvation. The great war between the Kurus and the Pa ndavas is explained as Krishna's way of removing the burden of the earth. Krishn a tells his own people, the Yadus, to cross the sea to Prabhasa and worship the gods, Brahmins, and cows. There rendered senseless by Krishna's illusion (maya), they indulge in drink and slaughter each other. Krishna's brother Balarama and he both depart from their mortal bodies, Krishna ascending to heaven with his ch ariot and celestial weapons. Before the 11th century seventy stories of "The Enchanted Parrot" were employed to keep a wife entertained while her husband was away so that she would not find a lover. A charming parrot satirizes women, comparing them to kings and serpent s in taking what is near them. The proverb is quoted that when the gods want to ruin someone they first take away one's sense of right and wrong, and the listen er is warned not to set one's heart on riches gained by wickedness nor on an ene my one has humiliated. When the husband returns, the parrot is freed from the cu rse and flies to heaven amid a rain of flowers. In the late 11th century Somadeva added to the Great Story (Brihat-katha) of Gun adhya to make the Ocean of the Streams of Story (Katha-sarit-sagara) collection of more than 350 stories in Sanskrit verse. The author noting that jealousy inte rferes with discernment, a king orders a Brahmin executed for talking with his q ueen; but on the way to his punishment, a dead fish laughs because while so many men are dressed as women in the king's harem an innocent Brahmin is to be kille d. The narrator tells the king this and gains respect for his wisdom and release for the Brahmin. The author also notes that for the wise, character is wealth. Somadeva recounts the legendary stories of Vatsa king Udayana and his marriages to Vasavadatta and the Magadhan princess Padmavati. The former is commended for cooperating in the separation in Yaugandharayana's scheme; he says she is a real queen because she does not merely comply with her husband's wishes but cares fo r his true interests. An eminent merchant sends his son to a courtesan to learn to beware of immoralit y incarnate in harlots, who rob rich young men blinded by their virility. Like a ll professionals, the prostitute has her price but must guard against being in l ove when no price is paid. She must be a good actress in seducing and milking th e man of his money, deserting him when it is gone, and taking him back when he c omes up with more money. Like the hermit, she must learn to treat them all equal ly whether handsome or ugly. Nonetheless the son is taken in by a courtesan and loses all his money, but he contrives to get it back by using a monkey trained t o swallow money and give it back on cue. From Somadeva also comes the Vampire's Tales of "The King and the Corpse." In an unusual frame for 25 stories a king is instructed to carry a hanged corpse inha

bited by a vampire, who poses a dilemma at the conclusion of each tale. For exam ple, when heads are cut off and are put back on each other's bodies, which perso n is which? After becoming orphans the oldest of four Brahmin brothers tries to hang himself; but he is cut down and saved by a man who asks him why a learned p erson should despair when good fortune comes from good karma and bad luck from b ad karma. The answer to unhappiness, then, is doing good; but to kill oneself wo uld bring the suffering of hell. So the brothers combine their talents to create a lion from a bone; but the lion kills them, as their creation was not intellig ent but evil. The last brother, who brought the lion's completed body to life, i s judged most responsible by the king because he should have been more aware of what would result. Notes 1. Prince Ilango Adigal, Shilappadikaram, tr. Alain Danilou, p. 202. 2. Tiruvalluvar, The Kural tr. P. S. Sundarum, 99. 3. Ibid., 311-320. 4. Ibid., 981-990. 5. Shankara, Crest-Jewel of Wisdom tr. Mohini M. Chatterji, 58. 6. Bhasa, Avimaraka tr. J. L. Masson and D. D. Kosambi, p. 73. 7. Ibid., p. 130-131. 8. Kalidasa, Shakuntala tr. Michael Coulson, 1:11. 9. Tibet's Great Yogi Milarepa tr. Kazi Dawa-Samdup, p. 176. 10. Ibid., p. 253. 11. Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines tr. Kazi Dawa-Samdup, p. 75. 12. Majumdar, R. C., An Advanced History of India, p. 292. 13. Speaking of Shiva tr. A. K. Ramanujan, p. 54. 14. Elliot, H. M., The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians, Vol. 3, p . 546. 15. Poems from the Sanskrit tr. John Brough, p. 58. 16. Ibid., p. 71. 17. An Anthology of Sanskrit Court Poetry tr. Daniel H. H. Ingalls, 1629. 18. Srimad Bhagavatam tr. N. Raghunathan, 10:44:40, Vol. 2 p. 321. 1998 -2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents India Under Muslims 1300-1615 China Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan Beck home Beck home John the Baptist Jesus According to Mark Jesus According to Matthew Jesus According to Luke Jesus According to John Thomas and the Gnostics Peter, James, and the Church Paul and Christianity Christian Fathers, Martyrs to 180 Jesus and His Apostles With the possible exceptions of Buddha, Confucius, and Socrates, Jesus is probab ly the most influential teacher of ethics in human history so far. As with those three, we have no direct writing from him but extensive descriptions of his lif e and teachings by his disciples. No contemporary report survived, as the gospel s were probably written about thirty years or more after his death. Since these accounts can be treated as both history and literature, I will discuss the ethic s of Jesus as presented by Mark, Matthew, Luke, John, and Thomas in that order,

avoiding repetition of what was already discussed. Immediately preceding Jesus w as John the Baptist. John the Baptist Luke introduced John the Baptist, born six months before Jesus, as the son of Ma ry's relative Elizabeth and the elderly Zacharias. He was expected not to drink alcohol and to be guided by the Holy Spirit. He began teaching and baptizing peo ple in the Jordan River about 27 CE. Probably influenced by the Essenes, his bap tism differed as a single transformative experience rather than a daily ritual o f purification. He preached repentance for the forgiveness of sins, telling peop le to change their minds because the sovereignty of heaven is near. He saw himse lf fulfilling prophecies of Isaiah with his voice in the desert to prepare the w ay of the Lord by making crooked paths straight and rough roads smooth, leveling the mountains and the valleys. People came from Jerusalem and all around Judea to be baptized by him. He called the Pharisees and Sadducees a brood of vipers t rying to flee from the coming wrath. He challenged them to produce fruit worthy of repentance and implied that being sons of Abraham was not sufficient for salv ation. When people asked him what they should do, he told them to share their cl othes and food. He told tax collectors not to collect more than they were requir ed and the soldiers not to shake down nor harass anyone but be satisfied with th eir pay. John baptized Jesus in the Jordan and suggested that he was preparing people for the greater teachings of Jesus. Those baptized by John more willingly accepted the teachings of Jesus on the justice of God. The disciples of John fasted, whil e those of Jesus apparently did not. John criticized Herod Antipas for marrying his niece Herodias because she had been the wife of his brother Philip. Herod im prisoned John, as Herodias wanted him killed. Herod, though he feared he might i nstigate rebellion, liked to hear his ideas and thought him a just and holy man. However, to please the daughter of Herodias, Herod ordered John beheaded. The h istorian Josephus wrote that some Jews believed Herod was punished for this by t he destruction of his army. Jesus According to Mark Mark wrote that Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John. Th e Spirit came down upon him like a dove, and a voice from heaven called Jesus be loved son. He went into the desert for forty days, was tested by Satan and minis tered to by angels. After John was arrested, Jesus preached the same good messag e that the sovereignty of God is near and that people should change their minds. By the Sea of Galilee Jesus called the fishermen brothers Simon and Andrew and the sons of Zebedee, James and John; he told them to follow him and that he woul d make them fishers of people. Jesus amazed the people of Capernaum, because he taught with authority, not like the scholars. In their synagogue he commanded an unclean spirit to come out of a person, and his fame soon spread in Galilee. He cured Simon's mother-in-law of her fever, healed many who were ill and expelled demons. Jesus cleansed a leper and sent him to his priest. As the crowds grew, he could no longer enter the towns openly and taught out in the desert. When he forgave the sins of a paralytic in Capernaum, some scholars accused him of blasp hemy. To show that a human son has the authority to forgive sins, he healed the paralytic. Seeing Levi at a tax office, Jesus told him to follow him. Dining in his home, t he Pharisees asked why he was eating with tax collectors and sinners. Jesus repl ied that the ill are those who need a physician, that he did not come to call th e just but the sinners. Jesus explained that his disciples do not fast while the bridegroom is with them, but they will fast when the bridegroom is taken away. Unshrunk cloth is not sewed into an old garment, nor is new wine put into old wi neskins. Jesus had a fresh approach. On a Sabbath his disciples picked wheat in a field, but Jesus explained that David ate the consecrated bread when he was hu

ngry. The Sabbath was made for humans, not humans for the Sabbath. Angry at thos e who objected to his healing on the Sabbath, Jesus restored a person's withered hand. This led the Pharisees to consult with the Herodians how they might destr oy him. Jesus appointed twelve disciples. In addition to Simon and his brother Andrew an d the sons of Zebedee, there were Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew (Levi), Thomas, J ames the son of Alphaeus, Thaddeus, Simon the Zealot, and Judas Iscariot. Some s cholars from Jerusalem said Jesus expelled demons by the ruler of the demons. Je sus asked how Satan could expel Satan. A divided sovereignty cannot stand. To ro b property from a house, one must first bind the strong. Jesus warned them that although slanders will be forgiven humans, slandering the Holy Spirit will not b e forgiven because it is an eternal sin. When his mother and brothers came to se e him, Jesus said that whoever does the will of God is his brother, sister, and mother. Jesus taught the parable of the sower. Some seeds fell along the way, and the bi rds ate them up. Others fell on rocky ground, where they dried up. Others fell a mong thorns, which choked them. Others fell in good earth and produced fruit. Je sus explained to his disciples that the sower sows the word. Those along the way have the word immediately taken by Satan (negativity). Those on rocky ground ac cept it gladly for a while but are offended by oppression or persecution. Those among the thorns have worries and desires for things that choke the word. Those sown in good earth welcome the word and bear fruit. A lamp should not be conceal ed but put on a lampstand out in the open. For what is hidden may be manifested. Jesus told them to examine what they hear, because they will be measured by the measure they measure. Whoever learns will be given more; but those who do not, will lose what they have. The sovereignty of God is also like a person throwing seed on the earth. By itself it grows and bears fruit, though one does not know how. It is like the mustard seed, the smallest seed, that becomes greater than a ll the vegetables with great branches for the birds of heaven. While in the boat during a storm, Jesus commanded the wind to become calm, askin g his disciples why they are cowards and have no faith. He sent a legion of uncl ean spirits out of a Gerasene demoniac; they went into pigs and drowned in the s ea. This frightened people, and they begged Jesus to go away from their region. A woman with a flow of blood for twelve years was healed by touching the clothes of Jesus; he said her faith had saved her. Then he brought back to life the dau ghter of Jairus who had just died. Jesus taught in his homeland; but he could do little there because of their lack of faith. Jesus sent out his twelve disciple s in pairs, giving them authority over unclean spirits and instructing them to t ake nothing with them but a staff. They were to stay with whomever welcomed them . They preached repentance, expelled demons, and healed the sick. When a large crowd gathered in the desert, Jesus said they were like sheep witho ut a shepherd. He told his disciples to give them something to eat. They had onl y five loaves and two fish; but after Jesus blessed it, there was enough to feed five thousand. Jesus went alone to the mountain to pray and later came toward t he boat by walking on the sea. He was going to pass by; but since they thought h e was a phantom, he got into the boat. At Gennesaret Jesus went into towns and f arms, where he healed many. Pharisees from Jerusalem asked why his disciples ate without washing their hands . Jesus criticized them for letting go of God's commandments while holding to po pular traditions. Moses said to honor father and mother; but they say to their p arents whatever they may have benefited is a gift, and so they do not do anythin g for father and mother, nullifying the word of God. Jesus said that nothing out side of a person can defile one, explaining to his disciples that what defiles a re the evils that come out of the heart such as fornicating, theft, murder, adul tery, greed, malice, deceit, lewdness, the evil eye, slander, arrogance, and foo

lishness. In Tyre a Syrophoenician woman asked Jesus to expel a demon from her d aughter; although she was a foreigner, because of her humility and persistence, her daughter was healed. In the Decapolis region he cured a deaf person so that he spoke correctly. After a crowd was with him three days in the desert, Jesus e mpathized with them and told his disciples to give them the seven loaves and a f ew small fish they had. With his blessing about four thousand people ate and wer e satisfied. He warned his disciples to watch out for the yeast of the Pharisees and Herod. At Bethsaida Jesus cured a blind man. Jesus asked his disciples whom they say he is, and Simon (called Peter) said he is the Christ; but Jesus warned them not to tell anyone. Then he began to teach them that the human son must suffer, be rejected by the priests and scholars, be killed and after three days rise up. When Peter reprimanded him, Jesus called h im Satan and told him to get behind him, because he thought not of God but of hu mans. Jesus told his disciples that whoever intended to come after him should de ny oneself, take up one's cross, and follow him. For whoever tries to save one's life will lose it; but whoever loses one's life for the good message will save it. What benefit is it to gain the whole world and lose one's soul? For what can one get in exchange for one's soul? Whoever is ashamed of his words, the human son will be ashamed of when coming in glory with the holy angels. On a high moun tain Peter, James, and John saw Jesus transformed into light as he spoke with El ijah and Moses. When they asked why Elijah must come first, Jesus implied that h e had come as John the Baptist. Jesus expelled a particularly difficult spirit to show that all things are possi ble to the one believing through prayer. Jesus again predicted that he would be given over to people, who would kill him; but he would rise up on the third day. On the way to Capernaum the disciples were discussing who is greater. Jesus sai d that whoever wants to be first must be last and servant of all. Whoever welcom es a child in his name welcomes him and the one who sent him. Jesus told them no t to forbid someone expelling demons in his name, because whoever was not agains t them was for them. Whoever gives them water because they are Christ's will not lose one's reward; but for the one offending the small ones believing it would be better if that one were drowned with a millstone around one's neck. It is bet ter to cut off an offending hand or foot or eye than having hands, feet, and eye s to go into the hell of worms and fire. Everyone will be salted with fire; but salt can become tasteless. Therefore have salt in yourself and be at peace with each other. In Judea the Pharisees asked him if divorce was permitted. Jesus said divorce wa s for the hard-hearted, but that male and female can become one flesh joined by God. Jesus told his disciples that to divorce and marry another is adultery. Jes us let the children come to him, for the sovereignty of heaven is for those who welcome it like a child. To one who practiced the commandments and called him go od, Jesus said that only God is good. Jesus told him to sell whatever he has, gi ve to the poor, and follow him; but he went away distressed because he had many possessions. Jesus said it is hard for those with property to enter the sovereig nty of God; it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the sovereignty of God. With humans this may be impossibl e, but not with God. Jesus said that anyone leaving family or fields for his goo d message would receive a hundred times more with persecutions and then eternal life. Jesus told them that in Jerusalem the human son will be given over to the high p riests and the nations, will be mocked, whipped, and killed, rising after three days. Jesus would not grant that James and John may sit next to him in glory. He said those thinking to rule nations lord it over them and exercise authority; b ut to become great they should be servants, for the human son did not come to be served but to serve and give his life as a ransom for many. In Jericho Jesus cu red a blind beggar. Jesus entered Jerusalem on a colt as the people cheered. The

next day he cursed a fig tree and came into the temple, where he threw out thos e buying and selling and overturned the tables of the money-changers, saying the house of prayer had been made a den of robbers. The frightened high priests and scholars planned to destroy him. Passing the withered fig tree, Jesus spoke of the power of faith. When praying he said to believe you are receiving it and for give if you have anything against anyone so that your Father will forgive you. In the temple the priests and scholars asked Jesus by what authority he acted. S o he asked them if the baptism of John was from heaven or people; but they were afraid to answer because the crowd considered John a prophet. Jesus told them a parable of a person who planted a vineyard and rented it to farmers. He sent ser vants for the fruit; but they beat and killed them. They even killed his son so they could take over the inheritance. Will the lord of that vineyard not destroy those farmers? The rejected stone became the corner-stone. They tried to arrest Jesus, but he left. Pharisees and Herodians tried to catch him by asking if it is permitted to pay tax to Caesar or not. Aware they were hypocritically testing him, he asked whose image is on the coin. He suggested they give Caesar's thing s back to Caesar while giving God's things to God. They knew he opposed paying t ax for a military empire; but he cleverly avoided offending Rome openly by imply ing they not use the Roman money system at all. The Sadducees did not believe in reincarnation or resurrection and so asked abou t the wife of seven brothers. Jesus explained that all souls live just as Abraha m, Isaac, and Jacob still do, but that in heaven there is no marriage. A scholar asked Jesus what is the foremost commandment. Jesus answered, The foremost is, "Hear, Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord, and you shall love the Lord your Godfrom your whole heart and from your whole soul and from your whole intelligence and from your whole strength." Second is this, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself." There is no other commandment greater than these. 1 Jesus told them to watch out best seats in the synagogues s and making long prayers in ins in the contribution box, she gave all she had. for scholars wanting to walk in robes and have the and at dinners, while devouring the houses of widow pretense. Seeing a poor widow putting two copper co he pointed out that she gave more than any, because

As they were going out of the temple and looking at the great buildings, Jesus p redicted they would all be thrown down. His closest disciples asked him what wou ld be the sign of these things happening. Jesus told them not to be led astray b y anyone saying, "I am he." Do not be disturbed by wars and rumors of wars, for nation will be raised against nation. Earthquakes and famines will be the birth pangs. They will be given over to councils, governors, and kings to give testimo ny. He assured them not to worry about what to say, because the Holy Spirit woul d speak through them. Families will be divided, and they will be hated; but whoe ver endures to the end will be saved. When they see the devastating abomination standing, they should flee to the mountains. If anyone says here or there is the Christ, they should not believe it, because false Christs will appear. They wil l see the human son coming in clouds of glory, sending angels to gather the chos en ones. Jesus said this generation may not pass away until these things happen, though no one knows the time. Therefore they should be alert. In fact about for ty years later the Temple at Jerusalem was completely destroyed in a devastating war between the Jews and the Romans. The high priests plotted to arrest Jesus deceitfully so as not to disturb the pe ople at the feast. In Bethany a woman came and poured expensive perfume on the h ead of Jesus. Some complained that this could have been sold to help the poor; b ut Jesus explained she was anointing his body for burial. Judas Iscariot went to

the high priests and said he might give over Jesus; they promised him silver. J esus instructed his disciples where they would celebrate the Passover. At the me al he said one of them would give him over and that it would have been better fo r him if he had not been born. Then Jesus blessed the bread and gave it to them as his body, and they drank the wine as his blood of the covenant. He said he wo uld not drink any more until he drank it anew in the sovereignty of God. They sa ng a hymn and went to the Mount of Olives. Jesus told them they would all fall a way. Peter said he would not; but Jesus said he would deny him three times that night before the cock crowed. In the garden of Gethsemane Jesus prayed with Pete r, James, and John; but they fell asleep. Jesus asked that the hour might pass, but he surrendered his will to his Father's. Judas arrived with a crowd carrying swords and clubs from the high priests. He kissed Jesus, and they arrested him. Jesus was taken to the high priest, while Peter followed. The testimony against Jesus did not agree, because many testified falsely. Finally Jesus admitted that he is the Christ and that they would see the human son sitting in power and com ing with heavenly clouds. They condemned him to death for blasphemy, spit at him , asked him to prophesy, and slapped him. Three times people asked Peter if he w as with Jesus, and each time he denied it. Then the council bound Jesus and led him away to Pilate. Pilate asked if he was king of the Jews, and Jesus answered, "You say it." But Jesus did not answer the many accusations of the high priests . Pilate released one prisoner at the feast and asked if they wanted the rebel B arabbas or the king of the Jews. The high priests urged the crowd to ask for Bar abbas, and Pilate had Jesus whipped and given over to be crucified. The soldiers took Jesus inside the palace and mocked him as though he were a king. Jesus was crucified at Golgotha during the third hour between two robbers. High priests and scholars said he saved others but could not save himself. They asked him to come down from the cross so that they might believe. At the sixth hour i t became dark for three hours, and then Jesus cried out, "My God, my God, why ha ve you forsaken me?" This is the first line of the 22nd Psalm and describes his plight. Then with a shout Jesus expired. A centurion said he was the son of God, and the women who had followed Jesus and ministered to him in Galilee were watc hing from a distance. Joseph of Arimathea got Pilate's permission to put the bod y in a rock tomb. After the Sabbath Mary Magdalene and another Mary took spices to anoint him, but at the tomb they found a youth in a white robe, who told them he was raised and that he would lead the disciples to Galilee. He appeared firs t to Mary Magdalene, from whom he had expelled seven demons. Then he appeared to two men traveling in the country. Later he appeared to the eleven while they we re dining, reproaching them for not believing those who had seen him. He told th em to travel and preach the good message, baptizing, expelling demons, and heali ng the sick. Finally according to Mark, Jesus was taken up into heaven and sat a t the right hand of God. Jesus According to Matthew Matthew added to the account of Mark a narrative of his birth and many more ethi cal teachings. Jesus was born to Mary, the betrothed of Joseph, in Bethlehem dur ing the reign of King Herod. He was visited by magi (astrologer-priests) from th e east. His parents were warned by an angel to take the child to Egypt, because the paranoid Herod ordered all the infants in the region killed. After Herod die d in 4 BC, they took Jesus to live in Galilee. In the desert Jesus fasted for fo rty days and was tested by the devil, who asked him to turn stones into bread, t o throw himself down from a pinnacle, and offered him sovereignty over the world ; but Jesus responded by quoting scripture loyal to God. To the Pharisees he quo ted, "I wish mercy and not sacrifice." To those questioning his healing on the S abbath, Jesus asked who would not retrieve a sheep that fell into a ditch, and h ow much does a person differ from a sheep! The heart of Jesus' ethical teachings are found in the sermon he gave on the mou ntain. He blessed the poor, the mourning, the gentle, those hungering and thirst

ing for justice, the merciful, the pure in heart, peacemakers, and those persecu ted for the sake of justice; for they receive heavenly rewards. He told them to let their light shine in their good works. He said he did not come to abolish the Jewish law or prophets but to fulfill the m. Whoever performs and teaches the commandments will be called great in heaven. The ancients said not to murder; but Jesus warned against being angry with a br other. He suggested seeking reconciliation with your brother before offering a g ift at the altar. Agree with an opponent before they turn you over to the judge to be put in prison. They said not to commit adultery; but Jesus warned against looking at a woman with desire. The ancients said not to break an oath; but Jesu s told them not to swear at all; just say yes or no. They said an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth; but Jesus taught not resisting. Turn your other cheek to the one striking your right cheek. Give your coat to the one who tries to tak e your shirt. Go two miles with the one forcing you one mile. Give to those who ask, and do not turn away from those wishing to borrow from you. They said love your neighbor and hate your enemy; but Jesus said love your enemies, pray for th ose who persecute you in order to become children of God; for the Sun rises on t he bad and good, and it rains on the just and unjust. Even tax collectors love t hose who love them. Therefore be perfect like your heavenly Father. Be careful not to do what is right in order to be seen by people, or you will ha ve no heavenly reward. Do not trumpet charity like the hypocrites to gain praise ; but give secretly, and your heavenly Father will give back to you secretly. Do not pray in public like the hypocrites, but pray to your Father in your room se cretly. Jesus recommended praying thus: Our Father in heaven: holy be your name; may your sovereignty come; may your will be done, as in heaven also on earth. Give us today our daily bread; forgive us our debts, as we forgave also our debtors; do not bring us into temptation, but rescue us from the evil.2 For if you forgive people their transgressions, God will also forgive you. When fasting, do not look gloomy like the hypocrites; do not show people you are fast ing, but your Father. Do not lie, and do not do what you hate; for everything wi ll be revealed. Do not store up treasures on earth, where they decay and thieves steal, but in y our heart. If your eye is clear, your whole body will be illuminated. No one can serve two lords, because to love one is to hate the other, and to hold to one i s to disregard the other. You must choose to serve either God or money. So do no t be anxious about what you are to eat or drink or wear. Is life not more than f ood and the body more than clothes? Does not your heavenly Father feed the birds and clothe the grass? People strive for all these things, and God knows that yo u need them; but seek first the rule of God and its justice, and everything will be provided for you. Do not be anxious about tomorrow, for each day has enough trouble. Do not judge and condemn lest you be judged and condemned. Why do you look at th e speck in your brother's eye but do not consider the log in your own? First tak e the log out of your own eye so that you will see clearly to take the speck fro m your brother's eye. Do not give what is holy to dogs lest they trample on it a nd tear you apart. Ask, and you will receive; search, and you will find; knock, and it will opened to you. Who would not give bread to a son who asks? If you kn ow to give good gifts to your children, how much more will God give good things to those who ask. Enter the narrow gate, for broad is the road many take to dest

ruction. Watch out for false prophets clothed like sheep, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves. You will recognize them by their fruit. Grapes and figs are not picked from thorns and thistles. Every good tree produces good fruit; but the r otten tree produces bad fruit. Not everyone saying, "Lord, Lord" will enter heav en, but those doing the heavenly will. Those hearing these teachings and practic ing them will be like a sensible person who built a house on rock; but those not practicing them will be like a fool building on sand. Rain, rivers, and wind wi ll cause that house to fall. When they heard that John was put in prison, Jesus praised his work and said he is the predicted Elijah. Jesus lamented the current generation saying John had a demon because he did not eat nor drink, and the human son is a gluttonous drunk ard and friend of sinners because he eats and drinks. Jesus reproached the citie s of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum, because they did not repent after power ful deeds were performed among them. Jesus called to those who labor and are bur dened that he might refresh them. Take my yoke upon you and learn from me, for I am gentle and humble of heart, and you will find rest for your souls; for my yoke is kind and my burden is light.3 To the Pharisees accusing him of expelling demons by Beelzebub, Jesus said they spoke bad things from the bad treasure in their hearts, while the good person pu ts out good things. Everyone will be justified or condemned by their words. When asked for a sign, Jesus said a bad generation would only be given the sign of J onah, who was in a sea monster for three days. He told how an unclean spirit cas t out may return and find the house put in order, bringing seven more worse spir its. So the final state of a bad generation may become worse than the first. Jesus told the parable that the sovereignty of heaven is like a person sowing go od seed. While they slept, an enemy came and sowed weeds. The master told the se rvants to let both grow until the harvest; then the reapers gather the weeds to burn them but gather the wheat into the barn. To his disciples he explained that the sower of good seed is the human son; the field is the world; the good seeds are the children of heaven; weeds are the children of evil; the enemy sowing th em is the devil; the harvest is the completion of the age; the reapers are angel s. So at the end of the age the human son will send angels to gather the wrong-d oers and throw them into a fire; but the just will shine out like the Sun in hea ven. The sovereignty of heaven is like a treasure hidden in a field; a person fi nding it gladly sells everything to buy that field. Or it is like a merchant fin ding one very precious pearl. The sovereignty is like a net cast in the sea gath ering everything; on shore what is good is gathered in baskets, and the bad is t hrown out. For this reason every scholar who becomes a disciple of heavenly sove reignty is like a master of a house bringing the new and old out of one's treasu re. To one asking to bury his father first, Jesus said to follow him and let the dead bury the dead. As the harvest was large and the workers few, Jesus told his disciples to pray t hat the Lord of the harvest will put out more workers. Jesus sent out his discip les as sheep among wolves and told them not to acquire money nor a bag nor cloth es nor a staff, for the worker is worthy of his food. He advised them to be wise as serpents and innocent as doves. When they are persecuted in one town, they s hould flee to another. What he tells them in the dark, they may say in the light ; what they hear in their ear, they may proclaim on the housetops. They should n ot fear those killing the body but the one able to ruin both soul and body in he ll. Everyone who acknowledges Jesus before people will be acknowledged by his he avenly Father; but whoever denies him before people will be denied in heaven. Je sus warned them that he did not come to bring peace, but there would be division in families. Whoever loves father or mother or son or daughter more than him is

not worthy of him. Whoever finds life will lose it, and whoever loses life for his sake will find it. Whoever welcomes a disciple welcomes Jesus, and whoever w elcomes Jesus welcomes the one who sent him. Those welcoming prophets and the ju st will be rewarded. When Simon Peter said that Jesus is the Christ, Jesus blessed him, because this was revealed not by flesh and blood but by his Father in heaven. He called him P eter and said that on this rock he would build his church, giving him the keys o f heavenly sovereignty so that whatever he bound or released on earth would be b ound and released in heaven. According to Matthew, Jesus sent Peter to catch a f ish with a four-drachma coin to pay the two-drachma tax for them so as not to of fend the kings of the earth. Jesus told his disciples not to offend the small on es, because their angels in heaven see the face of the Father. A person is more glad to find the one wandering sheep than the ninety-nine not wandering. Thus th e Father's will is that not even one small one should be lost. Jesus said that if your brother sins, correct him yourself. If he does not liste n, take along one or two more witnesses to establish every word. If he ignores t hem, tell the congregation. If he ignores the congregation, let him be as a nati onal and tax collector. Jesus assured them that if two or three agree on any req uest, his Father will grant it; for where two or three are gathered in his name, he is there with them. Peter asked if he should forgive his brother's sin up to seven times, but Jesus said up to seventy times seven. The heavenly sovereignty is like a king who wished to settle accounts with his servants. He forgave a de btor ten thousand talents (equal to millions of dollars) because he pleaded with him; but that servant insisted a fellow servant pay back only a hundred days' w ages and threw him in prison. The fellows servants complained to the lord, and h e sent the servant to jail for not having mercy after having been forgiven. Thus also will the heavenly Father do if you do not forgive your brother from your h eart. Jesus told his disciples that some become eunuchs because of the sovereign ty of heaven. Jesus said the sovereignty of heaven is like a master of an estate who hired wor kers in the morning for a day's wage. Then he hired others at the third, sixth, ninth, and eleventh hours for the same wage. When the last were paid first just as much, those hired in the morning complained. Yet the master had kept his agre ement even though he made the last first. He told another parable of a person wh o asked two children to work in the vineyard. One said he was going and did not go; the other said he would not but later went. Jesus asked which did the will o f the father. Then he said the tax collectors and prostitutes would go to heaven ahead of them, because they did not believe John, while the tax collectors and prostitutes did. Another parable compared the heavenly sovereignty to a king who gave a wedding f or his son. He sent his servant to invite people to the banquet, but they would not come. He sent more servants, but people went elsewhere or seized, insulted, and killed the servants. The king became angry and sent his armies to destroy th eir city. Then he told his servants to invite everyone they found on the streets , but one who came without wedding clothes was thrown out. Jesus concluded that many are called, but few are selected. In Jerusalem Jesus criticized the scholars and the Pharisees, telling people to do what they say but not what they do; for they put heavy burdens on people but will not lift a finger to help. They like to be seen and called teacher; but Jes us said they have one teacher and are all brothers. He also advised them not to call anyone father on earth, for there is one heavenly Father; nor be called lea ders because the Christ is their leader. The greatest serves. Whoever exalts one self will be humbled, and whoever humbles oneself will be exalted. The hypocrite s travel to convert one person and then make him twice the son of hell they are. Blind guides say it is nothing to swear by the temple or the altar, but swearin

g by its gold or the gift obligates one. Yet the temple sanctifies the gold as t he altar does the gift. The scholars and Pharisees tithe mint, dill, and cumin but have left out justice , mercy, and faith. While straining out the gnat, they swallow the camel. They c lean the outside of the dish, but inside they are full of greed and self-indulge nce. Clean the inside first. The hypocrites are like white-washed tombs that app ear pleasant outwardly, but inside they are full of everything unclean. Outwardl y they appear just, but inside they are hypocritical and lawless. They build the tombs of the prophets and think they would not have shed the blood of the proph ets, but even now they are persecuting and killing them. Jesus wished to gather the children of Jerusalem, but they were not willing. Jesus said they should be alert like the master of the house who does not know w hen the thief is coming. Blessed is the servant providing food when the lord com es; such will be put in charge of much. But the bad servant who hits fellow serv ants and gets drunk will be put with the hypocrites when the lord comes. Then th e rule of heaven will be like ten virgins who took their lamps to meet the bride groom. Five foolish virgins did not take oil and asked for some from the wise. T he wise told them there may not be enough and told them to go buy some. Meanwhil e the bridegroom came and joined those who were ready, but the others were shut out. When the human son comes in glory with the angels, he will sit on this thro ne before all the nations and separate the sheep from the goats. This king will give sovereignty and eternal life to the blessed, who gave the thirsty a drink, welcomed strangers, dressed the naked, and visited the ailing and those in priso n, because by doing these things to others they did it to him. But the cursed wh o did not do these things will go away into eternal punishment. At this time the high priests and elders were plotting with the high priest Caia phas how to arrest and kill Jesus by deceit. At the Passover meal Judas asked Je sus if he was the one giving him over, and Jesus confirmed it. When one of those with Jesus cut off the ear of the high priest's servant while Jesus was being a rrested, Jesus told him to put away his sword, for all who take a sword will die by a sword; also he could have called on legions of angels. Matthew's account t ells how Judas returned the thirty silver coins to the high priests and hanged h imself. Also Pilate's wife warned her husband to have nothing to do with the jus t Jesus because of a dream she had, and Pilate washed his hands to assuage his g uilt. On the day after the crucifixion the high priests and Pharisees asked Pila te to order the grave guarded, and he did so. They also gave silver to the soldi ers to say that his disciples at night stole him while they slept. Jesus According to Luke Similar to the narrative of the ministry and teachings of Jesus found in Mark an d Matthew, Luke recounted several additional parables. When he was twelve, Jesus was discovered listening and questioning the teachers in the temple. Jesus was about thirty when he began his public ministry. Jesus asked if the blind could l ead the blind. He said a student is not above the teacher, but everyone prepared will be like the teacher. The good bring forth good treasure from the heart, an d the bad bring forth bad things, for one speaks out of the abundance of the hea rt. At Nain Jesus raised the dead son of a widow. When a Pharisee inwardly criticized Jesus for letting a woman kiss his feet and anoint him with perfume, he told a parable of two pardoned debtors, asking which would love the creditor more. This woman loved more because the sins forgiven h er were greater. Several women traveled with Jesus, including Mary Magdalene, fr om whom seven demons had been expelled. To the one asking that he be permitted t o say good-bye to those in his house, Jesus said that no one putting his hand to the plow and looking back is fit for God's sovereignty. Jesus reprimanded James and John for asking if he wanted them to call down fire from heaven to destroy a Samaritan village which did not welcome them. Jesus also sent out seventy-two

in pairs ahead of him, saying the harvest is large, but the workers are few. To the lawyer who asked him who is his neighbor, Jesus said a person traveling w as stripped and beaten by robbers. A priest on that road passed by, as did a Lev ite; but a Samaritan was compassionate, bound up his wounds, took him to an inn, and paid the innkeeper to take care of him. Jesus told the lawyer to do like th e one who demonstrated mercy. Yet to the actively serving Martha, Jesus said tha t she is worried about many things, but Mary in listening to his word had select ed the good part. Jesus told of a man who goes to borrow bread for his visiting friend and gets him to unlock his door because of his persistence. If humans kno w how to give good gifts to their children, how much more will the heavenly Fath er give the Holy Spirit to those who ask. Of those who said that he expelled dem ons by Beelzebub, Jesus said that whoever is not with him is against him, and wh oever does not gather with him scatters. More blessed than his mother are those who hear the word of God and keep it. Warning against greed and the abundance of possessions, Jesus told the parable o f a wealthy citizen, who decided to tear down his barns to build larger ones so that with many goods laid up he could rest, eat, drink, and be merry; but that n ight his soul was demanded, and the things he prepared would belong to someone e lse. Rather than treasuring for oneself it is better to be wealthy in God. Jesus said to be ready for the lord with lamps burning, because the human son is comi ng when they do not think. Jesus said the faithful and sensible manager the lord put in charge of his attendants to give out food will be blessed when the lord comes, and he will be put in charge of all his possessions. But if the servant s tarts to beat the children and get drunk, the lord will come when he does not ex pect and cut him in two. The servant who is aware of the lord's will and does no t do it will be beaten much, but the servant who is not aware will be beaten a l ittle for doing things deserving blows. To those who are given much, much will b e demanded. Jesus noted those being killed and warned people to change their minds or they w ill die the same way. He told a parable about a farmer of a fig tree, which had not borne fruit for three years. The gardener urged him to leave it for another year so that he could fertilize it and see if it would bear fruit; but if it doe s not, cut it down. When a synagogue ruler complained that Jesus healed a woman of her ailment on the Sabbath, Jesus called him a hypocrite because they feed th eir ox or donkey on the Sabbath, and this woman had been bound by Satan for eigh teen years. Why should she not be released on the Sabbath? Jesus said many would come from east and west to recline in the sovereignty of G od. When Pharisees told him that Herod Antipas intended to kill him, Jesus told them to tell that fox that he expels demons and performs cures and on the third day he would be perfected. He lamented Jerusalem killing the prophets when he wi shed to gather their children like a bird gathering her brood under her wings. J esus cured a person with edema. Noticing how they selected the best seats, Jesus suggested they not sit in the best seat so that the host can give them a better place. When giving a dinner, do not invite your friends and relatives and wealt hy neighbors so that they may pay you back, but invite the poor, crippled, lame, and the blind so that you will be blessed because they have nothing to repay yo u. This will be repaid in the resurrection of the just. When a person invited ma ny to a great dinner, the first asked to be excused because he bought a farm, an other because he bought five yoke of oxen, and another because he married a woma n. So the angry master had his servant go into the streets and invite the poor, crippled, blind, and lame. Jesus said that whoever does not bear one's cross and come after him cannot be h is disciple. To build a tower one must first calculate the cost so that one will be able to finish it. A king must decide if he can oppose his enemy's army; if not, he sends an embassy to make peace. Just as the shepherd is glad to find the

lost sheep and the woman the lost coin, so too do the angels of God rejoice ove r one sinner repenting. A younger son asked his father for his share of the estate and moved away, squan dering his property in profligate living. After spending it all he suffered in a severe famine and was hired to feed pigs. Hungry, he decided to return to his f ather and told him he had sinned, asking to be treated like a servant. His fathe r put his best robe on him and sacrificed a fat calf to celebrate, because his s on was found. While they were celebrating, the older son coming in from the fiel d was angry, because they had never celebrated with him but were doing so with h is brother, who ate up his living with prostitutes. The father told him everythi ng was his, but they must celebrate because the lost brother was found. A rich person told a manager, who squandered his possessions, that he must give back his account and no longer be manager. So the manager called the lord's debt ors and reduced each of their debts so that they would welcome him into their ho uses. The lord commended the unjust manager for acting shrewdly in making friend s from the money of injustice. The important value here is shown in the followin g teaching that a domestic cannot serve two lords - God and money. Because of th is the money-lovers sneered at him, but Jesus said that God knows the hearts and that what is highly valued by people is an abomination before God. There was a rich person who celebrated every day while the poor Lazarus suffered at his gate . When they both died, the rich one suffering in Hades saw Lazarus with the ange ls and asked Abraham to send him to cool him down with water, because he is in p ain from the flame. But Abraham said he had his good things during life and Laza rus the bad things. Now it is reversed. The rich man asked that Lazarus be sent to warn his brothers. Abraham said they have Moses and the prophets. If they do not listen to them, neither will they be persuaded if someone rises from the dea d. When Jesus healed ten men of leprosy, he found only one foreigner turning back t o praise God. To show them the need to pray and not despair, Jesus told a parabl e about a judge who did not regard God or any person; but a woman persisted so m uch that he vindicated her. To those who were confident they are just and despis e others, Jesus told a parable of a Pharisee and a tax collector praying in the temple. The Pharisee thanked God he is not like the sinners, that he fasts and t ithes; but the tax collector confessed he was a sinner. The latter was justified rather than the other. In Jericho Jesus stayed with Zacchaeus, who was eager to serve him. He told a pa rable of a noble person who went abroad to receive a kingdom and gave ten servan ts ten minae to do business until he returned. The citizens hated him and did no t want him to be king over them. When he returned, the first servant said his mi na had earned ten minae, and he was put over ten cities; the servant with five m inae was put over five cities; but the servant returning the one had it given to the servant with ten. Then this king ordered those enemies not wanting him to b e king over them to be slaughtered. Jesus told this parable when he was near Jer usalem to those who were thinking the sovereignty of God was about to appear. I suggest that this king does not represent God but an unjust and murdering king o f this world. As he approached Jerusalem, Jesus wept and mourned that they did not know the th ings for peace. He predicted their enemies would attack them on all sides and ra ze the city to the ground, because they did not know the time of their visitatio n. At the last supper he asked the disciples to eat the bread as his body in rem embrance of him. According to Luke, after predicting that Simon would deny him t hree times, Jesus told them now to take a purse and wallet and buy a sword. When the ear of the high priest's servant was cut off, Jesus said no more of that an d healed it. Before Pilate the high priests and elders accused Jesus of perverti ng their nation by forbidding them to pay taxes to Caesar. Pilate told the crowd

s he found no guilt in Jesus. Discovering he was Galilean, Pilate sent Jesus to Herod Antipas. Herod was glad to see him but was disappointed he did no miracles , nor did he answer his questions. After the soldiers mocked him, Herod had Jesu s sent back to Pilate. Pilate wanted to release Jesus, but the crowd insisted he be crucified. So Pilate released Barabbas, who had been imprisoned for rebellio n and murder. On the way to being crucified Jesus told the daughters of Jerusalem not to weep for him but for themselves, because if they do this when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry? One criminal on a cross asked Jesus to save them, w hile the other said Jesus did nothing wrong; Jesus told the latter he would be w ith him that day in paradise. Dying, Jesus cried out, "Father, into your hands I entrust my Spirit."4 After the resurrection, Luke described the conversation Je sus had with two men walking to Emmaus and also Jesus eating broiled fish with t he disciples. Jesus According to John Probably written some time later than the versions of Mark, Matthew, and Luke, J ohn added theological concepts such as identifying Jesus with the Logos (Word) o r the lamb of God and emphasizing love. Jesus called Nathanael by showing he cou ld read his mind. At a wedding in Cana he provided wine by transforming water. A ccording to John, Jesus drove the money-changers out of the temple in Jerusalem at an earlier Passover festival. Jesus taught the elder Nicodemus that he must b e born of the Spirit from above to enter the sovereignty of God. Jesus said that the judgment is that the light has come into the world, but people loved the da rk rather than the light, because their actions were bad. Those doing evil hate the light, because it exposes their actions; but those doing what is true come t o the light so that it may be clear their actions are accomplished in God. In Sa maria Jesus was not afraid to talk with a woman even though Jews did not associa te with Samaritans. He perceived that she had been married five times. He offere d her living water and said that true worshippers worship in spirit and truth. F or two days Jesus taught the Samaritans. At Capernaum Jesus healed the son of a royal official from a distance. At another feast in Jerusalem on a Sabbath Jesus healed a man who had been ailin g for 38 years. Jews objected because he broke the Sabbath and called God his ow n Father. Jesus explained that he does what he sees the Father doing. Soon the g ood will come to a resurrection of life and the bad to a resurrection of judgmen t. Jesus criticized those rejecting him for not having the love of God in them. Yet if they believed in Moses, they would believe in him. After feeding people J esus warned them not to work for food which spoils but for eternal life. When th ey asked him what they should do, Jesus said to believe in the one God sent. Jes us said he is the bread of life come down from heaven to do God's will, and that he would not lose any but raise them up on the last day. He quoted the prophets that everyone would be taught by God. The Spirit gives life, but flesh benefits nothing; his sayings are Spirit and life. After this Jesus left Judea and went to Galilee, because the Jews were trying to kill him. Later Jesus went to the feast of tabernacles. Some said he is good; others said he misleads the crowd. Jesus said his teaching came from the one who sent him. J esus asked them, if they practiced the law, why were they trying to kill him? Si nce he spoke openly, some wondered if he was the Christ. So they tried to arrest him, but he escaped. On the last day of the feast Jesus asked those who were th irsty to come and drink. The crowd was divided, and Nicodemus said their law doe s not judge a person without first hearing from him and knowing what he does. The next day Jesus sat in the temple and taught. When they brought a woman caugh t in adultery, he told anyone without sin to throw the first stone. Jesus did no t condemn her either and told her not to sin anymore. Jesus said they judged acc ording to the flesh, but he did not judge anyone unless the one who sent him did

by truth. While he taught in the treasury, no one arrested him. Jesus said he w ould be going and that if they did not believe in him, they would die in their s ins. Yet those continuing in his word are his disciples; they will know the trut h, and the truth will free them. Some said as Abraham's seed they have never bee n enslaved; but Jesus said slaves of sin do not stay in the house forever; but t he son stays forever and can really free them. If they knew God, they would not be trying to kill him but would love him, because he came out of God, sent by th at one. They perform the desires of their murdering father and do not stand in t he truth but lie. Jesus is saying the truth; but they do not believe him and thi nk he has a demon. Jesus answered he does not have a demon but honors his Father . Those keeping his words will not see death at all ever. Jesus not only said he knew Abraham but existed before Abraham. For this they picked up stones to thro w at him; but he escaped out of the temple again. As he was going, Jesus healed one born blind. Jesus said he came into the world so that those not seeing may see, while those seeing become blind. Jesus told th e allegory of himself as the noble shepherd who lays down his life for the sheep . Other sheep will also hear his voice, and they will become one flock. At the dedication festival in winter at Jerusalem Jesus also taught that the wor ks he does in the name of the Father testify about him. He asked them why they w ant to stone him, and they answered it was because of blasphemy. Jesus quoted th e law where it said, "You are gods." Jesus asked them to believe his works so th ey would know the Father is in him; but they tried to arrest him again. Jesus went to Bethany, where he met the sisters Martha and Mary and then brought the dead Lazarus back to life. When the council of the Pharisees was told this, the high priest Caiaphas prophesied that one person would die on behalf of the nation. To Greeks Jesus used symbolism similar to the Eleusinian mysteries to ex plain eternal life as being like a grain of wheat that dies and bears much fruit . Jesus said that whoever loves one's life loses it, but whoever hates one's lif e in this world will preserve eternal life. Jesus said that the judgment of this world is that its ruler is thrown out; but by being lifted up from the earth, h e will draw everyone to himself. Many rulers believed in Jesus; but they did not admit it lest they be put out of the synagogue by the Pharisees. Jesus said he did not come into the world to judge the world but to save the world. When Mary anointed the feet of Jesus with expensive perfume, it was Judas Iscari ot who complained it could have been sold and given to the poor. According to Jo hn, he was a thief and stole from the money box. At the Passover feast Jesus put aside his clothes and washed the feet of his disciples. He told them to wash ea ch other's feet according to his example. No servant is greater than his lord, a nd the messenger is not greater than the one sending him. Jesus told Judas Iscar iot to act quickly. Then Jesus gave his disciples a new commandment, that they l ove each other as he had loved them. By this everyone will know that they are hi s disciples, if they love each other. He told them not to be troubled but to tru st in God and him. He will go to prepare a place for them and will welcome them to himself. Jesus declared himself the way, the truth and life; everyone can come to the Fat her through him. Those believing in him will do the works he does and even great er, because he is going to the Father. They can ask for things in his name. If t hey love him, they will keep his commandments, and he will send as an intermedia ry the spirit of truth. Jesus will not leave them orphans but will come back to them. Whoever loves him will keep his word and be loved by his Father. The Fathe r will send the Holy Spirit to teach them everything. Jesus said he leaves peace with them. Jesus called himself the true vine, and they are the branches; those connected to him may bear much fruit. Jesus loved them, as the Father loved him . Their joy will be fulfilled. No one has greater love than laying down one's li fe for friends. If the world hates them, it hated him first; but they are not of

the world, because he selected them out of the world. If they persecuted him, t hey will persecute them also. The intermediary will testify about him. Jesus tol d them these things so that they would not fall away. There is more to tell them , but the spirit of truth will guide them into all truth. Their grief will turn into joy like a woman giving birth. Whatever they ask the Father in his name the y will receive. Jesus told them to have courage, because he overcame the world. Then Jesus prayed to the Father. According to John, when the cohort and the Jewish officials arrested Jesus, they took him to the high priest Annas first. Jesus told him he had spoken openly; b ut an official slapped him for speaking confidently to the high priest. When Pil ate went outside and told the crowd to judge him according to their law, the Jew s replied they were not allowed to put anyone to death. When Pilate asked Jesus if he is king of the Jews, Jesus answered that his sovereignty is not of this wo rld, but he came into the world to testify to the truth. Later the Jews said Jes us should die because he made himself son of God. Jesus said Pilate would not ha ve any authority unless it was given to him from above. Jews argued that to rele ase him would not be friendly to Caesar, because everyone making himself king sp eaks against Caesar. They did not want him to write "King of the Jews" but that he said he was king of the Jews. The soldiers divided the clothes of Jesus and d ecided by lot for the tunic. Seeing his mother, her sister, and Mary Magdalene, Jesus while on the cross implied that the beloved disciple (John) should take ca re of his mother. The soldiers did not break the legs of Jesus, because he was already dead; but o ne pierced his side with a spear. (According to the recently discovered Gospel o f Peter, they did not break his legs so that he would die in torment.) When Mary Magdalene was weeping outside the tomb, she saw two angels and then Jesus stand ing there. When he spoke her name, she recognized him. She went and told the dis ciples that she had seen the Lord. Jesus appeared to the disciples in a locked r oom and told Thomas to touch his side. Jesus manifested himself again to seven o f the disciples while they were fishing in the Sea of Tiberias. He told Simon Pe ter to feed his sheep. Three letters attributed to John are included in The New Testament, and scholars believe they were written about the same time as his gospel about the end of th e first century. John proclaimed fellowship with his readers and "with the Fathe r and with his Son Jesus Christ." He suggested that God is light and that they c an have fellowship with one another while walking in the light. To say they have no sin is to deceive themselves; but if they confess their sins, they will be f orgiven and cleansed. John put forth Jesus Christ not only as the expiator of th eir sins but for the sins of the whole world. To say one is in the light while h ating a brother is to be in darkness still. Whoever loves a brother abides in th e light. The world and its lust passes away, but whoever does the will of God ab ides forever. John exhorted them to love one another, for love is of God, and wh oever loves is born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know Go d, because God is love. Love has no fear, because perfect love casts out fear. W hoever says they love God while hating a brother is a liar, for whoever does not love a brother, who is seen, cannot love God, who is not seen. The book of Revelation is also attributed to John and was probably written near the end of the reign of Domitian (81-96), who banished John to the rocky island of Patmos. John sent this description of his vision to the seven churches of Asi a in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. Th e angels promise to search their mind and heart and give to each what their work s deserve. The violent imagery may reflect John's resentment toward Rome for its persecution of him and other Christians. The four horseman bring death by war, famine, pestilence, and wild beasts. He warned against a beast in authority not allowing anyone to buy or sell unless they have its mark, the name of the beast or its number. The Roman empire is symbolized by Babylon, the mother of harlots

and of earth's abominations. The merchants of the earth will weep and mourn when no one buys their cargo anymore, including slaves that are human souls. The gre at city will be overthrown with violence. The devil Satan will be bound for a thousand years while Christ reigns. Then Sat an will be loosed from prison to deceive nations. The dead will be judged by wha t they have done. Those whose name is not written in the book of life will be th rown in the lake of fire. John saw a new heaven and a new earth with no death an d no night; but God will be their light and reign forever. Finally Jesus as the beginning and the end, the alpha and omega, promises to come soon. John generall y but correctly prophesied the fall of the Roman empire, though the following mi llennium of Christian culture was far from ideal. In my view the final vision re fers to higher realms of light than the physical universe where souls go after d eath. Thomas and the Gnostics According to tradition the disciple Thomas was chosen to go to Parthia, and he l ater took the good message as far as India. A Coptic Gnostic library of apocryph al books that had been buried in the fourth century was found at Nag Hammadi, Eg ypt in 1945. The Gospel According to Thomas with its 114 secret sayings of Jesus was written by the disciple called twin Judas Thomas probably about the same ti me as the four canonized gospels. Used in Syria, Egypt, and other places, this a nd other texts rejected later by the church are called Gnostic because they emph asize knowledge more than belief. According to Thomas, when they suggested he fa st, Jesus asked them what sin he had committed or whether he had been overcome. When his disciples asked Jesus if they should fast, he told them not to lie and not to do what they hate, for everything is manifest before heaven. Jesus said t o search and not cease searching until one finds. Finding, one will be troubled but will marvel and reign over the All. Jesus said to know what is before your f ace, and what is hidden will be revealed. According to Thomas, Jesus said the Father's sovereignty is like a woman carryin g a jar full of flour a long way. The handle broke, and the flour spilled withou t her knowing it. When she got home, she found the jar was empty. This parable i mplies the need to be careful. Similarly the sovereignty is like a man who sold a field with a hidden treasure; the buyer plowed, found the treasure, and lent m oney to whomever he wished. Jesus said that whoever knows the All but fails ones elf fails everywhere. Jesus suggested that those with riches or power should ren ounce. Jesus wondered how the great wealth of the Spirit made its home in the po verty of the body. Jesus said the sovereignty is spread upon the earth, but peop le do not see it. It is not found in the sky with the birds or in the sea with t he fish, but inside you and outside you. By knowing yourself you will be known a nd will know that you are children of the living Father; but if you do not know yourself, you are in poverty. The Dialog of the Savior was also probably written in the same period. Jesus war ns his disciples about the power of darkness and tells them not to fear the ruli ng authority of tyrants. Jesus suggests they will overcome even the rulers in he aven. When they remove envy, they will be clothed in light and enter into the br idal chamber, a place of secret initiation. The Apocryphon of James concludes th e sovereignty of heaven can be received; but unless one understands it through k nowledge, one will not be able to find it. Therefore they should understand what the great light is, pay attention to the Word, understand knowledge, and love l ife. No one will persecute or oppress them other than themselves. Epiphanius cri ticized The Gospel of the Ebionites for changing some details to imply that John the Baptist and Jesus were vegetarians. In his long work Against Heresies written late in the second century Irenaeus cr iticized some Gnostics for believing their spiritual knowledge placed them above the "animal men" who could only be saved through good works. He also criticized

those who yielded to lusts of the flesh, maintaining that their carnal nature c ould be separated from their spiritual nature. Peter, James, and the Church When the disciple Simon recognized Jesus as the Christ, Jesus named him Peter an d said that on this rock he would build his church. Yet right after that when Je sus mentioned he would suffer because of the elders, high priests and scholars a nd be killed, Peter reprimanded him. Jesus then called Peter Satan for tempting him. Thus the infallibillity of Peter is questionable, to say nothing of those c laiming to be his successors. The forming of the church based on the life and te achings of Jesus is described in The Acts of the Apostles by Luke. After the dep arture of Jesus the eleven remaining disciples returned to Jerusalem and devoted themselves to prayer along with the women and the mother and brothers of Jesus, about 120 in all. Two men were nominated to replace Judas Iscariot, and Matthia s was chosen by lot. On the day of Pentecost seven weeks after the Passover a so und from heaven was heard, and they all began to speak in different languages as they were filled with the Holy Spirit. Many heard the powerful works of God des cribed in their own languages. Peter spoke to the congregation about Jesus and h ow he was fulfilling the promise by pouring out the Holy Spirit. He announced to the house of Israel that God had made Jesus Lord and Christ. Hearing this, people asked Peter and the apostles what they should do. Peter tol d them to repent and be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of sins so that they would receive the Holy Spirit. On that day about three tho usand were baptized, and they joined the fellowship of the apostles, sharing the ir teaching, breaking of bread, and prayers. All the believers worked together a nd had all things in common. They sold their possessions and distributed their g oods to all according to need. They ate together, praised God, found favor with people, and increased in numbers. Going into the temple with John, Peter saw a lame beggar. Saying he had no silve r and gold, Peter gave him what he had by telling him to walk in the name of Jes us Christ. The man stood up and walked into the temple with them, praising God. People were amazed, and Peter began preaching to them that the God of Abraham, I saac, and Jacob had glorified his servant Jesus, whom they had delivered and den ied when Pilate decided to release him. Thus the author of life was killed, but God raised him from the dead. Peter said they acted out of ignorance and asked t hem to repent so that their sins might be blotted out. As they were speaking, th e priests and the Sadducees were annoyed, and the captain of the temple arrested them. When they asked Peter by what power he acted, he explained that the man w as healed by the name of Jesus Christ, whom they had crucified and God raised. S ince the healed man was standing there, they could not deny this. So they charge d them not to speak or teach in the name of Jesus. Peter and John answered that they were judging them to listen to them instead of God; but they spoke of what they had seen and heard. The authorities did not punish them because of the peop le praising God for what happened; but they threatened them and let them go. The company of believers had one heart and soul, sharing all their possessions s o that there was no needy person among them. Joseph Barnabas sold his field, bro ught the money, and laid it at the apostles' feet. But Ananias and his wife Sapp hira sold their property but kept some of the proceeds. Peter asked Ananias why he lied to people and God, causing Ananias to fall down dead. Three hours later the same thing happened with his wife. As the apostles gathered in Solomon's Por tico, many brought the sick to be healed. The Sadducee high priest had the apost les arrested and put in a common prison; but at night an angel of the Lord opene d the prison doors and led them out, telling them to speak the words of life in the temple. Once again the captain and the officers brought them before the coun cil; but Peter said they must obey God rather than men. Some were angry and want ed to kill them; but the teacher Gamaliel noted that Theudas and four hundred fo llowers were slain and that Judas the Galilean died and his rebels were scattere

d. He said if this undertaking is of men, it will fail; but if it is of God, the y cannot overthrow it, and they might even be found opposing God. So they beat t he apostles, charged them not to speak of Jesus, and let them go. Every day they continued teaching and preaching Jesus as the Christ. Some Hellenists complained that the Hebrews were neglecting their widows in the daily distribution. So the twelve, preferring to preach instead of serving table s, appointed seven men led by Stephen to perform this duty. Stephen accomplished many wonders; but some including Cyrenians, Alexandrians, Cilicians, and Asians argued with Stephen. Unable to withstand the wisdom and the Spirit by which Ste phen spoke, they accused him of blasphemy and instigated elders and scribes to b ring him before the council with false witnesses. Stephen responded by reviewing the spiritual history of Israel from Abraham to Solomon, and he accused their f athers of persecuting the prophets. Then Stephen said he saw the human son stand ing next to God. For this they threw him out of the city and stoned him to death , while Saul stood by with their garments approving. That day began a great persecution against the Jerusalem church, and they scatte red throughout Judea and Samaria. Saul devastated the church and, entering house after house, dragged off men and women to prison. Philip preached in Samaria, e xpelling demons and healing the lame. Peter and John went to Samaria to baptize people, who had received the word of God. A powerful magician named Simon offere d them money so that by laying on hands he too could dispense the Holy Spirit. P eter told Simon his heart was not right in trying to buy the gift of God and ask ed him to repent. Philip was guided to meet an Ethiopian eunuch on the road to G aza, and Philip explained to him how Jesus fulfilled the prophecies of Isaiah. P hilip baptized him and took the good message to Caesarea. Saul threatened to murder the disciples and from the high priest he got letters to arrest believers in the synagogues at Damascus. As he approached that city, a heavenly light flashed, and he fell to the ground. A voice asked Saul why he wa s persecuting him, Jesus. Then Saul was told to rise, enter the city, and he wou ld be told what to do. For three days Saul was blind and fasted. Then Ananias wa s guided to lay his hands on Saul so that he could regain his sight and be fille d with the Holy Spirit. Then Saul was baptized and ate food. In the synagogues h e proclaimed Jesus as the son of God. After several days Jews plotted to kill hi m, but Saul escaped when his disciples let him down over the wall in a basket. I n Jerusalem Barnabas took Saul to the apostles, and he told them how the Lord sp oke to him on the road and how he preached in Damascus. Saul preached and argued with the Hellenists, who sought to kill him. So Saul went to Caesarea and then to Tarsus. At Lydda Peter healed a paralyzed man, and in Joppa he brought the woman Tabitha back to life. While the centurion Cornelius at Caesarea was guided to send his men to Joppa to get Peter, Peter had a vision in which a voice told him to eat a ll kinds of animals because God has cleansed them. When Peter visited Cornelius, he interpreted his vision as God showing him that no person is unclean. Peter p erceived that God shows no partiality; but in every nation those who do right ar e acceptable to God. As Peter preached about Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit fell on all who heard the word even though they were not Jews. Then Peter commanded t hat they be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ. When Peter returned to Jerusal em, the circumcision party criticized him for eating with uncircumcised men. Pet er explained about the vision he had three times and how the Holy Spirit came to the Gentiles in Caesarea. King Herod Agrippa had John's brother James killed with the sword. When this ple ased some Jews, he had Peter arrested; but an angel helped Peter to escape. Shor tly after being proclaimed a god, Herod died of illness in 44 CE. In Jerusalem P harisees charged that believers should be circumcised and keep the law of Moses. Peter spoke to the brothers that God had guided him to preach the good message

to the Gentiles and had given to them the Holy Spirit, cleansing their hearts by faith. He asked why they should try God by putting on their necks a yoke hard t o bear. Then Barnabas and Paul related the wonders God did among the Gentiles. A fter they spoke, James, the brother of Jesus, recalled how God visited the Genti les and how this fulfilled prophecies of Amos, Jeremiah, and Isaiah. The judgmen t of James was that they should not trouble the Gentiles but write them to absta in from pollutions of idols, from fornication, and from meat not ritually butche red. The church agreed with James and sent Judas Barsabbas and Silas with Paul a nd Barnabas with these instructions to the Gentiles in Syria and Cilicia. Little is known of Peter after this. Eusebius believed that Peter preached to Je ws in Pontus, Galatia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia, and according to traditio n he was crucified upside down in Rome during Nero's persecution of the Christia ns following the fire in 64. The first letter of Peter included in The New Testa ment was probably written shortly before his death. Peter wrote to exiles of the dispersion in Asia, urging them to be holy and not conform to the passions of t heir former ignorance. Purifying their souls, they may love one another from the heart. Thus they should put away all malice, deceit, insincerity, envy, and sla nder. He encouraged them to abstain from the passions of the flesh that wage war against the soul. By doing right they can silence the ignorance of the foolish. He urged them to live as free persons without using freedom as a pretext for ev il but in order to serve God, honor people, love the community, reverence God, a nd honor the emperor. Thus Peter told them to submit to their masters even if it means suffering unjustly. They should follow the example of Jesus who was revil ed but did not revile in return, who suffered but did not threaten; he trusted i n the one who judges justly. Peter also told the wives to be submissive to their husbands but that the husban ds should likewise be considerate of their wives, honoring them as the weaker se x. In the unity of spirit they may love with a tender heart and a humble mind. D o not return evil for evil, but rather bless because they have been called to th is and may so obtain blessing. Keep the tongue from evil and do right; seek and pursue peace, for the Lord sees the just and listens to their prayers. Even if t hey suffer for justice, they will be blessed. Thus they should not be afraid nor troubled. To anyone who calls them to account they may defend themselves with g entleness and reverence, keeping their conscience clear so that those abusing th em for their good behavior may be put to shame. It is better to suffer for doing what is right than for doing wrong. Those suffering in the flesh may cease from sin and live from then on free of pa ssions by the will of God. The time for licentiousness, passions, drunkenness, r evels, carousing, and lawless idolatry is past, for the good message is preached so that they may live in the spirit like God. Because the end is near, they sho uld keep sober for praying and maintain their love for one another, since love c overs many sins. They should practice hospitality and employ the gifts they have received. In the fiery ordeal that proves them they should rejoice in sharing C hrist's sufferings. Suffering as a Christian glorifies God. Thus they should do right and trust their souls to the faithful Creator. They should tend the flock of God, not by constraint or domineering but by being examples to the flock. Pet er recommended they be humble, sober, and watchful. After they have suffered, Go d will restore them. Although James was skeptical of his brother Jesus during his lifetime, after see ing him resurrected, James (with Peter and John) became a leader of the Jerusale m church. According to Hegesippus, James was universally called the Just; he dra nk no alcohol, ate no animal food, wore linen garments, and no razor touched his head; his knees became hardened by frequent praying. The Gospel of the Hebrews was mentioned more than any other by the early church. A quote from it by Jerome states that after the resurrection Jesus appeared to his brother James the Just . When Festus died about 61 CE, before Albinus arrived, the high priest Ananus a

ccused James before the council and had him killed. Complaints about this to Kin g Agrippa caused him to take the high priesthood away from Ananus. A letter attributed to this James emphasizes that faith also requires works, tho ugh many scholars question whether it was written by James himself. It is writte n to the twelve tribes in the dispersion, encouraging them to be joyful because trials testing their faith can produce steadfastness. People are not tempted by God but by their own desires. James suggested they be quick to hear, but slow to speak or become angry; for anger does not work what is right by God. They shoul d be doers of the word, not just hearers. The religious also need to bridle thei r tongues, because religion has more to do with visiting orphans and widows and keeping oneself unstained from the world. James exhorted his brothers not to sho w partiality to the rich over the poor, asking has not God chosen the poor to be rich in faith. Are not the rich the ones who oppress them and drag them into co urt? Fulfilling the scripture is loving one's neighbor as oneself; but showing p artiality is to commit sin and transgress the law. They should speak and act as those judged under the law of liberty. Judgment is without mercy to those who sh ow no mercy; yet mercy overcomes judgment. James asked what benefit faith has without works. A little tongue can boast of g reat things, as a great forest is inflamed by a small fire. The wise will show g ood works in the gentleness of wisdom. Bitter jealousy and selfish ambition caus e disorder and vile practices. The wisdom from above is pure, peaceful, gentle, open to reason, and merciful, bearing good fruit without uncertainty or insincer ity. The harvest of justice is sown in peace by those who make peace. What cause s wars and fighting among them if not passions? Not getting what they desire, th ey kill. Coveting without obtaining, they fight and wage war. They ask wrongly w hen intending to spend it on their passions. Whoever loves the world too much ma kes oneself an enemy of God. God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble . Draw near God, and God will draw near you. Purify your hearts. Do not speak ev il against one another, because this is to judge the law. There is one lawgiver and judge who is able to save and to destroy. Who are they to judge their neighb ors? Knowing what is right to do but failing to do it is a sin. Be patient and d o not grumble against one another so that you may not be judged. Therefore confe ss your sins and pray for one another so that you may be healed, for God is comp assionate and merciful. James concluded that bringing back a sinner from error w ill cover a multitude of sins. The anonymous letter to the Hebrews included in The New Testament was probably w ritten before the temple was destroyed in 70 CE. It argues that the new covenant mediated by Jesus is better than the old covenant. This covenant in which the l aws are written on their hearts and in their minds was prophesied by Jeremiah. T he sacrifice of Jesus doing the will of God has replaced the animal sacrifices a nd burnt offerings. Chapter 11 is on faith, which is defined as the assurance of what is hoped for and the conviction of what is not seen. Chapter 12 discusses the discipline of the Lord which comes to all whom God loves. As earthly fathers discipline their children for a short time, so God does so for our good so that we may share in holiness. In the moment discipline seems painful, but it produc es the peaceful fruit of justice to those it trains. Thus they should seek peace with all people and for holiness. Brotherly love includes showing hospitality t o strangers, remembering those who are in prison and those ill treated. Marriage should be honored and the marriage bed undefiled by adultery. Do not love money , but be content with what you have, and God will never forsake you. They may be ar abuse like Jesus for his sake, because such sacrifices are pleasing to God. Paul and Christianity Because of the dispersion caused by the persecution, some men from Cyprus and Cy rene went to Antioch and preached to Greeks. Barnabas was sent from Jerusalem to Antioch. When he saw a large company added to the Lord there, Barnabas went to Tarsus and brought Saul to Antioch for a year. This was about 46 CE, and the dis

ciples in Antioch were the first to be called Christians. Agabus prophesied fami ne, and the Antioch disciples sent relief to those suffering in Judea by the han ds of Barnabas and Saul. Barnabas and Saul were sent by the Antioch church to Cy prus. There Saul, now called Paul, reprimanded a magician named Elymas, causing him to become blind for a time. Paul traveled to Perga and preached at the Antio ch in Pisidia until he and Barnabas were driven out by Jews. They traveled throu gh Lycaonia of southern Galatia, where at Lystra Paul healed a man crippled from birth. Angry Jews persuaded people to stone Paul, and he was carried out of the city, going on to Derbe. They returned through Pisidia and Pamphylia, sailing b ack to the Antioch in Syria. After a time Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem an d participated in the debate about circumcision, testifying to the wonders God h ad done among the Gentiles. Paul, Barnabas, Silas, and Judas Barsabbas took the letter from the Jerusalem ch urch to the Gentiles in Antioch. Paul asked Barnabas to go with him and revisit the brothers. Barnabas wanted to take John Mark; but Paul did not want to, becau se he had withdrawn from them in Pamphylia. So Barnabas went with John Mark to C yprus, and Paul traveled with Silas through Syria and Cilicia. At Lystra Paul ci rcumcised Timothy, because his father was Greek. Paul was guided to travel to Ma cedonia, and in Philippi he expelled a spirit from a slave girl, who had used it for divination. Her owners resented this loss and dragged Paul and Silas before the magistrates; they were beaten and thrown into prison. An earthquake loosed their fetters and opened the doors, and Paul persuaded the jailer not to harm hi mself. The jailer took them home and was baptized. The magistrates ordered their release and apologized when Paul pointed out they were Roman citizens. Paul traveled to Thessalonica and taught in a synagogue, but jealous Jews caused an uproar and attacked the house of Jason, whom they accused for receiving thos e challenging the decrees of Caesar by saying Jesus is king. Paul and Silas left at night and went to Beroea, where the controversy continued. Silas and Timothy stayed there while Paul went on to Athens. There he was questioned by Epicurean and Stoic philosophers. Paul observed their statue to the "unknown god" and pro claimed the God who made the world as Lord of heaven and earth and who gives to all the breath of life. He quoted their poets that "In him we live and move and have our being" and that we are his offspring. Now God commands everyone to repe nt and has given assurance by raising a man from the dead. From Athens Paul went to Corinth, where he met Aquila, who had left Italy with h is wife when Claudius expelled the Jews in 49. Paul sent Timothy to encourage th e congregation at Thessalonica, and then from Corinth Paul wrote two letters to the Thessalonians. Paul said he had not used words as flattery or to cover greed nor did he seek glory. He was gentle like a nurse taking care of children. Paul advised them to abstain from fornication, that they each take a wife in holines s and honor. They are taught to love one another. They should admonish the idle, encourage the faint-hearted, help the weak, and be patient with all. Do not rep ay evil with evil but always seek to do good to everyone. Paul tried to show by his work a good example and advised them not to feed those who will not work. Th ey should have nothing to do with anyone who refuses to obey what is in the lett ers, not treating him as an enemy but warning him as a brother so that he may be ashamed. Paul preached in Corinth for a year and a half. Jews brought Paul before a tribu nal, but Gallio refused to intervene in questions of Jewish law. Then Paul retur ned to Antioch by way of Ephesus and Caesarea. After traveling through Galatia, Paul came to Ephesus again and stayed there more than two years. Paul baptized t hem, and they received the Holy Spirit. Many people burned their books on magic, and a riot occurred over the Ephesians' faith in the goddess Artemis. From Ephesus Paul wrote to the Corinthians because it was reported to him that t here was quarreling among them. He warned that the immoral person sins against t

he body; but the body is the temple of the Holy Spirit given by God. So they sho uld glorify God in their bodies. The single who cannot exercise self-control sho uld marry, for it is better to marry than to burn with passion. Paul noted that knowledge "puffs up" but love builds up. Just as the body has many members, so t hey are the members of one body in Christ and drink of one Spirit whether they a re Jews or Greeks, slaves or free. The famous 13th chapter of the first letter t o the Corinthians emphasizes the importance of love. No sacrifice is worth anyth ing if one does not have love. Love is patient and kind, not jealous nor boastin g, not arrogant nor rude. Love does not insist on its own way, and it is not irr itable nor resentful. Love does not rejoice at wrong but at what is right. Love bears all, believes all, hopes all, and endures all. Prophecies, tongues, and kn owledge will pass away, for these are imperfect; but love never ends. Faith, hop e, and love remain, but the greatest is love. Paul's patriarchal sexism shows wh en he holds it shameful for a woman to speak in church. He warned them not to be deceived, because bad company can ruin good morals. In his second letter to the Corinthians Paul reminded them that we all will be j udged by Christ and will receive good or evil according to what one has done in the body. Yet God in Christ has reconciled the world, and so he beseeched them o n behalf of Christ to be reconciled to God. The day of salvation is now, and Pau l commended them as servants of God through afflictions, hardships, calamities, beatings, imprisonment, tumult, labors, watching, and hunger that they endure by purity, knowledge, tolerance, kindness, the Holy Spirit, genuine love, truthful speech, and the power of God, using the weapons of justice. Treated as impostor s, yet they are true; as unknown, yet they are well known; as dying, yet they li ve; as punished, yet they are not killed; as sorrowful, yet they are joyful; as poor, yet they are rich; as possessing nothing, yet they have everything. Talkin g like a foolish madman, Paul recalled that he had been lashed by the Jews five times, was beaten with rods three times, and was stoned once. While on this third missionary journey probably about 55 Paul wrote to the Galat ians. Most of this letter emphasizes the importance of faith, but the last two c hapters do not forget that ethics is important too. The whole law is fulfilled b y loving your neighbor as yourself. But if they bite and devour each other, they may be consumed. Paul advised them to walk by the Spirit and not gratify the op posed desires of the flesh which include fornication, impurity, licentiousness, idolatry, sorcery, selfishness, dissension, party spirit, envy, drunkenness, car ousing, and so on. If they walk by the Spirit, they will not have self-conceit n or will they provoke each other nor envy each other. The spiritual should restor e one found trespassing in a spirit of gentleness. They should bear each other's burdens in order to fulfill the law of Christ. They should not be deceived, bec ause God is not mocked: everyone will reap what they sow. Whoever sows in the fl esh will reap corruption, while one sowing in the Spirit will reap eternal life. Do not grow weary of doing good, because if we do not lose heart, we shall reap in due season. So take the opportunity to do good to all, especially to those i n the community of faith. Paul's letter to the Romans was written before he went to that great city, but h e was hoping to visit them on his way to Spain. He observed that God will render to everyone according to their works. Those patiently doing well will be given eternal life; but the factious who disobey the truth will find wrath and fury. T he Gentiles, who act naturally by the law, have it written on their hearts. Paul found joy in suffering because it produces endurance, character, and hope that the Holy Spirit will be poured into our hearts. He gave thanks to God that those who were slaves of sin have obeyed the standard of teaching and have been freed of sin to become servants of justice. Paul wrote about how carnal sin can cause one to do the evil one does not want t o do. So when one wants to do what is right, evil lies close by; the mind serves God, but the flesh serves sin. Thus to set the mind on the flesh is death; but

to set the mind on the Spirit is life and peace. For the flesh is hostile to God and does not submit to God's law. But they can be in the Spirit rather than in the flesh. Though their bodies may be dead, their spirits may be alive because o f the Spirit of Christ and justice. For all who are led by the Spirit of God are children of God. Spirit intercedes for the saints according to the will of God. God works for good in those who love God and are called to this purpose. If God is for us, who can be against us? God justifies, but who condemns? Who can answ er back to God? Will the one who has been molded question its molder? In Romans 12-14 Paul discussed the duties of a Christian believer. They should n ot conform to this world but be transformed by the renewal of their minds to pro ve the will of God that is good, acceptable, and perfect. They may use their gif ts in prophecy, serving, teaching, exhorting, contributing, aiding, and doing ac ts of mercy. Love one another and outdo each other in showing honor. Be aglow wi th the Spirit and serve God. Be glad in hope, patient in tribulation, and consta nt in prayer. Contribute to the needs of the saints and practice hospitality. Bl ess those who persecute and curse you; rejoice with the joyful and weep with tho se weeping. Live in harmony with each other; do not be proud or conceited but as sociate with the lowly. Do not repay evil with evil, but consider what is noble in the sight of all. Live peaceably with everyone. Never avenge yourselves, for vengeance is God's. Rather if your enemy is hungry or thirsty and you feed them and give them drink, you will be heaping burning coals on their heads. Thus over come evil with good. Paul recommended they be subject to governing authorities and pay taxes, because he assumed the authorities were ministers of God. They should owe no one anythi ng except to love them as oneself. They should put on the Lord Jesus Christ and not make provision for gratifying the desires of the flesh. They should not pass judgment on others, because all will stand before the judgment-seat of God. Thu s put no stumbling blocks in the way of a brother. The sovereignty of God is jus tice and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit. Happy is the person who has no reason to judge oneself. Once again Paul traveled in Macedonia and Greece, quoting Jesus in Miletus that it is more blessed to give than to receive. On his way to Jerusalem Paul visited Philip in Caesarea. The prophet Agabus predicted that Paul would have his hands and feet bound in Jerusalem, and he would be delivered to the Gentiles. At Jeru salem Paul greeted James and told of his ministry to the Gentiles. After seven d ays Paul was dragged from the temple and beaten until the Roman soldiers arreste d him and bound him with chains. The tribune allowed Paul to speak to the people in Hebrew. Paul said he was born a Jew at Tarsus and was educated in Jerusalem by Gamaliel. He had zealously persecuted believers in Christ, sending men and wo men to prison. He got a letter from the council and journeyed to Damascus to bri ng more in bonds to Jerusalem for punishment. Near Damascus he saw a great light , fell down, and heard the voice of Jesus ask him why he was persecuting him. Pa ul asked what he should do, and the voice told him to go to Damascus and do what he was told. He was blinded by the light until Ananias came and baptized him. A t Jerusalem Paul was guided to take his testimony far away to the Gentiles. At this point the Jews cried out against Paul, and the tribune ordered him into the barracks to be scourged. Paul asked the centurion if it was lawful to scourg e a Roman citizen without a trial. The next day the tribune unbound Paul and sen t him to the Jewish council. The high priest Ananias ordered Paul struck on the mouth. When Paul realized the council was divided between the Sadducees and the Pharisees, he said he was a Pharisee being tried for believing in resurrection. This caused dissension and brought the Pharisees to his defense; but some Jews p lotted to kill him. The Roman soldiers took Paul to the governor Felix at Caesar ea. Felix determined that he was accused in regard to Jewish law but was charged with nothing deserving punishment. Five days later the high priest Ananias and his spokesman Tertullus put their case against Paul before the governor. Paul re

plied that he did not stir up the crowd but was tried on the resurrection issue. Felix put off his decision and allowed Paul visitors. When Festus succeeded Felix, he left Paul in prison as a favor to the Jews. Paul asked to be tried before Caesar's tribunal and appealed to Caesar, and so Festu s decided to send him to Rome. The visiting Jewish king Agrippa II wanted to hea r Paul, and Paul told him his story. Agrippa told Festus that Paul could have be en set free if he had not appealed to Caesar. On his journey Paul experienced a shipwreck and was considered a god for surviving a snake bite at Malta; there Pa ul also healed people. At Rome Paul stayed with the soldier who guarded him, and for two years he lived there preaching about the Lord Jesus Christ. According t o tradition Paul was beheaded in Rome during Nero's persecution of 64. Paul wrote to the Philippians that they should not be selfish or conceited but i n humility consider others better than themselves. Look to the interests of othe rs and use the mind they have in Christ Jesus. They must work out their salvatio n in fear and trembling, for God is working in them. By not grumbling or questio ning they will be blameless and innocent children in the midst of a crooked and perverted generation; holding fast to the word of life, they will shine as light s in the world. To the Colossians Paul suggested they kill their fornication, impurity, passion, evil desire, and coveting, while putting away anger, wrath, malice, slander, an d foul talk. When they put on renewed knowledge in the image of their creator th ey will no longer lie to one another. As holy and beloved of God they may put on compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness, and patience, forgiving each other as the Lord has forgiven them. Paul advised the wives to be subject to their hus bands and the husbands to love their wives and not be harsh with them. Children should obey their parents, but fathers should not provoke their children. They w ill receive reward for their work; for there is no partiality, and the wrong-doe r is paid back for the wrong done. Slaves should obey their masters, and masters should treat their slaves justly and fairly, knowing they have a master in heav en. Paul wrote Philemon on behalf of his slave Onesimus, whom he persuaded to return to his master. Paul would have kept him with him during his imprisonment, but h e preferred not to do so without Philemon's consent so that his goodness would n ot be compelled but be by his free will. Paul urged Philemon to take him back no t as a slave but as a beloved brother, asking him to receive Onesimus as he woul d receive Paul. While still imprisoned in Rome, Paul wrote to the Ephesians not to lose heart ov er what he is suffering. He asked them to lead a life worthy of their calling wi th humility, gentleness, and patience, tolerating one another in love, and eager to maintain the unity of Spirit in peace. He urged them to put off their old ma nner of life corrupted through deceitful lust, but renew their minds in the spir it of God in true justice and holiness. Put away falsehood and speak the truth, for we are members of one another. One may be angry but not sin; but do not let the Sun set on your anger. Let the thief turn to honest work in order to give to those in need. Put away bitterness, anger, slander, and malice, being kind, ten der-hearted, and forgiving. Do not participate in works of darkness but expose t hem to the light. Of marriage Paul wrote that a man shall leave his father and m other and be joined to his wife, the two becoming one. Let him love his wife as himself, and let the wife respect her husband. Finally they should be strong in the Lord by standing up to the wiles of the devil and against the ruling powers of the world in the present darkness. The pastoral letters to Timothy and Titus attributed to Paul may have been writt en by a disciple. To Timothy he recommended love from a pure heart and a good co nscience with sincere faith. Once again women are not allowed to teach or have a

uthority over men, but they must keep silent. Anyone not providing for family re latives has disowned faith and is worse than an unbeliever. Those persisting in sin should be reprimanded before all so that others will be afraid. Those wantin g to be rich fall into temptation, ruin, and destruction. "For the root of all e vils is the love of money."5 This craving causes some to wander away from the fa ith. The rich are charged not to be proud nor to set their hope on what is uncer tain but on God, who provides us with everything we enjoy. Be rich in good deeds by being liberal and generous in order to lay a good foundation for the future. To Titus he wrote that to the pure all things are pure; but to the corrupt noth ing is pure, since their minds and consciences are corrupted. Those who profess to know God, but deny this by their actions, are disobedient and detestable. Christian Fathers and Martyrs to 180 Clement of Rome may have known Paul at Philippi. According to Eusebius, Clement was the third bishop of Rome from 92 to 101. His letter to the Corinthians urges repentance, which can be learned from past generations. He recommended humility and advised them to obey God rather than those who excite strife and tumult by adhering to those who truly cultivate peace and not to hypocrites who merely pro fess it. They should hold to God's will and let their children be trained as Chr istians. Clothing themselves in concord and humility and always exercising selfcontrol, they may stand apart from evil-speaking. The good worker receives bread , but the lazy cannot look his employer in the eye. Cleave to the holy, innocent , and just, and they shall be made holy. Clement was concerned that the church of Corinth was engaging in sedition agains t its ministers because of one or two persons. They should return to the practic e of brotherly love, because love unites people with God. Love does not give ris e to seditions but does everything in harmony. They should all pray for God's me rcy and live blamelessly in love free from human partiality for one above anothe r. He implored forgiveness for all transgressions and asked the leaders of sedit ion to respect the common hope. Clement urged them to do whatever the majority c ommands, that the flock may live in peace under its appointed ministers, conclud ing that those who caused the sedition should submit themselves to the ministers and receive correction. During the reign of Trajan (98-117) fanatical Jews accused some Christians. The second bishop of Jerusalem, Simeon, son of Clopas, was crucified in 107. Either the same year or a few years later the Antioch bishop Ignatius was condemned to death, transported to Rome, and killed by wild beasts in the Colosseum. Authors of "The Martyrdom of Ignatius" wrote that while falling into a brief slumber the y saw Ignatius suddenly standing by and praying for them. In 112 the Younger Pliny, while representing the emperor in Bithynia and Pontus, wrote to Trajan about the problem of the Christians. He admitted he had little knowledge about them. He would ask those brought before him if they were Christi ans and would warn them they would be punished if they admitted it three times. Those persisting he ordered executed, unless they were Roman citizens, in which case he sent them to Rome for trial. Those who denied it he made repeat an oath to the gods, offer wine and incense before a statue of Trajan, and revile the na me of Christ. He found that some had met regularly to chant verses honoring Chri st as a god and taking an oath to abstain from robbery, adultery, and breach of trust. Those who said they gave up these practices he released except that he to rtured two slave women who were deaconesses. Pliny brought this to the Emperor's attention because a great many people from every age and class were being broug ht to trial, and it was likely to continue. Trajan wrote back to Pliny that Christians were not to be hunted down; but if br ought before him and the charge is proved, they must be punished. Those denying they are Christians were to be pardoned. Trajan noted that anonymous pamphlets s hould play no part in any accusation, for this would be out of keeping with the

spirit of his era. Hadrian (r. 117-138) wrote that Christians were to be sentenc ed if convicted of an actual illegality; but anyone who prosecuted them hoping f or financial reward should be punished. "The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles" was probably written about 120 and summari zed the ethics of Jesus and the new church. The two ways of life and death are d ifferentiated. They way of life is loving God and one's neighbor, obeying the tr aditional ten commandments of Moses, and following the more subtle teachings of Jesus in regard to anger, lust, charity, and so on. The way of death went from t he more crude violations of murder, adultery, theft, rape, false witness, magic and witchcraft to the more subtle infringements such as hypocrisy, deceit, arrog ance, greed, jealousy, filthy talking, boasting, and vanity. Christians are enco uraged to receive good teachers, apostles, and prophets of the way of life but t o turn away from those who teach the opposite. They are warned against any proph et staying more than three days or asking for money, unless one is asking for th ose in need. Yet they should provide for the true prophets, for the worker is wo rthy of support. More detailed rules of Christian behavior were later developed in the Constitutions of the Holy Apostles. About 130 a letter by a "disciple of the apostles" was sent to Diognetus, who ma y have been the tutor of Marcus Aurelius. This letter describes Christian worshi p as having a common table but not a common bed. Though in flesh they should not live after the flesh but pass their days on earth as citizens of heaven. Obeyin g prescribed laws, they may surpass them in their lives. They love all even thou gh they are persecuted. Though condemned to death, they will be restored to life . Though poor, they make many rich. Though dishonored, they are glorified. Thoug h reviled and insulted, they are blessed and honored. Though punished as evil-do ers, they are good. The author of this letter compared Christians in the world to the soul in the bo dy. They dwell scattered throughout the world but are not of the world. The godl iness of the Christians is invisible. Just as the flesh hates the soul when it i s prevented from enjoying pleasures, so the world hates the Christians because t hey abjure pleasures. Yet as the soul loves the flesh, Christians love those who hate them. Christians are imprisoned in the world; yet they preserve the world. Noting the example of the Christ, violence has no place in the character of God . As more of them are punished, their numbers are becoming greater still, showin g the power of God. Happiness is not found in ruling over weaker people or in be ing rich or by violence towards inferiors, but in taking on the burden of one's neighbor and distributing to the needy what one has received from God. The autho r believed they will love and admire those who suffer punishment because they do not deny God. About 155 the church at Smyrna was persecuted, and the martyrdom of its bishop P olycarp was described in a circular letter sent first to the church at Philomeli um. Polycarp made little effort to flee. When he was arrested, he was allowed to pray for two hours, causing many to repent. Polycarp was taken by the Roman pea cekeeper and had his leg dislocated when he was thrown from a chariot. He was as ked to revile Christ in a stadium, but he confessed himself a Christian, refusin g to repent from what is good in order to adopt what is evil. Polycarp gave than ks and prayed, but the flames only surrounded his glowing body. He was pierced w ith a dagger, and his blood extinguished the fire. Jews objected to the Christia ns being given his body, and so it was burned. By this account Polycarp was the twelfth Christian martyred in Smyrna and Philadelphia. Polycarp's witness and de ath checked the fury of people, and the proconsul suspended the persecution. Perhaps written about 100, the epistle of Barnabas differentiated Christian wors hip from Jewish traditions. The epistles of Barnabas, Clement, and Polycarp, and The Shepherd of Hermas were read aloud in many churches in the second and third centuries. The popular allegory also called The Pastor of Hermas was probably w

ritten about the middle of the second century, although it was attributed to the Hermas mentioned in Paul's letter to the Romans. This book attempts to give the moral teachings of the church in a way the common people can understand. The first book of The Shepherd of Hermas describes five visions of the narrator in which the church appears to him as a woman. He is saved for not departing fro m the living God because of his simplicity and self-control. The best fitting st ones of the building represent the apostles, bishops, teachers, and deacons who live purely and reverently. Those cut down and thrown away are the children of i niquity who believe in hypocrisy and do not depart from wickedness. The rough st ones knew the truth but did not remain in it. The cracked stones are in discord and are not at peace with one another. The white and round ones that do not fit into the building are those with worldly riches who because of their wealth deny the Lord in times of tribulation; they cannot be made useful until their riches are cut down, like round stones made square. Other rejected stones represent th ose who refuse baptism because chastity is demanded. The tower is supported by s even women who symbolize faith, self-restraint, simplicity, honesty, chastity, i ntelligence, and love, which arise from each other in that sequence. Some corrup t their flesh through the abundance of food by not distributing to those who are needy. After the narrator prays at home, a shepherd comes to him with twelve commandmen ts, defined in the second book. They may be summarized as follows: 1) Believe in one God who created all things. 2) Be simple and honest and avoid speaking evil of anyone. 3) Love the truth and speak only what is true. 4) Guard chastity and do not think about fornication with another's wife. 5) Be patient and do not be overcome by anger. 6) Trust the attending spirit that is just, gentle, and peaceful, but disregard the spirit that is wrathful, bitter, and foolish. 7) Fear God and keep God's commandments. 8) Restrain yourself from the evils of adultery, fornication, wicked luxury, boa sting, insolence, lies, hypocrisy, and slander. 9) Put away doubt and pray to God. 10) Remove grief and put on cheerfulness. 11) Test prophets by their actions and trust spiritual power which comes from Go d. 12) Put away wicked desires and put on the desire for justice. The shepherd concluded that if he believed these commandments are easily kept, t hey would not be hard; but if he imagined they cannot be kept, then he would not keep them. In the third book the pastor elucidates the teachings of the church with ten all egorical similitudes. Instead of buying lands, one should buy afflicted souls by visiting widows and orphans and spend one's wealth on them. The elm tree of ric hes does not give fruit; but it can support the vine that symbolizes the poor wh o intercede with God. As living trees cannot be distinguished from the dead in w inter, so the just and unjust appear the same in this world; but in summer livin g trees bear fruit, and in the world to come the just are happier. The fasting t he pastor recommends is keeping the commandments and precepts by abstaining from evil and serving the Lord with a pure heart. The voluptuous tear themselves awa y from God and will suffer, but the temperate are fed by the shepherd. The sheph erd explains to the narrator that in repenting as the head of the household he m ust undergo some afflictions, but all the afflictions will end if he walks in th e commandments. Eventually all will be rewarded according to their repentance an d good works. Those who purify themselves with their whole heart will be healed of their former transgressions by the Lord. Yet some may become worse after know ing God, for such are more responsible for doing evil than the ignorant.

An allegory of twelve mountains categorizes believers into these groups: 1) apos tates, blasphemers and those betraying servants of God; 2) hypocrites and teache rs of wickedness; 3) the rich preoccupied with business; 4) the doubtful who hav e the Lord on their lips but not in their hearts; 5) the obstinate who learn slo wly while pleasing themselves; 6) those who slander one another; 7) those who pi ty and help one another; 8) apostles and teachers who preach the word of God; 9) those who use the ministry to plunder widows and orphans to gain possessions fo r themselves; 10) bishops who gladly provide hospitality; 11) those who cheerful ly lay down their lives for the son of God; 12) those whose hearts are as pure a s those of infant children. The shepherd urges everyone to heal themselves, for the Lord dwells in those who love peace. Curiously in the last section the sheph erd sends virgins to live with them as sisters and brothers in a daring Christia n experiment in communal living during this era. Justin Martyr was born about 110 in Samaria although apparently he was not a Jew . He studied philosophy and became a disciple of Socrates and Plato before being won over to the good message of Jesus the Christ. His first defense of the Chri stian faith was addressed to Emperor Antoninus Pius and his philosopher sons on behalf of all nations that are unjustly hated and abused. He began by pointing o ut that reason directs the truly pious and philosophical to love only what is tr ue even if death is threatened. He adopted the Stoic idea that no evil can be do ne to one unless that person does evil. Justin wrote, "You can kill, but not hur t us."6 If they are not convicted of anything, reason forbids wronging blameless people. Justin considered it his obligation to inform authorities of Christian life and teachings so that he would not be complicit with their mental blindness . If those continue to do what is not just after learning the truth, they will h ave no excuse before God. Nothing can be decided about good or evil merely by a name. They are accused of being Christians, but to hate what in Justin's view is excellent is unjust. They are not atheists because they believe in the one true God. Justin demanded that they be judged for their actions not simply for being Christians. Like Plato Ch ristians believe in judgment after death, but by Christ instead of by Minos and Rhadamanthus. Justin argued therefore that Christians believe they cannot escape the knowledge of God; they live decently because of the penalties they would su ffer if they did not. Formerly delighting in fornication, now they embrace chast ity; formerly using magic, now they dedicate themselves to God; before they valu ed acquiring property, now they share with those in need; before they hated and destroyed one another, now they pray for their enemies and attempt to persuade t hose who hate them unjustly to live by good precepts. Justin noted that many hav e changed their violent and tyrannical dispositions to learn patience. Justin noted that in the recent revolt the Jewish leader Bar-Cochba ordered Chri stians cruelly punished unless they would deny Jesus Christ. Justin learned from the prophets that chastisements and rewards are rendered to the merit of one's actions. He did not believe fate determined such things and argued that if it we re fated to be either good or bad, one would not be capable of both opposites no r would there by so many transitions from one to the other. In his second defense addressed to the Roman Senate, Justin compared Christ to S ocrates, who was similarly accused of introducing new divinities. Justin himself had been converted from Platonism when he heard Christians slandered and saw th em holding to their beliefs fearless of death. Justin prayed that his little boo k be published, because it is human nature to know good and evil. Those condemni ng Christians, whom they do not understand, and inflicting death on them are con demning themselves. In a long dialog with the Jew Trypho, Justin described how h e studied Stoic, Peripatetic, Pythagorean, and Platonic philosophy and how these led him to God. A flame was kindled in his soul as he began to love the prophet s and the friends of Christ. He then goes on to argue why Christianity is superi

or to many practices of Judaism. Apparently the Cynic philosopher Crescens stirred up a persecution, which in 165 resulted in the martyrdom of Justin and six others who stated they were Christi ans. They were brought before the judgment seat of the prefect of Rome and were asked to obey the gods and submit to the Emperor. Justin replied that obeying th e commandments of their savior Jesus Christ is worthy of neither blame nor conde mnation. Justin explained they worship the God of the whole creation; they meet in various places; but Justin had been communicating the truth from only one par ticular home since he came to Rome. The prefect Rusticus asked him if he believe d he would ascend to heaven after being beheaded, and Justin answered that he wa s convinced of that. When the prefect warned them that they would be punished if they would not sacrifice to the gods, Justin said they expected to be saved by their Lord Jesus Christ when they came before the more fearful and universal jud gment-seat of their Lord. The other martyrs also refused to sacrifice to idols, and they were all led away to be scourged and decapitated according to the law. Tatian (110-172) was an Assyrian who studied with Justin Martyr at Rome. After t he death of his teacher he founded an ascetic sect emphasizing self-control refe rred to as the Encratites. Tatian harmonized the four gospels into one version. In his address to the Greeks Tatian wrote that humans are to be honored as fello w humans but God alone is to be feared. He suggested dying to the world by repud iating its madness while living in God by laying aside one's old nature. He beli eved we are not created to die, but we die by the fault of our own free will by selling ourselves into slavery through sin. God did not create evil, but we mani fest wickedness. Because we have done so, we are able to reject it. We must seek and find what we have lost by uniting our soul with the Holy Spirit to attain u nion with God. God's perfection is without flesh, but humanity is flesh. The sou l bonds with the flesh as it is enclosed within the body. Yet if the body is lik e a temple, God is pleased to dwell in it by its representative spirit; but if t he body is not a temple, humans excel beasts only in articulate language. Tatian criticized the profligacy of buying and selling human beings as gladiator s, who kill and are killed for entertainment. Tatian turned from human slaughter and Roman religion to retire into himself so that he could discover the truth. Obeying the commands of God, Tatian rejected human opinion. Now not only the ric h pursue this philosophy, but the poor are freely instructed. Thus they admit al l who want to hear, including old women and the young, though the licentious are kept at a distance. Tatian eventually condemned all sexual connection as impure , thus rejecting marriage, as he did also eating of meat and drinking of wine. Theophilus was born about 115 and was converted to Christianity by studying the holy scriptures. He was the sixth bishop of Antioch from 168 to his death in 181 . According to Jerome he commented on the Gospels arranged in a harmony and on t he book of Proverbs. His extant three books to Autolycus defend Christianity in much the same way as Justin Martyr did. When his friend Autolycus asked him to s how him his God, he replied that if his person was shown, he would show him God. God may be seen and heard by the eyes of the soul and the ears of the heart whe n these are opened. Eyes of the soul covered by sin and evil deeds are blind. To see God the soul must be kept pure like a burnished mirror. Theophilus criticiz ed the immorality of the Greco-Roman gods, citing Saturn for cannibalizing his c hildren, Jupiter for incest and adultery, Hercules for burning himself, Bacchus for raging while drunk, and Apollo for fleeing Achilles, seducing Daphne, and ne glecting Hyacinthus; Venus was wounded, and Mars pesters mortals. About 170 Melito observed that Christians in Asia were being persecuted as never before by shameless, greedy sycophants. In 177 the churches in Lyons and Vienne of Gaul were subjected to various tortures and martyrdoms. Vettius Epagathus sp oke in defense of the Christians and was executed himself for admitting he was a Christian too. The bishop Pothinus was thrown into a dungeon at the age of nine

ty and died after two days. In his History of the Church Eusebius included a det ailed description of the martyrdoms of the virgin Blandina, Sanctus, Maturus, an d Attalus by wild beasts in the arena; Roman citizens were beheaded. Because of their love of Christ and the Spirit of the Father they experienced martyrdom in joy; but the unfaithful were tormented by their conscience. The Athenian philosopher Athenagoras is said to have been won over to Christiani ty while reading the scriptures in order to controvert them. He wrote a defense of Christianity and sent it to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus about 1 77. His treatise on resurrection also still exists. He complained to these emper ors that their government allows Christians to be harassed, plundered, and perse cuted for their name alone. He pleaded that they suffer unjustly, contrary to al l law and reason, and he asked that this slaughter instigated by false accusers be stopped. The charge of atheism is easily refuted, because Christians worship the one God of all. Even the uneducated and old women are taught to do good work s, not to strike back when struck nor go to law when robbed, to give to those wh o ask, to love their neighbors as themselves, and even love their enemies. Chris tians do not believe God requires bloody sacrifices. Athenagoras also criticized the absurd representations of the Greek gods. In responding to outrageous charges of cannibalism and sexual orgies, Athenagora s noted that vice often has made war on virtue, citing the examples of Pythagora s and three hundred of his followers being burned to death, the banishment of He raclitus and Democritus, and the Athenians executing Socrates. So far are the Ch ristians from committing murder that they refuse to attend the spectacles of gla diators and believe that women using drugs to bring on abortion commit murder. A thenagoras argued that the Christian belief in immortality and an omniscient God who judges prevents them from doing wrong. For if we believed that we should live only the present life, then we might be suspected of sinning, through being enslaved to flesh and blood, or overmastered by gain or carnal desire; but since we know that God is witness to what we think and what we say both by night and by day, and that He, being Himself light, sees all things in our heart, we are persuaded that when we are removed from the present life we shall live another life, better than the present one, and heavenly, not earthly (since we shall abide near God, and with God, free from all change or suffering in the soul.7 Notes 1. Mark 12: 29-31 tr. Sanderson Beck. 2. Matthew 6:9-13 tr. Sanderson Beck. 3. Ibid. 11:29-30. 4. Luke 23:46 tr. Sanderson Beck. 5. 1 Timothy 6:10 tr. Sanderson Beck. 6. The First Apology of Justin 2 tr. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson in Th e Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume 1, p. 163. 7. Athenagoras, A Plea for Christians 31 tr. B. P. Pratten in The Ante-Nicene Fa thers, Volume 2, p. 146. 1999 -2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents Empire of Augustus and Tiberius Jesus and His Apostles Roman Decadence 37-96

Rome Under Better Emperors 96-180 Roman Empire In Turmoil 180-285 Roman Power and Christian Conflict 285-395 Augustine and the Fall of Rome 395-476 Goths, Franks, and Justinian's Empire 476-610 Good Message of Jesus the Christ Index to Gospel Passages Beck home

Beck home Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan to 1453 Vietnam Cambodia Burma and Thailand Java, Sumatra, and Malaya Korea Japan to 794 Japan's Heian Era Murasaki's Tale of Genji Feudal Japan 1192-1300 More than 25,000 years ago Negroid Pygmies migrated into southeast Asia, followe d by Australoid and Melanesian Negritos and Papuans. Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, and most of the islands of the Pacific developed their own isolate d cultures and native beliefs but were not affected by literate civilization unt il the arrival of sailing vessels in the 16th century. Before southeast Asia was influenced by the great civilizations of China and India, they developed the cu ltivation of rice, domesticated the ox and buffalo, used iron and other metals, and sailed by navigation. An aristocracy, owning slaves and wearing gold and sil ver jewelry, prospered under royal favor. Women were more important in their cul ture, and descent was matrilineal. Indigenous beliefs recognized the spirit in a ll things, worshipped the ancestors and the god of the soil, and built shrines i n high places. Vietnam Chinese immigrants and the spread of Hindu culture in the region merged with nat ive practices in Indochina. In 112 BC under Han emperor Wu Di the Chinese conque red Nam Viet and made it the province of Qiao-ji. Many Chinese scholars fled to this province during the revolutionary era of Wang Mang (9-23 CE). After her hus band was executed by the Chinese in 39 CE, the noble lady Trung Trac led a rebel lion of tribal chiefs, declaring herself and her sister queens; but three years later the local aristocracy was crushed, and a centralized Chinese administratio n was imposed. As the Han dynasty declined, the Chinese governor of Qiao-ji Zhe Sie (r. 187-226) became independent. In 248 CE the coastal community to the south called Lin-yi (Champa) pillaged the north and battled the Chinese along the Song Giang. Fan Xiung became king of Li n-yi in 270 and joined Funan's Fan Xun in a ten-year war against Qiao-ji (Dongki ng), whose governor asked the new Qin dynasty for military aid in 280. Lin-yi ki ng Fan Yi opened diplomatic relations with China four years later. Fan Yi reigne d for more than half a century and was succeeded by his Chinese prime minister W en in 336, who used force to extend their disputed northern border until his dea th in 349, though his son Fan Fo restored that conquered territory to the Chines e. The Chinese attacked Champa in 431 but were driven away. The new governor of Dongking, Tan Ho-chu, in 446 attacked the Champa capital near Hu and was said to have taken 100,000 pounds of gold. Champa supplemented rice agriculture with tra de and piracy.

In 541 Li Bon rebelled against the Chinese governor and declared himself king of Nam Viet three years later; but three years after that, he was defeated. Anothe r rebellion led by the Li family was crushed in 602. Twenty years later the Tang dynasty established a protectorate over the "pacified south" they called Annam. Qiao-ji with its capital at Dongking became one of four prefectures. For a cent ury the Chinese ruled in relative peace that allowed prosperity, as Chan Buddhis m emphasizing meditation spread. In 722 Mai Thuc Loan captured the capital with the help of Chams and Khmers, proclaiming himself emperor, but his rule did not last. In 767 Javanese invaders were driven away from Annam by the Chinese imperial com missioner Zhang Boyi, but seven years later they destroyed the Champa sanctuary at Nha-trang. In 791 Phung Hung gained control of Annam's capital, and his son P hung An ruled for a few years until he surrendered to the Chinese Protector; thi s enabled Champa led by Harivarman I to reclaim two provinces until protector Zh ang Zhou drove them out in 808. In the mid-9th century Nanzhao began raiding Ann am and captured the capital in 863; the next year the Chinese general Gao Pien l ed a large force that defeated Nanzhao seven times and cleared them out of Annam . Gao Pien was appointed imperial commissioner and built the citadel of Dai-la-t hanh near modern Hanoi. Champa's Indravarman II (r. 854-893) restored good relat ions with China and built the new capital Indrapura, while his successor Jaya Si nhavarman I developed friendly relations with Java. With China in turmoil after the fall of the Tang dynasty, Vietnam became indepen dent in 939, as the rebellion's commander Ngo Quyen became king over three provi nces north of the Champa kingdom. In 979 Champa king Paramesvaravarman helped Le Hoan seize the Vietnamese throne; but after he put the Vietnamese envoy in pris on, this Champa king was killed when a Vietnamese invasion destroyed Indrapura. Amid the disorder Luu Ky-Tong deposed Le Hoan and seized the Champa throne also. One year after the death of Luu Ky-Tong in 989 the Cham resistance movement put Harivarman II on the throne. With the help of the Buddhist monk Van Hanh in 1009 Ly Cong Uan was proclaimed k ing of Dai Viet, and the next year they established the capital at Thang-long (H anoi). Considered devout and a friend of the common people, Ly Cong Uan canceled tax debts while collecting tax on the royal estates, allowing agriculture to fl ourish. His son Ly Phat Ma (r. 1028-1054) was well educated to succeed him. Afte r putting down uprisings led by his three brothers and crushing a rebellion stim ulated by his promoting a concubine to royal status, Ly Phat Ma strengthened roy al control and promulgated the Minh-dao (clear way) law code in 1042. The campai gn he led against Champa two years later destroyed their capital at Vijaya and k illed their king Jayasinhavarman II, gaining so much plunder that taxes were red uced, as the capital returned to Dongking. His son Ly Nhat Ton (r. 1054-1072) co nsolidated the royal control but irritated the imperial Chinese court with claim s of his own empire. Fear of devious Song policies on the border caused him to f ight the Chinese from 1057 to 1061. After being attacked by Champa in 1068, he r e-enacted his father's expedition the next year. Instead of beheading the Champa king, he had Rudravarman III taken captive to Dongking and freed him when he fo rmally surrendered Champa's three northern provinces. Champa's Harivarman IV cul tivated better relations with Dai Viet by sending them tribute until the end of the century. Ly Can Duc was only six when he became king in 1072, and he ruled until 1127. In 1075 Dai Viet commander Ly Thuong Kiet made a surprise attack on Song borders a nd left placards appealing to reformer Wang Anshi's adversaries among Song offic ials. After years of negotiation Song and Dai Viet officials agreed on a border that became so sacred it still exists. Ly Can Duc died childless, and future Ly kings were dominated by their mothers' clansmen. Champa's relations with Dai Vie t remained good until the mid-13th century except for a brief attempt by Champa' s king Jaya Indravarman II to regain the three lost provinces in 1103 and an enc

roachment by Jaya Indravarman III with Angkor ruler Suryavarman II in 1132, thou gh his refusal to help the Khmers against Dai Viet in 1145 led to a devastating Khmer invasion of Champa. Jaya Harivarman I reunited a torn-apart Champa four ye ars later. In 1177 Champa sent a naval force up the Mekong River and pillaged An gkor, causing resentment among the Khmers that brought another Cambodian invasio n that divided Champa in 1190. A Cham was made ruler of Panduranga as a vassal o f Cambodia and was named Suryavarman; but after crushing rebels he captured Vija ya and declared independence. Khmer forces finally drove him out in 1203, and fo r the next seventeen years Champa was part of Cambodia. By the end of the 12th century Dai Viet was suffering chronic civil war. The Tra n clan inaugurated a new dynasty in 1225 and soon began using the Chinese examin ation system to recruit educated officials. Mid-century border wars between Cham pa and Vietnam were halted suddenly in 1257 when the Mongols pillaged Hanoi, tho ugh the Vietnamese soon forced them to withdraw. In 1285 Kublai Khan's son Togan was defeated by Vietnam, while his ally Sogatu was beaten and driven into Champ a, where he was killed. Champa's Indravarman V ended the war by sending tribute to Kublai Khan. Cambodia Funan king Fan Chan sent a mission from the Malay peninsula to a court on the Ga nges. His successor Fan Xun received diplomats from China, but he joined Champa in the ten-year war against Chinese imperialism that began about 270 CE. The Fun an king in the mid-fourth century was described by Chinese records as a Hindu. A rock inscription found on the Malay peninsula attributed to this period in the Pallava alphabet has been translated from Sanskrit as the following: Karma accumulates through lack of knowledge. Karma is the cause of rebirth. Through knowledge it comes about that no karma is effected, and through absence of karma there is no rebirth.1 In 484 Funan king Jayavarman sent the monk Nagasena to China to ask for help aga inst the Lin-yi which was denied. By then the national religion there was Shaivi te, and Buddhism was also practiced. Cock-fighting and pig-fighting were said to be the national sports, and trial was by ordeal. When Jayavarman died in 514, h is son Rudravarman murdered the heir and seized the Funan throne. He raided Dong king in 543 while Vietnamese leader Li Bon was asserting independence from China ; but Li Bon's general Phaum Tu defeated the Funan raiders. Four years later the Chinese suppressed Li Bon's Cham revolt. After Rudravarman's death in mid-centu ry the Funan power was somehow overthrown. Bhavavarman reigned in the second half of the 6th century and claimed sovereignt y over both Champa and the kingdom the Chinese called Chenla. China's Sui dynast y imposed tribute on Champa king Sambhuvarman in 595, and ten years later the Ch inese invaded and plundered the Chams. After the Tang dynasty came to power in 6 18, relations with Champa improved. In 627 Chenla king Ishanavarman completed th e conquest of Funan by annexing its territory, and he cultivated relations with Champa by marrying a Cham princess. In the middle of the 7th century Jayavarman I invaded Laos up to the Nanzhao border, and the Khmers used hydraulic technique s developed in the north to improve agriculture. The Chenla empire suffered civi l wars and turmoil for about a century. In 722 Upper Chenla joined an attack on the Chinese governor of Dongking, but they were defeated. Lower Chenla was attac ked, and Champa was raided in 774 and 787 by Malay pirates from Java. Cambodia's Angkor era began with the long reign (802-850) of Jayavarman II, who established himself as the Khmer god-king. His son Jayavarman III (r. 850-877) w as known for hunting elephants. He was succeeded by his cousin Indravarman I (r. 877-889), who oversaw the construction of an artificial lake and irrigation wor ks. His son Yashovarman I made the Siemreap River change course into a vast rese

rvoir and had the first city of Angkor laid out. He also sponsored the building of a hundred monasteries for Shaivites, Vaishnavites, and Buddhists. Jayavarman IV (r. 928-942) usurped the throne and abandoned Angkor, but Rajendravarman II ( 944-968) overthrew that usurper's son Harshavarman II and made Angkor the capita l again. Cambodians invaded Champa in 945 and carried off a gold image of Bhagav ati. Jayavarman V's reign (968-1001) was considered an era of learning and of br illiant ministers, many of whom were women. Suryavarman I (r. 1002-1050) took power "by the sword" during a civil war that l asted a decade. His son Udayadityavarman II (r. 1050-1066) was occupied with put ting down revolts, and his peaceful brother Harshavarman III (r. 1066-1080) was overthrown by the vassal prince Jayavarman VI (r. 1080-1107), who started a new dynasty amid civil strife. His older brother Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-1113) retreated to a monastery, though an inscription called his government prudent. S uryavarman II (r. 1113-1150) made Champa a vassal and annexed it when the Cham k ing would not support his invasion of Annam (Vietnam). He re-opened diplomatic r elations with China and oversaw construction of the largest religious building i n the world, occupying nearly a square mile. The king was deified as Vishnu and controlled an immense religious establishment. The year he died an expedition ag ainst Dongking failed. Although Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150-1160) ruled as a Buddhist, it did not see m to matter; but his younger brother Yashovarman II, ruling for only six years, had to put down a revolt of peasants tired of being exploited for royal extravag ance. He was killed by the ambitious chief Tribhuvanadityavarman. In 1167 the us urping Champa king Jaya Indravarman IV began attacking Cambodia, and ten years l ater the Chams sacked Angkor, killing King Tribhuvanadityavarman. Cambodia exper ienced anarchy until 1181 when Jayavarman VII was enthroned at Angkor. His Khmer army then attacked Champa and sacked their capital of Vijaya, annexing that cou ntry from 1203 to 1220. Jayavarman was a Mahayana Buddhist, but at this time The ravada Buddhism was introduced into Burma by the Mon monk Chapata, and its simpl e ways of austerity, solitude, and meditation soon spread into Cambodia, where p eople were tired of big temples. Heavy taxation to support thousands of official s and hundreds of dancers, forced labor for construction, and military service f or wars had impoverished the people. Cambodia had to abandon control of Champa a nd gradually declined. Jayavarman VIII (r. 1243-1295) re-established Brahmin dom inance and allowed Buddhist images to be vandalized. A soldier, who had married Jayavarman VIII's daughter, seized power as Indravarman III (r. 1295-1308). Burma and Thailand Although influenced by Hindu culture, the Pyu and Mon people of Burma seemed to reject hierarchical divine kingship in favor of more freedom and equality for me n and women. Under the influence of Theravada Buddhism social status was gained not by accumulating wealth but by giving it to the Buddhist community, the king giving the most from taxes. In the 8th and 9th centuries much of Burma was domin ated by Nanzhao, whose ruler Kolofeng (r. 748-779) built a fortress by the upper Irrawaddy River. His grandson sent Pyu musicians to the Tang court in 800, foll owed by an embassy from the Pyu king. According to Chinese history, in 832 the P yu capital was plundered and 3,000 captives were sent to Yunnan (Nanzhao). One o f Pyu's eighteen vassal states that had been recognized by China was destroyed b y Nanzhao three years later. The Burmese capital of Pagan was founded in 849. Py u soldiers helped Nanzhao capture Hanoi in 863, and campaigns opened the old roa d across upper Burma to India. In lower Burma the Mons developed irrigation. Burma was united politically by King Anawrahta (r. 1044-1077), who championing T heravada conquered the Mons, the animistic Shans, and the Mahayana Nanzhao. Duri ng his reign the Burmese helped the Sinhalese king of Sri Lanka to defeat the Ch olas, and later they received the complete Tripitaka (Theravada Buddhist scriptu res) in Pali. Meanwhile his general Kyanzitha had gone into exile and came back to crush a rebellion and become enthroned with Brahmanic ritual in 1086; then he

promoted Mon culture in Burma. Kyanzitha sent two diplomatic missions to China and was succeeded by his half-Mon grandson Alaungsithu (r. 1113-1165), who nonet heless allowed Mon culture to decline at Pagan while he traveled around promotin g Buddhism, claiming that he was tamed and would tame the willful, comfort the t imid, wake the sleeping, cool the burning, free the bound, and calm hatred. Howe ver, much of his time was spent quelling revolts in Tenaserim and northern Araka n, and according to the Sinhalese Chulavamsa he interfered with trade between Sr i Lanka and Cambodia. After 1174 Mon influence seems to have been absorbed into the Burmese culture. I n 1190 the Mon monk Chapata returned from ten years of Buddhist study in Sri Lan ka, bringing back Theravada reforms that developed into a great popular movement in Indochina, in contrast to the usual imposing of Hindu or Buddhist religion o n the people by the court. Pagan ruler Narapatisithu (r. 1174-1211) tolerated Si nhalese ordination and "purified the church" of its excess wealth by making more of its land taxable. In 1215 the Thai state of Mogaung emerged in upper Burma; eight years later the powerful Shan state of Muong Nai was founded; 1229 is the traditional date for the founding of the Thai Ahom kingdom of Assam. In 1238 two Thai chiefs defeated the Khmer commander at Sukothai. Narapatisithu's grandson Kyazwa (r. 1235-1250) tried but failed to confiscate growing Buddhist wealth, an d in 1249 he decreed strict punishments to reduce gang robberies. Kublai Khan's conquest of Nanzhao in 1253 stimulated more Thai campaigns. Thai leader Mangrai (1239-1317) conquered Mons and Khmers and built his capital at Chiengmai, fighti ng off Mongols from the north. He is credited with a law code based on Buddhist principles. Narathihapate (r. 1256-1287) disregarded religion, bragging he had an immense ar my and 3,000 concubines. His pagoda took six years to build, but the Burmese peo ple commented when it was finished that a great country had been ruined. Narathi hapate had Kublai Khan's embassy executed and attacked little Kaungai for submit ting to China. His army was defeated by a Mongol force in a 1277 battle describe d by Marco Polo. A second Mongol invasion retreated from the excessive heat, sti mulating the Burmese to renew their raids on the Yunnan frontier; but the Mongol s came back in 1283 and defeated the Burmese at Kaungin, as Narathihapate fled. Northern Arakan proclaimed their independence, and the southern Mons rebelled. N arathihapate went north to submit to Yunnan but was murdered by his son in 1287. That year Kublai Khan's grandson Yesu Timur invaded Burma and made Pagan a prov incial capital in the Mongol empire. Its remaining prince Kyawswa was eventually murdered by Shan forces in 1299 when they burned Pagan. Ram Khamheng (r. 1279-1 317) organized the Thais from Sukothai while the Thai language was reduced to wr iting in 1283; an inscription claimed that he governed all with equal justice in a prosperous state. Java, Sumatra, and Malaya Organized states sprang up during the weakened Han empire by the end of the seco nd century CE in the northern Malay peninsula. According to a Chinese record, in 502 a king on the Sumatran coast was advised in a dream that if he paid tribute , merchants would multiply in his realm. By the 6th century a harbor community w as thriving in southeast Sumatra, and Java had several kingdoms. In 671 Chinese pilgrim Yi Zing found a thousand monks at Srivijaya on Sumatra, where Tantric Bu ddhism was already being practiced. After studying for fourteen years at the Nal anda university in Bengal, he came back to Srivijaya to translate texts from San skrit into Chinese before returning to China in 695. He noted that Malayu had be come a part of the Srivijaya kingdom, which was preparing to invade Java. Domina ting the strait of Molucca, the Srivijaya kingdom centered at Palembang controll ed the regional sea trade, sending camphor, aloes, cloves, sandalwood, nutmeg, c ardamom, cubeb, and other goods to China and India for the next four centuries. Javanese civilization developed puppet shadow theater (wayang), gamelan orchestr al music, and batik textiles. Gradually through trade and diplomatic contacts Hi

ndu culture spread, though they never used the caste system, and women maintaine d their higher status. The Shailendra dynasty honored Mahayana Buddhism with mas sive temples built in the 9th century at Borobudur and Prambanan, while Shaivism thrived in east Java, where Sindok (r, 929-947) founded a new dynasty that last ed until 1222. He was succeeded by his daughter, and a Balinese ruler introduced Javanese culture by marrying Sindok's great granddaughter. Shadow dramas (wayan g) retold the Hindu stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana in Javanese tran slations with their own servant clowns (panakawans). Srivijaya's relations with China improved after the Song dynasty started in 960, but they had to fight a war with King Dharmavamsa of east Java from 990 until t hat king was killed in a counter-attack in 1006. Atisha studied with renowned sc holar Dharmakirti in Sumatra from 1011 to 1023 and went on to reform Tibetan Bud dhism. Raids by the south Indian Cholas devastated this Malay empire in 1025, en abling the half-Balinese Javanese king Airlangga to reconquer the territories lo st by his father Dharmavamsa. Late in the 12th century Jambi replaced Palembang as the Srivijaya capital; but as it gradually lost control of trade, it was disr egarded and deteriorated into piracy. The 1295 Yuan History noted that after muc h killing the Malayu had finally submitted to Thailand. Airlangga (r. 1019-1042) put both the Shaivite and Buddhist priesthoods under ro yal control. Before his death he divided his Javanese kingdom between his two so ns. Jayabhaya (r. 1135-1157) prophesied his country's downfall before a rise to greatness and was commemorated in the poem Harivamsa. The two kingdoms were reun ited by the marriage of Bamesvara (r. 1182-1194) of Kadira to a Janggala princes s. According to the Javanese Chronicle Pararaton, amid discontent in Janggala, K en Angrok usurped power by murdering the regent of Tumapel and marrying his wido w Ken Dedes. Then while the last of Airlangga's line, Kertajaya, was quarreling with the clergy, in 1222 Ken Angrok attacked and defeated Kadira to rule as King Rajasa and build a new capital, which came to be called Singhasari. Rajasa was murdered five years later by Ken Dedes' son Anusapati, who ruled 21 years until he was murdered by another son of Rajasa, Tohjaya. He died that year and was suc ceeded by Vishnuvardhana (r. 1248-1268). Javanese king Kertanagara (r. 1268-1292) took over the Malayu in southern Sumatr a in 1275 and conquered Bali in 1284. In 1289 Kertanagara mistreated Kublai Khan 's envoy, who was demanding tribute. Before the Mongol invasion the Kadiri princ e Jayakatwang rebelled and killed the orgy-occupied Kertanagara, whose son-in-la w Vijaya joined with the Mongols to overthrow Jayakatwang; then as King Kertaraj asa he forced out the Mongols and established the capital at Majapahit in 1293. Korea By the 8th century BC people with an Altaic language were practicing agriculture and using bronze on the Korean peninsula. Four centuries later having benefited from iron plows, a league of tribes formed the Choson state. During China's Per iod of Warring States refugees brought Chinese culture. About 190 BC Wiman, who was either Chinese or served the Chinese, usurped the Choson throne and establis hed a capital on the Taedong River at what is now Pyongyang. In 109 BC Han emper or Wu Di sent an army of 60,000 with a navy of 7,000 to invade the peninsula, an d the next year Choson was destroyed, as Wiman's grandson was killed. The Chines e set up four commanderies, though by 75 BC this had been reduced to Lolang (cal led Nangnang in Korean). The Puyo tribe living along the Sungari River in Manchu ria had their chief recognized as wang (king) by the Chinese in 49 CE, and Kogur yo developed into a state during the long reign of Taejo that began four years l ater. Puyo made slaves of war captives and criminals, executing as many as a hun dred at a time to accompany a clan patriarch to the grave. Koguryo also held sla ves, excelled in iron work, and trained all their men for the military. In 242 CE Koguryo king Tongchon attacked people near the mouth of the Yalu River , and two years later the Chinese state of Wei sent a force of 20,000 and took t

he Koguryo capital, while Puyo made an alliance by supplying the Chinese troops. Paekche in the southwest was thriving by the time of its eighth king, Koi (r. 2 34-286). When Xienpei tribes from the north attacked Puyo in 285, the Chinese Qi n state helped fight them off. Koguryo tribes ended four centuries of Chinese co lonial exploitation of fish, salt, iron, timber, and farm produce by overthrowin g Lolang in 313. The Xienpei, who became the Earlier Yen, invaded Koguryo in 342 , and four years later they ended Puyo independence by carrying off their king a long with 50,000 prisoners. In 371 Paekche with 30,000 men attacked Koguryo and killed their king Kogugwon. The next year Buddhism was introduced into Koguryo f rom China, and a school of higher education established by King Sosurim taught t he Chinese classics. With few exceptions Korean would be written in Chinese char acters until the 15th century. In 384 a Chinese monk brought Buddhism to Paekche . Silla emerged as a powerful state in the southeast under its king Naemul (r. 356 -402). Paekche had urged Japan to attack Silla in 369, and during the reign of P aekche king Kungusu (r. 375-383) scholar Wang In took the Chinese classics to th e Japanese court at Yamato. But when Japan invaded Silla in 399, a Koguryo army of 50,000 came to their neighbor's defense; another Japanese expedition five yea rs later was also turned away. Koguryo expanded its kingdom under warrior king K wanggaeto (r. 392-413), and during the long reign of king Changsu (r. 413-491) K oguryo formed diplomatic relations with the northern Wei and other Chinese state s, "pitting one barbarian against another."2 In 475 a Koguryo army of 30,000 cap tured Paekche's capital and killed their king Kaero (r. 455-475), and in 494 the state of Puyo disappeared when its aristocratic families migrated to live under Koguryo rule. Paekche king Tongsong (r. 479-500) strengthened defenses and form ed a military alliance with Silla against Koguryo. Silla king Pophung (r. 514-539) formalized the aristocratic social hierarchy in a code of laws with his Bone Rank system. Conservative Silla did not officially recognize Buddhism until a monk was martyred in 528. Paekche king Song (r. 523-5 53) spent most of his reign importing Confucian and Buddhist culture from Liang China, but in 551 he attacked Koguryo with Silla and was killed after the latter 's army encroached into his territory. While Koguryo was suffering a civil war, Silla king Chinhung (r. 540-575) sent a force into the upper Han area, and then defeated Paekche in taking the lower Han. Silla built the Tanghang fortress in t he Han valley, which not only separated Koguryo from Paekche but gave Silla acce ss to the gulf of Namnyang (Inchon) and Chinese commerce. Chinhung trained men i n group cooperation and national service in the Hwarang (Flower Youths) program. The Buddhist monk Wongwang Popsa wrote "Five Commandments for Mundane Life" to teach them to serve the king loyally and their parents with filial piety, be tru e to their friends, not retreat in battle, and not destroy life indiscriminately . Silla also practiced the Hwabaek system of consensus decision-making with conf erences of selected aristocrats until the king's power supplanted it. Koguryo encroached on the Chinese empire by crossing the Liao River in 598, and after five years preparation in 612 Sui emperor Yang Di sent an army reported as one million soldiers. Koguryo garrisons held out, and a detachment of 300,000 C hinese soldiers that marched on the capital at Pyongyang fell into a trap; it wa s said that only 2,700 returned. In 631 Koguryo began building a wall that took sixteen years to complete, while in 642 General Yon Kaesomun seized power, the s ame year Paekche king Uija captured forty fortresses from Silla. Three years lat er Tang emperor Tai Zong personally led an army of 170,000 to invade Koguryo unt il losses and cold weather forced him to withdraw; three more Chinese invasions in the next decade also failed. Koguryo made all men serve in the army and do fo rced labor. In 655 Koguryo and Paekche invaded Silla, whose king Taejong asked for aid from Tang China. The despotic and unpopular Uija surrendered; but Paekche revived und er prince Pung's leadership, while China imposed its administration under prince

Yung and his alliance with Silla king Munmu (r. 661-680). In 667 Tang and Silla armies closed in on Koguryo and took Pyongyang the next year, removing 200,000 prisoners to China. While the Chinese set up their administration, Koguryo princ e AnSung surrendered to Silla and was appointed king. When General Kom Mojam rev olted against the Tang in 670, Silla reinforced him with 10,000 men, causing Tan g emperor Gao Zang to reinforce Pyongyang; but by 677 Silla forces had driven Ch inese forces completely out of the Korean peninsula to form a unified state. In 699 a former Koguryo general founded the state of Parhae (Pohai to the Chinese) in the north, which would last until it was overcome by the Khitan in 926. The Buddhist monk Wonhyo (617-686) studied Consciousness-Only philosophy and att empted to unify Buddhism into IlSung Pulgyo (One Vehicle) by writing 240 volumes , including a "Treatise on the Harmonious Understanding of the Ten Doctrines." T he handsome Wonhyo gave up celibacy and married. Later in life he devoted himsel f to practicing and promoting the Pure Land sect. Chinese Chan Buddhism, introdu ced in Silla in the mid-7th century, became popular as Son in Korea, and a natio nal school established in 682 gave aristocratic young men nine years of courses that culminated in examinations for public office. Silla's government followed the Chinese model and included a board of censors (S ajongbu) to investigate corruption and bad administration, though most power was reserved for the royal Chingol clan and other aristocrats. Koguryo and Paekche officials who supported Silla were given their old positions back, though in Pae kche at one rank lower. Silla experimented with Tang-like land reform in 689, an d in 722 King Songdok (r. 702-736) began distributing land directly to free farm ers between the ages of 20 and 60 who were liable to military and labor service. However, the great estates of the rich and Buddhist temples deprived the govern ment of tax revenue and prevented them from redistributing land by population, w hich was apparently abandoned by 757 when ownership was made hereditary. Two yea rs later Silla king Kyondkok (r. 742-764) reorganized the government again along Chinese lines to try to control the aristocracy; but in 768 civil war broke out , resulting in the assassination of the next king Hyegong in 780 and ending the dynasty that had unified Silla two centuries before. In the next 155 years succe ssion violence would bring twenty kings to the Silla throne. The government atte mpted to improve civil service by instituting examinations in 788. Major revolts occurred in the countryside in 822 and 825. In the 9th century the Buddhist monasteries had become so wealthy that the government put restrictions on their holdings. Conservatives in the royal Chingol clan struggled against Co nfucian reforms, while other aristocrats resented their exclusion from power. Me anwhile shipbuilding enabled Korean merchants to dominate trade with China and J apan and grow rich. Chang Pogo even recruited an army and navy to control piracy and soon had a force of 10,000 men. In 839 he helped place Sinmu on the Silla t hrone; but his attempt to make King Munsong marry his daughter was so resented t hat he was assassinated in 846. During the feuding wars great estates became little kingdoms and exploited their workers so unmercifully that peasant uprisings began in 889 and spread througho ut the country. A farmer's son, Kyonhwon, became a rebel leader and in 900 procl aimed the Later Paekche kingdom. Kungye, the son of an aristocrat, in 897 killed his master and led a revolt; four years later he proclaimed the Later Koguryo k ingdom, though he was thrown out for trying to impose the same system of Bone Ra nks. Wang Kon was from a wealthy family of merchants and served Kungye as a comm ander and then as prime minister. In 918 Wang Kon overthrew Kungye and founded t he Koryo dynasty, from which Korea is named. Two years later Kyonhwon's forces s acked Kyongju, killed King Kyongae, and put KyongSun on the Silla throne. KyongS un called on Wang Kon, whose forces then invaded Later Paekche, where Kyonhwon, thrown out in a power struggle, joined him. In 935 the last Silla king KyongSun surrendered to Wang Kon, who gave his eldest daughter to him in marriage and inc orporated Silla administration into his new state. The next year Wang Kon as Kor

yo's first king Taejo led an invasion that wiped out the Later Paekche regime an d unified the country. Taejo promoted Buddhism within limits, and using geomancy favored the cities of Kaeson and Pyongyang, while discriminating against people from inauspicious regions. The Koryo also used Chinese administrative methods, though after Kwangjong becam e king in 949, all opposition and suspected relatives were slaughtered. Seven ye ars later he weakened the aristocrats and increased tax revenue by promulgating a law that freed many people who had been unlawfully enslaved, although many her editary slaves who could be bought and sold still remained. Kwangjong also made landholding depend upon one's government rank. Farmers working government land w ere taxed a quarter of the harvest, but farmers on private land usually paid the landlord half. In 958 a more liberal examination system was adopted, though ari stocrats were still greatly favored. During the centralized bureaucracy of Songj ong (r. 981-997) the Confucian scholar Choe Sungno was influential. In 987 Songj ong ordered private weapons confiscated and recast as agricultural tools. In 993 a Khitan army of 900,000 crossed Koryo's northern border; but the Koreans were prepared, and their defense forced the Khitan to negotiate. Summoned to sq uelch a subversive plot, military administrator Kang Chao eliminated the conspir acy of Kim Chiyang but also assassinated King Mokchong, providing an opportunity for the Khitan Liao king to invade the next year with 400,000 troops. Kang Chao was captured and killed, and Liao forces besieged Pyongyang. The capital at Kae song was abandoned, resulting in raping, killing, and the destruction of many va luable monuments and documents, though Korean general Yang Kyu inflicted thousan ds of casualties on the retreating Liao army. Two military officers took control of the Koryo government in 1014. Four years later the Liao army crossed the fro ntier again; but a reorganized Koryo army decisively defeated them, and only a f ew Liao troops survived to return home the next year. Koryo laborers built a wal l around the capital in 1029, and by 1044 a wall along the northern border stret ched from the mouth of the Yalu River on the west coast all the way to Kwangpo o n the east coast. Iron coins were used, as a money economy developed, and Koryo culture prospered during the bureaucratic era of Munjong (r. 1046-1083). When the Confucian schola r Choe Chung retired from the government in 1055, he accepted private students, who were so successful that soon there were twelve such private schools. The cur riculum of government schools was improved too, and military subjects were dropp ed. When the Jurchen invaded Koryo in 1104, an army of 170,000 was organized tha t even included a unit of Buddhist monks; three years later the Jurchen forces w ere routed at Chongpyong. Military officers resented civilian superiority during King Uijong's decadent reign (1146-1170), and after being humiliated they slaug htered the royal party and banished Uijong, resulting in 25 years of civil war c ompounded by rebelling peasants resentful of Uijong's extravagance. Powerful mil itary families became great landowners, using their private armies to collect ar bitrary taxes from peasant farmers in the name of the government or in defiance of it. General Choe Chung-hon, who even executed his own brother for trying to marry hi s daughter to a crown prince, eventually gained control of the government in 119 7. The next year a plot of government slaves was discovered, and more than a hun dred of them were executed by drowning. In the next two years revolting peasants and slaves killed thousands of local officials, and in 1202 an army mutiny had to be put down. Choe implemented ten reforms he presented to the king, including removing extraneous officials, making taxes impartial, prohibiting construction of temples, and reducing aristocratic extravagance. While the king was a mere f igurehead, Choe in 1219 died and passed his power on to his son Choe U. In 1231 Mongol emperor Ogodei Khan sent an army to invade Koryo, and Choe U had to accept a humiliating and expensive peace. The next year the court took refuge

on the island of Kanghwa, while a monk killed the Mongol general Sartai with an arrow that led to the Mongol army's withdrawal. A 1235 Mongol invasion got to K yongju, and invasions between 1253 and 1257 sacked all the major cities, killed many, removed more than 200,000 male captives, and destroyed the 86,600 wood blo cks Koreans used to print the Buddhist Tripitaka. Choe U was assassinated in 125 8, and the next year prince Chon submitted to the Mongol court and became king a s Wonjong; but military officers resenting the submission seized power and repla ced Wonjong with his brother in 1269. The Mongols worked their way into the Kory o royal line by forcing Koryo kings to marry Mongol princesses. To support the M ongol invasions of Japan 35,000 Korean workers built nine hundred ships, though both attempts of 1274 and 1281 failed because of storms. As farmers suffered und er Mongol rule, many became brigands, while growing private estates decreased go vernment revenue. The national university system was reorganized under King Chun gnyol (r. 1275-1308) by adding buildings, providing scholarships for students, a nd seven professorships in Chinese classics and history. Japan to 794 People have been living on the islands east of the Korean peninsula for a hundre d thousand years. Pottery was used there ten thousand years ago. Agriculture and the use of bronze and iron arrived on the island of Kyushu with immigrants from China and Korea in the third century BC. This culture soon spread to the centra l Kanto plain on the largest island Honshu, as rice supplemented fish as the mai n food. By the third century CE an aristocratic culture similar to that of Korea was interring their leaders in huge tombs. These horse-riding warriors wore arm or, helmets, and used iron swords as well as iron plow-tips. Japanese chronicles claim that human sacrifice ended about 3 CE, but Chinese records of 247 CE ment ion the Japanese custom; animal sacrifices, usually oxen, lasted until the 7th c entury. Social differences were indicated by tattooing and body markings. The Ch inese history of the Wei dynasty recorded in 297 CE that about a hundred Japanes e tribes were ruled by hereditary kings and queens. Wars over royal succession w ere common. Shinto religion worshipped spirits (kami) in diverse forms; after the country wa s unified, the emperor or empress was considered a descendant of the Sun goddess Amaterasu. The Japanese were particularly concerned about pollution and dirtine ss, emphasizing cleanliness and ritual purity. Their word tsumi for sin or offen se derives from covering up or concealing, and shame was more prominent in their consciousness than guilt. According to the Kojiki the divine Izanagi and his wi fe Izanami produced the first offspring, but the first ones were badly made. The heavenly deities decided that was because the woman spoke first. The ritual was repeated with the man speaking first, and the offspring were all well made. Man y deities were created with Amaterasu ruling heaven, Tsukiyomi night, and Susano -o the ocean. The second book of the Kojiki describes how Emperor Jimmu extends his sovereignty over Japan from Yamato to Kyushu. In this source of patriotism a n oracle indicates that it is Amaterasu's will that Japan subjugate the land to the west (Korea), and Empress Jingu leads a swift conquest. Korean scholars were sent to Japan about 400 CE by the king of Paekche in gratit ude for their military assistance against the king of Koguryu in 391. The Japane se colony of Mimana held the southeast corner of the Korean peninsula; but their campaign to defend it was held up by Kyushu chief Iwai in 527, because he was i n league with the Korean Silla kingdom. Iwai was defeated, as the Japanese allie d themselves with Paekche against Silla. In 538 the king of Paekche sent to the Japanese court at Yamato a bronze statue of the Buddha with scriptures and a let ter praising the new religion. The Nakatomi steeped in native Shinto ritual and the Mononobe clan of warriors opposed Buddhism; but it was supported by their ri val Soga clan, who advocated opposing the Silla. The Soga were allowed to practi ce the new religion, but the image was thrown into a canal during an epidemic. T he Silla drove the Japanese off the mainland in 562. Soga Umako built a chapel f or his Buddhist experiments with Korean monks and nuns in 570. A succession batt

le in 585 resulted in Buddhist proponent Yomei becoming emperor, but he died two years later. Umako gathered enough forces to annihilate the Mononobe family at the battle of Shigisen, and Buddhism began to flourish under Emperor Sujun (r. 5 88-592) and the Soga empress Suiko (r. 593-628). Umako nominated Prince Shotoku (574-622) as heir to the throne. As regent Shotok u attempted to apply Buddhist and Confucian ethics to government. He did not ind ict the known murderer of the previous emperor but tried to persuade him of his wrong. In 603 this prince devised a system of twelve court ranks distinguished b y caps of different colors based on Korean models; the ranks in order were named after six Confucian values, greater and lesser: virtue, humanity, propriety, in tegrity, justice, and knowledge. The next year it was said Shotoku wrote the "Se venteen Article Constitution," although scholars believe the document was writte n later. Its ethical policies may be summarized as follows: 1. "Harmony is to be valued and an avoidance of wanton opposition to be honored. " 2. "Sincerely reverence the three treasures ... Buddha, the Law, and the Priesth ood." 3. Scrupulously obey imperial commands. 4. Ministers and functionaries should make propriety their leading principle. 5. Abandoning gluttony and covetous desires, deal impartially with suits. 6. Chastise the evil, and encourage the good. Do not conceal the good qualities of others, nor fail to correct wrongs. 7. Find the right man for each job. Unprincipled men in office multiply disaster s. 8. "Let the ministers and functionaries attend the court early in the morning an d retire late." 9. "Good faith is the foundation of right." 10. "Let us cease from wrath and refrain from angry looks, nor let us be resentf ul when others differ from us." 11. "Give clear appreciation to merit and demerit, and deal out to each its sure reward or punishment." 12. Do not let provincial authorities tax the people, for the sovereign is the m aster of all the people in the country. 13. "Let all persons entrusted with office attend equally to their functions." 14. "Be not envious." 15. Do not let private motives and feelings interfere with the public interest. 16. "Let the people be employed at seasonable times," not when they are busy wit h agriculture for food or mulberry trees for clothing. 17. Important decisions should not be made by one person but in consultation wit h others.3 The Chinese calendar was adopted in 604, and Shotoku sent three missions to the Sui court, though the Chinese emperor disdained to recognize the Emperor of the East as equivalent. In 624 Japan had 46 Buddhist temples with 816 monks and 569 nuns. After Prince Shotoku died, the Soga clan's power grew more tyrannical as U mako's son Yemishi and his son Iruka treacherously wiped out Yamashiro Oye and h is family. Prince Naka Oye got revenge when assassins murdered Iruka at court in front of the empress he had enthroned; Yemishi and his adherents fled, and many were killed. The next day Empress Kogyoku abdicated; as Kotoku (r. 645-655) bec ame emperor, Naka Oye was named crown prince. The Soga Kurayamada, who had joine d the plot, was named Great Minister, and Naka Oye married Kurayamada's daughter ; thus the Soga clan that had dominated ceremonial emperors and empresses for th e previous half century was greatly weakened. Nakatomi Kamatari (614-669), who founded the Fujiwara clan, assisted the takeove r and devised the great reforms in the reigns of Kotoku, Kogyoku again as Empres s Saimei (r. 655-661), and Naka Oye as Tenchi (r. 661-671). The four articles of the Great Reform of 646 increased imperial control by abolishing private owners

hip of land, appointing provincial and district governors, registering people in order to distribute land to cultivators equally, and replacing old taxes and fo rced labor with an imperial tax system. Though modified by Japanese customs, the se reforms were based on successful Tang dynasty practices of the Chinese. Large landowners were made provincial governors, while landed gentry became district supervisors appointing secretaries, accountants, and tax collectors; but weapons were collected and put in government storehouses. In 660 Paekche asked for Japan's help against Chinese forces and Silla; but afte r their army was defeated three years later, Japan withdrew from Korea and excha nged ambassadors with the Tang court. A civil war after Tenchi died was probably stimulated by nobles resenting the reforms; Tenchi's son was killed, but his yo unger brother became Emperor Temmu (r. 673-686). Temmu promoted Buddhism influen ced by ideals from the Golden Light Sutra such as the following: Know ye, Deva Kings, that the 84,000 rulers of the 84,000 cities, towns and villages of the world shall each enjoy happiness of every sort in his own land; that they shall all possess freedom of action, and obtain all manner of precious things in abundance; that they shall never again invade each other's territories; that they shall receive recompense in accordance with their deeds of previous existences; that they shall no longer yield to the evil desire of taking the lands of others; that they shall learn that the smaller their desires the greater the blessing; they shall emancipate t hemselves from the suffering of warfare and bondage. The people of their lands shall be joyous, and upper and lower classes will blend as smoothly as milk and water. They shall appreciate each other's feelings, join happily in diversions together, and with all compassion and modesty increase the sources of goodness.4 Adjustments to laws that followed the Tang went on for forty years and were prom ulgated in the Taiho code of 702. The few officials of the third rank or above w ere not to be punished even if they committed a serious crime. Japan maintained an imperial theocracy by keeping the emperor's department of worship over the co uncil of state; they considered the hereditary emperor more important than the m andate of heaven, and birth still counted more than ability in Japan. The policy that clan status must be considered as well as the service record in promotion was made law in 682. Empress Jito (r. 686-697) selected Fujiwara for the new cap ital. Japan now had 66 provinces with 592 districts, which were made up of towns hips of fifty households each. By the year 692 the number of Buddhist monasterie s and shrines had increased to 545. The rice land was divided equally to individuals except that females received on ly two-thirds as much; slaves, who were less than ten percent of the population, got two-thirds, female slaves thus getting less than half. Produce was taxed at about five percent, and males were obligated to provide labor or military servi ce. How well this land reform was implemented is questionable. In a 711 law thos e who could afford the expense were allowed to bring new land into cultivation, and twelve years later they could pass it on to the third generation; in 743 tit le to such lands was granted in perpetuity, and it could be sold. Land allotment s gradually faded away by the end of the 9th century. Buddhist institutions also increased their land, as pious believers, including emperors, made donations. P owerful individuals and institutions managed to get tax exemptions. Government a

uthorities, attempting to raise money, were subject to bribery. Military was a burden on peasants that could ruin a family, because the men also supply their own equipment and sustenance, while the upper classes often le to evade being drafted. Rural settlers for protection often turned to bles, many of whom lived in the capital.

service had to were ab rich no

The capital was moved to Heijo (Nara) in 710, and in the 8th century nine offici al embassies were sent from there to the Tang court. The ancient records of the Kojiki appeared in 712. In the preface O Yasumaro suggested that by contemplatin g antiquity manners that had fallen into ruin could be corrected, and laws appro aching dissolution could be illumined. The Nihongi chronicles were published in 720. The Taiho law code was revised in 718 to account for native customs. Japan used conscripted armies to subjugate the Edo in the north and the Hayato in sout hern Kyushu. Emperor Shomu (r. 724-749) presided over an impressive building campaign of Budd hist temples, abdicating to become a priest. A smallpox epidemic (735-737) carri ed away about a third of the population and all four prominent Fujiwara brothers . In 736 the Kegon sect based on Huayen Buddhism from China was introduced, and five years later the imperial government endowed a Kegon temple in every provinc e. In 740 17,000 troops were needed to quell a rebellion led by Fujiwara Hirotsu gu, who had resented being posted to Dazaifu in Kyushu and was executed. The 53foot high Rushana (Vairocana) Buddha took five years to build, used three millio n pounds of copper, tin, and lead, was gilded with 500 pounds of gold, and "open ed its eyes" in 752. Copper had been discovered in 708 and gold in 749. Many of the nobility became Buddhist priests. Fujiwara Nakamaro (known as Minister Oshikatsu) headed off a coup attempt by exe cuting former crown prince Funado and exiling his own older brother Toyonari to Dazaifu. To win popular support Oshikatsu reduced taxes and the farmers' work fo r the government from sixty to thirty days. He also planned a line of forts in t he north and an immense campaign of 500 ships and 40,000 men against Korea; but the latter caused resentment and was abandoned with his death. A civil conflict in 764 resulted in the capture and execution of Oshikatsu when Empress Koken (r. 749-758) regained the throne as Empress Shotoku. She made her lover, the Buddhi st priest Dokyo, Great Minister and the real power until she died in 770. Then c ourt officials banished Dokyo after he tried to take the throne himself. After t he reign (770-781) of Tenchi's grandson Konin, the council refused to allow a wo man on the throne, establishing a precedent. Raids in the north were troublesome until under General Tamuramaro Sakanouye conscripted armies were replaced with local militia in 792. Japan's Heian Era Emperor Kammu (r. 781-806), who moved the capital twice, strengthened central ad ministration, reduced Buddhist building and the size of monasteries while distan cing the government from the Buddhist temples at Nara. The second move in 794 to the Kyoto plain began the era called Heian, meaning peace, and Japan was fairly peaceful during much of the Heian era's four centuries. General Tamuramaro led campaigns (800-803) that pushed northern borders to Izawa and Shiba; the title o f shogun he was given as supreme general would be greatly prized for centuries. Northern lands exempt from taxes opened to settlers would attract pioneers who w ould produce fierce warriors. In 804 the Emperor sent an embassy to China that i ncluded Saicho (767-822) and Kukai (774-835). The next year Saicho (Dengyo Daishi) founded Tendai Buddhism at his monastic cen ter of Enryakuji on Mount Hiei, where it was considered a protector of the capit al. Saicho taught that everyone by practicing moral purity and contemplation can gain enlightenment and become a Buddha. He required Tendai monks to remain in s eclusion at his monastery for twelve years. Saicho believed that the wise are ob liged when any false doctrines are pointed out even in one's own sect, and he va

lued truth found in other sects. To maintain a partisan spirit by concealing one 's own errors and finding faults in others he considered wrong. Nothing could be more stupid than persisting in one's own false views or trying to destroy the r ight views of others. However, after some interchange with Kukai, he had to refu se to become one of Kukai's "regular students." Like the Chinese Tiantai, Saicho 's Tendai sect emphasized the efficacy of the Lotus Sutra. Kukai's family had opposed the move to the new capital. He studied in a Confucia n college, and at 24 he wrote Indications, a dialog between a Confucian, a Daois t, and a Buddhist. The Confucian emphasizes the pleasures of marriage, family, a nd friendship; the Daoist's goal is to use magic in order to prolong life; the B uddhist refutes their arguments by showing the impermanence of life, claiming th at Mahayana Buddhism is the highest truth. Kukai studied Sanskrit at Chang-an an d called his sect the true doctrine after the Sanskrit term Mantrayana, which be came Shingon in Japanese. He is credited with using Sanskrit to help invent the Japanese syllabary. In 816 Kukai (Kobo Daishi) founded the Shingon sect of esote ric Buddhism on Mount Koya. Kukai ranked religions in ten stages as 1) uneducate d, 2) Confucian, 3) Hindu and Daoist, 4) direct disciples of Buddha, 5) Hinayana Buddhism, 6) Hosso Buddhism, 7) Sanron Buddhism, 8) Tendai, 9) Kegon, and 10) S hingon. He taught that art is indispensable and reveals perfection. Kukai's emph asis on various arts and esoteric magical methods became quite popular. However, Tendai's third abbot, Ennin, returned from China in 847 and by adding Shingon's magical and esoteric rituals made Tendai the most popular sect in Japan. The Bu ddhist ethic against killing affected Japanese life by reducing the number of ex ecutions and meat eating. The capital required a police force in 810, and six years later the Kebiishi bec ame official police commissioners. As the Tang dynasty declined, the mission to China in 838 was the last imperial embassy for centuries, though contact continu ed through trade. The government stopped limiting ordinations in the 9th century , allowing Buddhism unfettered growth. The power of the Fujiwara clan increased by marrying their daughters to emperors and by means of their great wealth and e states in the provinces. Yoshifusa (804-872) was named Great Minister in 857, an d the next year when his infant grandson became Emperor Seiwa (r. 858-876), he a cted as Sessho (regent for a minor) and then became Kampaku (regent for an adult or dictator). Fujiwara MototSune (836-891) served as Sessho for Yozei (r. 877-8 84) and Kampaku for Koko (r. 884-887). In this way the Fujiwara clan would domin ate the imperial throne for most of the next three centuries, though Emperor Uda (r. 887-897) attempted to break the Fujiwara hold by not appointing a regent wh en MototSune died in 891 and by getting Sugawara Michizane appointed Minister of the Right in 899; but two years later the Fujiwara head Tokihira had Michizane sent into exile as governor of Dazaifu. However, Tokihira made enemies trying to enforce a simpler life at court and curb the power of the great landowners in t he country. In 914 Confucian scholar and state counselor Miyoshi Kiyotsura criticized the de clining public finances, extravagance, and the decaying morals of the ruling cla ss which he blamed on Buddhist and Shinto corruption. He complained that the uni versity had lost the revenues of its rice lands, resulting in starving students and poor education. Tokihira's brother Tadahira revived the regency in 930. The same year Taira clan chieftain Masakado began attacking his uncles, and in 935 h e defeated Minamoto Mamoru in Hitachi and took control of eight eastern province s; but after five more years of struggle he claimed to be emperor in a letter to prime minister Tokihira and was defeated at the Shimosa border when his allies failed to support him. At the same time Sumitomo, the former governor of Iyo, ra ided those shores and others with a thousand small ships. He was defeated in 941 while the Emishi were ravaging the northern province of Dewa. In 954 Sugawara F umitoki warned the Emperor that people were wasting their resources building pal aces and monasteries and in acquiring costly clothes and luxuries. He believed t hat those of high rank should set an example of simplicity, and he criticized th

e sale of offices and other dishonest conduct. Diaries from this era reveal both indulgence and a very refined and austere soci al code. Fujiwara Morosuke, who was Minister of the Right when he died in 960 wr ote the Testamentary Admonitions of Kujo-den, recommending a self-disciplined li fe to his heirs. He urged them to respect others, not allow self-assertion by re straining speech, and not doing anything that has no precedent. He enjoined fili al piety and believed that paying homage to the Buddha prevented misfortune. He detailed specific ways of taking care of one's person with pride and dignity. At court he advised solemnity, in private humanity and love. If someone committed a wrong. he suggested strictness and forbearance without giving way to anger. Ne ither should joy be excessive. He recommended giving one-tenth of the income to charity. The 13th-century history Gukansho considered 898 the end of an era followed by a transition of shaky imperial power until the Fujiwaras took full control in 967 with the appointment of Saneyori as Kampaku for Emperor Reizei. The scholar and poet Oye Masahira (952-1012) complained of many disappointments although he att ained the high fourth rank before he died. In 985 his finger was cut off by the sword of the palace guard Fujiwara Nariaki, who was executed because Fujiwara le aders were opposed to violent solutions to problems. Fujiwara Michinaga had immu ne estates throughout the country and dominated the court from 995 until his dea th in 1027. Their Kofukuji monastery was so powerful in the Yamato province that the abbot ruled instead of a governor. Michinaga strengthened his position by a llying himself with powerful warriors like those of the Minamoto clan. Under the Fujiwaras family connection was of primary importance, and candidates for offic e had to find a patron by intrigue, flattery, or other compromising behaviors. Tendai Buddhists had split in 933 when followers of Enchin at odds with the Enni n faction left Mt. Hiei and went to Miidera. Genshin (942-1017) in Essentials of Salvation taught turning away from hell and seeking the Pure Land of the wester n paradise by meditating on the name of Amida. Monasteries began recruiting merc enaries, and the first militant demonstration to the court was by Enryakuji monk s in 981. By the end of the 11th century all the great Tendai monasteries and th e several Shinto shrines had standing armies. The Tendai conflict caused Hiei mo nks to set fire to the Onjoji monastery at Miidera several times starting in 108 1. During the last two centuries of the Heian era militant armed monks from Kofu kuji in Nara as well as those of Mt. Hiei frequently stormed the capital with th eir demands, which were usually about land titles or politics. A peaceful govern ment was thus threatened by powerful religious institutions. In 1113 the Kofukuj i monastery sent 20,000 armed men against Enryakuji, and in 1165 those Hiei monk s burned down the Hosso stronghold at Kiyomizu-dera in Kyoto. Michinaga was succeeded by Yorimichi, who was Kampaku for fifty years. A Taira r evolt in 1028 led by TadatSune which attacked Kazusa, provincial capital of Awa, was suppressed by Minamoto Yorinobu three years later when TadatSune surrendere d. Efforts by three emperors in 1032, 1040, and 1056 to restore land laws or to resist Fujiwara claims were generally ignored by local authorities. Abe Yoritoki 's unauthorized collection of taxes and confiscation of property in Mutsu provin ce brought about the Nine Years War from 1050 with occasional truces until force s led by Minamoto Yoriyoshi and his son Yoshiiye defeated Yoritoki's son Sadato in 1062. The assisting Kiyowara family took over the Abe estates. A Fujiwara nam ed Kiyohira was adopted into the Kiyowara family, became commander of Mutsu and Dewa, and by his death in 1128 had built up an extensive domain. In the capital Go-Sanjo pursued agrarian reform; but he only reigned four years (1068-1072). Th ough he revived the Insei system of retired emperors exercising power, Go-Sanjo died the next year. Yoshiiye was appointed governor of Mutsu in 1083 and put down the Kiyowara famil y revolt in northern provinces known as the Later Three Years War. After Emperor

Shirakawa (r. 1072-1086) abdicated, he ruled by Insei (cloister government) as a priest for 43 years until he died in 1129; but he gave up much public land try ing to raise money to build monasteries and carve large Buddhist images and for venial extravagance, and the increasing immune estates further weakened the stat e. Minamoto Yoshiiye's military prestige enabled him to gather so many warriors and so much land that the pious Shirakawa, who opposed violence, issued an edict in 1091 forbidding farmers to give their land to Yoshiiye, and his retainers we re not allowed to enter the capital with him. Yoshiiye did return to Kyoto, and with his palace guards he was not afraid of sacrilege when putting down militant monks by force, killing several of their leaders on the streets in 1095. Taira military prestige grew after their general Masamori quelled a revolt in 1108 by banished Minamoto Yoshichika in Izumo. Masamori governed nine provinces in succe ssion, as did his son Tadamori, who was commissioned to suppress pirates by Empe ror Sutoku in 1135. Shirakawa's cloister rule was continued by his grandson Toba from 1129 until he died in 1156. Then a conflict between retired emperor Sutoku and reigning empero r Go-Shirakawa divided two Fujiwara brothers and members of the powerful Minamot o and Taira clans. Those supporting Go-Shirakawa led by Taira Tadamori's son Kiy omori were victorious over warriors led by Minamoto Tameyoshi. When Minamoto Yos hitomo was ordered to kill his father Tameyoshi, he refused. A Minamoto officer did the deed and then killed himself. About fifty of Sutoku's supporters were ex ecuted. Go-Shirakawa abdicated in 1158 in order to rule from a Buddhist cloister . While Kiyomori was on a pilgrimage, Yoshitomo and Nobuyori tried to seize powe r; but they were defeated by Kiyomori, and Yoshitomo was killed in 1160. Kiyomor i married his daughter to Fujiwara Motozane, who served as regent 1158-1166. His successor as regent Motofusa clashed with Kiyomori's son Shigemori in 1170, whi le Kiyomori ruled for the cloistered Go-Shirakawa. Kiyomori appointed sixteen of his relatives to high rank at court and thirty to mid-level positions, sending 42 court officials into exile; he also ordered the Inland Sea route repaired and encouraged trade with Song China. In 1177 Kiyomori persuaded Go-Shirakawa not to attack the Tendai monastery after their monks rescued Miyoun, whom he had arrested. That year a great fire in Kyo to destroyed most of the public buildings and colleges with many books. The next year Kiyomori's daughter, the empress, gave birth to a son who became Emperor A ntoku; but Kiyomori's dictatorial ways aroused the Shishigatani conspiracy of Fu jiwaras that was revealed by a spy and suppressed. Many believed that executing the monk Saiko brought ghostly vengeance on the Taira house. Kiyomori had moved to Fukuwara; but when Go-Shirakawa confiscated property of Kiyomori's son Shigem ori and his daughter Mori-ko when they died in 1179, he marched on the capital w ith several thousand men. Emperor Takakura abdicated and was succeeded by the in fant Antoku. Minamoto Yorimasa appealed for support from the east and north, and for five years the Minamoto and Taira clans fought the Gempei civil war won by the Minamotos. Kiyomori died of disease in 1181 after having attacked and burned the Todaiji and Kofukuji monasteries. After an initial defeat at Ishibashiyama, Yoritomo rallied Minamoto forces, and Taira HirotSune supported him with 20,000 men. With these forces from the east Y oritomo won the battle at Fujikawa and pursued the Taira army to the west. Yorit omo's nephew Yoshinaka's forces entered the capital in 1183, while Yoritomo esta blished his military headquarters (bakufu) at Kamakura in the Kanto plain. Confi scation of estates and plundering soldiers caused cloistered emperor Go-Shirakaw a to appeal to Yoritomo, who sent his brothers YoshitSune and Noriyori to attack Yoshinaka, defeating and killing him. The tactics of YoshitSune and Noriyori de feated the Taisha at Inchinotani and Yashima; then they completed their triumph in the naval battle at Dannoura in 1185 during which Emperor Antoku was drowned. Awards Go-Shirakawa gave to YoshitSune irritated Yoritomo; hearing rumors of Yo shitSune revolting with Yukiiye, Yoritomo sent a band of assassins, who were def eated at the capital by YoshitSune. Go-Shirakawa authorized YoshitSune and Yukii

ye to fight against Yoritomo; but the latter with a large force got him to rever se himself completely with an edict for Yoritomo to punish the two who had fled. Then at court Yoritomo was given the important authority to collect taxes on pri vate and public estates and to appoint stewards (jito) and protectors (shugo), w hich became hereditary. The child emperor Antoku had been replaced by four-yearold Go-Toba (r. 1184-1198), who served as cloistered emperor until banished in 1 221. YoshitSune retreated to the north where the old lord of Mutsu, Hidehira, ha d built the lavish Chusonji monastery at Hiraizumi. In 1189 Yoritomo ordered Hid ehira's successor Yasuhira to arrest YoshitSune, who when attacked committed sui cide instead of surrendering. Then Yoritomo's army of more than 100,000 men over whelmed Yasuhira's forces in Dewa, completing his conquest of Japan. Only after Go-Shirakawa died in 1192 was Yoritomo appointed shogun. Undisputed ruler, he ma de Kamakura his capital. The Heian era that had begun so peacefully ended in civ il war and with the establishment of a militaristic feudal system. Murasaki's Tale of Genji Japanese literature began with the importation of Chinese writing and developed also emphasizing short poems with natural metaphors, historical chronicles, and creating folk origins of place names called fudoki. Poems expressing feelings ab out nature and love were collected beginning in the 8th century. From 905 to 143 9 the imperial government published 21 anthologies of poetry. Early in the 10th century the "Tale of the Bamboo Cutter" emerged from folklore and was called the ancestor of all romances by Murasaki Shikibu. A bamboo cutter finds a tiny baby he raises as his daughter. The beautiful Kaguya-hime disdains marriage and requ ires five nearly impossible tasks of her five suitors. The first two are caught cheating, and the other three fail to achieve the mythic challenges. Finally Kag uya-hime even refuses the Emperor, and having completed her punishment on earth she ascends back to her heavenly moon world. Sei Shonagon wrote her Pillow Book while serving as a lady-in-waiting for Empres s Sadako during the last decade of the 10th century; Murasaki Shikibu soon was s erving in the court of a second empress Shoshi. Murasaki was likely influenced b y the Pillow Book, and in her diary she called Sei Shonagon self-satisfied and g ifted but prone to give free rein to her emotions in inappropriate situations. T he Pillow Book is an extraordinarily frank diary of Sei's experiences at court a nd her feelings about them. She described the manners and attitudes that annoyed her sensitivity and recounted numerous incidents that amused her. For example, she was quite concerned about the manner in which a lover would dress and leave her apartment in the middle of the night. She thought it shameful for a man to s educe a helpless court lady and then abandon her after making her pregnant. As p eople who seem to suffer she mentioned the nurse looking after a crying baby at night, a man with two mistresses witnessing their jealousy, an exorcist trying t o deal with an obstinate spirit, powerful men who never seem to be at ease, and nervous people. She considered sympathy the most splendid quality, especially wh en it was found in men. She thought it unattractive and absurd of people to get angry when someone gossips about them. She wrote her book in secret for her own amusement and never expected it to become public, which she regretted even thoug h it won praise. Lady Murasaki Shikibu was born about 973. Her father Tametoki was in the Fujiwar a clan and became governor of Echizen about 996 and later of Echigo; in 1016 he retired from government and became a Buddhist priest, outliving his daughter Mur asaki. She learned Chinese quickly while helping her brother with his lessons; b ut finding that scholarship made her unpopular, she hid her writing. In 998 she married a Fujiwara kinsman of the imperial guard named Nobutaka, and she had two daughters, one of whom wrote the novel Tale of Sagoromo. Her husband Nobutaka d ied in 1001. About four years later she entered the service of Michinaga's daugh ter, Empress Akiko (Shoshi). Murasaki described her majesty as innocent and impe ccable, as she gathered worthy young ladies around her. She asked Murasaki to te

ach her Chinese secretly, since this was considered too strenuous for women. At court Murasaki felt painfully inferior and kept things to herself. She was afrai d that by gradually parting with scruples she would eventually come to believe t hat shamelessness was perfectly natural. Although she was thought to be an ill-n atured prig by others, Murasaki herself believed that when someone got to know h er, they would realize she is kind and gentle. Murasaki Shikibu also wrote a diary that describes the birth of Empress first child, Prince Atsuhira, discusses life at court in a letter to a and collects anecdotes of court life. In it she wrote that those who do erve to be talked about and laughed at even though sometimes they do it ionally. She went on: Shoshi's friend, evil des unintent

We ought to love even those who hate us, but it is very difficult to do. Even the Buddha of profound mercy does not say that the sins against Buddha, the laws of religion, and priests, are slight. Moreover, in this muddy world it is best to let alone the persons who hate us.5 Murasaki began writing The Tale of Genji shortly after her husband died and fini shed it sometime between 1004 and 1022. The novel is set in the early 10th centu ry and comes up to her own lifetime. Genji is the Minamoto clan name of a commoner given to the emperor's son by a co ncubine, because a Korean physiognomist predicted that if he ruled, there would be disaster. As with the author, his mother dies when he is young. Genji falls i n love with his step-mother Fujitsubo, because she resembles his mother. Of all the women with whom Genji is intimate, he gets along least well with his older w ife Aoi; but she bears him the son Yugiri. Being handsome, accomplished, and of the royal family, Genji is able to have just about any woman he cares to love. A mong his illicit affairs Genji's long relationship with the jealous Rokujo leads to her spirit causing Yugao to died strangely in a deserted place; only Genji's friends and retainers helped him avoid a scandal. Recovering from an illness he meets the ten-year-old Murasaki, who somehow moves him deeply. He is able to pe rsuade her relatives his intentions are honorable and takes her to live with him in the palace. Fujitsubo also gives birth to his son, but the Emperor accepts t he future emperor Reizei as his because of the family resemblance. Rokujo's jeal ous spirit possesses his wife Aoi, causing her to die in childbirth. In despair Genji turns to the innocent Murasaki for affection, and they are married. Even a fter she dies, Rokujo's ghost still torments Murasaki. When Emperor Suzaku retires to a monastery, Genji marries his third daughter. Ev en though he loves Murasaki best, she resents Genji's alliance with the Lady of Akashi during his exile and the status of the third princess. Kashiwagi, the son of Genji's friend To Chujo falls in love with the third princess, and she bears him Kaoru. Murasaki wants to become a nun, but she becomes ill and dies. Kashiw agi is tormented that Genji knows his secret. In the last part of the novel the idealized Genji has died, and the world of Kashiwagi's son Kaoru and Genji's gra ndson Niou seems to have degenerated. Niou is handsome but not as sensitive, whi le Kaoru has the sensitivity but cannot win the two women he loves. They compete for the love of Ukifune, who cannot choose between them and attempts suicide. Murasaki Shikibu's writing is subtle, sensitive, and very descriptive of the cou rtly life, manners, and customs of this era. The following passage gives an idea of the self-discipline and her style: But even if a man's fancy should chance indeed to have gone somewhere astray, yet his earlier affection may still be strong and in the end will return to its old haunts. Now by her tantrums she has made a rift that cannot be joined. Whereas she who when some small wrong calls for silent rebuke,

shows by a glance that she is not unaware; but when some large offense demands admonishment knows how to hint without sever ity, will end by standing in her master's affections better than ever she stood befor e. For often the sight of our own forbearance will give our neighbor strength to rule his mutinous affections.6 Feudal Japan 1192-1453 Ill advised by Kagetoki, Shogun Yoritomo had his half-brother Noriyori killed in 1193 for suspected conspiracy, and the next year he ordered the execution of th e entire family of Yasuda Yoshisada, even though they had supported the Minamoto in the war. Yoritomo had established a Board of Retainers (Samurai-dokoro) as e arly as 1180 to assign military duties and decide on rewards and punishments. Th e Administrative Board (Mandokoro) of the military government (bakufu) at Kamaku ra was named in 1191 for central policy, and the Board of Inquiry (Monchujo) was made the final court of appeal. Yoritomo contributed to the rebuilding of the T odaiji monastery and other Buddhist projects. While Yoritomo was at Kamakura, Mi namoto Michichika at Kyoto replaced the Fujiwara Kanezane and in 1198 appointed Tsuchimikado emperor; before he could react, Yoritomo died the next year. Yoritomo's son Yoriiye was made shogun in 1202, and the next year the director ( shikken) of the Mandokoro was succeeded by Hojo Tokimasa of the Taira clan; ther eafter until 1333 that chief political office remained in the Hojo family. Yorii ye became ill and ordered Tokimasa killed; when that failed, Yoriiye abdicated a nd was murdered the next year, probably by a Hojo assassin. His eleven-year-old brother Sanemoto was made shogun, and Tokimasa became his regent. The next year deputy shogun Hiraga put down an uprising of the Taira clan's Ise family. In 120 5 a conspiracy of Tokimasa's wife Makiko was squelched by Yoritomo's widow Masak o and her brother Hojo Yoshitoki; Hiraga was killed, and Tokimasa was forced to retire. Yoshitoki became regent for the shogun. More factional strife in 1213 re sulted in Wada Yoshimori being killed and replaced as head of the Samurai-dokoro by Yoshitoki. In 1219 after attending a ceremony at the shrine of the Shinto wa r-god Hachiman, shogun Sanemoto suddenly had his head cut off by the sword of an assassin. In 1221 cloistered emperor Go-Toba tried to take power with the help of disappoi nted warriors, aggrieved landowners, and bitter Taira survivors in eastern Japan by declaring Hojo Yoshitoki an outlaw; but two large armies and cavalry led by Yoshitoki's son Yasutoki smothered the resistance and occupied the imperial city with about 100,000 men. The Bakufu ordered Yasutoki to banish Go-Toba and execu te the four generals and other leaders of the revolt. The extensive properties c onfiscated were assigned to vassals as stewards. Minor uprisings were put down a fter Yoshitoki died in 1224 and was succeeded by Yasutoki. Bakufu courts settled claims, as land was surveyed and distributed. Complaints of autocratic rule by stewards led to measures that moderated their excesses. In 1226 Yasutoki establi shed a state council (Hyojoshu) to advise him and make decisions for the new sho gun, eight-year-old Mitora. For the next century Hojo regents would rule the Bak ufu by repeatedly appointing very young shoguns. When a Korean envoy protested p iratical raids in 1227, Yasutoki maintained a good relationship with Korea by or dering the pirates arrested and put to death. Meanwhile drought, famine, disease, earthquakes, floods, and frosts devastated t he country. In 1230 a moratorium on debts and obligations was proclaimed, and th e next year tax rice was distributed to the poor. Feudal law was established in 1232 with the Joei Formulary that defined land rights and other laws. To prevent vendettas, abusive language and assault were to be severely punished. Women cou ld own land and retain after a divorce what they had before marriage. This law c ode aimed at "impartial verdicts without discrimination between high and low."7 Armed strife broke out in 1235 between the priests of the Iwashimuzu Hachiman sh

rine and the Kofukuji monks and between these monks and the mountain Hiyeizan mo nks, but the Bakufu managed to settle things by the end of 1237. For several dec ades Japan had a unified state and the rule of law. The old slavery by the 13th century no longer existed except for a few female servants. Yasutoki died in 1242 and was succeeded by his grandson TSunetoki, who died four years later and was replaced by his brother Tokiyori. His grandfather Adachi Ka gemori, an old warrior turned monk, urged the Hojo forces with Adachi warriors t o attack the conspiring Miura clan, resulting in the suicide of 500 Miura warrio rs in 1247. The ceremonial role of the shogun was reinforced in 1252 when the te n-year-old prince Munetaka was appointed, while his younger brother was serving as emperor. Along with copper coins to improve the money economy, Japan was impo rting from China luxury goods like silk, brocades, perfumes, incense, sandalwood , porcelain, and books, while exporting gold, mercury, fans, lacquer ware, scree ns, swords, and timber. "Family Instructions" were written by Hojo Shigetoki for his son Nagatoki, who a t 18 in 1247 was made deputy shogun. Shigetoki believed in the warrior code of e thics; but he noted that to rule, warriors need not only courage but understandi ng of their duties and of principles, such as revering gods and buddhas, obeying one's lord and parents, understanding the law of cause and effect (karma, or in Japanese inga), considering the results for future generations, being careful i n relationships, generous, firm and not cowardly, practicing military arts, whil e being just to all and sympathetic to the poor and weak. Shigetoki reminded his son that the key to discipline is fair treatment in rewards and punishments. On e should never act in anger, but let someone else administer the punishment; has ty decisions can lead to remorse. Any excess is disadvantageous, if not in this life, then in a future one. A good heart and the moral duty of the warrior are l ike two wheels of a carriage. Hold to the good even at the cost of one's family, not yielding to the strong. He recommended meeting enmity with kindness and ret urning good for evil. This may help the bad to reform; even if it does not, one will be rewarded in one's next existence. Shigetoki believed that women could be come enlightened and would enter paradise. Buddhist Honen (1133-1212) suggested chanting the nembutsu exclusively as the wa y to salvation in 1175, founding the Jodo sect (Pure Land) of Buddhism that grew quickly after the Gempei war ended in 1185. Criticized by established sects, Ho nen tried to control his followers by issuing in 1204 the Seven-Article Injuncti on in which he warned that those saying the nembutsu should not encourage sexual indulgence, drinking, or eating meat. Three years later he refused to give up h is faith in Amida to avoid exile. The year Honen died Kamo Chomei (1153-1216) wr ote "An Account of My Hut" in which he contrasted the miseries caused by the fir e of 1177, the typhoon of 1181, the famine of 1181-1182, and the earthquake of 1 185 with joys of the simple life he chose in a ten-foot square hut. Eisai (1141-1215) founded Rinzai Zen Buddhism after receiving transmission from the eighth Linji Chan patriarch of China. Eisai returned to Japan in 1191, but h is teaching of Zen was prohibited by the court three years later. He wrote The P ropagation of Zen as a Defense of the Nation and Drink Tea and Prolong Life. Zen schools concentrated on intuitive experience through meditation, koan study, an d the arts of everyday living rather than books, beliefs, and repetitive prayers . The Rinzai placed more emphasis on the transrational understanding of paradoxe s in koan stories and problems. In China Mumon Ekai (1183-1260) compiled 48 koan s in 1229 to guide monks toward awakening (satori). This Gateless Gate (Mumonkan ) was brought back to Japan by Muhon Kakushin (1207-1298). Dogen (1200-1253) stu died with Eisai and imported the Soto sect from China in 1227. Dogen taught that enlightenment can be attained by sitting in meditation (zazen). He irritated Mt . Hiei's clerics as he tried to separate Zen from their political intrigues. He wrote The Significance of the Right Dharma for the Protection of the Nation to a rgue that Zen meditation was the true Buddhism for Japan.

Shinran (1173-1262) was married and had seven children. He also disdained removi ng his outer robe when eating fish or fowl. Speaking for the bodhisattva Kannon he wrote the following poem: When karmic retribution leads the practitioner to violate the precepts of chastity, I will assume the body of a maiden and be the object of that violation. Having adorned his present life, at the time of his death I will guide him to rebirth in the Pure Land of Utmost Bliss.8 Shinran joined Honen's band in 1201 and went even farther than his master by not ing that the wicked might be more acceptable to Amida than the good, because the y throw themselves entirely on the mercy of the Buddha. He felt that one sincere invocation is enough and that additional repetitions were giving thanks to Amid a. Since his father killed life in his work as a fisherman, Nichiren (1222-1282) wa s considered an outcast. While people suffered earthquakes, drought, typhoons, f amine, and epidemics, he attacked Pure Land and Zen teachings, expounding the Lo tus Sutra as the only truth. His Treatise on the Establishment of the True Dharm a and the Peace of the Nation was published in 1260. Nembutsu followers in Kamak ura attacked Nichiren's hermitage and got the shogun to banish him to Izu the ne xt year. He noted that the Lotus Sutra predicted persecution during a period of dharma decay. Nichiren emphasized one's own efforts in chanting "Namu myoho reng e kyo," the name of the Lotus Sutra. He challenged orthodox ideas by stating tha t good works were not needed for a fortunate rebirth nor did evil deeds obstruct it. He believed evil could be removed by chanting. Nichiren taught human equali ty and doing away with all class differences. Prophesying the invasion of the Mo ngols and demanding the suppression of all other Buddhist sects, especially Amid a worshipers, Nichiren was sentenced to death for censuring the Hojo regency in Nakamura; but it was said that he was saved when lightning struck the executione r's blade. His preaching and the validation of his prophecy with the Mongol inva sion persuaded many followers. Mongol ruler Kublai Khan in 1266 began sending envoys from Beijing asking Japan to submit or face invasion, but they were ignored. In 1274 about 15,000 Mongol a nd Chinese troops with 8,000 Korean troops and 7,000 Korean sailors slaughtered defenders on the islands of Tsushima and Iki and then invaded Kyushu. After a ba ttle with Japanese warriors, the Koreans urged the Mongols to retreat because of a storm, which caused many losses. Further diplomatic demands resulted in regen t Tokimune twice executing Mongol envoys. Kyushu retainers (samurai) spent five years building a wall around Hakata Bay. In 1281 about 100,000 or more Mongols, Chinese, and Koreans invaded again; but a seasonal typhoon helped the samurai de feat them by destroying much of their fleet. Many Japanese believed that the pra yers of the nation had been answered by the "divine winds" (kamikaze). The natio n under the Bakufu government suffered great economic hardship because of the co ntinuing war preparations. Soldiers expecting compensation for their efforts wer e usually disappointed. Tokimune died in 1284, and his son Sadatoki, who succeeded him as regent, was on ly 14. The next year many in the Adachi family were destroyed by Taira YoritSuna for plotting to make their head Yasumori shogun, but eight years later YoritSun e and his main followers were killed too. When Kublai Khan died in 1294, the Bak ufu decreed that no more rewards for war service would be given. Between 1272 and 1318 the Kamakura Bakufu attempted to mediate competing imperia l lines by appointing alternating emperors in Kyoto. In 1297 another Act of Grac e tried to prevent the financial ruin of many by canceling debts; but the econom ic panic caused them to revoke it the next year.

Notes 1. Hall, D. G. E., A History of South-East Asia, p. 37. 2. Joe, Wanne J., Traditional Korea, p. 49. 3. Nihongi tr. W. G. Aston, 22: 12th year (604 CE), Vol. 2, p. 129-133. 4. Tsuji, Nihon Bukkyo Shi, Josei-hen, 194-95 in Sources of Japanese Tradition, p. 99. 5. Murasaki Shikibu, Diary in Anthology of Japanese Literature tr. Donald Keene, p. 154. 6. Murasaki, The Tale of Genji tr. Arthur Waley, p. 26. 7. Sansom, George, A History of Japan to 1334, p. 397. 8. "Shinran" by Takehiko Furuta in Shapers of Japanese Buddhism tr. Gaynor Sekim ori, p. 88. 9. Quoted by Waley, Arthur, The No Plays of Japan, p. 18. 10. Waley, Arthur, The No Plays of Japan, p. 64. 11. Ibid., p. 70. 1999 -2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents India China Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan 1300-1615 Empire of Augustus and Tiberius Beck home Beck home Africa Mayans Toltecs and Aztecs Incas North America Africa and America 30 - 1453 BC Africa Let us begin this volume in the "cradle of humanity," Africa. Egypt and North Af rica in 30 BC were part of Mediterranean culture and the Roman empire and so wil l be discussed later. About two thousand years ago the spread of iron-working gr adually brought Africa south of the Sahara desert out of the stone age. Farming could be done more easily, although the tsetse fly in central Africa prevented t he use of draft animals for plowing. Population began to increase especially amo ng those speaking Bantu languages. The coast around the horn of eastern Africa w as described by a Roman official from Alexandria in the Periplus of the Erythrae an Sea about 100 CE. Goods were traded for ivory and tortoise shells at Adulis, the port city for Axum, and along the coast to the south slaves, incense, and In dian cinnamon could be obtained. Natives at Rhapta were described as pirates of great stature ostensibly under Arab rule. Bananas and yams were brought to Afric a by Indonesian traders, who settled on the island of Madagascar about the secon d century CE. With the exception of Bushmen and a few others in central and sout hern Africa who continued to hunt and herd, by the 8th century CE the iron age h ad spread throughout Africa. Strabo wrote that Ethiopia was so peaceful that the Romans only needed three coh orts there. However, when the Roman army in Egypt was busy with a war in Arabia, the Ethiopians (Kushites) took over Syene, Elephantine, and Philae, pulling dow n statues of Augustus Caesar. In retaliation for this raid near the Nile's first cataract, a Roman army led by Petronius plundered the Kushite city of Napata in 23 BC, sending a thousand prisoners to Caesar. In the next generation Kushite k ing Netekamani and his queen Amanitare built temples at Naga, and King Sherkarer , probably their son, commemorated a military victory with an inscription. Ethio

pian civilization founded a new dynasty of kings at Axum soon after 50 CE. In the 4th century CE the Axumites conquered Kush. After Himyarite king Dimnos m assacred some Greek merchants in revenge for the Roman empire's ill treatment of Jews, Abyssinian king Andas invaded Yemen and killed Dimnos. Andas had vowed if he were victorious, he would become a Christian; and in reponse the Roman Emper or sent a bishop from Alexandria. Christianity was made the state religion when his successor King Ezana was converted by the captured Syrian Frumentius, who ha d become his tutor and later was appointed bishop of Axum by the bishop of Alexa ndria. Axum king Ezana devastated the once powerful empire of the Meroitic Kush. Apparently the royal family and military class of Meroites exploiting the masse s of workers had not proved stable. Desiccation caused by over-grazing and soil erosion was another factor in the decline of Meroe, as the desert expanded. The army of Axum under Ezana made the caravan trade routes safer, destroying his ene mies by sacking cities, taking prisoners, ruining crops, and confiscating livest ock. Ezana was succeeded by his son Elesboas. Another Jewish Himyarite named Dhu Novas overcame the Ethiopian garrison and pro claimed himself king in 519. He persecuted Christians and tried to exterminate a ll Ethiopians who would not accept Judaism. In 523 a siege of Nejran resulted in the massacre of 280 Christians. Two years later Axum king Ela Atzbeha led a lar ge army of Abyssinians to defeat and kill Dhu Novas, establishing a tributary Ch ristian king named Esimiphaios. In 531 Roman emperor Justinian sent Julian to as k the two Red Sea kingdoms of Ela Atzbeha and Esimiphaios for help against the P ersians, but they did little. The Ethiopian church followed the Egyptian Copts i n adhering to the Monophysite doctrine. When their trade routes to Yemeni, Jewis h, and Greek merchants were cut off by Muslim invaders in the 7th century CE, th e Ethiopian economy stagnated. In 702 Muslim Arabs occupied islands off the Erit rean coast to attack pirates. As Isis worship at the Philae temple had been ended by imperial decree, Christia nity grew rapidly in Nubia after Byzantine empress Theodora sent the Monophysite Julian there in 543; she and the Egyptians made sure that the rival Melkite mis sion was delayed even though her husband Emperor Justinian opposed the Monophysi tes. Thus the Nobadae (Nubians) and their king Silko became Monophysite Christia ns, and with the help of a Byzantine general they made the Blemyes adopt the sam e faith. Julian's work in Nubia was continued by Philae bishop Theodoros; and Lo nginus went as far as 'Alwa, where he baptized the king and his people in 580. The Mukurra kingdom was attacked by Arabs in 641, and in the peace treaty of 651 the Nubians agreed to tolerate a Muslim mosque and provide 360 slaves annually to the Muslim imam in exchange for some supplies not mentioned in the treaty, wh ich enabled Nubians to co-exist next to Muslim Egypt peacefully for six centurie s. The Nubian church was greatly strengthened when Merkurios became king in 697. When Copts were persecuted in Egypt about 745, Nubian king Kiriakos demanded th at imprisoned Alexandrian patriarch Khael be released and, according to a Christ ian author, invaded. In 836 Nubians made a treaty with the Caliph of Baghdad, an d they occupied southern Egypt in 962. At the end of the 10th century the Ethiop ian king, because of a conflict with the patriarch of Alexandria, asked Nubian k ing George II to send a bishop, while many Christians from Egypt fled to Nubia. In 1171 Nubians attacked Egypt and were counter-attacked two years later by Sala din's brother Turan-Shah. A century later in 1272 Nubian king Dawud captured the Arab trading post at 'Aydhab, which also resulted in attacks by Mamluk Egypt , which captured prominent Nubians and helped Shakanda defeat Dawud II in a strugg le over the Nubian throne. Shakanda agreed to pay annual tribute to the Egyptian sultan; and Nubians not becoming Muslims had to pay a poll tax. It was reported that 10,000 captives were sent to Egypt as slaves. Conflicts in Mukurra with Ma mluk troops engaged 40,000 tribesmen seeking booty, and in 1290 Nubian king Sham amun captured the Mamluk garrison at Dunkula. Sultan Kala'un, busy with the last

crusaders, agreed to a treaty. When Sanbu became king at Dunkula, Mukurra offic ially converted to Islam and made the cathedral a mosque in 1317. Despite Nubian efforts to regain their independence led by Kanz al-Dawla and Banu 'l-Kanz, Dun kula was destroyed, and the monarchy collapsed before the end of the 14th centur y. By the next century, 'Alwa had also been overrun by pastoral Egyptian Arabs. Ethiopian expansion led to conflicts in the 10th century, and forces of a queen in Damot even defeated and killed the Christian king. Late in the 10th century, the Agau revolted and slaughtered Christian clergy. The Ethiopian monarchy subdu ed them eventually; but local Agau religious customs were made part of church ri tuals. As an isolated Christian community, practices such as circumcision and po lygamy justified by the Old Testament persisted, as the Ethiopians identified wi th the tribes of Israel surrounded by enemies. In the 12th century the Agau gain ed control of the monarchy as the Zagwe dynasty and ruled for 133 years, buildin g impressive churches with gigantic sculptures. King Lalibela ruled for at least twenty years in the early 13th century and used his army of more than 60,000 to invade pagans to the west and south. A chronicle reported that Lalibela had ten churches built. Opposition to the Zagwe dynasty came from a monastic school on an island of Lake Hayq in Amhara led by Yekunno-Amlak. After winning a dynastic struggle, Zagwe k ing Yitbarek arrested Yekunno-Amlak; but he broke out of jail and led a revolt t hat defeated and killed Yitbarek. The last Zagwe king Dilanda donated land to an other monastic stronghold in 1268, but two years later Yekunno-Amlak must have b een in control, as he was giving them land then. Thus in 1270 Yekunno-Amlak clai med to be restoring the ancient Solomonid dynasty. When he died fifteen years la ter, struggle for the throne caused a civil war and led to the practice for two centuries of imprisoning his descendants on Mount Gishen until each was chosen t o rule or died. To the northwest of Ethiopia was the Jewish community of Falasha . Muslim settlers in the sultanate of Shoa came into conflict with Ethiopia in 112 8. The Muslim merchants often fought each other too, and in 1285 Ifat king 'Umar Walasma defeated and annexed the sultanate of Shoa, controlling the trade route from Zeila. After attacking and annexing Damot, Hadya, Gojjam, and Falasha, Eth iopian emperor Amda-Siyon (r. 1314-1344) invaded Ifat, defeating and killing its king Haqedin I. Dawaro and Sharka made treaties with this growing Christian emp ire; but ruling from a mobile camp, Amda-Siyon had to quell Christian rebellions in Tigrai and along the Eritrean coast. In 1332 Ifat king Sabredin revolted by attacking Christian garrisons, burning churches, enslaving and forcing clergy to accept Islam, and arresting even Muslim merchants doing business for Amda-Siyon . Ifat formed an alliance with Dawaro, Sharka, Bali, and Adal, but they were all defeated and forced to submit to the forces of Amda-Siyon. His son and successo r as emperor of Ethiopia, Sayfa-Ar'ad (r. 1344-1370), managed to divide the Musl ims of Ifat by cooperating with some of them. The Muslim ruler of Zeila, Se'adedin (r. 1373-1403), attacked the Christian army in Dawaro and Bali, taking many slaves and cattle as booty; but he was eventual ly driven back to Zeila and executed by Ethiopian emperor Dawit (r. 1380-1412). Conflicts continued as Dawit's sons and successors, Tewodros in 1413 and Yishaq in 1430, were killed fighting Adal princes. Adal ruler Ahmad Badlay (r. 1432-144 5) led a jihad against the Christian highlands and recaptured Bali; but in an at tack on Dawaro he was killed, and his Muslim army was badly defeated by the forc es of Ethiopian emperor Zara Yakob (r. 1434-1468). Monastic schools like the one at Lake Hayq founded in 1248 by Iyesus-Mo'a (d. 12 92) did much to educate clerics and Christians. The monasteries spread along wit h the Ethiopian empire. Tekla-Haymanot (1215-1313) was trained at Hayq and start ed the important monastic community of Asbo in Shoa. The Asbo abbot Filippos cri ticized Amda-Siyon and Sayfa-Ar'ad for their polygamy; and for that criticism, F

ilippos and others were flogged and exiled, causing many monks to move into the highlands. Monastery leaders were elected democratically and managed considerabl e property as they grew. A o e d second monastic movement was led by Ewostatewos, who encouraged his students t produce their own food; he prohibited accepting gifts from the wealthy or thos in authority. He denounced the slave trade some Christian chiefs practiced, an he urged people to follow the teachings of Christ, refusing to deal with those who would not. He insisted on observing the Sabbath and eventually went to Pale stine, Cypress, and Armenia, where he died in 1352. Followers of Ewostatewos wer e excommunicated by Egyptian bishops in Ethiopia and in fleeing persecution spre ad to the frontiers. Their main monastery in the Eritrean plateau was founded in 1390. Conflicts between the two monastic groups finally led Zara Yakob in 1450 to call a council, which managed to resolve the differences by accepting the Sab bath. Zara Yakob sent a letter to Egyptian sultan Jakmak protesting the demoliti on of the Coptic church of Mitmak, and not liking the reply, he detained an Egyp tian diplomat for four years; he even formed a relationship with Rome; he also i nstituted an inquisition against heresy that killed innocent people falsely accu sed. Thriving Mogadishu had a mosque in the 13th century and supported Adal's efforts against Christian Ethiopia a century later; by then the people in Mombasa and K ilwa were staunchly Muslim. Based on Bantu with strong Arabic influences, Swahil i was the main language in East Africa. The Book of the Zanj tells how Arab merc hants had a Zanj patron (sahib), who with his tribe would support them in disput es with another Zanj. If an Arab stole Zanj goods, the debt was paid by taking g oods of another Arab. In the region of the great lakes the Kitara empire was est ablished by the warrior king Ndahura and his son Wamara in the 14th century. How ever, a famine followed by a plague that devastated cattle spread dissatisfactio n, and Wamara's military commander Kagoro massacred the Bachwezi, ending their e mpire. By the 15th century the ports of Sofala and Kilwa were becoming prosperou s trading ivory and gold for Arab, Indian, and Chinese goods. Bantu flourished in the Congo and crossed south of the Limpopo by the 11th centu ry. In the 14th century Zimbabwe culture south of the Zambesi was governed by th e Mbire, Bantus from the Lake Tanganyika area who revitalized the Shona kingdom. Although about 1425 Karanga king Mutota attempted to conquer the plateau betwee n the Zambesi and the Limpopo, usually the spread of the Bantu seems to have bee n based on their knowledge of working iron more than on military conquest. A vil lage chief with a council of elders usually governed. Spiritual beliefs and resp ect for ancestors helped sustain traditions and strengthen sanctions. Kikuyu ent ered the eastern highlands during the 13th and 14th centuries. Family, clan, com munity, and age group were important to the Kikuyu. District councils of elders were formed, and from these were chosen a national council. Group discussion and public opinion made government responsive. In the forests of West Africa farmers and some pastoralists, like the Ibo and Ti v, had egalitarian societies based on family kinship and tribes that were free o f tribute, tax, and rent. Elders administered justice and communal activities in small groups. The Akan people were matrilineal but had a king with attending mi nisters. A council could remove the king, who might be obligated to commit suici de; they could stop the king from going to war if they believed it was unjust. W olof and Serer kings of Senegambia were elected by the nobility but were conside red divine and had more power, appointing local chiefs to collect taxes. Women c ould hold powerful positions, and in Walo could even be chief of state. Wolof an d Serer societies were very hierarchical with defined classes of royalty, nobili ty, warriors, peasants, servants, and many slaves, some of whom held privileged positions, even advising the king. Society was also graded by age, and secret so cieties enforced customs and standards of behavior, promoting virtue in women an d honor among men. Kola nuts were chewed as a stimulant and were often given in

friendship. The art of Ife indicated it was an important center in the 11th cent ury. Oyo was the primary state of those later called the Yoruba people. The Oyo king had to work with the council representing seven wards or face suicide. The secret society of the Ogboni was a check on the council. Tradition held that the Benin line of kings to the east was started by an Oyo king about the 14th centu ry. Use of camels began about the first century CE and made crossing the Sahara prac tical as North Africans traded salt and other goods to the Sudan for gold and sl aves. Starting in the 7th century, Islam gradually spread in Africa. Early Musli m travelers were astonished at the liberty the African women enjoyed. In Walata though devout, their beauty was far from veiled, and they could take lovers as t hey pleased. In the many matrilineal societies kings were succeeded by a son of a sister. In 772 CE al-Fazari in Baghdad called Ghana the land of gold. Ghana's kings cont rolled the Wangara gold and competed with the Sanhaja Berbers, who had Awdaghost until Sanhaja strife enabled the Soninke of Ghana to capture that city in 990. The city of Kumbi Saleh became a commercial and intellectual center in the Sudan . Legends told of this region anciently called Wagadu, of which Kumbi was the ca pital, said that Wagadu was blessed with much gold that was replenished annually thanks to a snake that guarded the kingdom. Every year they sacrificed a virgin to the snake until the year a lover of the chosen virgin killed the snake. The dying snake cursed Wagadu, causing the land to dry up and the gold to cease ther e and move to the upper Niger River area. In 1036 Juddala chief Yahya b. Ibrahim went on pilgrimage to Mecca; learning mor e about Islam from jurist Abu 'Imran al-Fasi in Kairouan, he asked for a teacher to be sent. The controversial 'Abd Allah ibn Yasin brought Sunni doctrine to th e Sanhaja in Juddala, had dogs killed so that they would not be eaten anymore, a bolished illegal taxes, and distributed booty according to Islamic law. Ibn Yasi n lived an ascetic life and taught repentance and purification; however, his ext remism led to his being expelled from Juddala. Ibn Yasin's retreat from a resist ing society was compared to the hijra of Muhammad. He gathered a following inspi red by his teachings and united the larger Juddala and Lamtuna tribes with other Sanhaja tribes of the Sahara through holy war (jihad) in the Almoravid movement . Lamtuna chief Yahya b. 'Umar was appointed military commander (amir), submitte d to ibn Yasin and was even flogged for an unstated sin. Ghana's rulers maintained their ancestral religion and resisted Islam. Aroused b y the puritanical Almoravid sect, the Sanhaja recaptured Awdaghost in 1055. The next year the first Sudanese kingdom to convert to Islam, Takrur, aided the Almo ravids against the Juddala, who had withdrawn from the movement. Yahya b. 'Umar was killed, and according to al-Bakri the Almoravids made no more attempts again st the Juddala. A request from Sijilmasa led ibn Yasin and the Almoravids to con quer the Maghrib, and eventually they invaded Spain. In 1068 al-Bakri wrote that Ghana king Tunka Menin had great power and was respected for his love of justic e and kind treatment of Muslims. Kumbi fell to the Almoravids in 1076, and many were forced to convert. Almoravid military leader Abu-Bakr b. 'Umar, whom Maurit anian oral traditions held responsible for dispossession of the blacks in the Sa hara by the Berber nomads, was killed in Tagant in 1087. Plundered and with its trade disrupted, Ghana declined and was finally destroyed in 1203 when Soso chie f Sumaguru Kante of the Kaniaga, which had been a vassal state of Ghana, sacked Kumbi. Sumaguru also conquered the Mandinkas to the south by the upper Niger and put to death all the ruler's sons except a cripple named Sundiata, who raised a guerri lla army and eventually defeated and killed Sumaguru in 1235. In a few years the Mandinkas took over what had been Ghana and controlled the gold trade from Wang ara. Though essentially an agricultural community, this kingdom of Mali also tra

ded the Saharan salt of Taghaza and copper of Takedda, as Jenne and Timbuktu bec ame commercial centers. Sundiata was succeeded in 1255 by his son Wali, who went on pilgrimage to Mecca; during his 15-year rule the Mali kingdom included Songh ai. Wali was succeeded by two brothers; the second, Khalifa, having killed peopl e with arrows for sport, was deposed and killed. During these troubles Songhai b ecame an independent kingdom under 'Ali Kolon. Incompetent Mali kings were contr olled by court officers, though a freed slave named Sakura usurped the throne in 1285 and expanded his power with his Mandingo army so that by the end of the 13 th century Mali sovereignty stretched from Takrur in the west to Goa and Songhai in the east. Sakura died on his way back from Mecca, and the legitimate line re sumed. The Mali kingdom was divided into three provinces with many local chiefs. Sons o f vassal kings were often held hostage at court, and local chiefs ruled under ap pointed governors. Farming, the army, and administration depended on serfs and s laves, though some slaves could become officials, even a provincial governor. Th e cavalry consisted of free men; horses were expensive and were often purchased with slaves. Property was respected so much that when a foreigner died in Mali, the property remained until the heir was sent for to recover it, according to Ib n-Battuta. This Arab traveler also complained that female servants and slaves in the court were naked. In the late 14th century nomadic Arabs came in to the wes tern Sahara and raided caravans so much that trade shifted to Timbuktu in the ea st. Mali king Mansa Musa (r. 1312-1337) was celebrated by Muslim historians for maki ng a famous pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324; his spending about 30,000 pounds of gol d in Cairo depreciated the precious metal there. In choosing between gold produc tion or proselytizing the Muslim faith in Wangara, Musa abandoned the latter. Ti mbuktu was pillaged and reduced to ruin by the Mossi in 1329. Musa broke traditi on by leaving the kingdom to his son instead of the oldest male in the family, S ulayman, who took the throne four years later. Ibn Battuta visited Mali in 1353 and noted a failed plot to overthrow the king. After Sulyman's death there was a civil war over the succession, won by Mari-Djata II, who ruled so oppressively from 1360 to 1374 he depleted the treasury and almost ruined the kingdom. In the next reign the chief minister carried out military expeditions against rebellio ns in Goa and beyond. In the fifteenth century Mali's royal power declined, as t he Mossi raided the subject state of Macina. The Songhai royal house at Gao on t he Niger River had converted to Islam by the 11th century; in the 14th century t he Sonni dynasty gained strength and in 1420 Songhai's Sonni ruler Muhammad Da'o raided Mali territory. In 1433 the Tuareg chief Akilu-ag-Malwal occupied Timbuk tu and Walata, and in 1450 Macina became independent. East of Ghana, the Kanuri Sefawa dynasty was established in Kanem about the 9th century and lasted a millennium. Gao king Kossoi became a Muslim in 1010 but did not change his court ceremonies. About 1085 the second Sefawa king, Dunama b. H ummay, was converted to Islam; he made two pilgrimages to Mecca and died on a th ird. In the first half of the 13th century under Dunama Dibalami they expanded f rom east of Lake Chad to the north to take Kawar and the Fezzan and west to incl ude Bornu, establishing the first Kanuri empire by military forces that included 41,000 horses. At the end of this century King Ibrahim Nikale killed one of his sons and was assassinated. A civil war in the next reign lost the Fezzan, where a Banu Nasur dynasty lasted a century before it was destroyed by Arabs from the Maghrib. In the early 14th century four Kanuri kings, all sons of 'Abd Allah b. Kaday, were killed fighting the So, though Idris b. Ibrahim Nikale managed to g et along with the Bornu people and ruled for about 25 years. The second half of the century was filled with wars against the pastoral Bulala, again killing four Kanem kings in a row and forcing the next Mai (divine king) Umar Ibn Idris to m ove the capital to Bornu west of Lake Chad. In 1391 Mai Bir d. Idris complained to the Egyptian sultan Barquq of Arab raids on his Kanem people, but he ruled a third of a century. In the 15th century the Kanuri revived in a second empire.

By the 15th century the most powerful states in the Hausaland were Katsina, Kano , Zazzau, and Gobir. Some political history of Kano survived in "The Song of Bag auda." Population increased in this fertile land as others suffering famine migr ated to Kano. Larger territory was conquered by a series of kings called sarki. Gijimasu (r. 1095-1134) established the city of Kano, and his son Tsaraki (r. 11 36-1194) subdued most of the chiefdoms in the area except Santolo. Muslims helpe d Yaji (r. 1349-1385) conquer the Santolo and destroy its religious center of tr aditional sacrifices. The 15th sarki Kananeji (r. 1390-1410) using horse armor, iron helmets, and coats of chain-mail invaded and occupied Zazzau. The wealthy w archief Dauda (r. 1421-1438) brought a more sophisticated administration with Bo rnu titles. In 1444 a company was set up in Lagos, Portugal to exploit the African slave tra de, and two years later Portuguese explorers arrived in western Malinke. Mayans Although they did not use the wheel, metal tools, horses, money, or alphabetic w riting, the people in the western hemisphere developed prosperous civilization. In central Mexico by 300 CE the city of Teotihuacan had about 80,000 people. Rai ds and small wars resulted in captured warriors being ritually sacrificed. Teoti huacan would be a leading power for the next five centuries, though building slo wed about 550. Urban dwellers lived as families in large apartment compounds. Ob sidian was used for tools and traded. Metals were not used in Mesoamerica until after 800 CE; then gold and silver came from the south. Alloys were not popular until the 13th century. A great goddess was the primary deity in Teotihuacan, th ough there was also a storm god and the feathered serpent that was to become fam ous as Quetzalcoatl. Art did not depict human individuals until later during the decline. Much of Teotihuacan was smashed and burned in a major fire about 750. Since foreigners were probably not involved, this was likely a revolution agains t the ruling elite. Zapatec people in the Oaxaca valley, who seemed to have co-e xisted peacefully with Teotihuacan for so long, also ended centralized governmen t by 900. In what is now southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, the Mayan populations in the first centuries CE increased and began building monumental te mples and tombs. Those at Kaminalijuyu controlled obsidian and jade and dominate d the southern area. Others at Nakbe and El Mirador controlled local resources a nd trade. Powerful hereditary rulers emerged who commemorated their deeds in dat ed hieroglyphic sculptures. In the third century CE the city of Tikal began buil ding large pyramids. In 378 Great Jaguar Paw recorded the conquest of Uaxactun, where the warrior Smoking Frog was put in charge. Symbols of war and sacrifice w ere adopted from Teotihuacan icons, and wars were timed according to the planet Venus. The Mayans excelled in mathematics and astronomy; their calendar was extr emely accurate. In the late 5th century Kan Boar's portraits abandoned the war a nd captive motifs of his predecessor Stormy Sky, and Tikal seemed to prosper wit h some social mobility. However, they were defeated in a war led by Caracol rule r Lord Water in 562. Caracol waged wars for more than a century, also timing the ir battles to the movements of the planet Venus. Caracol's Lord Kan II claimed t o defeat and sacrifice Naranjo captives in 631. From the mid-7th century until the decline, two centuries of wars occurred as ma ssive fortifications were erected. A Tikal prince founded Dos Pilas about 640, b ut later he defeated Tikal in two wars. The 25th ruler of Tikal, Shield Skull, w as captured and sacrificed by this first Petexbatun ruler in 679 according to th e hieroglyphics at Dos Pilas. The second Petexbatun ruler Shield God K (r. 698-7 27) expanded his kingdom by military force in the southwestern lowlands, while N aranjo's Smoking Squirrel raided the Yaxha region in 710. The third Petexbatun r uler in 735 portrayed the Seibal king beneath his feet and married a princess fr om Cancuen. Petexbatun power, which controlled the largest lowland Mayan kingdom

ever, was suddenly curtailed in 760 when the 4th king after ruling twenty years was captured and sacrificed at Tamarindito, and the capital at Dos Pilas was ov ercome. The kingdom broke up into warring chiefdoms for a half century, and then the area was abandoned. At Bonampak wall paintings depicted bloody sacrifices o f nine captives. To the west of Petexbatun, Yaxchilan managed to weather a conflict with Copan in 653 and with Palenque the next year as 6 Tun Bird Jaguar ruled for half a centu ry until 681; his son Shield Jaguar II ruled Yaxchilan from then to 742, claimin g to have captured five places. Palenque king Pacal reigned from 615 to 683 and only recorded one war in 659 with Yaxchilan. His son Chan-Bahlum (r. 684-702) co ntinued his father's building, as did another son, Kan Xul II (r. 702-725), who was captured in 711 raiding his southern neighbor Tonina. However, Palenque was one of the first cities to collapse, as its last date was recorded in 799. Tikal demonstrated revitalized power in 695 when its 26th ruler Ah Cacau claimed to c apture Jaguar Paw of Calakmul. After a reign of half a century Ah Cacau was succ eeded by his son in 734; but the power of Tikal gradually declined, and 889 was the last date they recorded. Yaxchilan king Shield Jaguar III recorded several c onquests in the last five years of the 8th century, but the last date recorded a t Yaxchilan was 808. In the southeast (Honduras) the people of Copan expanded their territory during the long reigns of Butz Chan (578-628) and Smoke Imix (628-695). Great Capan bui lding was continued by 18 Jog (Rabbit); but he was captured and sacrificed in 73 8 by Quirigua ruler Cauac Sky, who celebrated their increased power by inaugurat ing a century of building. Copan declined, and its last monument was dated 822. Quirigua's power seems to have been more suddenly eclipsed by occupation, and th eir last record was in 810. Most of the Mayan cities in the southern and central lowlands declined during the 9th century, and the last known inscriptions of Pa lenque and Piedras Negras, like those of Yaxchilan, related to military issues. Numerous causes for the decline have been suggested, such as disease, overpopula tion, ecological disasters, revolutions, fatalism, wars, conquest by the Putun M aya, and trade isolation. Probably it was some combination of these factors. Yet it can also be argued that the end of the period of massive architecture and in scriptions glorifying their rulers did not mean the end of Mayan civilization bu t merely the end of an era, in which a powerful elite ruled large numbers of pea sants. When the large kingdoms broke up, social mobility became more possible. In the 9th century Seibal was invaded by Putun and Itza Mayans. The Itza Maya be gan their domination in the northern Yucatan peninsula when, led by a Chontal Ma yan named Kakupacal, they occupied Chichen Itza in 850. Kakupacal and others exp anded the Itza realm by force and trade. Most of their building was in the late 9th century, but their capital at Chichen Itza thrived until about 1200. In the west the Puuc city of Uxmal was prominent; the Puuc built many causeways between their communities. In the east Coba maintained its independence from Itza incur sions and was connected to Yaxuna by a causeway of 100 kilometers. The Itza were driven from the Yucatan area by the Mayapan ruler Hunac Ceel about 1221. Mayapa n did without ball courts, sacrifices, sweat baths, and had few religious buildi ngs, as the upper class dealt with commerce. The Cocom dynasty was massacred as Mayapan was destroyed in a revolt led by Ah Xupan Xiu in 1441. The Quich Maya lef t the chronicle, Popol Vuh, which recounted their migration to the north led by Balam Quitze and their conquest of the Pokomam Maya in the east in the 13th cent ury. Quich expanded in the next century and reached their maximum power in the mi d-15th century. Most archaeologists agree that the Mayans were governed by an elite class. When rivals or enemies from the elite were captured, they were often sacrificed, whil e most prisoners were probably made slaves, servants, or laborers. Orphans gaine d by purchase or kidnapping were also used for human sacrifice; slaves were boug ht and sold. Ceremonies and a ball game played on a court with a rubber ball wer

e very important to the Mayans. According to Spanish missionary Las Casas, men r etired to a special building, and while separated from their wives they fasted a nd made daily offerings of their blood for up to a hundred days prior to a major festival. The priesthood, like the rulers, was headed by a hereditary elite fam ily, which directed the sun priests, diviners, and seers whose visions were indu ced by peyote. Others assisted in the human sacrifices that cut out the heart of the victim. Such sacrifices were probably not performed as often as the Aztecs later did. Mayan rituals often focused on the sacred corn (maize). Later Mayan hunters would pray for understanding before they would take life or disrupt the forests. These attitudes may have long endured and might have been l earned from the hard experiences during the decline after population had increas ed. Later Mayans, like the Mexican Itza, and the Spanish were criticized in the Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel for having lost their innocence in carnal sins, causing lack of judgment, bad luck, and sickness. The great teachings of heaven and earth had been lost. Before these came, this author claimed there was no ro bbery, greed, tribute, nor violent strife. Popol Vuh, the Maya Quich book of counsel containing creation stories and legends probably developed over centuries, was written down in a Roman alphabet by 1558 . The earth is formed from sky and sea by Maker, Modeler, Bearer, Begetter, Hear t of the Lake, Heart of the Sea, and Sovereign Plumed Serpent in discussion with Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth, Newborn Thunderbolt, Sudden Thunderbolt, and Hurr icane. They sow the earth with seeds that sprout, and their first try produces a nimals that squawk, chatter, and howl. The second attempt to create humans fails when they dissolve without reproducing. Then they consult the grandmothers Xpiy acoc and Xmucane, a divine matchmaker and a divine midwife. The next people have no hearts and minds and are destroyed in a flood and abused by killer bats and jaguars; for having eaten animals these people are eaten. Their descendants are the monkeys. The second part of Popol Vuh tells how the two divine boys Hunahpu and Xbalanque defeat and destroy Seven Macaw and his two sons, a maker of mounta ins (Zipacna) and Earthquake, because of their self-magnification and in revenge for 400 boys Zipacna killed. In the third part ball playing offends the lords of the underworld at Xibalba; s o One and Seven Hunahpu journey there to play One and Seven Death. They face sev eral tricks, traps, and tests, and they are buried at the Ball Game Sacrifice; b ut the head of One Hunahpu causes a calabash tree to bear fruit. Blood Moon beco mes pregnant by his skull and escapes sacrifice, returning to Xmucane on earth t o give birth to Hunahpu and Xbalanque. They learn how to overcome the animals th at prevent clearing the forest for gardening. Rat helps them find the ball game equipment, and they too are challenged to play at Xibalba. Before they leave, Hu nahpu and Xbalanque plant corn as a sign of their death and rebirth. The heroic twins overcome the tricks of Xibalba with the help of mosquito; they lose the ga me, but ants get them the flowers they wagered. They endure more tests, but a ba t cuts off Hunahpu's head, which is replaced by a squash. Playing ball with Huna hpu's head, they knock it out of the court, and a rabbit helps them switch it wi th a squash. Hunahpu and Xbalanque are ground up and reborn again and finally ge t the Xibalbans to limit their attacks on humans to those with weaknesses or gui lt. Meanwhile Xmucane mourns the death of the corn and rejoices when it sprouts agai n. With the corn flour Xmucane makes the first real humans - Jaguar Quitze, Jagu ar Night, Not Right Now, and Dark Jaguar, the ancestors of the Quich people. At f irst they have complete vision and perfect understanding, but Heart of Sky fogs up their vision so they can only see clearly what is close; they are given beaut iful wives, and they multiply. They get fire from Tohil, but he and two other go ds are turned to stone when the sun rises for the first time; now the gods can o nly speak to them in spirit form. Followers of these gods try to appease them by abducting people, sacrificing them, and rolling their heads onto the roads. So

the Quich send two radiant maidens to seduce their three boys. This fails, and th e enemy tribes prepare for war. The Quichs are victorious and force the tribes to pay tribute regularly. Rebellions that occur are defeated, and victims are sacr ificed. The Quich king takes the title of Plumed Serpent, and the capital at Rott en Cane has three great pyramids and 23 palaces. Religious retreats involve frui t fasts lasting from 180 to 340 days. Wars occur, ending in tribute, and the lin eage is recounted up to the Spanish period. Toltecs and Aztecs In the central highlands of Mexico the Toltecs were dominant from the 10th to th e 12th century with their major city at Tula. Itzas arrived at Chichn about 918, and Toltec Chichn was not destroyed until about 1250. A Mixtec legend tells of a ruler named Eight-Deer Ocelot-Claw, who succeeded his father as king of Tilanton go at age 19 in 1030, won several battles, married many wives and sired numerous children, went to Tula, and tried to set up a bureaucratic empire at Tutupec by uniting it with Mixteca Alta and Baja. Eight-Deer had the men of the royal fami lies he conquered sacrificed, and he or his sons married their widows and daught ers. When the ruler of Xipe-Bundle died in 1047, Eight-Deer was concerned that s ome of his relatives would try to rule the city. So he allied himself with the T oltec Four-Tiger and sacrificed his half-brother Twelve-Earthquake. However, his little empire soon failed, and in 1063 Eight-Deer was defeated, captured and sa crificed. Toltec legends tell of Quetzalcoatl incarnating as Ce Acatl Topiltzin, son of th e Chichimec leader Ce Tecpatl Mixcoatl, who ruled Culhuacan 1122-1150. Three yea rs after his father died, Topiltzin went to Tula and claimed the title of Quetza lcoatl as a divine king. Art, metalwork, and crafts thrived, and everyone prospe red. According to Mendieta, Quetzalcoatl did not sacrifice men or animals, and h e prohibited war and violence. Tula had a population of about 120,000. The Annal s of Cuauhtitlan told how the wizards tried to trick Quetzalcoatl into offering human sacrifices; but he never did it, because he loved the Toltec people. This angered the magicians, and they began to mock him. By tricks and evil deeds (ins pired by the evil god Tezcatlipoca) Huemac humiliated Quetzalcoatl, who fled Tul a and set himself on fire to become the morning star (Venus). Huemac was also fo rced to flee and died in Chapultepec. Though different versions varied, these le gends probably commemorated the fall of Tula in about 1175. In most accounts Hue mac fledl to Cincalco, where he committed suicide in 1178. The Aztecs used the w ord toltec to refer to a skilled artisan, and Aztec pottery was found in the cer emonial centers destroyed at Tula; but who actually destroyed Tula is unknown. After the fall of Tula, the Toltec decline was gradual. For two centuries the ba sin of Mexico was ruled by various Mexica groups and Chichimecs (Dog People), wh o invaded the Toltecs from the northwest after their defenses were removed. Chic himec leader Xolotl settled at Tenayuca about 1201 and then made Texcoco a capit al. Xolotl's son Nopaltzin killed Topiltzin's grandson Nauhyotl, the ruler of Cu lhuacan, possibly in 1248. Tochintecuhtli and Huetzin seem to have established a kingdom, and the latter was succeeded by Nonoalcatl in 1272. A Tarascan empire was planned by Tariacuri in Tzintzuntzan, where a king would rule guided by the deity Curcaueri; worship of any other patron deity was a capital crime. The gods were given credit for victories in war but did not justify them; wars were not fought for sacrifices, although captives were sacrificed. Tarascans tried to cap ture the salt deposits at Ixtapan from the Aztecs. The Aztecs also went to war f or economic purposes. Aztecs appointed local administrators, but the Tarascan dy nasty did not share power. Aztec legends begin with the Mexica migrating for two centuries after being originally from Aztlan. Their warlike hummingbird god (Hu itzilopochtli) symbolized the spirits of fallen warriors. By the end of the 13th century they had settled in Chapultepec. Aztec legends begin with the Mexica migrating for two centuries after being orig inally from Aztlan. Their warlike hummingbird god (Huitzilopochtli) symbolized t

he spirits of fallen warriors. By the end of the 13th century they had settled i n Chapultepec; but they were driven from there about 1315 by Copil, the son of H uitzilopochtli's sister, whom they had previously abandoned. They soon returned, but four years later they were attacked by a coalition that probably included t he Tepanecs; the Mexica ruler Huitzilihuitl was sacrificed in Culhuacan, and the y settled just west of there at Tizaapan. The Mexica traded with the Culhuacans and treated them like brothers, intermarrying and becoming Culhua Mexica. Aiding Culhuacan in a war against Xochimilco, they were ordered to take no prisoners a nd cut their ears off. After being vassals to the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco in the late 13th century, th e Aztec Mexica went south and according to legend settled in a swampy area where an eagle sat on a cactus with a serpent in its beak, though Mexica had lived th ere for centuries. Tenochtitlan was founded in 1345 and Tlatelolco in 1358; the two cities became rivals. While being ruled by their first king, Acamapichtli (r . 1372-1391), the Mexica served as mercenaries for Tepanec king Tezozomoc (r. 13 71-1426), helping them to conquer Tenayuca and Culhuacan. The Tepanec empire col lected tribute from the Mexica as well as from others. The closest relatives of the late king selected the next Mexica king - Acamapichtli's son Huitzilihuitl ( r. 1391-1417), who was allowed to marry Tezozomoc's granddaughter. The Mexica he lped the Tepanecs conquer Tlaxcala in 1395 and were given some of the acquired l ands. Three years later they invaded Cuauhtinchan, and in 1411 the Mexica grabbe d Chalco but had to give it up to a coalition that included the Tepanecs. Huitzi lihuitl died about 1417 and was succeeded by his son Chimalpopoca. Water at Tenochtitlan was becoming polluted, and an aqueduct was built from Chap ultepec. Conflict over the building materials was said to have caused the death of Tezozomoc in 1426. Meanwhile Ixtlilxochitl had become king of Texcoco in 1409 ; after refusing to have Texcoco make cotton into mantles for the Tepanecs, he c laimed to be emperor of the Chichimecs. Ixtlilxochitl further aggravated the Tep anecs by rejecting Tezozomoc's daughter and marrying the sister of Chimalpopoca. Tezozomoc attacked Texcoco in 1415 but was repulsed and was later besieged at A zcapotzalco for several months. The skillful Tezozomoc managed to gain Chalco an d Otumba as allies and together they attacked Texcoco and killed Ixtlilxochitl i n 1418. Control of Texcoco was given to the Mexica, but most of the tribute went to the Tepanecs. Ixtlilxochitl's 16-year-old son Nezahualcoyotl with his friend Coyohua managed to survive and lived in Tenochtitlan for a while; the prince wa s allowed to return to Texcoco in 1424. Tezozomoc tried to get Coyohua to kill h is master, but he refused. Tezozomoc died in 1426 and was given an elaborate funeral. He had chosen his son Tayauh to be the next king, and he was supported by the Mexica. Chimalpopoca's advice to Tayauh to kill his brother Maxtla was overheard. Maxtla then used the same trick to kill Tayauh, and he had Chimalpopoca captured and killed in Tenoch titlan; his killers also tracked down and murdered Tlatelolco ruler Tlacateotl. This story may have been Aztec propaganda to cover up the more probable version that Itzcoatl arranged for Tepanecs from Tacuba to kill Chimalpopoca. Nezahualco yotl came to Tezozomoc's funeral, but was protected by the occasion from Maxtla, who appointed a bastard brother of Nezahualcoyotl to rule Texcoco; but this you ng man's treacherous plot against Nezahualcoyotl failed. Itzcoatl was the brother of Huitzilihuitl and became Mexica king in 1426. He was greatly aided by his nephews Moctezuma and Tlacaelel. As a diplomat Tlacaelel c ourageously went to Azcapotzalco. Maxtla claimed his Tepanec people were hostile to the Mexica, and war was ritually declared. Tlacaelel managed to escape the T epanecs and return to Tenochtitlan. There the nobles and warriors were ready to fight, but the common people wanted peace. The lords promised to sacrifice thems elves if they lost, and the people agreed to serve them and pay tribute if they won, according to Aztec history.

Persecuted by the Tepanecs, Nezahualcoyotl joined Itzcoatl in an alliance agains t them. Maxtla had also alienated Cuauhtitlan by his cruel treatment and transfe red the slave-dealing center from there to Azcapotzalco. Moctezuma went to Chalc o to gain their help; but having been at war with the Mexica for so long, they i mprisoned him. He escaped and went on to Huexotzingo, where Cuauhtitlan accounts of Maxtla's excesses so enraged them that they murdered the Tepanec envoys. Hue xotzingo and Tlaxcala also helped Nezahualcoyotl regain much of his realm at Tex coco, and together they attacked Azcapotzalco, forcing Maxtla to give up his sie ge of Tenochtitlan , which enabled Moctezuma to take Tacuba. The allies besieged Azcapotzalco for 114 days until the Tepanec general Mazatl was wounded, and his army fled. The unpopular tyrant Maxtla was captured and sacrificed by Nezahualc oyotl. Most of the land went to the nobles and the warriors rather than the peop le of the clans, who all together only got as much as Tlacaelel and Moctezuma. The lands of the Aztec nobles were farmed by serfs. The state had some lands to supply the government. Some communal lands were farmed by freemen, who had to pa y tribute. The Aztec king had about four close relatives of important influence but also a larger council of a dozen or so nobles. Warriors were rewarded for th eir services. Priests were influential nobles who educated other nobles; others were only given military training. Judges and officials were supposed by the his torian Sahagun to be impartial, but merchants had privileges and their own lawco urts. The common people were not allowed to wear fine cotton clothes, jewelry, o r partake of certain foods and drinks such as cocoa; no one was supposed to drin k alcohol much until they were past fifty. People could become enslaved for crim es or be sold into it for debt; apparently most war captives were sacrificed. Sl avery was not hereditary, though the poor or starving might sell their children. Ancient words of advice by Aztec nobles to their children indicate they were mot ivated by a strong sense of honor and disdained to engage in common trade. They were urged to be clean and pure, and women could avoid poverty by spinning and w eaving. Chastity and fidelity to one mate were encouraged, though two or three y oung men might share a paramour before they were married. Kings and nobles often had more than one wife. Everyone was admonished not to be vain, proud, and prai se themselves, which provoke the anger of the Near and Close Lord. Rather one sh ould bow one's head and be truly meek and humble, because the Lord knows one's h eart and sees within us what we merit. The ideal was to be pure of vice and filt h, and it was considered a blessing to die in war. All the nobles were educated to be priests in the calmecac (school); the rich co uld get their sons in with gifts, and it was said those with poor gifts were not excluded. The youths slept in the calmecac, and discipline was strict. Serious offenses like being with a woman or drinking could be punished by death, and min or sins, like not awaking to pray at midnight, were purged with bloodletting. Du ring fasts they got only water and plain corn-cakes once a day either at noon or midnight. Verbal discourse was valued, and songs were studied from books. Accor ding to writings inscribed during the Spanish period, priests were expected to b e chaste, truthful, moderate, and devout. They also claimed that the chief pries t called Quetzalcoatl was not selected by lineage but for being the best person with the purest and most compassionate heart. Tlacaelel served three Aztec kings as cihuacoatl (snake woman); he was an able a dministrator but may have overseen the book burning under Itzcoatl intended to e rase their humiliating Tepanec history. Though Nezahuacoyotl participated in the massacre of Azcapotzalco and the taking of other cities, he went on to codify t he laws of Texcoco and oversee construction of dams and canals that greatly enha nced agriculture, and gave prizes in the arts, crafts, music, and poetry. Nezahu acoyotl wrote poetry about human mortality in this world and immortality in the next; yet he believed songs would last. He felt alone and empty of wisdom but pr aised the Giver of Life who distributes truth and brings joy. Aztec artists were inspired by the Toltecs, whom they admired. A good feather artist, for example,

should be skillful, sires of the people; orns other people. A nity into things and

a master of oneself, and it was his duty to humanize the de but a bad artist ignores how things look, is greedy, and sc good painter is wise; God is in his heart, and he puts divi converses with his own heart.

Itzcoatl initiated the Aztec empire by conquering Coyoacan, Xochimilco, Cuitlahu ac, and the remaining towns in the valley of Mexico. After conquering Cuernavaca , Itzcoatl died in 1440, and Moctezuma I was elected king. Moctezuma I expanded the Aztec empire to the Gulf coast, and he organized botanical and zoological ga rdens. He had visited Chalca before he was king; but when they captured and kill ed two sons of Nezahualcoyotl and prepared for war, the Aztecs mobilized every m an and boy in 1444. The final battle was fought on the feast day of the Chalca g od Camaxtli so that they would have victims to sacrifice. The victorious Aztecs took 500 prisoners and sacrificed them. The long war with the Chalca was suspend ed when the Aztecs suffered a great famine. A plague of locusts had devoured crops in 1446, and floods caused devastation th ree years later. The bad harvest in 1450 was followed by two years, in which fro sts destroyed the corn and a year of drought so that in 1454 there was no seed t o sow. Famine became extreme as people sold themselves and their children into s lavery to people along the coast; many died of hunger. With a new 52-year cycle rains came in 1455; but the Aztec imperial system had broken down, and in supers titious desperation they increased the number of human sacrifices; Moctezuma I a nd his brother Tlacaelel even planned so-called "wars of flowers" with the Tlaxc ala and Huexotzingo for the purpose of getting more victims. Incas Many cultures prospered in the Andes regions long before the Inca empire rose to power. The Mochica developed a thriving culture in the first six centuries CE a long the northern coast, building aqueducts and canals in every valley and large pyramids at Moche to the Sun and Moon. Their artisans pioneered working gold, s ilver, copper, and their alloys in the new world. Great differences in their hou ses and clothes indicate a stratified society. Warriors were honored, and women were only depicted in domestic tasks. Along the southern coast the Nazca seemed to be more peaceful and egalitarian, living in smaller villages with similar acc ommodations. Their religion respected the ancestors but seemed to be more indivi dual than collective worship. The Nazca produced the immense line drawings of a spider and hummingbird in the barren plains that can be seen in their entirety o nly from the sky. On the central coast Tiwanaku and Huari cultures developed. Ar tistic icons of puma heads with tears indicate that their religion somehow repla ced the Nazca culture and spread throughout the Andes area (except to Cuzco), pr oviding a transition from the Mochica to the Chim. After 1000 CE the Chim capital at Chanchan had 50,000 people, and every valley had an urban center with social classes. Inca origins in the 13th century are explained by the legend of Manco Capac lead ing a migration to Cuzco, getting rid of his three brothers, and marrying his si ster. According to Garcilaso, the second king Sinchi Roca drew tribes into the I nca empire by love rather than force and told his people to live in peace and th at he would assist them when they were in need. Garcilaso and some chroniclers d escribed the Inca empire expanding through the efforts of several kings; but if so, there must have been setbacks, because the eighth king Viracocha Inca was st ill fighting for nearby Chanca, Lupaca, and Colla with Cuzco besieged. Viracocha began the real imperial expansion by garrisoning conquered peoples and placing Inca officials over them. Viracocha wanted his son Urcon to succeed him, but the oldest son Inca Roca wanted the capable third son Cusi Inca Yupanqui to be the next ruler. The Colla attacked the Lupaca and were defeated by them. The Chanca had taken over the Inca neighbor Quechua and invaded Cuzco. Viracocha and Urcon barricaded themselves in the fortress; but Cusi Yupanqui with Roca led a heroic

defense against the attacking Chanca. The Incas overcame the Chanca in several b attles. When Viracocha died and Urcon became king, Cusi Yupanqui, refusing to re cognize him, took the throne and the name Pachacuti in 1438. Pachacuti leveled villages for six miles in every direction in order to build a large city at Cuzco. Pachacuti's armies began their conquest by killing the men of their nearby enemies. The surrounding mountains were taken over next. After t he Chanca were subdued, a Chanca contingent led by Hancohuallu accompanied the I nca army under Pachacuti's brother and general Capac Yupanqui. They conquered Ai mara, Umasuyu, Cotapampa, and Chilque. Above Huanco, the Chancas deserted and fl ed into the forest. Capac Yupanqui went beyond his orders in invading Cajamarca; even though he was successful there, when he returned to Cuzco, Pachacuti had h im executed for disobedience and for allowing the Chancas to escape. Incas at th is time began moving conquered people to regions with similar climates where the y could adapt and be less rebellious, replacing them with obedient peasants. Nex t Pachacuti's army quelled revolts near Lake Titicaca encouraged by the Lupaca, whom they also crushed. Pachacuti and his son Topa, who succeeded him in 1471, would go on to conquer th e Chim and expand the Inca empire greatly. Once local enemies were eliminated and Inca power became known, diplomatic means often were successful. Knowing they w ould be slaughtered if they resisted, leaders could maintain their positions und er Inca governors. Pachacuti left behind several sayings criticizing envy, and h e declared that judges who allowed a plaintiff to visit them in secret should be considered thieves and be punished with death. Incas lived in clans called ayllu, were endogamous, patrilineal and did not have totems. Each family had their own land, but the ayllu worked communally, farmin g the sacred and state lands first and taking care of the land of widows and fam ilies of men in public service. Local chiefs were retained, but complete loyalty was to the Inca emperor, who was directly served by the most outstanding young men and women. The most beautiful girls were selected at age ten and educated fo r four years in spinning, weaving, and domestic tasks. Those not taken by the em peror or nobles as secondary wives were consecrated as "virgins of the sun." The sons of the nobles spent four years learning the Quechua language, Inca religio n, arithmetic and record-keeping, and Inca history. Discipline was by caning, up to ten blows per day on the soles of the feet. Inca nobles related to the emper or governed each of the four quarters of the empire. Local leaders called curaca s were hereditary chiefs over villages of a hundred men up to cities of ten thou sand. Officers over smaller groups were appointed by their curaca, and their pos itions were not hereditary. The state, headed by the emperor Inca and the nobles, dominated everyone; but th ey provided for all the needs of the people. The emperor was called the friend o f the poor. Those in distress received food from state storehouses, even if they had just been defeated in war. The aged were given food from state warehouses i f they drove birds away from the fields. The emperor's word was law, and judges were expected to follow royal edicts. Crime was rare; if it was motivated by som e need, the official responsible for not meeting the need might be punished. Dis putes between provinces were settled by royal envoys or by the emperor himself. Treason and disobedience of the emperor were punished with death along with murd er, arson, theft from the state, desertion from the army or public service, and breaking into a convent. Only a governor or the emperor could decree a capital p unishment, and a curaca who did so was punished. Nobles guilty of adultery were executed, but commoners were only tortured. The other punishment was to be sent to work on the hot coca plantations, which produced the leaves people chewed. In addition to working the sacred and state lands, the common men also had to se rve in the army or perform public works in mines or for bridges, roads, and buil dings; the people also had to provide everything the army needed. These services

replaced tax or tribute, since there was no money. Roads were so good that rela y runners could move a message 150 miles per day, and stations with warehouses p rovided all the needs of the imperial army, in which men from all regions served under Inca officers. Incas excelled in the making and decorating textiles. The educated considered God the omniscient creator, and worship of the sun and t he emperor as his son was spread throughout the empire. As there is only one sun , there was one emperor, and people taken into the empire were expected to worsh ip the sun. A storm god was importuned for rain, and the moon goddess was import ant in periodic festivals. People in the highlands worshiped the earth goddess a lso, and those along the coast the sea goddess. Sins were confessed to priests, who took measures to make sure confessions were complete. Human sacrifice was ra re among the Incas, and a girl so chosen was considered honored and blessed. Ill ness was thought a punishment for sin; healing was not only by magic but by usin g various herbs. North America Of about one hundred million people in the western hemisphere by the 15th centur y, probably less than ten million were spread out north of Mexico in villages, l iving tribally and close to nature, hunting, fishing, gathering food, and farmin g. Some larger communities developed in the Ohio river valley from the 1st centu ry BC and built mounds there about the 5th century CE. As this culture declined, urban centers developed in the Mississippi river valley, building large mounds between 900 and 1100; their methods of using flint hoes and corn spread east and north. In the northeast by the 13th century the Iroquois lived in longhouses, a nd Algonquins also had strong tribal loyalties that often resulted in wars for h unting territory, raiding property, revenge, or personal glory. In the southwest in the 12th century the Mogollon and Hohokam cultures were infl uenced by the Anasazi from the north. About 1400 the Hohokam, who had been influ enced by Mexican culture, migrated out of the area probably to the south. Over t he centuries the Anasazi were also influenced by the Mogollon and in the 8th cen tury began building houses above ground and developed into the Pueblo culture. I n the 12th and 13th centuries the Pueblo lived in large communal houses, but at the end of that period they moved south from centers like Mesa Verde. In what is now New Mexico and Arizona the Hopi and Zuni thrived until another withdrawal o ccurred after the middle of the 15th century. Hopi means peaceful, and they live d communally, emphasizing spiritual principles and the social group rather than individual prominence. Councils of priests made decisions, and warriors acted as police and only for defense. Gradually more war-like Apaches and Navajos led by chiefs moved into the area from the north and raided Pueblo towns. 1998 -2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents India China Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan Beck home

Beck home Nerva 96-98, Trajan 98-117 Dio Chrysostom's Discourses Plutarch's Essays Epictetus' Stoic Discourses Hadrian 117-138 Antoninus Pius 138-161

Marcus Aurelius 161-180 Stoic Ethics of Marcus Aurelius Second Century Literature Lucian's Comic Criticism Rome Under Better Emperors 96-180 Nerva 96-98 and Trajan 98-117 After the last Flavian Emperor Domitian was murdered in 96, five Emperors were s elected or adopted based on their ability rather than on birth. This resulted in a series of capable and more responsible Emperors until Marcus Aurelius was suc ceeded by his son Commodus in 180. Nerva, a senior senator, was the first Empero r to be freely selected by the Senate. He was only Emperor from September 96 unt il his death in January 98, but he helped set the new pattern by adopting the po werful governor of Upper Germany, Trajan. From a family of jurists Nerva had bee n consul with Vespasian in 71 and with Domitian in 90. Suetonius wrote that Nerv a had debauched the youthful Domitian, but Martial praised his quiet life and po etry. People celebrated the new freedom, and funds were made available by meltin g down silver and gold images of Domitian. Nerva freed those on trial for treaso n and recalled exiles. Yet he put to death slaves and freedmen who plotted again st their masters, and he prohibited their making complaints. He protected Jews f rom being accused of treason and exploited by tax collectors, and informers were put to death. Nerva swore he would not execute any senator, and he kept his wor d even when Calpurnius Crassus and others plotted against him. Nerva prided himself in acting in such a way that he could retire safely into pr ivate life. He returned confiscated property and granted land to very poor Roman s, selling imperial luxuries and abolishing sacrifices and spectacles to do so. He reduced tribute Domitian had increased, and he exempted close relations from the five-percent inheritance tax. His laws prohibited castration and marriage to a niece. Nerva assisted afflicted communities and removed the burden from Itali ans of providing vehicles to the public posting service. Nerva ended Domitian's ban on stage actors although Trajan reinstated it. Nerva kept on Domitian's pref ect Casperius Aelianus, and after a year the praetorian guards demanded Nerva ha nd over those who killed Domitian. Instead Nerva offered them his own neck; but they ignored him and killed the two assassins, forcing Nerva to thank them publi cly for doing so. Nerva adopted Trajan and made him co-regent, even though he wa s a Spaniard, because of his ability; although Trajan commanded so many legions close to Italy, many believed he would have become Emperor anyway. Nerva died of a fever.

Trajan's father was consul under Vespasian, a commander in the Jewish war, and g overnor of Syria. The Emperor Trajan had been a military tribune in the Syrian a rmy and commanded the legion in Tarraconensis (Spain) that responded to Domitian 's request when Saturninus rebelled. Nerva appointed Trajan governor of Upper Ge rmany and then adopted him. Trajan enlarged the Roman army to thirty legions and fought two big wars in Dacia from 101 to 106, commanding twelve legions with 12 0,000 men. After the first war Romans garrisoned Dacia. When Decebalus broke the treaty, Trajan had a bridge built across the Danube and captured the Dacian cap ital at Sarmizegethusa, causing their king Decebalus to commit suicide. Dacia lo st most of its men, and as a Roman province it was settled by people from the Ro man empire. Trajan brought back to Rome the royal Dacian treasury of about a hal f million Roman pounds of gold and a million of silver. The annual yield from Da cian mines would supply Roman Emperors with substantial income. At Rome Trajan c elebrated his triumph on 123 days, slaughtering 11,000 animals in spectacles in which 10,000 gladiators fought. Palma, the Roman governor of Syria, conquered th e Arabian region around Petra. Trajan mixed with people and the Senate so that it was said he was more loved th an feared. He told friends he behaved toward citizens the way he wished Emperors

to behave toward him. Trajan gave the praetorian prefect a sword and told him t o use it for him if he ruled well, but against him if badly. He too swore not to execute senators and sent conspirators into exile. The historian Dio Cassius wr ote that he loved and honored the good while ignoring others. When the younger Pliny became consul in 100, he delivered a Panegyricus to the S enate in which he contrasted the despotism of Domitian with the tolerance of Tra jan. Pliny observed that people no longer feared informers but feared the law in stead. People learn that honesty pays; now at least it was enough that it was do ing them no harm. Pliny thanked Trajan that virtue is being rewarded by honors, priesthoods, and provinces. Pliny wrote that a ruler does more for the morals of his country by permitting good conduct than by compelling it, for fear is an un reliable teacher of morals; people learn better from good examples. A prince's b est guard is his innocence. The only citadel never breached is never to need def enses. Pliny argued that it is useless to be armed with terror if one lacks the protection of love; for arms only incite more arms. Instead of the usual idea th at the prince is above the law, Pliny now found the law is above the prince. He believed that the gods would only preserve Trajan if he ruled the state well and in the interests of all. Rewarding good service and punishing the bad makes peo ple better. Pliny noted that men were being promoted based on merit. A person ma y deceive another, but no one can deceive oneself if one looks closely at one's life. Pliny observed that a person's pleasures usually told most about the perso n's true worth and self-control. When some of Trajan's procurators exploited the rich in their provinces, his wif e Plotina made him detest such unjust exaction. Yet many of his city magistrates and governors were charged with crimes, because he was less diligent in checkin g them than Domitian had been. Trajan spent large sums on war and public works, repairing roads, harbors, and public buildings. He also built libraries. A new h arbor was built at Ostia to ensure the grain supply. Trajan reformed laws by prohibiting anonymous accusations, and fathers who mistr eated sons were required to emancipate them. He protected soldiers from technica lly invalid wills, and he punished those who mutilated their sons to prevent the m from being drafted into the army. Trajan completed the child welfare program t hat Nerva had initiated, distributing free grain at Rome to 5,000 needy children . He required candidates for office to invest one-third of their estate in Itali an land. Trajan began the practice of making permanent loans to Italian landowne rs for which they only had to pay five percent interest to their municipality. A ccording to Dio Cassius, he drank heavily and was a pederast, but in his relatio ns with boys he harmed no one. When the Armenian king got his throne from the Parthian king in 113, Trajan orga nized another expensive campaign. He declined gifts from the Parthian king Osroe s. After wintering in Antioch, Trajan invaded Armenia, capturing Arsamosata with out a battle. He appointed Catilius Severus to govern Armenia along with Cappado cia. Next Trajan entered Mesopotamia, capturing Nisibis and Batnae. Trajan enter ed Babylon and Ctesiphon. He sailed down the Tigris to the sea and thought of go ing to India. Returning to Babylon, he learned of rebellions against the garriso ns he had placed in the new provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria. He sent Maximu s and the Moor Lusius Quietus; Maximus was killed, but Lusius recaptured Nisibis and sacked Edessa. Trajan's army also captured and burned Seleucia. About 116 CE Jewish rebellions led to 220,000 being killed in Cyrenaica, 240,000 on Cyprus, and many in Egypt. The general Marcus Turbo commanded Roman armies i n Cyrenaica and Egypt, and Lusius was sent against rebellions by Jews in Mesopot amia. To prevent Parthian rebellion Trajan crowned Parthamaspates as their king, though he was soon rejected and replaced by the Parthians' traditional rule. On his way back to Syria Trajan was unable to besiege revolting Hatra because of t he Arabian desert. Trajan became ill and died in Cilicia in 117; it was reported

that he had adopted his kinsman Hadrian, who was governor of Syria. Dio Chrysostom's Discourses Dio Chrysostom was born in Prusa of Bithynia about 40 CE and died about 120. Dio became a sophist and criticized philosophers such as Musonius until he was conv erted by him in Rome. In 82 Dio was banished by Domitian from Rome, Italy, and B ithynia for advising a conspiring relative of the Emperor. He lived like a poor Cynic traveling and doing manual labor. People often asked him questions, and he began to speak about human duties and what is beneficial. Chrysostom means "gol den mouth." In Viminacium on the Danube, Dio wrote a history of the Getae; but i t is not extant. Dio visited military camps in his rags. According to Philostrat us, when he saw troops beginning to mutiny after Domitian's assassination, Dio l eaped on an altar and stripped off his rags like Odysseus as he quoted Homer. Th en he energetically indicted the tyrant but persuaded the soldiers it would be w iser to act according to the will of the Roman people. Dio's exile was ended, and the next summer he made an oration at Olympia. At Rom e he was well received by Nerva. Dio Chrysostom gained royal favors for his nati ve Prusa and returned there. He headed an embassy from Prusa to thank the Empero r, but Nerva had died. Dio became a close friend of Emperor Trajan, who said he loved him as himself even though he did not understand what he was saying. Dio t raveled before returning to Prusa to beautify the city, where he became involved in an urban renewal lawsuit in 111. No more was heard of him after that. Some of Dio Chrysostom's four discourses On Kingship may have been presented at birthday celebrations of Trajan. In the first Dio wrote that although music may arouse the martial spirit, it is more difficult for it to make the soul just and prudent; he believed only the spoken word of the wise can do that. A king shoul d not use power to become licentious and profligate, arrogant, and lawless; but he should devote his attention to guiding and shepherding his people. The just a nd good person has the greatest faith in the just and good gods. Next a good kin g honors and loves the good, while caring for all. His greatest pleasure may com e from conferring benefits. Dio favored preparing for war so as to be able to li ve in peace. Yet the greatest defense of a king is found in the loyal hearts of those watching out for his welfare. In the third discourse Dio praised Trajan but argues that he is not flattering h im, claiming he was the only one bold enough to risk his life in telling the tru th to Domitian when others thought falsehood necessary. Flattery he considered o utrageous, because it gives to vice the rewards of virtue. Such a perverter of t ruth lies to the very persons who know best one is lying. Unless the object of f lattery is a fool, one appears more odious than pleasing. When flatterers are di scovered, they are hated and mocked. It is reasonable for a ruler to steel onese lf against pleasure, because life is short and filled mostly with remembrance of the past and expectation of the future. Dio asked whether the wicked or the vir tuous find more joy in remembering the past or are more encouraged about the fut ure. The wise realize that labor brings health and a good reputation, while luxu rious ease results in the opposite and makes labor appear more difficult while b lunting pleasures. The fourth discourse is a dialog between the Macedonian conqueror Alexander and the Cynic philosopher Diogenes. Diogenes argues that this powerful king is his o wn bitterest foe as long as he is bad and foolish. Diogenes asks if he realizes it is a sign of fear to carry a weapon. Thus he encourages him to trust acting j ustly not arms. He should not try to become king before he attains wisdom. He wi ll never be a king until he has made his spirit commanding, free, and royal inst ead of slavish, illiberal, and vicious. Diogenes then describes the three most c ommon lives as self-indulgence in pleasures, acquisitive greed, and ambition for glory.

In his 6th discourse Dio described the simple and free life of Diogenes, the onl y independent person in the world, comparing this to the misery of the king of P ersia. He continued this theme in his 8th discourse on virtue, arguing that a no ble person battles hardships as one's greatest antagonists. The strongest person is the one who can stay farthest from pleasures. Like Diogenes, during his exil e Dio found that the pleasure of eating and drinking is increased when one is hu ngry or thirsty and that simple food and water can be most delightful. One can c ondition oneself to cold and heat as other animals do. Dio wrote how Diogenes at the Isthmian games questioned the value of being proclaimed the fastest runner. In Dio's 10th discourse Diogenes encounters a man looking for his lost slave an d wanting to consult a god; he persuades him to give up both pursuits. He can si mplify his life without a bad slave, and he should first aim to know himself bef ore consulting an oracle. Dio believed that as courage, justice, and temperance increased, there would be less surplus wealth and luxuries. He observed that most people consider freedom the greatest blessing and that slavery is a shameful condition. Yet they have li ttle knowledge of what freedom and slavery are, and they do little to escape sla very and to gain freedom. We are permitted to do what is just and beneficial, be cause doing the opposite results in suffering and punishment. Thus freedom is kn owing what is allowed, and slavery is ignorance of what is just and good. In dis cussing distress Dio pointed out that an intelligent person is free by not feeli ng pain because of troubles and stress. Nothing by itself must cause fear, but i t results from false opinion and our own weakness. There is uncertainty in every thing. All who have come before us are dead, and we may die any day. Perhaps the greatest achievement would be to live one day free of worry, fear, and similar emotions. In his discourse on coveting, Dio associated this vice with greed, citing a pass age from Euripides' Phoenician Women that greed destroys the prosperity of famil ies and overthrows states, that human law requires us to honor equality in order to establish common friendship and peace for all. Yet quarrels, strife, and for eign wars are due to desire for more but result in each side being deprived even of what is sufficient. What is more important than life? Yet men destroy even t hat for money, often causing their own countries to be laid waste. Wealth modera tely put to use does not injure but makes life easier and frees it from want; bu t if it becomes excessive, it causes far more worries and troubles than pleasure s. Dio wrote that the great majority feed in their hearts an entire army of desi res and try to accumulate property far beyond their needs. In outlining educatio n for public speaking Dio most highly recommended reading the works of Homer, Me nander, Euripides, Thucydides, Demosthenes, and Socratics like Xenophon. In writ ing about retirement Dio noted that the mind should be trained never to turn asi de or withdraw from its proper work, or one will not be able to rise above one's surroundings to accomplish things. Dio Chrysostom questioned whether it is right to go to war with those who have n ot done a wrongful act. If they have done something wrong, he asked, how serious is it? Philosophers take a long-range perspective and are not influenced by ang er, contentiousness, and bribery, but act justly. Dio believed that guardian spi rits are good and that the wise are fortunate and happy because they are guided by them; but the unhappy are so, not because their guardian spirit is bad, but b ecause they neglect the good spirit. Philostratus in his Lives of the Sophists wrote that Dio often reproached licent ious cities, but he managed to do so without being ungracious like one who restr ains an unruly horse with the bridle rather than the whip. At Rhodes Dio critici zed their assembly for voting statues to honor men and then chiseling off the na mes of old statues to add the new name. He spoke in the theater at Alexandria cr iticizing their usual entertainment. He said the gods control all blessings and distribute them to those who are ready to receive, like the water from the Nile

that comes from a divine source above; but evils like the filthy canals in the c ity are their own creation. Human folly and love of luxury and ambition make lif e vexatious and full of deceit, wickedness, pain, and other ills. The one cure f rom the gods is education; for persons who use reason consistently will be healt hy and happy. At the Cilician capital of Tarsus Dio suggested that the gods no longer love the wanton, senseless, and unrestrained, who are inclined toward insolence, lazines s, and luxury. They should not rely on speakers who praise them, for they only d eceive and vainly excite them like foolish children. Rather they should welcome the one who will point out their faults and can make them think. Dio compared th ose who said that practically everyone has changed to those who do not take care of themselves in an epidemic because nearly all are sick. People are walking ar ound asleep dreaming instead of being guided by reason. Dio is like the physicia n who touches the sore spot; he makes it smart, but his medicine is mild conside ring the seriousness of their case. In relation to other cities Dio asked them t o behave with consideration according to their honor and not in a spirit of host ility and hatred. If they do so, everyone will follow their leadership willingly with admiration and affection. Superiority in virtue and kindness are their tru e blessings and are worthy of emulation. Dio noted how the rivalry between Athen s and Sparta caused them both to lose their good reputations and then their powe r and wealth until finally they were subjected by their foes. This is like fello w slaves quarreling with each other over glory and pre-eminence. Yet the greates t things the philosophers pursue seriously are always within our control. In speaking to his native country in Borysthenes Dio promoted the philosophical theory of a noble and benevolent fellowship of gods and humans which gives a sha re of citizenship to all living beings who have reason and intellect. He believe d this code better and more just than that of Sparta which denied citizenship to the Helots. He recounted a Zoroastrian myth in which the gods are led by the on e best endowed with truth. Dio spoke to the Nicomedians urging them to find concord with their neighbor Nic aea. Although concord is so much better than war, people have often chosen wars not because they are deluded that fighting is better than keeping the peace, but because some are striving for royal power, some for liberty, some for territory , and some for control of the sea. These two cities are struggling for primacy; but if they are concerned for the welfare of all Bithynia, they will be no less displeased over wrongs inflicted upon others than those inflicted upon themselve s; also if anyone flees to them for succor, they will aid them promptly and impa rtially. This conduct will yield them primacy, not quarreling with Nicaeans over titles. By joining forces they will control other cities that might wrong them; but now other cities take advantage of their strife, giving primacy to them. To gether the two cities would double their resources, and lawbreakers could not es cape justice by fleeing from one city to the other. They should not listen to th ose who malign them to each other for selfish purposes, and so they should avoid being irritated for petty reasons. Dio believed that once concord is achieved, the gods will help it to endure. Dio also spoke against the internal strife in Nicaea, suggesting that the gods d esire nothing more than virtue, orderly government, and honor for good citizens. He prayed that the gods might cast out strife and jealousy and implant love and unity. In his own city of Prusa Dio argued for concord with their neighbor Apam eia, as he believed it is never profitable even for the greatest city to indulge in hostile strife with the humblest village. When the opposing city is not smal l, the hostility will inevitably cause pain and do harm. Dio reminded them that the Apameians need Prusa's timber and that Prusa has no other harbor for trade e xcept that of Apameia. Dio believed unwillingness to yield or make concessions, which some imagine are not manly, is rather senseless and stupid. Dio felt patri otic feelings toward Prusa; but he also recognized the democratic right of other

s to disagree with him, confident he could persuade them to change. Immunity fro m criticism is more likely to be given to dictators than to benefactors. Dio des cribed the disadvantage of enmity and the benefits of concord and friendship. Furthermore, any enmity towards any people is an irksome, grievous thing. For there is no enemy so weak as not on occasion to hurt even the man who appears to be very strong, or to display his hatred by either saying some painful word or doing some injurious act. For the fruit of hatred is never, so to speak, sweet or beneficial, but of all things most unpleasant and bitter, nor is any burden so hard to bear or so fatiguing as enmity. For example, while it always interferes with strokes of good fortune, it increases disasters, and while for him who suffers from something else it doubles the pain, it does not permit those who are enjoying good fortune to rejoice in fitting measure. For it is inevitable, I suppose, that the masses should be harmed by one another, and, on the other hand, be despised and held in low esteem by the others, not only as having antagonists to begin with, but also as being themselves foolish and contentious. However, there is nothing finer or more godlike than friendship and concord, whether between man and man or between city and city. For who are they who acquire the good things of life more becomingly, when it is their friends who assist in supplying them? Who escape the bad things more easily than those who have friends as allies? Who are less affected by distress than those who have persons to share their suffering and to help them bear it? To whom is good fortune sweeter than to those who gladden by their success not only themselves but others too?1 After bringing concessions for Prusa from Trajan, Dio Chrysostom promoted such i mprovements to the city as colonnades and fountains but also fortifications, har bors, and shipyards. He even aimed to bring together many inhabitants in a feder ation of cities with Prusa as the head. According to Dio all in the assembly app roved his plan and supported it financially. In old age probably at Rome Dio delivered his Euboean Discourse in which he told the story of simple hunters who generously aided a shipwrecked traveler. He des cribed the happiness of their rural life and noted that the poor often are more helpful to those in need than the rich, whose aid usually is a loan which must b e returned with interest. Dio then turned to the difficulty the poor had survivi ng in cities, where only the water was free; even firewood had to be bought. He was concerned that many jobs for those without wealth were sedentary and unhealt hy. He was also critical of corrupt professions such as entertainers and lawyers . Dio's strongest arguments were against prostitution as shameful and brutal lust. Brothel-keepers unite individuals without love and affection for the sake of fi lthy lucre. Women and children captured in war or purchased as slaves are expose d to shameful ends in dirty booths. Dio believed this sordid trade should be for bidden and not legal. This adultery committed with outcasts can lead to assaults on the chastity of women and boys of good families. To the argument that unbarr ed brothels at low prices would protect free and respected wives from bribes and

gifts, he argued that men become weary of what is cheap and desire what is forb idden. Where intrigues with married women are carried on with respectability, th e maidenhood of unmarried girls will be in danger. When the seduction of women b ecomes easy, some men will turn to corrupting boys. Although Dio Chrysostom neve r mentioned Christians, his preaching in many ways was a classical parallel of t hat new morality. Plutarch's Essays Plutarch was born about 46 CE in Boeotia at Chaeronea, which is midway between T hebes and Delphi. His father was also a philosopher and biographer, and Plutarch was given a good education. In 66-67 he studied mathematics and philosophy at A thens with the Peripatetic philosopher Ammonius, though as a Platonist Plutarch was later more closely associated with the Academy. He often lectured at Rome be tween 75 and 90. At Chaeronea he held municipal posts such as building commissio ner and chief magistrate. He traveled in Greece, to Sardis, Alexandria, and on p ublic business to Rome. Plutarch lectured and taught adults philosophy and ethic s at Chaeronea. About 95 he became one of the two permanent priests at Delphi, a nd he had a second home there. He was married and mentioned four sons when his i nfant daughter died. Plutarch probably died about 120. Plutarch is best known for writing biographies, of which 48 survive, including 2 2 pairs of parallel Greek and Roman lives down to the end of the civil war with Antony's death in 30 BC. His motive for undertaking these was the ethical improv ement of others; but he soon found history to be a mirror from which he learned to adjust and regulate his own conduct. These biographies have influenced genera tions and were an extremely valuable resource for the first volume of this serie s on the history of ethics. Extant also are 78 ethika or moral essays, though th is designation was originally for the largest group, not all of his other varied writings. Some of these were not written by him but were given his name. The in fluence of Plutarch's writing has been great. Marcus Aurelius took his biographi es with him campaigning against the Marcomanni. Writing in Greek, his work becam e schoolbooks in the eastern empire for centuries. Byzantine scholars introduced them into Italy during the Renaissance. An excellent French translation by Jacq ues Amyot of the Lives in 1559 and the Moralia in 1572 led to North's English Pa rallel Lives in 1579 and Philemon Holland's English Moralia in 1603. In writing on "Moral Virtue" Plutarch reviewed the theories of Pythagoras, Plato , Aristotle, and the Stoics. He agreed with Plato that in the psyche there is cl early a difference between what judges and what suffers passions and that the la tter obeys the former and yields, while the rational element is what is obeyed o r resisted. The one who has the worst part obedient to the better has power over oneself and is better than the one who allows the brutish and unreasonable part of the soul to get its way. The reason as divine and heavenly should naturally command and rule that which is sensual. In "Virtue and Vice" Plutarch wrote that people enjoy wealth, power, and reputation better and bear poverty, exile, and old age more gently according to the serenity of their character. Vice makes eve ry activity more troublesome. Yet a courageous soul is calm and joyful. Learn wh at is honorable and good, and you will be content with your lot. In "Can Vice Ca use Unhappiness?" Plutarch held that vice makes everyone completely miserable wi thout needing instruments or ministers. No misfortune is really bad without the aid of vice. Yet vice can ruin the fortunate with lust, anger, superstitious fea rs, and so on. Plutarch sent an essay "On Listening" to a young man just old enough to wear adu lt clothes, warning him that undisciplined youths wanting freedom often set over themselves more tyrannical masters than teachers or trainers, namely desires. N ow is the time to replace the rules they have been under with the divine leaders hip of reason; for only those who follow reason can be considered free. Listenin g is more important than speaking, because we listen more than we speak. One is apt listening to others to notice faults such as sloppy thinking, hollow phrases

, clichs, applause seeking, and so on more than when one is speaking oneself. Plu tarch recommended the study of poetry as a search for truth with the critical aw areness of what is false from fables that may be taken allegorically. He suggest ed that unjustifiable writings be corrected or balanced by other passages. He be lieved poetry can prepare students for philosophy. Plutarch wrote that the virtues of men and women are the same, and he gave numer ous examples of courageous women from various cities and heroic individual actio ns by women. In a long essay "On the Malice of Herodotus" he criticized the pion eer historian from an ethical point of view for characterizing people in abusive ways. Plutarch wrote in defense of Boeotians, Corinthians, and other Greeks. Plutarch gave many examples in his essay "How to Distinguish a Flatterer from a Friend." Self-love can open the domain of friendship to the flatterer. Truth and knowing oneself are the best defenses against the deception of flattery. Flatte rers imitate the pleasant and attractive aspects of friendship by putting on a c heerful face and never being negative. They may even imitate frankness by critic izing activities and ways of life he or she sees the subject disliking while pra ising extravagantly what the other likes. The flatterer has no constancy nor aut hentic likes and dislikes but acts like a vanity mirror. Like an understudy, the flatterer, while imitating the other person, keeps inferior and defective in ev erything except what is bad. A true friend will not be afraid to upset one when it does good but should not let the upset destroy the friendship, using it like a sharp medicine to protect the patient. Plutarch asked if it is not flattery th at diverts tyrants into utterly scandalous behavior. Flatterers do not defer to virtue or age but rather to wealth and reputation. Th ey wait for some emotion they can fatten up, like a tumor that inflames the mind . They encourage the angry to lash out, the spendthrift to buy, the cowardly to run away, and the suspicious to be cautious. A friend is straightforward, uncomp licated, and sincere; but the flatterer always conforms to the other person in o pinions, pleasures, and passions. For a friend is there as a colleague not a co-rogue, to consult with not to conspire with, for support in spreading facts not fictionsand yes, even to share his adversity not his perversity.2 Plutarch warned against using candor to a friend when many people are there. It was said that Pythagoras once reproached a pupil harshly in front of others, and the young man hanged himself. Pythagoras never again told anyone off in the pre sence of others. Most disgraceful is to expose a husband where his wife can hear , a father where his children can see, someone in love before the beloved, or a teacher in front of the pupils. Such people may completely forget themselves whe n censured before those whose good opinion they want to maintain. In "On Being Aware of Moral Progress" Plutarch noted that frenzied and agitated dreams can tell us that our mind does not yet have its own regulator but is stil l being formed by opinions and rules which are unraveled by the emotions. Detach ment is an exalted and divine state, and progress toward it is a taming of the e motions. Thus it is important for us to examine our emotions and assess their di fferences. If our desires and fears and rages are less intense than they were be fore because we are using reason to decrease their violence so that our sense of disgrace is sharper than our fear, we prefer to emulate rather than envy; we va lue a good reputation more than money; our actions are slow rather than hasty; w e are astounded rather than contemptuous of arguments; then we may assume progre ss in that the vices now engage more respectable emotions. In "How to Profit by One's Enemies" Plutarch observed that as states must have g ood order and government to counter border warfare so individuals may be stimula

ted by enmities to practice soberness and guard against bad habits. He suggested you could distress the person who hates you, not by reviling but by showing sel f-control, being truthful, and treating everyone with kindness and justice. If y ou do criticize, make sure you are not guilty of those things, because nothing i s more disgraceful than that hypocrisy. He agreed with Antisthenes that if one i s not admonished by true friends, one needs ardent enemies to turn one from erro r. Insults and abusive attacks can also help one to discipline the temper and le arn patience. Plutarch warned against residues of envy, hatred, jealousy, and vi ndictiveness that may be introduced by enmity, just as laws made during war unde r bad conditions may injure people if they are not abolished after the emergency . Plutarch in "On Having Many Friends" described the coin of friendship as goodwil l and graciousness combined with virtue, and he considered this rare. True frien dship is good because of virtue, pleasant because of intimacy, and necessary bec ause of usefulness. He found it as difficult to put aside an unsatisfactory frie nd as it is to get rid of harmful food once it has been eaten. He recommended no t accepting friendship from acquaintances too readily but to seek after those wh o are worthy. Too many friends causes separation as it does not allow blending o f goodwill in intimacy, because one's attention is constantly being transferred to another. Friendship seeks intimacy with a steady character, which is hard to find. Plutarch gave advice about keeping well, suggesting that good and constant habit s will make life pleasant. He warned against excess in eating and drinking and a gainst all self-indulgence. Increase in civil discord and the rule of despots ma y be blamed on luxury and extravagance. He recommended appropriate exercise for scholars and deep massage with oil. He concluded that health provides the best o pportunity for obtaining and using virtue in words and action. He also advised c ooperation and intellectual companionship to brides and grooms. Plutarch's concept translated "Superstition" literally means "dread of deities," and he described it as an emotional idea that produces fear of gods causing pai n and injury. Even an unmoved atheist is better off than the perverted mind of t he superstitious person. Plutarch believed atheism is based on erroneous reasoni ng, but superstition is an emotion based on erroneous reasoning. By denying all spirits atheism can look for other causes of events. Superstitious fear renders one impotent and helpless, because it can relate to anything as "afflictions of God" or "attacks by an evil spirit." Atheism does not cause superstition, but su perstitious beliefs can lead to atheism. Plutarch concluded that true religion l ies in between the extremes of superstitious belief and hardened atheism. Like Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Seneca, Plutarch also wrote on anger. In his "On the Avoidance of Anger" Sulla asks Fundanus to explain how he has been able to tame his temper so that it is now moderate and obedient to reason. Fundanus a dmits that anger makes the inside full of chaos, smoke, and noise so that the mi nd cannot see or hear what is beneficial. When rational discrimination immediate ly bears down on an outburst, it not only remedies the current situation but als o strengthens the mind's detachment and energy for the future. He recommends not listening to or obeying a tyrannical temper by keeping quiet as if the angry em otion were a disease. Anger arises from mental pain and suffering because of wea kness; he disagrees with the notion that it is the mind's tendons. Just as Phili p destroyed Olynthus and could not rebuild it, anger too is good at demolition a nd ruination; but construction, preservation, mercy, and patience require gentle ness, forgiveness, and the moderating of passion. Fundanus also disagreed with t he poet who wrote that respect follows fear, arguing that it is the reverse. Res pect engenders the fear that leads to self-restraint, while flogging does not in still remorse but the intention to get away with misdeeds in the future. Plutarch has Fundanus describe how he tries to quell his anger in punishing by a

llowing the defendants the right to justify themselves and by listening to them. This gives time to check the emotion and let it dissolve while rationality find s a fitting punishment. He observed that anger is often triggered by the belief that one has been slighted and ignored. Thus angry feelings are increased by sel f-regard and discontent, usually accompanied by a luxurious and enervating way o f life. Anger can ruin marriage and friendship. When anger is absent, even drunk enness can be tolerated, though drinking and anger can produce cruelty and madne ss. In our lighter moments anger imposes enmity on affability, disputing on deba te, arrogance on authority, envy on success, and hostility on failure. Anger eve n accepts harm to oneself while destroying another, as its most disagreeable ele ment is the desire to hurt someone else. Turning our thoughts inward to see how we are like that too may change righteous indignation to tolerance. Similarly in writing "On Contentment" Plutarch asked why be so quick to spot som eone else's weakness while overlooking your own? Also people may obsessively con template their own faults while failing to apply one's mind to good things. Inst ead of being upset about what one has lost, why not feel happy about what one ha s kept? He warned against the usual practice of envying those who are better off , as prisoners envy the freed, the freed those who have always been free; these envy citizens, who envy the rich, who envy provincial commanders, who envy kings , who envy the gods. Clearly contentment is not based on one's position in socie ty. Plutarch suggested treating the mind like a painting, giving prominence to b right and vivid colors while allowing the gloomy hues to fade into the obscurity of the background. Plutarch took the Stoic position that fortune may deprive us of wealth and relat ionships; but it cannot make a good person bad, cowardly, mean-spirited, petty, or spiteful, and it cannot deprive us of a helpful attitude toward life. The wis e calm most physical matters because their self-control, responsible regimen, an d moderate exercise tend to prevent illness. Plutarch reminded us that it is alw ays in our power not to lie, mislead, steal, or intrigue. These are important to happiness because while reason eradicates other discomforts, reason itself may create remorse when the conscience is pricked. Good deeds leave behind in the in telligent person's mind a pleasant and fresh impression. Plutarch believed the w orld is a sacred temple suitable for divinity, and life is an initiation into it s natural wonders. Thus he suggested we celebrate them everyday in joy and conte ntment. Plutarch explained why some become preoccupied with other people's lives in "On Being a Busybody." Yet there are some who cannot bear to face their own lives, regarding these as a most unlovely spectacle, or to reflect and revolve upon themselves, like a light, the power of reason, but their souls, being full of all manner of vices, shuddering and frightened at what is within, leap outwards and prowl about other people's concerns and there batten and make fat their own malice.3 He explained the origin of the word "sycophant" as one who informed against thos e exporting prohibited figs, and he warned busybodies that they may be similarly hated. In "On the Love of Wealth" Plutarch noted that this desire is not satiated like hunger and thirst; for neither gold nor silver relieves the craving for money, a nd the greed for gain is not stopped by acquiring new gains. A person absorbed i n getting money, lamenting expenditures, and doing base and painful things to ac quire more money even though one has houses, land, herds, slaves, and much cloth ing has the trouble Plutarch called "mental poverty." Avarice is an oppressive a

nd vexing mistress, because it compels us to make money but forbids us spending it; it arouses the desire but cheats us of the pleasure. He concluded that maste ry of self is needed whether one dines alone or gives a sumptuous feast. In his essay "On the Slowness of the Gods to Punish" Plutarch noted that a horse is best trained by immediately punishing its mistakes; but if there is a long d elay, it does no good. Yet divine retribution seems to take a long time and may even affect future generations. Yet on the human side it can be argued that some delay in punishing can teach us to avoid anger so that reprimanding may be more rational. Perhaps God is taking a careful look at sick minds to see if they are inclined to remorse. It can be argued that every sinner's mind ponders how to g et rid of the memory of its crimes in order to cleanse its conscience and make a fresh start in life. Plutarch closed this essay with a fabulous tale about Thes pesius, who went out of his body and observed souls in the other world. Those wh o had spent their lives in undetected iniquity, covering themselves with the sem blance of goodness, were harassed and tormented until they turned themselves ins ide out. The last thing he saw was souls being prepared for rebirth. Plutarch gave a very dramatic account of the patriotic plot that liberated Thebe s from Spartan rule in December 379 BC in a fascinating dialog called "On the Da imonion of Socrates." The conspirators meet at the house of Simmias, a friend of Socrates, and discuss the Spartan excavation of the Alcmena tomb. An ancient sc ript was deciphered by Egyptian priests as a message that God advises the Greeks to stop fighting but compete in philosophy and to give up their weapons and set tle their disputes by means of the Muses and discussion. Pythagorean ideas are c riticized by Galaxidorus, who denounces religious mysticism in favor of the rati onalism of Socrates. Yet Theocritus replies that Socrates had a daimonion (which might be translated as a "guardian angel"). Then the Theban hero Epaminondas ar rives with the Pythagorean Theanor. The latter wants to repay the former for att ending to the funeral of the Pythagorean Lysis; but Epaminondas refuses the gift because of his philosophic discipline of poverty. Meanwhile Hipposthenidas tries to call off the plot because he fears it is disco vered; but his messenger is delayed and called back. Simmias admires Socrates fo r being able to receive guidance from the angel directly in waking consciousness . Simmias relates the story of Timarchus, whose soul left his body and traveled to the other world, where he observed the process of reincarnation. Disobedient souls are restrained by a kind of bridle, which people experience as remorse for sins or lawless and indulgent pleasures. Finally the Thebans carry out their pl an to make the Spartans drunk so that they can kill them and recover their city. When Plutarch wrote to his wife to console her for the death of their infant dau ghter, they already had four sons and grandchildren. He commended her for not in dulging in excessive grief, which can be an enemy of affection and love and can lead to an insatiable desire to grieve if it becomes a habit. Mental distress su bsides when it is dispersed in physical calm. He reminded her that since the sou l cannot be destroyed, life in the physical body could be compared to the behavi or of caged birds. In "On the Use of Reason by 'Irrational' Animals" Plutarch ha d one of the transformed pigs in the Odyssey debate with Odysseus whether humans or animals had more virtue and contentment. In his essay "Philosophers and Men in Power" Plutarch argued that philosophers b y associating with rulers can make them more just, moderate, and eager to do goo d. They will be a public blessing by dispensing justice and making the orderly a nd good prosper. Writing "To an Uneducated Ruler" he asked who shall rule the ru ler and gave Pindar's answer, the law, which he interpreted as reason found with in. The ruler should be more afraid of doing evil than of suffering it, because the former causes the latter. The danger is that those who can do what they wish will do what they should not. Power gives wickedness speed, making anger murder , erotic love adultery, and coveting confiscation. Suspicion may cause those sla

ndered to be executed. Power quickly reveals the corruption in souls, like water poured into a leaky container immediately spills out as acts of desire, anger, falsehood, and bad taste. Plutarch shared his "Precepts of Statecraft." He began by recommending policy be based on judgment and reason, not impulse or contentiousness. Politicians must apply themselves to understanding the character of the citizens, and after gaini ng their confidence they can try to train their character gently toward what is better by treating them mildly. Being on the public stage, one must first educat e and order one's own character, for it is difficult to change the multitude. Vi rtue though is not the only important thing; oratory is its co-worker. One's spe ech should be unaffected, high-minded, frank, foreseeing, and thoughtfully conce rned for others. One should be careful about assisting friends only after the ma in public interests are safe and of course should not do so in corrupt ways. Plu tarch believed that refusing to make peace with a personal enemy for things we o ught to give up even for a friend is uncivilized and beastly. Politicians in assembly should not all express the same opinion as if by a previ ous agreement but should express different opinions and draw people along by per suasion to the public advantage. Plutarch also knew the value of having friends in high places, and he stated that the Romans are eager to promote the political interests of their friends. Ordinary citizens may be soothed by granting them e quality, and the powerful can be given concessions within the bounds of local go vernment, solving problems as though they were diseases in the body politic. One may conciliate superiors, honor equals, and add prestige to the inferior, while being friendly to all. One should compete with every official in zeal, forethou ght for the common good, and wisdom. He urged us to moderate our ambition, becau se honor is within ourselves. The main thing is to instill concord and friendshi p while removing strife, discord, and enmity. Private troubles can become public ones and small troubles great ones if they are overlooked and do not receive co unsel and treatment from the beginning. Thus the politician should attend to off enses, like diseases in a person that might spread quickly if one does not take hold of them, treat them, and cure them. Plutarch's two short essays on "The Eating of Flesh" argued against that practic e. Meat is usually unnecessary now that food is more plentiful than in primitive times. Humans are not naturally carnivorous and lack the appropriate teeth, cla ws, and stomach to digest flesh. Humans don't eat lions and wolves that are kill ed in self-defense but tame animals that harm no one. He believed that meat, lik e wine, may strengthen the body; but they weaken the soul, especially when consu med to satiety. He wrote, "We shall eat flesh, but from hunger, not as a luxury. We shall kill an animal, but in pity and sorrow, not degrading or torturing it, which is the current practice in many cases."4 The killing of animals has arous ed violent instincts and led to wars and the murder of humans. Another argument against the practice is the migration of souls from body to body. Plutarch also wrote extensively on the religion of Isis and Osiris, oracles such as the one at Delphi, and the various philosophical schools. He noted that the Stoics Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus wrote about government, but none of them were involved in political, diplomatic, or military activities. He found numerou s inconsistencies in the writings of Chrysippus. He criticized the hedonists in the long essay "That Epicurus Actually Makes a Pleasant Life Impossible." In add ition to his biographical contributions and as a Platonist philosopher and teach er, Plutarch wrote much to apply ethical values to various aspects of life in hi s synthesis of classical philosophy and religion. Epictetus' Stoic Discourses Epictetus was born to a slave woman in the city of Hierapolis in Phrygia about 5 0 CE; his name means "newly acquired." His master Epaphroditus was Nero's secret ary and allowed him to study with the prominent Stoic teacher Musonius Rufus in

Rome. Origen quoted an account by Celsus describing how his master twisted his l eg. Epictetus smiled and informed him it would break; after it broke, he merely reminded his master that he had told him it would. He was lame for the rest of h is life. Epictetus gained his freedom and began teaching philosophy some time be fore Domitian banished philosophers from Rome and Italy in 89. Then Epictetus we nt to Nicopolis, a town in Epirus founded by Augustus to celebrate his victory a t Actium. There he taught while living simply in a house with a mat, a pallet, a nd an earthenware lamp, which replaced the iron one that was stolen. In his old age when friends of his were going to expose their baby, Epictetus married in or der to bring up the child. He emulated Socrates and did not write anything; but his pupil Flavius Arrianus (the historian Arrian) published his notes in eight b ooks of Discourses, the first four of which survive, and a compendium Handbook ( Encheiridion). Epictetus probably died late in the reign of Hadrian which ended in 138. Epictetus focused on the rational faculty, which is the only faculty we have rec eived that examines itself and all other faculties. It is best and supreme over all and is the only thing which the gods have put in our power. All other things are not under our power. Thus we must make the best use we can of what is withi n our power while using the rest according to nature as it pleases God. I must d ie, and I may have to be put in chains or go into exile; but Epictetus questione d whether I must lament. No one can hinder me from smiling and being cheerful an d content. You may fetter my leg, he said, but not even Zeus can overpower my wi ll. In deciding what to do, each person knowing oneself must decide how much one is worth and at what price one should sell oneself; for all sell themselves at various prices. We have a body in common with the animals and intelligence in common with the go ds. Many incline toward the miserable and mortal kinship, a few to what is divin e and happy. Everyone uses things according to their opinions; the few formed fo r fidelity and modesty have no ignoble thoughts about themselves. Yet most negle ct what is better and attach themselves to things related to their wretched fles h, like treacherous wolves, lions, and foxes. Virtue produces tranquillity. The work of improvement enables one to achieve what one desires and not fall into th at which one would avoid. Epictetus praised providence based on seeing and grati tude. God has made humans spectators of God and its works, yet not only spectato rs but interpreters as well. God has given us the ability to bear everything tha t happens without being depressed or broken. Epictetus aimed to reveal powers fo r greatness and courage, while expecting others to show fault-finding and accusa tions. Instead of identifying as an Athenian or Corinthian, Epictetus encouraged people to think of themselves as citizens of the world. In observing the intelligent a dministration of the world one realizes the greatest and most comprehensive comm unity is of people and God. By having communion with God one may not only call o neself a cosmopolitan but also a son of God. With this divine kinship why should we grieve or flatter or envy? A person is not made miserable through the means of another. We are only responsible for what is in our power, the proper use of appearances. Why then draw on ourselves things for which we are not responsible and so give trouble to ourselves? When someone asked Epictetus to persuade his b rother to stop being angry with him, he pointed out that philosophy does not sec ure external things. The art of living is each person's life. His brother's ange r is external to him; but if he would send his brother, Epictetus would talk to him about it. He asked why we are angry with many, and one might say because the y are thieves and robbers. This means they are mistaken about good and evil. The n should we be angry with them or pity them? Show them their error, and they may desist from their errors. Epictetus defined education as learning how to adapt intelligence to particular things according to nature, then to distinguish what things are in our power. In

our power are will and all acts depending on will. Things not in our power are the body, possessions, relatives, country, and all with whom we live in society. Thus we should transfer the concept of the good to what is within our power. To look after my own interest may lead to taking the land of a neighbor, which is the origin of wars, civil commotion, tyrannies, and conspiracies. It is circumst ances which reveal what people are. Therefore when a difficulty falls on you, re member that God is training you. Keep by all means what is your own, and do not desire what belongs to others. Fidelity and virtuous shame are yours. Who can ta ke them from you? Who will hinder you using them? But when you act by seeking wh at is not your own, you lose what is your own. The law of life is to act accordi ng to nature. We should realize that consequences will not escape us. Nothing else can conquer will except will itself, and opinion conquers itself an d is not conquered by another. Since the law of nature is that the superior over powers the inferior, why not use the superior principles? Epictetus admitted tha t the man who stole his lamp was superior in wakefulness; but he bought the lamp at the price of becoming a thief. Epictetus explained that caution should be us ed in things that are dependent on the will, but we may employ confidence in tho se things not within our power. Yet many do the reverse and attempt to avoid wha t is not within their power, resulting in fear and being disturbed. We can be co nfident about death, because it is inevitable; but we can be cautious about the fear of death since that is within our power. Many think that only the free should be educated; but philosophers believe that only the educated are free. God does not allow those not educated to be free. No one in a state of fear or sorrow or perturbation is free; but the one who is fr ee of those is delivered from servitude. If you run after externals, you must ra mble up and down in obedience to the will of your master, who is the one who has power over the things you seek to gain or avoid. Epictetus argued that divinati on is useless, because it does not explain anything about good or evil. When one known for adultery came to him, Epictetus noted that laying aside fidel ity to make designs on a neighbor's wife destroys a person of fidelity, modesty, and sanctity. One is also overthrowing neighborhood, friendship, and community, for who will trust that person? Modest actions preserve the modest person; immo dest actions destroy that. The same is true with fidelity. Shamelessness strengt hens the shameless person, faithlessness the faithless, abusive words the abusiv e person, anger the person with an angry temper, and unequal giving and receivin g makes the avaricious even more so. This is why philosophers admonish us not to be satisfied with learning only, but they urge us to add study and practice. Fo r we often have long been accustomed to doing contrary things. Just as the adult erer loses modesty and temperance, so the angry person loses temper, and the cow ard fortitude. No one is bad without suffering some loss and damage; though if y ou look at money only, they may gain in that. Epictetus asked why he should resp ond to an unjust act with an unjust act since that would be hurting himself beca use the other had hurt himself. Philosophers weigh and test rules of behavior by examining and confirming them; then when they are known, the wise and good use them. Epictetus suggested that t he way to cast away sadness, fear, desire, envy, malevolence, avarice, effeminac y, and intemperance is by looking only to God with your affection and consecrati ng yourself to divine commands. Any other way compels one to be overcome by stro nger things, and then one will never be able to find tranquillity. In struggling against appearances he observed that the affections of the soul easily become h abits. So being angry feeds the fire of that habit. Being overcome by sexual int ercourse increases incontinence. Corresponding acts strengthen those habits. If you wish not to be angry, count the days on which you have not been angry. The h abit will weaken as you experience more peaceful days; when you reach thirty day s or more, the habit may be completely destroyed. Epictetus commended himself fo r abstaining when a woman stripped and lay down next to him and even tempted him

with fondling. He exhorted us to be willing to appear beautiful to God in purit y with our own pure self and God. In regard to friendship Epictetus believed that only those who understand the go od can also know how to love. How can those unable to distinguish good from bad possess the power to love? Thus true loving is only in the power of the wise. Ev eryone is attached to their own interest, for wherever the "I" and "Mine" are pl aced, the animal inclines. If it is in the flesh, then that is the ruling power; if in the will, then it is there; if in externals, it is there. Only when I am where my will is, may I be a friend as I should be; for then my interest will be to maintain fidelity, modesty, patience, abstinence, and cooperation. If I sepa rate myself from honesty, Epictetus concluded, then the doctrine of Epicurus, th at honesty is only what opinion holds, becomes strong. Can there be friendship w ithout honest communication? Give thanks to God for things like wine and oil that you receive, but remember t hat God gives you something better, the ability to use them, prove them, and est imate the value of each. Eyes see, but whether we should look upon the wife of s omeone else and in what manner is decided by the will. Whether we believe what i s said or not and whether we are moved by it or not are also in the faculty of t he will. The will makes use of everything else and can even destroy the whole pe rson. Can anything be stronger than this? Why then are the things subject to res traint often stronger than what is not? Those who do not know who they are nor f or what purpose they exist, what the world is, with whom they are associated, wh at things are good and bad, beautiful and ugly, who do not understand discourse nor demonstration nor what is true or false and cannot distinguish them, will ne ither desire according to nature nor turn away nor move upward nor intend nor as sent nor dissent nor suspend judgment. Such people go around blind thinking they are somebody when they are nobody. Every error is a contradiction, because thos e who err do not wish to do so; but they do not do what they wish to do. Thieves seek their own interest, but do they achieve it? Show the rational faculty a co ntradiction, and it will withdraw from it. If you do not show it, blame yourself instead of the one not persuaded. Just as it is the nature of every soul to assent to the true, dissent from the f alse, and withhold judgment from what is uncertain, so it is its nature to move toward the good, turn away from the evil, and feel neutral toward what is neithe r good nor evil. Yet we often make judgments about things that lie outside the p rovince of moral purpose and so weep and sigh. Misfortune, strife, disagreement, fault-finding, accusing, and impiety are all such judgments. Epictetus recommen ded the arrogant practice submission when you are reviled and not being disturbe d when you are insulted. Then you will make progress so that even if someone hit s you, you will not react. Neighbors may be bad for themselves; but for me they can be good, because they exercise my good disposition and fair-mindedness. Epic tetus called this the "magic wand of Hermes," which turns what it touches into g old. Bring whatever you will, and I will turn it into a good. Disease, death, po verty, reviling, danger to one's life in court - all these become helpful when t reated as challenges to the good will. Let not someone else acting contrary to nature become an evil for you; for you a re born not to be humiliated nor to suffer misfortune but to share good fortune. God made all humanity to be happy and serene, giving us resources, some our own and others not our own. What is subject to hindrance, deprivation, and compulsi on are not our own; but those which cannot be hindered are our own. God gives us the ability to distinguish the true nature of the good and evil. Epictetus reco mmended we become affectionate as a person of noble spirit who is fortunate; for it is against nature to be abject or broken in spirit or depend on something ot her than yourself or to blame either God or other people. Yet in loving others r emember they are mortal, as generals riding in triumph are reminded by one stand ing behind. They are not one of your possessions but have been given to you temp

orarily like figs or clusters of grapes in certain seasons. To want such fruit i n the winter is foolish. The longest chapter in the Discourses of Epictetus is on freedom. The free live according to their will and are not subject to compulsion nor hindrance nor forc e. Their choices are unhampered; they attain their desires; their aversions do n ot fall into what they would avoid. Epictetus asked who wishes to live in error, deceived, impetuous, unjust, unrestrained, peevish, or abject? The answer is no one. Thus no bad person lives according to their will, and no bad person is fre e. For no one wishes to live in grief, fear, envy, pity, desiring things and fai ling to get them, avoiding things and falling into them. Epictetus pointed out t hat even the friend of Caesar is not relieved of hindrance or compulsion nor doe s that one live securely or serenely. Whoever possesses the science of how to li ve cannot help but be a master. True human nature is not to bite or kick or thro w into prison or behead, but to do good, work together, and pray for the success of others. Therefore one is doing badly when one acts unfeelingly. Epictetus ci ted Socrates and Diogenes as the greatest exemplars of freedom. He concluded tha t freedom is not satisfying what you desire but is gained by destroying your des ires. He suggested keeping vigils to acquire judgment that will free you, and he recommended devoting yourself to a philosopher instead of to a rich old man. Epictetus warned against continuing to associate too much with those descending to lower levels, or you will ruin yourself. Remember that nothing is done withou t paying for it and that one will not remain the same person if one does not do the same things. Choose, therefore, what you prefer. He asked why you blame the one who gives you all when something is withdrawn from you. When you have lost s ome external thing, ask yourself what you have acquired in its place. If this is more valuable, do not say you have suffered a loss but made an exchange. By pay ing attention to your sense impressions and watching over them you are guarding self-respect, fidelity, and mental constancy undisturbed by passion, pain, fear, or confusion. In this way one may be free and a friend of God. Regardless of wh at the external object may be, the value you put on it makes you subservient to someone else. Epictetus emphasized self-improvement. If you see any of the things that you have learned and studied thoroughly coming to fruition for you in action, rejoice in these things. If you have put away or reduced a malignant disposition and reviling or impertinence or foul language or recklessness or negligence; if you are not moved by the things that once moved you, or at least not to the same degree, then you can keep festival day after day; today because you behaved well in this action, tomorrow because you behaved well in another. How much greater cause for thanksgiving is this than a consulship or a governorship? These things come to you from your own self and from the gods. Remember who the Giver is, and to whom He gives, and for what end. If you are brought up in reasonings such as these, can you any longer raise the questions where you are going to be happy, and where you please God?5 The fine and good do not contend with anyone, nor do they, as far as they have p ower, allow others to contend. Epictetus urged people to announce that they are at peace with all people, no matter what they do. He even suggested being amused at those who think they are hurting you. He pointed out that the opinions of ot hers are in the class of things outside one's sphere of moral purpose and beyond one's control. So if you are disturbed by the opinions of others, do you still fancy that you have been persuaded as to what things are good and evil? Epictetu s found his true emancipation in God by knowing divine commands. No one could ma

ke a slave of him although they might master his body or property. Their power s till did not extend beyond those things to him. He chose to wish what takes plac e; for he regarded God's will as better than his will. He attached himself to Go d as a servant and follower, making his choice and desire and will one with God' s. He was not frightened by threats made against his body; for he knew that he w as not flesh, bones, and muscles but that which employs them, that which governs the impressions of the senses and understands them. Epictetus taught, You have but to will a thing, and it has happened; the reform has been made; as, on the other hand, you have but to drop into a doze and all is lost. For it is within you that both destruction and deliverance lie. But what good do I get after all that? And what greater good than this are you looking for? Instead of shameless, you will be self-respecting; instead of faithless, faithful; instead of dissolute, self-controlled. If you are looking for anything else greater than these things, go ahead and do what you are doing; not even a god can any longer save you.6 There is no activity in life to which attention does not extend. Is not attentio n always better than inattention? Epictetus suggested paying attention to genera l principles, that no one is master of another's moral principles. Thus no one h as the power to procure good for me nor to involve me in evil, but I alone have authority over myself in these. When these are secure, there is no excuse for be ing disturbed about external things. I have but one whom I must please and obey; that is God, and after God, myself. God commends me to myself and subjects me a lone to my moral purpose, giving me standards for its correct use. Epictetus hop ed that death would find him occupied with these things so that he could say to God that the faculties he received enabled him to understand God's governance an d to follow it, that he did not dishonor God, that he dealt with his senses and his preconceptions without blaming God, that he was not discontented with what h appened nor did he wish it otherwise, that he did not violate his relationships with others, and that he was grateful for what God gave him. The Encheiridion or Handbook of Epictetus summarizes many of his teachings and i ncludes more preaching. He noted that our duties are generally measured by our s ocial relationships to a father or brother or neighbor or citizen or a commandin g officer. Even if they are bad or wrong you, you can still maintain your good r elation with them. For no one will harm you without your consent, and you are on ly harmed when you think you have been harmed. Epictetus contrasted the position and character of the average, who never expect benefit or harm from themselves but from those outside, with the philosopher, who expects every benefit or harm to come from oneself. He summarized the signs of those making progress as follow s: They blame no one, praise no one, fault no one, accuse no one, say nothing about themselves as though being someone or knowing something. If someone praises them, they laugh to themselves at the one praising; if blamed, they make no defense. They go around like the feeble, taking care about moving any of what is set, until it has been fixed. They keep out of themselves every desire; they transfer aversion only to things against nature in our power. They use unrestrained effort toward everything. If they seem foolish or unlearned, they do not care. In a word, as a treacherous enemy they guard themselves.7 Such were the teachings of the man born a slave who found freedom within himself

. Hadrian 117-138 Hadrian was born on January 24 in 76 CE. After his father died ten years later, one of his guardians was Trajan. He studied Greek culture so enthusiastically th at he was called "Little Greek." His military training began at 15, and he was a military tribune in Lower Moesia, where an astrologer told him he would be Empe ror. Hadrian was favored by Trajan and married his grandniece. He served under T rajan in the Dacian war and commanded a legion in the second campaign. Trajan ga ve him four million sesterces to put on games and then appointed him praetorian governor of Lower Pannonia, where he restrained the Sarmatians, maintained milit ary discipline, and checked wayward procurators. Hadrian was made a consul in 10 8 and, through the favor of Trajan's wife Plotina, for 118. While he was governo r of Syria at Antioch, he received his letter of adoption by the Emperor in Augu st 117 only a few days before news of Trajan's death. His possession of a large military force in the area facilitated his taking power, though rumors spread th at Hadrian had bribed Trajan's freedmen and cultivated his boy favorites by havi ng frequent sexual relations with them. As Emperor Hadrian began by giving a double donative to soldiers. He gave up all territory beyond the Euphrates, making Parthian king Parthamaspates ruler over neighboring peoples. Provinces Trajan had annexed in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and A ssyria, were abandoned. Hadrian disarmed Lusius Quietus by taking away the Moori sh tribesmen under his command, because he suspected him of wanting imperial pow er. It was said he refused to execute other conspirators, though a procurator ki lled Frugi Cassius in exile. After the Jews were suppressed, Hadrian appointed M arcius Turbo to put down an uprising in Mauretania. Then he transferred Turbo to Pannonia and Dacia while he headed for Moesia, where he made peace with the Rox olani king. While Hadrian was away, the Senate ordered four of Trajan's consular generals executed for plotting to murder Hadrian, including Lusius Quietus. To gain favor in 118 Hadrian burned in the Forum records of 900,000,000 sesterce s of debt, remitting private debts owed to the imperial treasury for fifteen yea rs. He made grants to senators whose property had fallen below that required by the senatorial register, and he bestowed largesses on those in public offices an d to help women maintain their social positions. He produced a gladiatorial show for six days, and a thousand wild beasts appeared in the arena on his birthday, though he refused circus games on other days. Hadrian tightened discipline in the army by reducing luxuries and by improving a rms and equipment. He used soldier "foragers" to spy on provincial staffs. Hadri an instituted a law forbidding senators from farming out taxes. His passion for young men and married women did not always endear him to his friends. Hadrian ma de Roman administration more professional by excluding imperial household freedm en, enabling the equestrian class to dominate government departments with three grades of officials. Civilian careers were distinguished from military ones, and the secretariat separated Latin and Greek correspondence. Annual edicts of prae tors were codified into law by the distinguished jurist Salvius Julianus. By now imperial edicts had completely replaced the legislation of the old tribal assem bly. The rights of minors, women, and slaves were protected by law from abusive parents and masters. A slave could not be sold to a pimp or a gladiatorial train er without cause, and Hadrian abolished workhouses for slaves and freedmen. Yet by now citizens had been divided into a superior class (honestiores) of senators , knights, landowners, soldiers, civil servants, and municipal counselors with m ore rights and milder penalties than the inferior class (humiliores) of everyone else. In the provinces political power tended to concentrate among the wealthy, who su pported and thus controlled much of local government. As these families passed o n their wealth, hereditary aristocracies tended to develop. Hadrian promoted edu

cation by endowing professorial chairs in the provinces and by supporting munici pal schools. Hadrian honored and supported the arts, though he occasionally inte rfered by imposing his own ideas. Hadrian traveled more than any other Emperor, spending half his reign outside of Italy. He aided allied and subject cities by supporting their water supplies, harbors, food, public works, and treasuries. Ac cording to Dio Cassius he was able to stop rioting in Alexandria with a letter o f reproach. These supportive measures and Rome's well disciplined army lessened uprisings, and Hadrian arbitrated differences between countries. In 129 Hadrian' s conference with kings and princes of the East established vassals to protect t he frontier. Hadrian had a continuous wooden palisade built in Raetia and Upper Germany, and long stone walls were constructed in Britain and Numidia. At Jerusalem a city was rebuilt and named Aelia Capitolina after his family name . This new temple to Jupiter, Hadrian's refusal to allow the Jews to rebuild the ir temple, and his prohibition of circumcision provoked another major revolt by the Jews after he left the region. Rebel Jews, led by the Messianic Simon Bar-Ko chba, took advantageous positions and strengthened them with walls and mines. Th e Roman governor of Judea, Tinnius Rufus, had to retreat, as rebels took over mo st of Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. Hadrian sent for his governor in Britain, Jul ius Severus, to conduct the war in 132. Severus used his large army to intercept small groups and starve the rest, destroying fifty important outposts and 985 s mall villages. The great stronghold at Bethar was attacked by 100,000 Roman sold iers, and in three days all the inhabitants were massacred. According to Dio Cas sius 580,000 were killed in raids and battles, and untold numbers died of famine , disease, and fire, making Judea desolate. Many Romans were also killed in this war that lasted until 135. This war and the persecution of Jews that followed separated Jews from the Jewis h Christians, who tended to give up their Judaic traditions. Hadrian particularl y ordered his officers to punish those assembling in schools or ordaining discip les. Ishmael complained that sinful Rome inflicted such severe laws on them that unless they stopped marrying and having children, they would have to transgress some religious laws for a time. Some Tannaim (scholars) were willing to suffer death rather than give up their meetings at schools, including Ishmael and Akiba , who died under the tortures of Rufus, rejoicing that he could love God with hi s life and saying finally, "God is one."8 Another war broke out when the Alani led by Pharasmanes revolted in Media, Armen ia, and Cappadocia, but the governor of Cappadocia persuaded them to stop. In 13 6 Hadrian adopted the young senator Ceionius Commodus as Lucius Aelius Caesar. T his led to his closest male relative, Pedanius Fuscus, being executed and his gr andfather Julius Fuscus Servianus, Hadrian's brother-in-law, committing suicide in a suspected conspiracy. Lucius died, and in 138 Hadrian chose the wealthy sen ator Aurelius Antoninus, who was 51 and had no sons. Hadrian also had Antoninus adopt 16-year-old Marcus Aurelius and the 7-year-old son of Lucius, Lucius Verus , so that future Emperors would be prudent. Hadrian was prevented from committin g suicide but died after he abandoned his careful diet. Antoninus Pius 138-161 Antoninus of Gallic origin was born on September 19 in 86 CE and was brought up at Lorium by his grandparents. Several reasons were given to explain why he was called Pius, but they all indicate he was loyal, conservative, and pious. He use d his large fortune to assist many people with loans at only four percent. He ha d been a munificent quaestor, a distinguished praetor, and was consul in 120. Ha drian chose Antoninus as one of four ex-consuls to administer a portion of Italy . He also won praise for his proconsulship of Asia. As one of Hadrian's council at Rome, he always recommended merciful judgments. When Antoninus became Emperor in 138, he gave a largess to the soldiers and people from his own funds and con tributed much to Hadrian's public works. Girls received state support and were c alled Faustinians in honor of his wife. He did not refuse the circus games for h

is birthday, but he rejected other honors. Antoninus oversaw various wars, conquering northern Britain through his legate L ollius Urbicus and erecting another wall, forcing the Moors to make peace in Mau retania, and crushing rebellions by Germans, Dacians, Greeks, Egyptians, and Jew s. He ordered his procurators to levy moderate tribute and made those who exceed ed the limit accountable. The author of the Augustan history credited him with a ssisting many communities financially. Also his letter was said to have stopped the Parthian king from assaulting the Armenians. Antoninus sent auxiliary soldie rs to the Black Sea area to help the Olbiopolitans defeat the Tauroscythae. His efforts were to maintain peace, as he often quoted Scipio that he would prefer t o save one citizen than kill a thousand enemies. Antoninus listened to complaints and pardoned those who had been condemned by Ha drian. It was said that he brought the imperial eminence down to the ordinary ci tizen, and court servants complained they had no more secret information to sell nor could they intimidate people. Informers were squelched, and confiscation of property became more rare than ever. Atilius Titianus was charged with usurpati on and was punished by the Senate. In 145 Cornelius Priscianus in Spain was char ged with attempted usurpation and took his own life. In both these cases the Emp eror forbade investigation of conspiracy. Those who were convicted of corrupt ad ministration had their estates restored to their children if they restored what had been taken from the provincials. Antoninus bestowed honors and salaries on r hetoricians and philosophers in all provinces. Antoninus removed salaries from those doing nothing, including the lyric poet Me somedes. He kept close watch on the accounts and taxes of the provinces. He gave his private fortune to his daughter while donating its interest to the republic . Antoninus sold superfluous imperial assets and lived on his own private estate s according to season. He stayed in Rome to be at the center of communications. A new law invalidated bequests made to avoid a penalty. During scarcity his own treasury bought wine, oil, and grain, and these were freely given to people. Whe n his daughter Faustina married Marcus Aurelius in 145, Antoninus gave another d onative to soldiers. When Marcus wept after one of his teachers died and was rep rimanded by the court, the Emperor told them to let him be human, because neithe r philosophy nor imperial power can take away feelings. Antoninus set a limit to expenses on gladiatorial games and put the posting service under careful manage ment. He accounted for everything to the Senate and by edicts. He died in 161 of a fever, praised by all according to the historian for his dutifulness, clemenc y, intelligence, and purity. Marcus Aurelius 161-180 Marcus Aurelius was born at Rome April 26 in 121. His father died when he was ab out three, and Marcus was brought up by his paternal grandfather. The Emperor Ha drian supervised his upbringing, enrolling him in the equestrian order at six an d in the college of Salian priests two years later. At the age of twelve Marcus began attending lectures of Stoics and other philosophers and jurists. When Marc us assumed the toga of manhood in 136, Hadrian had him betrothed to the daughter of Lucius Commodus. Two years later Marcus became the son of his uncle Antoninu s as both were adopted into the royal Aurelian family. When Pius became Emperor, he had Marcus betrothed instead to his daughter Faustina although she was too y oung to marry for seven years. The next year Marcus jumped from quaestor to serv e as consul with Emperor Antoninus, and he was given the name Caesar. During the 23 years that Antoninus Pius reigned Marcus was only separated from his new fat her on two nights. No one ever had more domestic training to become Emperor, but he had no experience in the provinces. When Pius died in 161, the Senate made Marcus Aurelius Emperor, though he was th e first to share that honor by making Lucius Commodus his equal. They promised e ach soldier a bounty of 20,000 sesterces (several years' wages) with more for hi

gher ranks. After two long reigns of relative peace, wars were beginning to brea k in on the Roman empire. Calpurnius Agricola was sent against the Britons, and Aufidius Victorinus took on the Chatti invading Germany. Parthian king Vologases III entered Armenia, which was protected by Rome and installed an Arsacid relat ive named Pacorus. Rome's Cappadocia governor Sedatius Severianus took a legion into Armenia, but Parthian forces led by Chosrhoes destroyed them at Elegia, Sev erianus committing suicide. After the Parthians defeated and sent fleeing Roman forces under Syrian governor Attidius Cornelianus, the Senate agreed to appoint Lucius himself to take command of the war while Marcus ruled in Rome. Lucius liv ed in luxury in Antioch and its resort town of Daphne while his legates waged wa r. By 163 forces led by Statius Priscus (transferred from Britain) had captured Artaxata in Armenia, and a New City was built thirty miles closer to the Roman b order. Lucius crowned as king of Armenia an Arsacid prince named Sohaemus, who h ad become a Roman senator and consul. Marcus deferred to the Senate by allowing ex-consuls and ex-praetors to adjudica te legal matters. He reformed the law so that all youths could receive guardians without special reasons, and he improved the child welfare system. In cases inv olving slaves Marcus leaned toward giving them freedom instead of treating them as property. During a famine he gave Roman grain to the Italian communities. Mar cus limited gladiatorial spectacles and what could be donated to theatrical perf ormances. The Augustan historian concluded that he restored the old laws instead of making new ones, and he described his affect on people as follows: Towards the people, indeed, he conducted himself no differently than is the case under a free state. He was in all matters a very great influence for moderation, in deterring people from evil and urging them to good deeds, generous in rewarding and mild in granting pardon; he made the bad good and the good very good, even bearing with restraint criticism from several quarters.9 In 165 Roman forces moved into Mesopotamia, occupying Edessa and Nisibis, while restoring the pro-Roman Mannus in Osrhoene. Avidius Cassius moved down the Euphr ates; his army was welcomed into the large Hellenic city of Seleucia, enabling t hem to capture Ctesiphon and burn the palace of Vologases. Many blamed the plagu e on the destruction of Seleucia after an agreement had been made. The returning army would spread perhaps ancient history's worst epidemic all the way back to Rome itself. Romans crossed the Tigris and invaded Parthian Media in 166. The pr ovince of Syria was enlarged, and the departing Roman army left garrisons at key places such as Kaine Polis (New City) and Nisibis. That year Marcus named his s on Commodus Caesar, and the Augustan historian explained his crude character by the allegation of the empress Faustina's passion for a gladiator. As the Parthian War was winding down, 6,000 Langobardi and Obii crossed the Iste r (Danube) into Pannonia; but they were routed and driven back by the Roman cava lry under Vindex and the infantry commanded by Candidus. Eleven tribes sent envo ys led by Marcomanni king Ballomarius and made peace with Iallius Bassus, the Ro man governor of Upper Pannonia. Germans crossed the Rhine and headed toward Ital y, but Marcus sent forces under Pompeianus and Pertinax to stop them. The Marcom anni were also causing trouble. So with Cassius in charge of all Asia, in 168 bo th Emperors went north to fight them, but at the end of that year Lucius died of apoplexy. While the plague was killing many thousands of civilians and soldiers , Marcus Aurelius used diplomacy and his army to control the Marcomanni, Sarmati an Jazyges, Vandals, and Quadi, liberating the Pannonian provinces. In exchange for their alliance some tribes were given land in Dacia, Pannonia, Moesia, Roman Germany, and even in Italy; but after an uprising in Ravenna, Marcus banished t hem from Italy. The Astingi and the Lacringi aided Marcus and eventually were al lowed to settle in Dacia. However, the Cotini broke their promises and were late r destroyed.

Twice as many recruits were needed in 169; slaves were given their freedom for v olunteering; special units of gladiators were formed; bandits were used as guerr illa fighters. The war drained the treasury so much that for two months Marcus A urelius held an auction in the Forum to sell imperial furnishings, jewelry, and even his wife's embroidered clothing. Also the imperial currency was debased. Th e next Roman offensive was defeated, and the "barbarian" tribes invaded Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, even destroying the mysteries temple at Eleusis. Marcus u sed imperial money frugally but assisted towns on the brink of ruin. Enemy priso ners were treated fairly. Yet the Romans had so many captured that Marcus passed a law that ransomed captives did not gain their freedom until they repaid the a mount of the ransom. In 172 a tribe of Egyptian shepherds led by the priest Isid orus defeated the Romans in Egypt and almost captured Alexandria; but Cassius wa s sent with forces from Syria and managed to divide and conquer them. Meanwhile the Roman army drove the Jazyges back across the frozen Danube. Marcus refused to negotiate with the Quadi, because they had deceived him and joined t he Jazyges. When the Quadi expelled their king Furtius and on their own chose Ar iogaesus king, Marcus would not recognize him nor renew their treaty even though they promised to return 50,000 captives if he did. Marcus put a price on the he ad of Ariogaesus, though when he was captured, he merely sent him to Alexandria. When the Quadi surrounded thirsty Romans, a miraculous rainstorm (claimed to ha ve been caused by an Egyptian magician or by Christian prayers) saved the Roman soldiers. The Quadi were then defeated. Marcus suffered from some condition in h is chest and stomach, and he began taking a daily antidote (theriac) containing opium prescribed for him by the famous physician Galen. In 175 Avidius Cassius led a rebellion in the east, and so Marcus Aurelius came to terms with the Jazyges without his usual consultation with the Senate, and th e Jazyges returned 100,000 captives. They were required to live twice as far fro m the Danube as the Quadi and Marcomanni. The Jazyges then contributed 8,000 cav alry to the Roman alliance, 5,500 being sent to Britain. Marcus told the soldier s and wrote to the Senate that he would have been willing to argue before them o r the Senate what is best for the state; but Cassius would not consent to that, and his rebellion had already started a civil war. Marcus hoped that he would be able to pardon Cassius, but that was not to be. The Senate declared Cassius a p ublic enemy, and he was put to death along with his son and the prefect he had a ppointed. Marcus did pardon others, including communities like Antioch that had sided with Cassius. A few were executed, because they had committed overt crimes on their own account. To show he was free of guilt Marcus was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, and he established teachers at Athens in every branch of knowledge. At Alexandr ia he negotiated a peace treaty with the Parthian kings and ambassadors. Faustin a gave Marcus many children, most of whom died quite young. When she died, he ch ose not to remarry and put a step-mother over his children; so he took a concubi ne instead. In 177 Marcus made his son Commodus co-Emperor even though he was on ly fifteen. In a case of matricide the two wrote that if the defendant is determ ined insane, punishment should not be considered, because insanity is punishment enough. The insane may be kept in chains though for public security. A husband who killed his wife when caught in adultery was acquitted of capital murder. Bec ause of the shortage of gladiators, Marcus allowed his procurator in Gaul to sel l criminals condemned to death. An archaic ritual there had demand human sacrifi ces; now Rome was supplying victims for six gold pieces each. In 178 Marcus canc eled all debts to the imperial treasury back as far as 133, and the documents we re publicly burned in the Forum. He was moved to tears by a request from Aelius Aristeides on the earthquake at Smyrna and consented to rebuild the city. The last two years of his life Marcus spent fighting the Marcomanni, Hermunduri, Jazyges Sarmatae, and the Quadi. Marcus granted concessions to an embassy of th

e Jazyges after they proved useful to him. Marcus had Roman forces stop the Quad i from migrating to the land of the Senones to show that he did not want their l and but to punish them for their previous behavior. The historian Dio Cassius sp eculated that Marcus would have subdued the entire region if he had lived longer . When he became ill, he stopped eating to bring on death sooner, which came in 180. Stoic Ethics of Marcus Aurelius Often translated Meditations, Marcus Aurelius wrote down the thoughts he wanted to remember in twelve short books entitled To Himself or To Oneself. The first b ook describes the character traits he learned from various people. He learned co urtesy and serenity from his grandfather; manliness without ostentation from his father; piety, generosity, and simplicity from his mother; to be skeptical from Diognetus; that his character needed work from Rusticus; to make decisions for himself from Apollonius; kindness and patience from Sextus; to watch out for fau lt-finding from the critic Alexander; from the rhetorician Fronto that malice an d duplicity go with absolute power; to take seriously a friend's reproach from C atullus; to love his relations, truth, and justice from Severus; self-control an d cheerfulness from Maximus; many things from his father Antoninus including len ience, decisiveness, diligence, rewarding merit, and efforts to suppress pederas ty. The Emperor also helped to cure him of pomposity and to realize he could liv e at court without royal escorts. Marcus found the qualities of his brother Luci us a continual challenge to his own self-discipline. Much of the correspondence between Marcus and Fronto still exists, showing his lessons in rhetoric and thei r concern for each other's well being. Rusticus exposed Marcus to the Discourses of Epictetus. Marcus reminded himself that the offenses of others he encountered are caused by ignorance of what is good and evil. Thus they cannot injure him. Rather than be angry with his brother, he can work together with him like two hands. The Stoic view is that one is flesh (physical body), breath (spirit), and reason (mind) t hat rules all. Marcus concentrated on reason. Time is to be used to advance one' s enlightenment. He resolved to do what is correct with dignity, humanity, indep endence, and justice, freeing his mind from other considerations. By approaching each action as if it were one's last he dismissed wayward thoughts, emotional r eactions, the desire to impress, self-admiration, and discontent with one's lot. If you are distracted by outward cares, allow yourself quiet space to know the good and curb restlessness. No one can hinder you from conforming to Nature in w ord and deed. At any time one can withdraw from life. Yet living and dying, hono r and dishonor, pain and pleasure, riches and poverty, and so on are neither goo d nor evil, for they neither elevate nor degrade. Hold fast to the divine spirit within and serve it loyally by keeping it pure fr om passion, aimlessness, and discontent. To quarrel with circumstances is to reb el against Nature, for Nature includes our individual nature. It is also wrong t o reject or oppose a fellow creature with malicious intent. A third self-inflict ed wrong is surrendering to pleasure or pain; fourth is being insincere or false ; fifth is wasting energy without purpose or thought. A philosopher keeps the di vine spirit unscathed within, transcending all pleasure and pain, acting with pu rpose and without falsehood, not depending on another's actions, accepting every thing as coming from the same Source as oneself, and waiting graciously for deat h as a mere dissolving of the elements. A person aspiring to the heights, who makes full use of the indwelling power tha t keeps one unsullied by pleasure or insult, is a minister of the gods. The grea test contest is the struggle to master passions. Why ask what others are saying or doing unless the public interest requires it? One should fix one's attention on one's own concerns in the universal web to see that one's actions are honorab le, believing one is under a higher direction and not forgetting the brotherhood of all rational beings nor that a concern for every person is proper for humani

ty. The secret of cheerfulness is not depending on help from outside to find tra nquillity but to stand upright oneself, not be set up. Marcus recommended avowin g allegiance to the gods and compassion for humanity, for all else is mean and w orthless compared to the deity within. The most important task in life is to kee p one's mind from straying from the concerns of an intelligent and social being. From your reasoning power you can gain circumspection, good relations with your fellow humans, and conformity with the will of heaven. Humans live only in the present, and mortal life is a little thing. The mind is enlarged by its ability to examine methodically and accurately life's experience s in order to understand the purpose of each and its value to the universe and p eople as members of the universal city in which every city is like a household. Analyze each impression. Does it ask for the moral response of gentleness, coura ge, candor, good faith, sincerity, self-reliance, or another quality? Realize th at each strand in the complex web comes from God. It may be the work of a person who is ignorant of what Nature requires. I, however, may act in accordance with Nature's law of brotherhood and deal amiably and fairly with them. By acting in conformity with nature and making each word fearlessly truthful the good life m ay be yours. The inward power that rules us by being true to Nature will always adjust itself readily to circumstances. At any moment one may retire within oneself, for the soul is an untroubled retreat. Do the vices of humanity bother you? Remember tha t rational beings are created for one another, and toleration is part of justice ; people do not do evil intentionally. Outward things can never touch the soul; so disquiet can only arise from inward fancies. The universe is change, and life is belief. Put aside the opinion that "I have been wronged" and the feeling wil l go with it. Reject the sense of being injured, and the injury will disappear. Act according to reason for the common good; but reconsider any decision if anyo ne corrects you and persuades you of a better way to serve justice or the common good. Time and ease can be gained by acting justly and ignoring what neighbors are saying or doing. Contentment comes from doing a few things well. Always thin k of the universe as a living organism with a single soul. Reserve your right to act according to your own nature and also the cosmic Natur e without being put off by critics guided by their own reasons. Marcus suggested cultivating qualities within your power such as sincerity, dignity, industrious ness, and sobriety. Avoid grumbling and be frugal, considerate, and frank. The f ulfillment of Nature should be viewed like the health of our body. Receive gladl y what occurs even if it is unpalatable, for it balances the health of the unive rse and the well-being of God. If it were not beneficial to the whole, it would never happen to the individual; for Nature's government only brings about what i s designed for good. For Marcus the goods a person should value are such things as prudence, temperance, justice, and courage, while the goods of wealth, luxury , and prestige are what leave no room for personal ease. Outward things cannot t ouch the soul and have no power to sway it; for the soul moves itself and has se lf-approved standards to evaluate experience. Marcus did not concern himself wit h another doing wrong; but he believed he received what the cosmic Nature willed him to receive, and he acted as his own nature willed him to act. He observed t hat the Mind of the universe is social, that lower forms served the higher, and the higher are linked in mutual dependence. What people set their hearts on in t his life is vanity, corruption, and trash. Marcus believed that the best revenge for an offense is to refrain from imitatin g it. He found and recommended finding delight in passing from one service to th e community to another, keeping God always in mind. The one who values the soul aims to keep all its activities rational and social, working with others to this end. Marcus was willing to change if anyone could prove to him that he was wron g in thought or deed. He sought the truth, which never hurt anyone. Persisting i n self-delusion and ignorance is what does harm. He noted that in death Alexande

r of Macedon was no different than a stable-boy. Marcus recommended keeping ones elf simple, good, pure, serious, unassuming, kind, affectionate, and resolute in duty. Revere the gods and help fellow humans. Life is short and bears only the fruit of holiness inside and selfless action outside. Then he exhorted himself t o be like his adopted father, the previous Emperor. Be in all things Antoninus's disciple; remember his insistence on the control of conduct by reason, his calm composure on all occasions, and his own holiness; the serenity of his look and the sweetness of his manner; his scorn of notoriety, and his zeal for the mastery of facts; how he would never dismiss a subject until he had looked thoroughly into it and understood it clearly; how he would suffer unjust criticisms without replying in kind; how he was never hasty, and no friend to tale-bearers; shrewd in his judgments of men and manners, yet never censorious; wholly free from nervousness, suspicion, and over-subtlety; how easily satisfied he was in such matters as lodging, bed, dress, meals, and service; how industrious, and how patient; how, thanks to his frugal diet, he could remain at work from morning till night without even attending to the calls of nature until his customary hour; how firm and constant he was in his friendships, tolerating the most outspoken amendments; what reverence, untainted by the smallest trace of superstition, he showed to the gods. Remember all this, so that when your own last hour comes your conscience may be as clear as his.10 Very likely this described Marcus Aurelius as much as his father. He wrote that nothing can stop you living according to your own personal nature, and nothing c an happen to you that is against the laws of the cosmic Nature. Everything Marcus did, by himself or with another, was aimed to serve the harmon y of all. For a rational being acting according to nature is acting according to reason. He advised us, when anyone offends us, first to ask under what concepti on of good and ill it was committed. Knowing that, anger will usually give way t o pity. Withdraw into yourself; for our master reason only asks us to act justly and so achieve calm. Marcus urged us to dig inside ourselves to the well-spring of good; always dig, and it will always flow. He thought it ridiculous not to f lee from one's own wickedness, which is possible, yet to try to flee from anothe r's, which is not possible. He believed that universal Nature creates an orderly world, and so everything happening follows a logical sequence. Remembering this helps one face many things more calmly. Marcus Aurelius believed that what is good for a person is what helps to make on e just, self-disciplined, courageous, and independent; bad is what has the contr ary effect. In considering any action, ask what the consequences will be. He wro te that you may break your heart, but people will still go on as before. His fir st rule is to keep an untroubled spirit. Second is to look things in the face an d know them for what they are, remembering one's duty is to be good. He urged on e to say what you think is most just, though with courtesy, modesty, and sinceri ty. For Marcus repentance is remorse for a lost opportunity to help, because wha t is good is always helpful and must be the concern of every person. Yet a good person does not regret letting an opportunity for pleasure pass. Therefore he co ncluded, pleasure is neither good nor helpful. He considered thoughts of blame o ut of place. If you can, correct an offender; if you cannot, correct the offense

; if both are impossible, what good are recriminations? Nothing pointless is wor th doing. From the perspective of the soul Marcus wrote of these three relationships: to o ur bodily shell which envelops us, to the divine Cause which is the source of al l, and to the fellow mortals around us. He wrote, "Accept modestly; surrender gr acefully."11 Distress, coming from something external, is not because of the thi ng itself but from your estimate of it; this is in your power to revoke at any m oment. If the cause is in your character, then reform your principles. Who can h inder you? If it is failing to take a sound action that is bothering you, then w hy not take it, instead of worrying? For the Stoics vice does not injure the uni verse nor harm anyone but the culprit, and one can free oneself from it as soon as one chooses. Even though we are made to help each other, still each person's self has sovereign rights. Otherwise my neighbor's vice would become my evil. Ma rcus believed God has not willed this, lest my happiness should be in the power of another. Yet since people do exist for each other; you can either improve the m, or put up with them. Marcus believed that Nature made all rational beings for mutual benefit, to help each other and not to do harm. Injustice is a sin, as is untruthfulness. Truth is another name for Nature, for to go contrary to truth is mutiny against Nature . The sinner only sins against oneself; the wrongdoer wrongs oneself in becoming worse by one's action. If things originate in one intelligent source and make u p a single body, then no part should complain of what happens for the good of th e whole. Instead of praying to be granted things, Marcus recommended praying to be delivered from dreading or lusting or grieving. When you are indignant with a nyone, turn your thoughts to yourself; for it is your error to have put faith in that person. If I believe I am a part of the whole under Nature's governing, then I have a bo nd of kinship with other similar parts. Thus I should not grieve over what is as signed to me from the Whole, for what is beneficial to the whole can never be ha rmful to a part. Nothing outside the Whole can compel it to harm itself. Thus I should do nothing to injure the common welfare of fellow parts but direct every impulse to their good. In doing this I will find the current of my life flowing smoothly as one who consistently serves people. In a rare admission Marcus asked whether those who hunt Sarmatians are anything but robbers. For the soul to respect other souls like itself implies that the principle of ra tionality includes justice. Marcus urged firmness in decision and action but at the same time gentleness to those who obstruct or molest you. He listed ten coun sels in response to being offended. First, remember your close bond with all hum ans. Second, consider their characters. Third, if their action is not right, it can only be unintentional or ignorant. Fourth, you offend in various ways and ar e not different. Fifth, you cannot be sure they are doing wrong, for there may b e other motives. Sixth, remind yourself that mortal life is brief. Seventh, it i s not their action that annoys, but your interpretation of it. Eighth, our anger is more detrimental to us than what causes the anger. Ninth, genuine kindness i s irresistible; a gentle word of admonition often is enough. Tenth, to expect ba d people never to do bad things is to hope for the impossible; to tolerate their offenses against others and expect none against yourself is irrational. In the last book Marcus encouraged himself (and his readers) to have done with t he past and trust the future to providence by seeking the paths of holiness and justice - holiness by a loving acceptance of what Nature produces for you, justi ce in frank and truthful speech and in action by respecting law and every person 's rights. Look for something higher and more godlike within you than mere insti ncts and emotions that "twitch you like a puppet." Ask what is clouding my under standing at this moment. Is it fear or jealousy or lust or something else? He co ncluded by commending humans to their cosmopolitan citizenship so that without c

omplaining about one's span of life one may pass on with a smiling face under th e smile of the one who bids you go. Literature in the Second Century Juvenal was born to a prosperous family in Aquinum about 55 CE. In 78 he command ed a cohort of Dalmatian auxiliaries and served in Britain under Agricola. Juven al was exiled to Egypt about 93 by Domitian for criticizing an influential actor at court. His five books containing a total of Sixteen Satires were probably pu blished between 110 and 130. His brilliant writing exposed the moral climate of the empire and was first used by Christian polemicists before it became popular in later centuries. In the First Satire Juvenal asked who could endure the monstrous city of Rome wi th so callous a heart and swallow one's wrath so as not to write satires when it is crammed with corpulent owners, chiseling advocates, and informers. Who cares for reputation if one can keep the cash? A young blade who squanders his family fortune on race horses can still get command of a cohort. One sees forgers carr ied on the necks of six porters in a litter. Honesty may be praised; but honest men freeze as wealth springs from crime. Indignation drove him to verse. Observi ng so rich a crop of vices, Juvenal wondered when the purse of greed yawned wide r. The same man who loses ten thousand on a throw of the dice grudges a shirt to his shivering slave. Clients used to be guests; now Roman citizens scramble for scraps at their patron's doorstep. Temples worship abstractions like honor, pea ce, victory, virtue, or concord; but wealth, not God, is given the deepest rever ence. Many survive on the dole, a mere pittance. Juvenal poked fun at those who waddle to the bath with a stomach bloated by undigested peacock meat and die of a heart attack before they can make a will. Every vice reaching its ruinous zeni th gives the satirist ample material. No one dares speak against the man, who po isoned three uncles with belladonna, riding in a feather-bed litter. In his second satire Juvenal complained of a Roman clique who affects peasant vi rtues and uses high-flown moral discourse as a front for their lechery. Even the worst people despise these bogus moralists. Juvenal satirized the prevalence of homosexuality, noting that male brides yearn to be noticed in the newspapers. H e wondered what he could do in Rome since he never learned to lie, and he refuse d to be an accomplice in theft, which meant no governor would accept him on his staff. In fact no one could get to the top easily if meager resources crippled t heir talent. By far the longest satire of Juvenal is the 6th, his tirade against women and th eir sensuality. He described a decline from the heralded golden age of Saturn wh en chastity lingered until Justice withdrew to heaven. In the past poverty had k ept Latin women chaste by hard work and little sleep. Now he complained they wer e suffering from the evils of a peace that lasted too long so that the deadlier invader, luxury, avenged the world they conquered. No lust or crime spares them, as filthy lucre brings foreign morals, and enervating wealth destroys them with self-indulgence. Juvenal described women who completely ignore their husbands w ithout giving a thought to all they cost them, being more a neighbor than a wife except when she loathes his friends and slaves or runs up bills. In the 7th satire Juvenal noted that all the arts and scholarly work depended no w on Caesar, probably meaning Hadrian. No one else who cared could afford to sup port such cultural activities. He concluded this sad commentary on Roman values by observing that a school teacher makes less money in a year than a jockey gets from one race. Then he made fun of those who pride themselves in their family t rees. For Juvenal virtue remains the one true nobility, not a hall lined with wa xen busts. He would be glad to acknowledge their noble status regardless of thei r birth if they would prove their life is stainless and that their deeds and wor ds are always just. When one finally obtained the reward of a provincial governo rship, he advised curbing anger and greed to pity the destitute local inhabitant

s whose bones have been sucked dry of marrow. Observe the law, respect the Senat e's decrees, think of the rewards given to a good ruler, and remember that their parliament may strike down with the thunderbolt of justice governors more pirat ical than the Cilicians. The higher a criminal's position the more public will b e the shame his vices call down on him. Juvenal seemed to mature in his later satires. In the 10th satire he wrote, What you ask for, you get. The Gods aren't fussy, they're willing To blast you, root and branch, on request. It's universal, This self-destructive urge, in civilian and soldier Alike. The gift of the gab, a torrential facility, Has proved fatal to so many; so has excessive reliance On muscle and physical beef.12 Yet most people seemed to be concerned only with bread and games. In spite of th e beliefs of the Stoics and Cynics he wondered who would embrace poor Virtue nak ed of the rewards she bestows. Whole countries have been ruined by the vainglory of a few who lusted for power. Juvenal concluded this satire by suggesting we a sk For a sound mind in a sound body, a valiant heart Without fear of death, that reckons longevity The least among Nature's gifts, that's strong to endure All kinds of toil that's untainted by lust and anger, That prefers the sorrows and labors of Hercules to all Sardanapalus' downy cushions and women and junketings. What I've shown you, you can find yourself: there's one Path, and one way, to a life of peace - through virtue. Fortune has no divinity, could we but see it: it's we, We ourselves, who make her a goddess, and set her in the heavens.13 Juvenal in his 13th satire warned that all evil deeds setting bad examples end u npleasantly for the doer. No guilty person can be acquitted by conscience even i f they have suborned the judge to award a rigged verdict. The man, whose temper explodes because a friend won't repay capital entrusted to him, he satirized by asking if life experience has taught this person nothing. Juvenal lamented that dishonesty, which used to be exceptional and shocking, is common; it has now bee n reversed such that honesty is surprising, and a decent God-fearing person is c onsidered a freak. Like Plutarch, Juvenal commented on the time lag in the wrath of the gods. Some try to release their guilt by hoping God may be persuaded to forgive and by rationalizing that the same crime may produce the opposite result s of the cross or a royal crown. Juvenal advised those wanting to know the truth of human nature to spend a few days in the courtroom. Then see if you dare to c omplain about your own misfortunes. Juvenal criticized the vindictive who believ e that vengeance is sweeter than life itself for being ignorant and letting thei r temper flare up for any trifling excuse or flimsy reason. Only the small, mean , weak-willed mind takes pleasure in paying off scores. Juvenal believed that th e guilty conscience keeps people in fear and that the mind is its own best tortu rer because the fear of retribution is more cruel than what judges devise. Juvenal's 14th satire is concerned with the bad examples children may catch from their parents. Flogging slaves teaches sadism. That crimes are copied by the ch ildren raised should be a powerful motive for steering clear of reprehensible ac ts. Juvenal believed it can be a fine thing to raise another citizen for your co untry as a capable farmer who is also skilled in the arts of peace and war. The practical and moral education one gives a son can make a great difference. Juven al criticized the law of Moses for not allowing Jews to help an uncircumcised st ranger. He believed avarice has to be taught, because it is against one's natura l instincts. This vice is deceptive, as it has the semblance of virtue.

In the 15th satire Juvenal noted that only humans have reason, and yet they kill their own kind more than savage beasts do. The ancients crafted hoes, plowshare s, and pruning hooks but not swords. An Egyptian riot in 127 showed that present fury is not even satisfied with killing but even eats human flesh. In his 16th and last satire Juvenal suggested that military men are protected by military co urts from the beatings they give, and the whole regiment will turn on anyone who offends one of theirs. It is easier to get someone to perjure oneself against a civilian than to get someone to tell the truth if it is against a soldier's hon or or interest. Greek novels during this period include Xenophon's Ephesian Tale of Anthia and H abrocomes about a beautiful couple who are separated and survive various adventu res and miraculously keep their marriage vows intact. Strongly influenced by Cha riton's Chaereas and Callirhoe, this melodramatic yarn replaces Aphrodite and Ar temis with Isis, as Anthia protects her chastity in Egypt by saying she is dedic ated to the goddess. Finally returned to her beloved husband, Anthia summarizes, "I have found you again, after all my wanderings over land and sea, escaping ro bbers' threats and pirates' plots and pimps' insults, chains, trenches, fetters, poisons, and tombs."14 Some Greek novels of the second century only survive in summaries by the ninth-century Constantinople patriarch Photius. Of Antonius Dio genes' The Wonders Beyond Thule Photius made the following two observations: First, that he presents a wrong-doer, even if he appears to escape countless times, paying the penalty just the same; second, that he shows many guiltless people, though on the brink of great danger, being saved many times in defiance of expectations.15 Photius also summarized A Babylonian Story by Iamblichus which was written betwe en 165 and 180. The medical writer Theodorus Priscianus in the fourth century re commended this story as a stimulant to those suffering from sexual impotence. Cleitophon and Leucippe by Achilles Tatius was probably written in the last half of the second century. This romantic adventure is narrated by Cleitophon, whose father wants him to marry his half sister Kalligone; but he falls in love with his cousin Leucippe. Kallisthenes takes advantage of a Byzantine law that a man who kidnaps a woman and makes her his wife is only punished by staying married t o her, and he abducts Kalligone. Cleitophon elopes to Egypt with Leucippe, who i s captured by bandits and is twice thought dead. Believing her husband Thersandr os is dead, the wealthy Melite persuades Cleitophon to marry her, although out o f respect for Leucippe he refrains from consummating it until they have left Egy pt. However, Thersandros is alive and prosecutes Cleitophon for adultery, while Leucippe under another name has become the slave of Thersandros. After trying to commit suicide by confessing to Leucippe's murder, Cleitophon is eventually cle ared in court, while Leucippe proves her remarkable virginity in the temple of A rtemis at Ephesus. In spite of their restraint the erotic theme of the novel fin ally culminates in the marriage of Cleitophon and Leucippe at Byzantium. A Greek novel about Lucius from Patrae, who is transformed by magic into an ass by mistake after he is given sexual lessons by a woman named the wrestler, was a dapted into a more sophisticated Latin novel by Apuleius. Born at the Roman colo ny Madaura in Morocco about 124, Apuleius and his brother inherited two million sesterces. He studied at Carthage and took up Platonic philosophy at Athens. Apu leius freed three slaves and provided education and dowries for friends. He appa rently ran short of money after visiting the Olympic games, but he was helped by Thyasus at Corinth. He was initiated into the mysteries of Isis before going to Rome to study oratory and become a successful lawyer.

Apuleius traveled to Asia Minor and Egypt, where he became ill and married a wea lthy older woman, who soon died. He was charged by her family with winning her a ffection by magic and causing her death. His defense speech discussing magic sur vived. He argued that poverty is no reproach to a philosopher, because it helps one to be frugal, temperate, content with little, eager for praise, averse to ma terial wealth, safe and simple in living, and to promote what is right. If Apule ius thought that for him to be proved really poor, his accuser Aemilianus must s how that he is avaricious. Apuleius described a hypnotic trance in which the min d may be lulled to sleep, estranged from the body, summoned by charms so that al l remembrance of what is done is banished for a time and future events may be pr esaged before it is restored to its original nature. He criticized his prosecuto r for accusing him of what he knew to be false. He warned that if one does not h ave to prove the case, anyone could be charged with magic or witchcraft. Apuleius admitted that he had been initiated into several mysteries; but because he was sworn to secrecy, he would never disclose them. He reminded Aemilianus o f the old saying that a liar should have a good memory. To the evidence that his wife had written that she was insane he suggested that is self-contradictory. H e removed the motive when he showed that he did not inherit his late wife's esta te that included 400 slaves, but he actually insisted she leave it to her greedy son to release himself from incurring hatred. Apuleius also wrote three treatises on Platonic philosophy, including "On the Go d of Socrates." The guardian divinity that connects human souls with God he desc ribed as conscience that watches, regulates, observes, reproves evil actions, ap proves good ones, and if heeded may forewarn, monitor doubtful matters, defend f rom danger, assist in need, prevent evil, increase blessings, aid when depressed , support when falling, lighten darkness, regulate prosperity, and modify advers ity. In areas beyond wisdom Socrates was guided by this prophetic power. Apuleiu s suggested that better than having wealth and property is to be well educated, learned in philosophy, wise, and skilled in knowledge of the good, for these thi ngs last. The Florida of Apuleius contains various anecdotes and philosophical s tories he apparently used in his public speeches. He admired the philosophers of India and how before their meal the young men would describe the good things th ey did or learned that day. Philosophy taught Apuleius that better than seeking his own advantage is to listen to reason and prefer what is expedient for the pu blic. He also described the life of Pythagoras and how he imposed silence on his students for long periods. Apuleius became a priest of the healing god Asclepius and also of Isis and Osiri s. The novel by Apuleius entitled The Transformations of Lucius has become popul ar as The Golden Ass. Written in the first person, Lucius visits Hypata in Thess aly, where he calls on the wealthy money-lender Milo, whose "high interest is th e only thing that has ever interested him highly."16 Their slave girl Fotis enga ges Lucius in sexual play as a form of "fighting." Drinking wine, Lucius believe s he killed three men who attacked him; but the joke is on him when it is reveal ed these were three inflated wine-skins. Lucius observes Milo's wife Pamphile us e magic to become an owl. He wants to fly also; but Fotis gets the wrong ointmen t, and he is transformed into a jackass and must eat roses to change back. Robbe rs take goods away from Milo's on the horse of Lucius and on Lucius himself to t he bandits' cave. There an old woman tells the story of Cupid and Psyche. The beautiful Psyche is put on a cliff and is loved by Cupid, son of the goddess Venus; but Psyche must never see her lover. She becomes pregnant, and her child will be divine if she can keep her secret. Psyche's two older sisters make her afraid her lover is a snake and urge her to cut off his head. Using a lamp, Psyc he sees the handsome Cupid, but some oil burns his shoulder; he awakes and flies away. In revenge Psyche gets both sisters, now queens of cities, to jump off cl iffs to their deaths. Psyche searches for Cupid, but he is in heaven. Venus hear

s that love relations on earth are in disorder because natural affection is now considered disgusting. Venus reprimands her son for falling for this mortal; but he asks why she is repressing sexual desire in her own son. Venus tests Psyche with several tasks, but Psyche gets miraculous help from ants, Pan's reed, and J upiter's eagle, which enables her to bring back a box of beauty to Venus from th e underworld. Jupiter allows Psyche to drink the nectar to become immortal, but she must always remain faithful to her lawful husband; her daughter is named Ple asure. This charming myth reverses several elements of Eve's story. Here curiosi ty leads to divinity and the pleasure of sex while encouraging faithful marriage . The soul, instead of dying, becomes immortal. Lucius as an ass suffers under the loads of the bandits and injures his leg. He tries to escape with the girl Charite; but they are caught and about to be punis hed with horrible deaths by sewing her into the ass's belly when the young man H aemus suggests they sell her to a brothel and becomes the bandits' captain. Haem us turns out to be Tlepolemus, the bridegroom of Charite, and they kill the band its. Lucius runs off to a stud-farm, where he barely escapes castration. Tlepole mus is killed by the wicked Thrasyllus, who is blinded by Charite before she sla ys herself; Thrasyllus allows himself to die of starvation. Lucius is bought by eunuch priests of the great Syrian goddess. However, they are arrested for steal ing, and the ass Lucius is purchased by a baker; then he is owned by a market ga rdener and a centurion. A councilor's son is nearly stoned to death, but magistrates rule the law requir es a trial. In this melodrama the defense is not allowed to call needed witnesse s; but a respected doctor proves that the suspected poison was a drug, and he sa ves the victim and the defendant. The incestuous step-mother is only banished, b ut the slave who carried out her orders is crucified. Apuleius has Lucius refer to his own profession of lawyers as the lowest of the low. Apuleius also include d several melodramatic tales involving women in adultery. Sold again to two brot hers, Lucius is used by a lusty woman in the manner of Pasiphae. Maintaining his human intelligence and appetite for cooked food while in the body of an ass, Lu cius is soon trained to do tricks and is going to be displayed having sex with a criminal woman in a theater; but he escapes and is divinely guided to a festiva l of Isis so that he can eat roses, regain his human form, and dedicate his life to serving the goddess. The allegory of his transformation becomes clear as the priest summarizes his experience. Now at last you have put into the harbor of peace and stand before the altar of loving-kindness. Neither your noble blood and rank nor your education sufficed to keep you from falling a slave to pleasure; youthful follies ran away with you. Your luckless curiosity earned you a sinister punishment.17 Now bound to chastity, Lucius refrains from drinking wine and eating meat as he prepares for initiations into the mysteries of Isis and Osiris. Though sworn to secrecy, he describes his mystical experience as approaching the gate of death a nd returning after seeing a Sun-like light at midnight and entering the world of the gods. His days of youthful passion over, Lucius is purifying his life as he matures. Lucian's Comic Criticism Lucian was born at Samosata in Syria about 115. He was well educated and at 14 l eft home to study rhetoric during this era when rhetoricians and sophists were p revalent. He apparently earned his living as a lawyer and a traveling lecturer, touring Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy until he settled in Gaul. Lucian's early w ritings were rhetorical exercises, arguing such things as a man deserves the rew ard of a tyrannicide because he killed the active son of an elderly tyrant, who then killed himself with the sword left in his son. He also praised Demosthenes

and explained how patriotism derives from the love for one's father and the land of one's ancestors. When he was about forty, Lucian moved to Athens and was inf luenced by the eclectic philosopher Demonax. He disavowed rhetoric to write sati rical dialogs and give public readings. In old age Lucian served on the staff of the governor of Egypt, and he outlived Marcus Aurelius, who died in 180. In 150 or so Lucian wrote a dialog about the philosopher Nigrinus, who praised G reece and Athenians because they are brought up to value poverty and philosophy. Foreigners trying to introduce luxury do not find favor and by gentle steps are trained to correct this tendency. A rich man who brings a crowd of attendants t o the baths or gymnasiums is subtly mocked as are flamboyant clothes. Nigrinus b elieved that a single-hearted person taught to despise wealth may preserve there a pure morality in harmony with the truly beautiful; but the person, over whom gold casts a spell, living among flatterers and slaves, does not know sweet free dom nor the blessing of candor. Nigrinus suggests that those, who give their sou ls to pleasure by gluttony, wine, and women and who speak in deceit and hypocris y, should live in Rome. The turmoil of Rome includes slander, insolence, glutton y, flattery, false friends, legacy-hunters, and murderers; but to give evil its due there is no better school for virtue to test moral strength than living in R ome. Lucian commended the example of Nigrinus for his frugal living, habits of b odily exercise, modest bearing, simple dress, gentle manners, constant mind, and for urging followers not to postpone the pursuit of virtue. Nigrinus did not re commend torturing one's body, but he believed our first care should be to discip line the soul. Describing a vision or dream, Lucian explained why he found greater value in cul ture than in the more physical art of sculpture. In "Toxaris" he portrayed the v alues of friendship by describing beneficial relationships between men. Abauchas justifies abandoning his wife and children in a burning house to help his frien d, arguing that he could easily have other children, but it would be difficult t o find such a good friend. In his essay "Slander," Lucian defined it as "an undefended indictment, conceale d from its object, and owing its success to one-sided half-informed procedure."1 8 Lucian believed that slanderers offend against justice, law, and piety, and ar e pests to anyone associated with them. By insisting on possessing the listener, they guard against impartiality by blocking them with prejudice. Lucian could t hink of nothing worse than being condemned unjudged and unheard. Slanderers are cowards, because they do not come out into the open but ambush from a hiding pla ce. These creatures are found mostly in the courts of kings. They concentrate th eir attacks on hearers' most vulnerable points in order to irritate them. A slav ish nature bites the lip while nursing spite and cultivating secret hatred; one thing is in the heart but another on their tongues, playing with comedy's smiles a sinister tragedy. Slander only survives because ignorance conceals the myster ies of human characters. If some God would unveil all lives with illuminating tr uth, slander would have to retire to the bottomless pit. In "The Way to Write History" Lucian lamented the fashion of neglecting the exam ination of facts while indulging in eulogies of generals and commanders. For Luc ian the one aim of history should be what is useful, and its single source is th e truth. The two indispensable qualifications of his perfect historian are polit ical insight and the faculty of expression. The first Lucian considered a natura l gift, but the second can be acquired by long practice, continuous work, and a loving study of the classics. The historian should be a person of independent sp irit with nothing to fear or hope from anyone, or else one will be a corrupt jud ge open to undue influences. Anyone intent on immediate effect may be classed as a flatterer, and flattery is about as helpful to history as personal adornment is to an athlete's training. Lucian's model historian is fearless, incorruptible , independent, frank, and truthful, who will not make concessions to likes and d islikes nor spare anyone out of pity or respect or propriety, an impartial judge

kind to all but too kind to none, a literary cosmopolitan with neither ruler no r king, never heeding what this or that person may think, but setting down what happened. Lucian aimed for a lucidity which leaves nothing obscure while avoiding abstruse expressions and the illiberal jargon of the market, hoping the vulgar will unde rstand and the cultivated will commend. The historian should view the scene from above like Homer's Zeus, and one's brain should reflect events like a clear mir ror without distortion, discoloration, or variance. The narration should include a preliminary view of the causes in operation and a precise summary of events. Praise and censure should be sparing, cautious, brief, and never intrusive. Hist orical characters should not be treated as prisoners on trial. Instead of writin g for the present, the historian should aim at eternity by composing for posteri ty, writing the truth freely without flattery or servility. In a dialog between Hermotimus and Lycinus Lucian explored the difficulties of p ursuing philosophy. Hermotimus has been studying Stoicism for twenty years and h opes that twenty more years will enable him to climb the mountain of philosophy; but the questions of Lycinus make him realize the difficulty of knowing this sc hool of philosophy is best. Hermotimus found more Stoic disciples and so inferre d it is superior. He considers Epicureans sensual and self-indulgent, Peripateti cs avaricious and contentious, Platonists conceited and vain, but that Stoics ar e courageous with an open mind. Hermotimus believes his Stoic teacher demolishes the other schools; but Lycinus suggests he must give each school at least twent y years to really understand them. This is not like tasting wine, which is homog eneous throughout. One must investigate critically with mental acumen, intellect ual precision, and independence. Discernment and judgment may be learned from a teacher skilled at demonstrating. Yet virtue is manifested in action by doing wh at is just, wise, and brave; but most advanced philosophers spend their time on sentences and verbal demonstrations and problems. By the end of the dialog Hermo timus' enthusiasm for studying philosophy seems to have evaporated. In his dialog "The Parasite" Lucian seeks to demonstrate that sponging is a prof ession. In this parody of philosophic dialog Simon argues that the parasite must distinguish between true and false men, be skilled in directing words and actio ns so as to achieve intimacy and persuade the patron of one's devotion, be able to tell a good dinner from a bad one, and exercise these skills on a daily basis . Yet parasites find more pleasure than Epicureans who are troubled about cosmic controversies. The parasite can be neither too poor to attain pleasure nor too rich, because much spending brings worries. The profit from learning sponging co mes immediately, and noble friendship is the beginning of sponging. It is a roya l art to recline like a king. Parasites must be indifferent to reputation and no t care what people think about them, desiring neither fame nor wealth nor beauty . When asked if he will feel pain when supplies run short, Simon replies one is not a true sponger when that happens. Lucian also satirized superstition in his dialog "The Liar," and the manners of philosophers are mocked in "A Feast of Lap ithae" which results in a brawl. Relations of women are treated in a series of s hort dialogs of the companions (hetaerae). In thirty short "Dialogs of the Dead" Lucian satirized temporary earthly attachm ents which are shown to be valueless in the next world, usually by a Cynic such as Diogenes or Menippus. Diogenes tells Pollux to charge philosophers not to pla y the fool by quarreling over metaphysics or tricking each other with puzzles. T he rich should be told they bring none of their gold, and the handsome lose thei r good-looks and athletes their muscles. Among the dead one person is as good as another. Charon tells Hermes all the things people must leave behind when depar ting earth including not only physical things like wealth and beauty but also po mp, pride, cruelty, folly, insolence, hatred, victories, glories, quackery, igno rance, quarrelsomeness, arguments, intricate conceptions, avarice, self-indulgen ce, impudence, and flattery. The only things Hermes finds light and handy are pl

ain speaking, independence, indifference, high spirit, and jests. Hermes takes t hem straight to the judgment seat, and Menippus realizes every detail of their l ives will now come to light. Lucian portrayed human characteristics of mythical figures in his "Dialogs of th e Gods" and "Dialogs of the Sea-Gods." In a necromantic experiment Menippus tell s Philonides how he learned from Homer and Hesiod about the adulterous, rapaciou s, violent, litigious, usurping, and incestuous gods, observing that human laws are contradicted by the poets' accounts of the gods. So he goes to the philosoph ers; but he finds them maintaining opposite views with convincing arguments. The se same teachers in practice do what is opposed to their precepts. Menippus deci des to go to Babylon and asks the help of a Zoroastrian Magus, who takes him dis guised as Heracles down to Hades, where he observes Minos judging each prisoner. After their punishment kings and slaves, governors and paupers, rich and beggar s, all repent of their sins. An assembly issues a decree against the rich for th eir violence, ostentation, pride, and injustice, condemning them to be born on e arth as asses in order to bear the burdens of the poor. Finally Menippus emerges back on earth through the shrine of Trophonius described by Plutarch. Another satire of philosophic dialog by Lucian is the "Icaromenippus or Up in th e Clouds." Menippus despairs of finding out the truth on earth and so gets Daeda lus to give him wings to fly up to heaven. Looking down on earth, he can see man y evils being performed. He observes Egyptians engaged in farming, Phoenicians i n commerce, Cilicians in piracy, Spartans in flagellation, and Athenians in liti gation. After visiting the moon he sets a course between the Sun and stars and a rrives at the outskirts of heaven. He observes Zeus listening to human prayers. When two men pray for opposite things, he keeps an open mind and, like the skept ics, suspends judgment. At a meeting Zeus speaks as follows: As we all know, that comparatively recent biological phenomenon known as the human race is lazy, quarrelsome, empty-headed, bad-tempered, rather greedy, rather stupid, with an inflated idea of itself, and a vast amount of arrogance. It is, to quote Homer, 'a useless burden on the earth.' Well, these creatures have now split up into various schools of thought based on various tortuous arguments, and taken to calling themselves Stoics, Academics, Epicureans, Peripatetics, or even more ridiculous names. Their next step is to attach to themselves the grand word virtue, and go about with furrowed brows and flowing beards, concealing absolutely revolting characters beneath a veneer of respectability.19 Zeus goes on to say they despise others and say all kinds of extraordinary thing s about the gods. Teachers collect impressionable youngsters, rant about virtue, and claim to know the answer to any problem; but when they are by themselves yo u have no idea what they do. The assembly passes a resolution to explode all phi losophical and scientific theories but cannot carry out the sentence immediately . Menippus is deposited back on earth by Hermes. In a dialog with Lycinus a Cynic argues quite well for his austerely simplified life-style, noting that most people are carried away by their appetites, pleasur es, fancies, avarice, rage, and fear that are all out of control. With only an o ld cloak the Cynic has a quiet life doing what he wills and keeping the company he wants; for ignorant and uneducated people have nothing to do with him, and so ft livers turn away from him. Yet the refined, reasonable, and sincere seek him out, and these are the people he wishes to see. Lucian satirized religion in the essay "Of Sacrifice." He asked whether to call them devout worshippers or outcasts, whose opinion of God is so low they believe he needs anything from humans, is pleased by their flattery, or is wounded by t

heir neglect. After discussing various absurd beliefs of ancient religions Lucia n suggested one should either laugh at their ignorance like Democritus or deplor e their folly like Heraclitus. Lucian's True History is a satire of the wild stories found in early historians such as Herodotus. Despite his title Lucian warned the readers he will not write one thing that is true, ironically making the paradoxical statement that he is a liar. This famous paradox perplexed philosophers, causing the mind to go round and round, because if the statement is true, the author is a liar; but if the a uthor is a liar, why should we believe the statement? Lucian's inventive imagina tion is at his best in this model for fantastic travel narratives that even stim ulated later science fiction like H. G. Wells' The First Men in the Moon. Lucian offered intellectual entertainment by satirizing various literary works. The na rrator's ship is driven by storms across the Atlantic. Then a whirlwind takes th em into the air as far as the moon, where men riding vultures are engaged in a w ar against the people of the Sun. The narrator is captured with lunar troops and bound with spiderwebs. After visiting Cloud Cuckooland the travelers are swallo wed by an enormous whale, where they fight with other inhabitants. The Greeks st art a forest fire to kill the whale from the inside and escape. Before returning , the narrator describes several famous characters on the Isle of the Blessed. Lucian wrote a letter to a friend about the philosopher Peregrine, who liked to be called Proteus. Wanting fame, he announced that he was going to cremate himse lf at the next Olympic games in 169. The attempt by Proteus to find a place amon g the Christians of Palestine yielded the only comments by Lucian on this new re ligion. Proteus describes them as worshipping a distinguished man who introduced new rites and was crucified for that. Asiatic Christian communities offered sym pathy, assistance, and legal advice, and he notes they spared no trouble nor exp ense. The cynical Lucian had Proteus write They are always incredibly quick off the mark, when one of them gets into trouble like thisin fact they ignore their own interests completely. Why, they actually sent him large sums of money by way of compensation for his imprisonment, so that he made a considerable profit out of them! For the poor souls have persuaded themselves that they are immortal and will live for ever. As a result, they think nothing of death, and most of them are perfectly willing to sacrifice themselves. Besides, their first law-giver has convinced them that once they stop believing in Greek gods, and start worshipping that crucified sage of theirs, and living according to his laws, they are all each other's brothers and sisters. So, taking this information on trust, without any guarantee of its truth, they think nothing else matters, and believe in common ownershipwhich means that any unscrupulous adventurer who comes along can soon make a fortune out of them, for the silly creatures are very easily taken in.20 Proteus believed his suicide would teach the human race courage in difficult circumstances; but Lucian wondered would profit from this lesson in fortitude too. How can thout hardening and encouraging rogues as well? Proteus to scorn death and show if the criminal classes he improve the honest wi did leap into the pyre.

Lucian satirized the Cynics in his dialog "The Runaways" and all the major philo sophical schools in "The Sale of Creeds" and "The Fisher." He satirized the reli gious charlatan Alexander in a biography on his bogus oracle, showing the suscep tibility of many at this time to superstitions and prophecies. He hoped to shatt

er some of their illusions and confirm sensible ideas they might have. He did th is as a tribute to Epicurus, whom he considered a great man for perceiving the b eauty of truth. Lucian also made fun of religious customs in his essay "Of Mourn ing," which he believed sprung from the common error that death is the worst thi ng that can happen to a person. Lucian did write a positive eulogy of the philosopher Demonax. He never knew him to shout or get angry even when correcting someone. He noted offenses while par doning offenders, using the physician's model of treating the sickness without g etting angry at the sick. Demonax believed that it is human to err but divine to put error right whether it is in God or humans. He considered everyone with a h uman shape his friend. He defined happiness as freedom, clarifying that whoever is subject to hope or fear is not free. When a friend asked him to accompany him to the temple of Asclepius to pray for his son, Demonax asked could not Asclepi us hear them from a distance? He advised a governor to keep his temper, say litt le, and hear much. When Athenians were considering starting gladiatorial shows t o compete with Corinth, Demonax reminded them first to destroy the altar to Pity . He once made the Athenian assembly ashamed of their party spirit by his silent presence. He lived to be nearly one hundred, free of disease and pain, burdenin g no one, serving friends, and having no enemies. When he could no longer take c are of himself, Demonax abstained from food and left life as cheerfully as he ha d lived. With his independent philosophical spirit and broad sense of humor Lucian left a large collection of writings that portray many characteristics of the ethics pr evalent at the height of the Roman empire under Marcus Aurelius. Notes 1. Dio Chrysostom, 41st Discourse 11-13 tr. H. Lamar Crosby. 2. Plutarch, "How to Distinguish a Flatterer from a Friend" 64C tr. Robin Waterf ield. 3. Plutarch, "On Being a Busybody" 516C-D tr. W. C. Helmbold. 4. Plutarch, "The Eating of Flesh" 996-997 tr. W. C. Helmbold. 5. Arrian's Discourses of Epictetus 4:4:46-48 tr. W. A. Oldfather. 6. Ibid. 4:9:16-18 tr. W. A. Oldfather. 7. Arrian, Handbook of Epictetus 48 tr. Sanderson Beck. 8. Graetz, Heinrich, History of the Jews, Volume 2, p. 428 9. Lives of the Later Caesars tr. Anthony Birley, p. 120. 10. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 6:30 tr. Maxwell Staniforth. 11. Ibid. 8:33. 12. Juvenal, The Sixteen Satires 10:7-12 tr. Peter Green. 13. Ibid. 10:357-366. 14. Xenophon of Ephesus, An Ephesian Tale tr. Graham Anderson in Collected Ancie nt Greek Novels ed. B. P. Reardon, p. 169. 15. Antonius Diogenes, The Wonders Beyond Thule tr. Gerald N. Sandy in Collected Ancient Greek Novels ed. B. P. Reardon, p. 782. 16. Apuleius, The Golden Ass tr. Robert Graves, p. 19. 17. Ibid., p. 272. 18. The Works of Lucian of Samosata tr. H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler, Volume 4, p. 3. 19. Lucian, Satirical Sketches tr. Paul Turner, p. 130. 20. Ibid., p. 11. 1999 -2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents Empire of Augustus and Tiberius Jesus and His Apostles Roman Decadence 37-96 Rome Under Better Emperors 96-180 Roman Empire In Turmoil 180-285

Roman Power and Christian Conflict 285-395 Augustine and the Fall of Rome 395-476 Goths, Franks, and Justinian's Empire 476-610 Beck home

Beck home Commodus 180-192, Pertinax Severus Dynasty 193-235 Roman Wars 235-285 Judah and the Mishnah Irenaeus, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Cyprian Clement of Alexandria, Origen Mani and Manichaeism Plotinus and Neo-Platonism Literature in the Third Century Roman Empire In Turmoil 180-285

Commodus 180-192 and Pertinax The line of better Roman Emperors chosen by ability and experience ended in 180 when Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, became sole Emperor at his father's d eath. Born in 161, Commodus was the first Roman Emperor to be born while his fat her was Emperor. The Stoic education provided by the Emperor had little appeal t o Commodus, who was more interested in fighting as a gladiator, killing animals, and enjoying sensuality. He abandoned his father's ambition to annex territory north of the Danube and quickly made peace with the Marcomanni and the Quadi, ga ining 13,000 soldiers from the Quadi and forbidding them from fighting the Iazyg es, Buri, and the Vandals. Rome also made peace with the Buri, regaining captive s from them and 15,000 from others. Commodus returned to Rome in triumph and began his dissolute activities. His ass ociates he sent to rule the provinces were so corrupt that he soon alienated the Senate. A conspiracy in 182 was given away when Pompeianus approached Commodus with a sword saying, "This dagger the Senate sends."1 Pompeianus and four conspi rators were executed. The power of Saoterus was so hated by the people that the prefects of the guard murdered him. Tigidius Perennis accused Paternus of instig ating this; he and several prominent figures were put to death, while others wer e punished with exile. Commodus stopped appearing in public as he indulged in ba nquets, baths, and pleasure with 300 concubines, as many young men, and in broth els. Perennis was allowed to subvert the laws by executing men and confiscating their wealth for himself and Commodus. Many senators and rich women were killed without trials, and rich provincials were robbed. The sister of Commodus, Lucill a, was exiled to Capri and then killed for having conspired with her husband Pom peianus. An inscription from 182 indicates that Commodus tried to limit forced labor on i mperial estates in Africa to six days. Four years later regular shipment of Afri can produce to Rome was instituted. In Britain Roman forces led by Ulpius Marcel lus lost and regained the Antonine wall in 184; but this was abandoned the next year when he and his successor Helvius Pertinax faced army mutinies. Perennis wa s lynched by soldiers for dismissing senators and appointing knights as commande rs. Commodus replaced Perennis with Cleandar, an imperial slave who rose to beco me the richest chamberlain ever by selling government offices and confiscating w ealth, appointing as many as 25 consuls for the year 190. Burrus, the brother-in -law of Commodus, was killed by Cleandar for reporting to the Emperor what Clean dar was doing, as were several for defending Burrus. Finally Papirius Dionysius, the grain commissioner, caused a famine in 190 so that hungry Romans would dest

roy Cleandar. The Emperor's Christian concubine Marcia pleaded with Commodus, an d he had Cleandar and his son executed to stop the rebellion. Commodus had been treated for illness and trained to be a gladiator by the physi cian Galen, who was from Pergamum, a city in Asia Minor with an outstanding libr ary and a healing shrine of Asclepius. Galen (c. 130-c. 200) developed the theor ies of Hippocrates by practicing on gladiators and studying anatomy by vivisecti on in Alexandria, though not a single human skeleton was available when he came to Rome because of religious restrictions. Galen, whose medical influence was to last more than a millennium, developed a pharmacy of 540 medicines from plants, 180 from animals, and 100 from minerals. During the short reign of Pertinax Gal en wrote an Exhortation to the Study of the Arts, Especially Medicine in which h e advised students against seeking riches and the professions of male prostitute s and athletes. Galen also cited Christians to support his argument that even no n-philosophers could achieve good behavior similar to the philosophical ideal. Having himself declared divine as Hercules, Commodus delighted in killing wild b easts in the arena, and he killed many people, often for petty reasons. His arro gance knew few bounds as he renamed Rome Commodiana as his colony and changed th e names of the months. He tried to remain popular by giving 140 denarii to each person, while ordering senators in other cities to contribute five denarii each every year on his birthday. Imperial authority was maintained by the use of secr et police and the army. Commodus murdered many prominent men such as prefect Jul ianus, commissioner Dionysius, his own nephew Antoninus, and several ex-consuls. When Marcia, the prefect Laetus and chamberlain Eclectus learned they were abou t to be killed as Commodus was moving to live with the gladiators in the barrack s, Marcia poisoned Commodus. After he vomited this, they sent an athlete named N arcissus, who strangled him in a bath on the last day of 192. After Commodus was assassinated, Laetus and Eclectus took Helvius Pertinax, 66, to the praetorian camp, where he promised the guards a donative of 12,000 sester ces each. Pertinax was probably chosen, because he had held more high offices th an anyone; he may have survived, because he had gained less wealth than anyone. Pertinax told the Senate he wanted to resign; but they declared him Emperor and Commodus a public enemy. Pertinax treated the Senate democratically, and he was declared its chief according to ancient practice. He restored the rights of inno cent victims, removed the stigma against those unjustly executed, and vowed neve r to sanction the death penalty for senators. The imperial treasury had been red uced to less than a million sesterces. So Pertinax sold imperial luxuries such a s statues, arms, horses, furniture, and slaves while cutting palace expenditures in half. Oppressive taxes and restrictions on commerce were canceled. Those imp roving uncultivated Italian lands were exempted from tribute for ten years. The praetorians got what they were promised, and the people received 100 denarii eac h. Not getting what he wanted, Laetus incited soldiers, who were no longer allowed to plunder; after only 86 days on the throne they murdered Emperor Pertinax and his loyal Eclectus. City prefect Sulpicianus, father-in-law of Pertinax, aimed t o take the throne; but he was outbid by the wealthy Didius Julianus, who promise d the praetorian guards 25,000 sesterces and gave them 30,000 each, saying he wo uld restore the honor of Commodus. The Senate and people loathed Julianus, becau se they believed Pertinax was reforming the abuses of the Commodus era, and many believed the soldiers killed Pertinax for money. Severus Dynasty 193-235 Pescennius Niger, the Roman governor in Syria, was urged by those in Asia to ass ume the throne, and Julianus ordered him killed. Septimius Severus, commanding i n Pannonia, shrewdly sent a letter to Britain governor Clodius Albinus, declarin g him Caesar, and marched for Rome. Julianus got the Senate to declare Severus a public enemy and fortified the palace, putting to death Laetus and Marcia. Mean

while Severus not only won over most of Europe, he even persuaded those sent by Julianus to kill him. The desperate Julianus tried to share the throne with Seve rus; but the Senate sentenced Julianus to death, declared Severus Emperor, and b estowed divine honors on Pertinax. Julianus was executed in the palace after rei gning 66 days. Severus executed the praetorians, who had murdered Pertinax, and dismissed the g uards, who had failed to prevent this. Severus also promised not to execute sena tors; but he was the first to violate this law by murdering Julius Solon, the se nator who framed it. Severus was blamed for making Rome turbulent with many nonItalian troops and excessive expenditures on the army, though he was popular as the avenger of Pertinax. Severus was born in Africa on April 11 in 145 and rose in a military career. He punished magistrates proved guilty by provincials and s ecured the grain supply. Severus led his army against the forces of Niger and Ae milianus in a brief civil war. His generals defeated and killed Aemilianus in th e Hellespont; then they besieged Byzantium. Severus defeated Niger at Issus, whe re 20,000 Romans died according to Dio Cassius; Niger was killed retreating from Antioch to the Euphrates. Severus punished supporters of Niger, crossed the Eup hrates, and in 195 brought the Parthians and Adiabenians under Roman authority, though Dio Cassius complained this military conquest cost more than it gained. B yzantium was starved into surrender after three years. Its magistrates and soldi ers were put to death; its walls were demolished, and its privileges were suppre ssed as it was subjected to nearby Perinthus. Suspecting Albinus, Severus had his army in Mesopotamia declare him a public ene my and headed for Rome. Though both Albinus and Severus were born in Africa, Sev erus was only an equestrian, and Albinus was educated in the school of Marcus Au relius. Yet Severus got the Senate in Rome to denounce Albinus, who had crossed the channel from Britain with three legions and auxiliaries, defeating Roman for ces led by Lupus. This civil war was won by the army of Severus at Lugdunum (Lyo ns), where according to Dio 150,000 from each side fought. Albinus committed sui cide, and the city was sacked and burned in 197. Severus returned to Rome and ex ecuted 29 senators who had supported Albinus. Severus had his son Antoninus (lat er called Caracalla) confirmed as Caesar. When Parthian king Vologases besieged Nisibis, Severus launched another campaign against the Parthians, relieved Nisib is, took Seleucia and Babylon, and plundered Ctesiphon (enslaving perhaps 100,00 0); but he failed to capture Hatra. In 199 Severus visited Egypt. Severus returned to Rome, where Praetorian Prefect Plautianus was exercising gre at power over finances and even laws. In 203 Severus visited his native Leptis M agna in Africa, promoting municipal and cultural activities there. Severus retur ned to Rome to celebrate secular games the next year, spending a record 200,000, 000 sesterces on the people. The coinage was debased, as the denarius was now le ss than half silver. Severus gained popularity by moving the postal service from private individuals to the imperial government. Plautianus was accused of plott ing against the Emperor and was killed by an attendant of Caracalla. The eminent lawyer Papinian became praetorian prefect in 203 until 212 and was known for eq uity and humaneness. Caracalla and his brother Geta felt free to indulge in wome n and boys, embezzle money, and associate with gladiators. Dio described how for two years 600 bandits led by Bulla robbed travelers on Italian roads. Before be ing thrown to wild beasts, Bulla observed his band was large, because slaves wer e mistreated, and freedmen were underpaid. Severus paid soldiers well and relaxe d discipline, allowing them to live with their wives and expect frequent donativ es. Severus added two legions in Mesopotamia and one in Italy, and he put provin cials in the praetorian guard. In Britain Hadrian's wall was improved so much that later generations believed i t was built by Severus. Suffering from gout or arthritis, Severus was carried in a litter on the British campaign in 208 when they invaded the Caledonians in th e north, though it may have cost the Romans 50,000 men. Geta was raised to equal

rank with his ambitious brother Caracalla (Antoninus), who tried to kill their aging father; Severus punished others but not his son. When Septimius Severus di ed of illness in 211, his two sons mistrusted each other and divided the palace. Caracalla refused to divide the empire though, and the next year he had Geta mu rdered while clinging to their mother's arms. The distinguished jurist Papinian refused to justify this fratricide and was killed, along with about 20,000 other s suspected of being sympathetic to Geta or a threat to the paranoid Emperor. Th e guilt-stricken Caracalla often had visions of his angry father and brother. Caracalla restored the rights of Antioch and Byzantium that had been taken away by Septimius Severus for supporting Niger. Caracalla placated the soldiers by ra ising their pay from 500 to 750 denarii; but he had to debase the coins further and double most taxes. An edict of 212 extended Roman citizenship to all free me n in the empire, broadening the tax base. Caracalla also wasted money on wild be asts he liked to kill in arenas. Although he was more adulterous than any, Carac alla had adulterers executed in violation of the law. In addition to murdering m any prominent men, Caracalla sent others to cold or hot provinces where their he alth would fail. After defeating the Alamanni in Lower Moesia, in the east he tr icked Osroeni king Abgarus to visit as a friend and imprisoned him in order to s ubdue the Osroene in 216. Then he did the same thing to the Armenian king, there after losing any trust he might have had. Believing he was the reincarnation of the Macedonian Alexander, Caracalla went to Egypt, where he had thousands of sed itious Alexandrians slaughtered while he reported to the Senate he was performin g "purification rites." While the Emperor was abroad, senators were expected to erect palaces and theaters for expensive entertainment. Finally while on a pilgr image from Edessa to the lunar temple at Carrhae, Caracalla was assassinated by the disgruntled soldier Martialis. The assassin was killed immediately, and Praetorian Prefect Opellius Macrinus, p romising to give the army money and end the burdensome war, became Emperor and t ook his young son Diadumenus as colleague, ordering soldiers to name his son Ant oninus. The credibility of Macrinus suffered when it was learned he had organize d the assassination even though he denied it. When the angry Parthian Artabanus invaded Mesopotamia, Macrinus was unable to pacify him, and the Roman army was d efeated near Nisibis. Macrinus made peace by paying Artabanus 200,000,000 sester ces, and the war with Armenia ended when Macrinus sent Tiridates a crown. The ha rsh discipline of Macrinus in a winter camp, crucifying soldiers and decimating his legions, alienated them so quickly that after one year troops deserted to El agabalus. Macrinus tried to appease his soldiers by giving them money; but he wa s defeated and put to death outside of Antioch in 218. Named after a Syrian Sun cult of which he was priest, Elagabalus (Heliogabalus) was put forward by his grandmother Maesa as the son of Caracalla. The army unusu ally gathered in Syria was won over to his cause. After defeating Macrinus, Elag abalus entered Antioch and promised each soldier 2,000 sesterces to prevent them from sacking the city. Elagabalus trampled on Roman tradition by assuming tribu nician and proconsular powers even before they were decreed by the Senate. He tr ansferred a sacred black stone from Emesa to Rome and tried to make his religion dominant over all others. Elagabalus limited reprisals but soon slid into extra ordinary sensuality, murdering those who criticized him. He married a Vestal vir gin and several others. His banquets were orgies of rare foods alternating with sexual pleasures. Elagabalus dressed as a woman, even married "husbands," and pl ayed the role of a prostitute as he made lust the principal occupation of his li fe. Honors, ranks, and powers were sold by him and his lusted agents for money, even positions such as senators, tribunes, generals, legates, and procurators. I t was reported that his religious sacrifices included noble Italian boys. Elagabalus' cousin Alexander Severus had been declared Caesar and soon became an alternative to the Emperor's shameful lifestyle. Alexander was protected by sol diers, who warned Elagabalus to dismiss the foul persons and return to a decent

life. While plotting against Alexander, Elagabalus ordered the Senate to leave R ome. The rhetorician Silvinus was killed, though the jurist Ulpian was saved. Fi nally in 222 soldiers killed Elagabalus in a latrine and threw his body in the T iber. The Roman Senate immediately bestowed the imperial titles and power on Alexander Severus. As he was born October 1, 208 and was only 13, his grandmother Maesa u ntil her death in 226 and his mother Mamaea acted as regents. A council of seven ty included sixteen senators and was headed by the distinguished jurist Domitius Ulpian as praetorian prefect. Ulpian reformed the many violations of Elagabalus and wrote massive works on Roman law. He wrote that all human beings are born f ree, thus making slavery unnatural. Yet the loss of privileges eventually led th e praetorians to murder Ulpian in 228. Iulius Paulus was another great jurist wh o was praetorian prefect under Alexander. Paulus emphasized that the Emperor sho uld set an example by obeying the laws, and he wrote the voluminous Opinions (Se ntentiae). During the reign of Alexander colleges of industries and trades were organized t o provide for the needs of Rome, and welfare institutions were extended. Many we re exempted from taxes, including officials, soldiers, college guilds, ship-owne rs, firemen, those over seventy, women, fathers of five children, veterans, doct ors, teachers, and philosophers. Taxes thus fell heavily on farmers and workers in the lower classes. Alexander loaned public money at only four percent, and to the poor he even advanced cash to purchase land without any interest at all. El agabalus had wasted grain; but Alexander purchased it at his own expense and res tored the supply. Coins indicate that at least five times Emperor Alexander Seve rus distributed grain or money to the people. The imperial life of Alexander offered a striking contrast to his predecessor as he practiced self-discipline, study, instructive discussion, and public service . Elagabalus had allowed both sexes to mix at public baths, but Alexander ended that indulgence. He could be severe especially on thieves. His friend Turinus us ed his position to sell favors. The Emperor ordered him bound to a stake and suf focated by smoke, because he had been a "seller of smoke." The palace was open t o all, but only those with innocent minds were invited to enter. Alexander sent the Syrian Sun-god back to Emesa and tolerated all religions, respecting the rig hts of Jews and tolerating Christians, since he believed each is an expression o f universal truth. Along with statues of deified Emperors were represented the h oly souls of Abraham, Orpheus, Christ, and Apollonius of Tyana. Alexander had he ard the golden rule from a Jew or Christian, and when disciplining anyone he tol d the herald to announce that what you do not wish anyone to do to you, you shou ld not do to them. This saying was also inscribed on public buildings. The discipline of Alexander and his commanders, like historian Dio Cassius in Pa nnonia, was not popular with a corrupted army. Mutinies against his officers had to be put down in Illyricum, Mauretania, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Germany. Dio was saved by retiring to write history in 229. Artabanus V of the Arsacid dynas ty in Parthia, weakened by the invasion of Septimius Severus and others, was ove rthrown in 224 by the Persian Ardashir (Artaxerxes), who founded the Sassanian d ynasty as king of kings two years later. In 230 the Persians, setting out to reg ain their ancient empire with Magian zeal, besieged Nisibis. Diplomatic efforts failed as Persia insisted on reclaiming all of western Asia. Their 400 elegant e missaries were seized by Alexander and sent to farm in Phrygia. Alexander and hi s mother launched a campaign in alliance with Armenian king Chosroes by invading through Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Babylon. The three separate Roman armies enab led the Persians to destroy the central one. Alexander retreated to Antioch as d isease, hunger, and cold added to the disastrous war. The need for legions in th e west caused the Romans to end the war against Persia without a settlement in 2 33, and the next year a campaign was prepared against the Alamanni.

Julius er and Troops rmy of

Verus Maxininus was put in charge of training on the Upper Rhine. Alexand his mother joined the army at Mainz and began negotiating cash payments. resented this, and Pannonian recruits proclaimed Maxininus Emperor. The a Alexander Severus deserted him, and he and his mother were killed in 235.

Roman Wars 235-285 Maxininus was a Thracian who rose to equestrian rank in the military. He began h is reign crushing two mutinies in the north by putting to death senator Magnus a nd as many as 4,000 others. Maxininus used his army to defeat German resistance, and in 236 and 237 they fought the Sarmatians and Dacians. Lacking education an d culture, Maxininus stayed away from Italy, refused to see such people, and eve n had those who revealed his obscure background killed. With an extensive spy ne twork senatorial officers were especially proscribed as much property was confis cated. Money had to be found, because he doubled soldiers' pay, and military nee ds such as road-building were promoted. He also appropriated ornaments from publ ic places and temples, which often caused tumult and massacres. In opposing thos e who had supported Alexander, Maxininus ordered Christians persecuted. In Africa the imperial procurator was killed in Thysdrus attempting to gather ta xes. In 238 the 80-year-old proconsul Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus was procla imed Augustus (Emperor), and at Carthage he appointed his son co-Emperor. Envoys were sent to Rome and killed praetorian commander Vitalianus, allowing the Sena te to confirm the Gordians' imperial titles. Romans turned against supporters of Maxininus and killed city prefect Sabinus. Twenty consuls were sent out to the provinces to defend the new Emperors. However, Numidian governor Capellianus had a grudge against Gordian and remained loyal to Maxininus; when his troops kille d Gordian II, his aged father committed suicide. The Roman Senate quickly elected two of the twenty, Pupienus Maximus and Caelius Balbinus, as Emperors. The people disliked former city prefect Pupienus and dem onstrated until the elder Gordian's grandson, Antonius Gordianus, was named Caes ar, and 250 denarii was given to each citizen. Pupienus organized an army in nor th Italy while Balbinus governed in Rome. Maxininus gave a donative and marched his army across the Alps into northern Italy, finding no food in the abandoned l and but meeting resistance at Aquileia. While besieging this city, the northern army's discipline broke down, and soldiers, who had family and property in Alba, murdered Maxininus, his son, prefect Anulinus, and other officers. Pupienus was supported by German soldiers, because he had been a conscientious governor of t heir province. He arrived and gave the rebel army amnesty and a donative, dismis sing them to their stations. Pupienus returned triumphantly to Rome, where recal citrant praetorian guards ended friction between the two Emperors by capturing t hem and murdering both in their camp. The guards proclaimed the 13-year-old Gord ian III Emperor. Little is known about who advised the young Gordian until Praetorian Prefect Tim esitheus took control in 241; but a 238 decree indicates administration by provi ncial governors was given authority even in judicial matters over military court s, and local rights over finances were regained. A rebellion led by Sabinianus i n Carthage was quelled by the governor of Mauretania in 240. Having diverse gove rnment experience in many provinces, Timesitheus continued extensive building of roads, and lines of forts were erected in Numidia and Mauretania. In the east P ersians had overrun Mesopotamia and taken Nisibis and Carrhae. Shapur I succeede d his father Ardashir in 242, quelling rebellions by the Chorasmians, mountain M edes, Gelae, Dailamites, and Hyrcanians. Then Shapur invaded Syria, threatening Antioch. Gordian and Timesitheus mobilized the Danubian army, and the latter def eated Carpi raiders in Thrace. In 243 they drove the Persians out of Syria, rega ining Carrhae and Nisibis; Edessa was made a Roman colony. When Timesitheus died of illness or perhaps poison, he was succeeded as praetorian prefect by an Arab ian named Philip.

The ambitious Philip blamed commissariat problems on Gordian and had the Emperor murdered, writing the Senate he had died of disease. The soldiers proclaimed Ph ilip Emperor in 244, and he made a peace treaty with Shapur. Philip led troops a gainst unrest in Moesia and Dacia before returning to Rome to celebrate its mill ennium with secular games in 248. Excessive taxes and oppressive government by P hilip's brother C. Julius Priscus in Mesopotamia stimulated rebellions led by Jo tapianus in Cappadocia and Emesa priest-king Sulpicius Uranius Antoninus in Syri a. In the lower Danube region Pacatianus led a revolt. Philip was so discouraged he wanted to abdicate; but instead the confident Decius was given supreme comma nd in Moesia and Pannonia. Pacatianus was soon killed by his own soldiers, and i n 249 the successful Decius was compelled by the army to become Emperor. The ill Philip marched north to meet Decius but was defeated and killed in battle. The son of Philip was put to death in Rome by the praetorians, and the Senate recogn ized Decius. Attempting to restore Roman virtue, Decius appointed Valerian censor and require d traditional sacrifices, causing a serious though brief persecution of Christia ns. In Rome Senator Licinianus attempted to become Emperor but was soon killed, and the two sons of Decius were proclaimed Augusti. Invading Goths brought Deciu s to the Danube. The Goths retreated but besieged Philippopolis in Thrace. The G othic king Cniva defeated and killed Decius and his older son at Abrittus in 251 . Thrace governor T. Julius Priscus had surrendered mutinous troops to the Goths at Philippopolis and briefly claimed to be Emperor also. 100,000 people in the city were reported to have been massacred. Since Hostilianus, the surviving son of Decius, was a child, Moesia governor C. Trebonianus Gallus was proclaimed Emp eror by his troops. Gallus in a weak position allowed the Goths to carry off muc h of the population and wealth of Thrace. He adopted Hostilianus as his son but was blamed when the boy was carried off by a plague that was to sweep across the empire for the next fifteen years. Aemilius Aemilianus, governing Pannonia and Moesia, won victories against the Go ths north of the Danube and was proclaimed Emperor. The army of Aemilianus so ou tnumbered that of Gallus that the latter was killed by his own troops. Aemilianu s lasted only three months, meeting a similar fate to that of Gallus after he su mmoned Valerian's Rhine legions, who proclaimed him Emperor. Valerian got the Se nate to declare his son Gallienus as his colleague and Augustus in September 253 . The next year Gallienus led an army that drove back the Alamanni; as he fought f ive wars with the Germans in five years, he resided mostly at Cologne. In 256 th e Franks, formed out of Cherusci and Chatti, invaded most of Gaul, while Saxons began raiding the English Channel. As Valerian headed east to confront the Persi ans, persecution of Christians resumed. Meanwhile the Goths plundered rich citie s like Chalcedon, Nicomedia, Trebizond, Cyzicus, and eventually even Athens. In 259 the Persians defeated and captured Emperor Valerian, a great embarrassment t o the Roman empire. The next year revolts broke out in the Danube region, and Ma crianus proclaimed his two sons Emperors in the east. Persian king Shapur got Ar menian king Chosroes assassinated. Defeating Roman forces, Shapur's Persians occ upied Antioch, Apamea, Seleucia, and Tarsus. Palmyran king Odenathus sent Shapur gifts, but the Persian potentate had them thrown in the Euphrates. While Silvanus was governing for young Caesar Saloninus in Cologne, Postumus bes ieged the city with his legions from Germany and had them both killed. Macrianus approached with an army of 30,000 but was defeated by the Pannonian force of Au reolus. In 262 Odenathus joined his Syrian army with Roman forces and defeated t he Persians, regaining Carrhae and Nisibis and even besieging the Persian capita l at Ctesiphon. Egyptian prefect L. Mussius Aemilianus, who had supported the Ma criani until their fall, stopped grain shipments to Italy. Gallienus sent a flee t commanded by Theodotus, who defeated, executed, and replaced Aemilianus. The n ext year Gallienus led an army against Postumus and was wounded defeating him in

Gaul. Emperor Gallienus enjoyed the Neo-Platonist philosophy of Plotinus, promoted Gre ek religion in the Eleusinian mysteries, and managed to survive until 268. Durin g his reign of fifteen years though, eighteen men and one woman, Palmyran queen Zenobia, vied for the imperial throne. The provinces were greatly disturbed, and the civil wars weakened the frontier defenses, such as Raetia and Germany. In S icily slaves rebelled; Alexandria's civil war went on for twelve years; Isaurian s in Asia Minor became independent of the empire and took over part of Cilicia. These many wars along with the famine and plague that accompanied them devastate d the land, the people, and the economy of the empire. Agriculture was greatly a ffected, and the rich took over more land. Insecurity on the roads made commerce very risky and difficult. Small farmers and city workers were hit hard, greatly shrinking the middle class with the important exceptions of the military and go vernment officials, some of whom became rich. Aureolus prevented Postumus from invading Italy. Yet when the cavalry of Aureolu s became a threat to Gallienus, the Emperor besieged him at Milan, as Aureolus p roclaimed himself Emperor. A conspiracy led by Aurelius Claudius and Domitius Au relian arranged for the murder of Gallienus, and a large contribution to the tro ops secured the throne for Claudius. The Senate, resenting their recent loss of power, had the late Emperor's family liquidated and supported Claudius. Aureolus surrendered to Claudius and was executed. Postumus was fighting a revolt led by Laelianus, who died when Mainz was taken. When Postumus refused to let his sold iers plunder the city, they killed him. These Rhine legions proclaimed Aurelius Marius and, after he died, Victorinus. Claudius sent a force commanded by Placid ianus against them in Gaul. Claudius wrote the Senate that although the whole country was exhausted, 320,000 Goths had invaded Roman territory, assaulting the wealthy Macedonian capital at Thessalonica. He had to admit that the usurper Tetricus governed in Gaul and Sp ain, while Zenobia reigned over Asia. Claudius led an imperial army that defeate d the Goths in Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia, taking some Gothic youth into the army, enslaving others, and giving each soldier two or three captive women. Clau dius appointed Aurelian to continue the campaign against the Goths while he turn ed to face the Juthungi and Vandals in the Danube region, where he succumbed to the plague in 270. The army in Italy elected his brother Quintillus Emperor but had him killed after learning the army in the Balkans had selected the popular D omitius Aurelian. Aurelian was a strict disciplinarian and declared that public support and spoils taken from the enemy should be enough so that soldiers should leave the provinc ials' goods alone. After two decades of war Aurelian defeated and made a treaty with the Goths by which the Vandals supplied him with 2,000 cavalry, and the Got hs were allowed to retreat and occupy Dacia. When 500 of these cavalry broke the agreement, they were destroyed. Next the Juthungi (Marcomanni) encroached into Italy. After his forces took a beating at Placentia, Aurelian defeated the Germa n invaders in Umbria and exterminated what remained near Pavia. This threat appa rently stimulated Aurelian to order the erection of a wall twenty feet high, twe lve feet wide, and twelve miles long around the city of Rome. Aurelian had some senators killed and confiscated much property. In the imperial capital a revolt of mint workers was large enough to kill 7,000 soldiers. Aurelian changed a mont hly dole of grain to a daily distribution of two pounds of bread and an occasion al allotment of pork, oil, and salt. He made worship of the Sun an official reli gion. In 271 Aurelian destroyed the Gothic invader Cannabas and 5,000 of his men north of the Danube on his way to recover Asia Minor from the retreating authority of Palmyra queen Zenobia. The death of Persian king Shapur in 272 seems to have le ft her with few allies. The city of Tyana was spared by Aurelian, and Greeks joi

ned the Roman side. While his general Probus was driving her forces out of Egypt , Aurelian defeated her best general Zabdas at Antioch. The Roman Emperor suppor ted the claims of the Christian Domnus, who was endorsed by Italian bishops. Zab das retreated to Emesa, while Zenobia prepared for a siege at Palmyra, where she rejected a peace offer. However, as she escaped to the Euphrates, where she was captured, the city surrendered. Her advisor, the rhetorician Longinus, was put to death; but she was taken to Rome, as Aurelian left a garrison of 600 archers in Palmyra. The next year Aurelian fought the Carpi beyond the Danube. Hearing h is garrison had been massacred, he returned to destroy Palmyra. In Egypt a wealt hy merchant named Firmus led a revolt joined by the Nubian Blemmyes tribe. Aurel ian moved against them, causing Firmus to commit suicide and razing the walls of Alexandria. In 274 Aurelian took his army into Gaul, where he punished rebel fighters, gave Tetricus clemency, and drove the Franks and Batavians north of the Rhine. Aureli an returned to Rome and marched in triumph with captives from many nations that included Zenobia and the senatorial Tetricus, both of whom received comfortable pensions. The Sun temple received 15,000 pounds of gold. Aurelian went back to G aul to counter invading Juthungi and Alamanni from Raetia; then he headed for Me sopotamia. Before reaching Byzantium a secretary charged with extortion organize d a conspiracy that assassinated Aurelian in 275. After so many competing Emperors, now for six months no one took on the imperial position; the victories of Aurelian had calmed usurpation and sedition for a wh ile. Finally in September 275 the Senate persuaded 75-year-old Tacitus to don th e purple. Tacitus governed conservatively for six months, though his half-brothe r Florian, whom he made praetorian prefect, was rejected by the Senate for a con sulship, and another relative, Maximinus, was so oppressive in governing Syria t hat he was murdered. Florian tried to succeed Tacitus without approval by the Se nate and marched his army to Tarsus to counter the claim of Probus; but after th ree months Florian was betrayed by his men and killed. Probus punished surviving murderers of Aurelian and visited Rome to receive conf irmation by the Senate, which he allowed to conduct civil administration. He the n marched his army to Gaul and drove out the Franks, Longiones, Alamanni, and th e Burgundian Vandals, liberating sixty cities, killing a reported 400,000 German s, and taking 16,000 into his army. In 278 Probus secured Raetia and drove invad ing Vandals from Illyricum. Julius Saturninus claimed imperial command in Syria but soon died at Apamea. In Asia Minor Probus established forts to control the I saurians; he made peace with Persian king Vahram II (r. 276-293), and while trav eling back through Thrace, he settled 100,000 Batarnae in the empire. Probus ord ered a wall built from the Rhine to the Danube, though in a few years it would b e torn down by the Alamanni. Short-lived rebellions were put down in Lugdunum, C ologne, and Britain. Probus celebrated with violent games, though eighty gladiat ors broke free and rampaged in Rome before they were all killed. Probus began ap plying soldiers to reclaiming land and cultivating vines; he even hoped for a da y when an imperial army would no longer be needed. This idea frightened the mili tary, and Probus was murdered by his own soldiers at Sirmium. The Guard's prefect Carus was made Emperor by the army in 282. They defeated inv ading Quadi and killed 16,000 Sarmatians with heavy losses. Then marching east t o the Persian war, Carus and his army crossed both the Euphrates and Tigris to t ake Seleucia and Ctesiphon; but after ruling ten months he was struck down for g oing too far by lightning (according to the official report). His oldest son Car inus was ruling in the west, and the eastern army was taken over by his younger son Numerian, who was under the influence of his father-in-law, the prefect Aper ; but Numerian was soon found dead. The army appointed Diocles Emperor, and he s tabbed Aper with his own sword, proclaiming himself Emperor Diocletian in 284. C arinus, who had married and divorced nine wives and put on extravagant and cruel spectacles with wild animals, met Diocletian with a strong army in the Margus v

alley; but Carinus was murdered by a tribune, whose wife he had seduced, making Diocletian undisputed ruler of the Roman empire in 285. Judah and the Mishnah Torah scholars called Tannaim continued to develop an oral tradition after the d estruction of the Temple in 70 CE, led by such distinguished men as Jochanan ben Zakkai, Gamaliel II of Jabneh, Akiba ben Joseph, Meir, and Judah Hanasi. Based on Akiba's collection as corrected by Meir, the Patriarch Judah (c. 135-c. 225) managed to synthesize the teachings of the various schools into a unified compen dium of oral traditions called the Mishnah, written only as notes or secretly. T he wealthy Judah wielded unprecedented power over Jews, even vetoing the Sanhedr in, which he had moved from Usha to Sepphoris because of his health. When the pl ague during the reign of Marcus Aurelius was followed by a famine, Judah opened his storehouses and distributed grain to the needy. Judean communities were suff ering under the "crown money" tax, which caused many to leave Tiberias. He was s o respected that he was called the teacher saint, and quotes in the Mishnah by h im are simply attributed to the Rabbi (Teacher). The Mishnah completed the phase of the independent Tannaim, who would be followed by the Amoraim (Interpreters) of the Mishnah in writing down their ideas in the Talmud (Teaching). The Mishnah is arranged into six broad categories on prayer, agriculture, sacred times, marriage and family, economic and social issues, and ritual purity. The Mishnah emphasizes that laws of the Torah are to be obeyed without exception, gi ving Judaism a legalistic character. By following the edicts and decrees of God as handed in the scriptures they believed they would find prosperity on earth an d blessing in the world to come. Their main duties included venerating parents, giving charity, attending school, offering hospitality, endowing brides, accompa nying corpses to the grave, praying devoutly, peacemaking, and studying their te achings. Crimes were not expiated until the victims were reimbursed, satisfied, or appeased. The Mishnah has two views on whether to educate daughters. Ben-Azai favored it, but Eleazar ben Hyrcanus compared it to prostitution. Unfortunately the latter v iew prevailed, and women were seldom educated. The Mishnah is much more critical of heathen practices than of their Christian rivals. Jews were not allowed to s ell to Romans animals that might be used for killing in the arena. Simeon ben Ga maliel said that the world rests on truth, justice, and peace. Ben Zoma suggeste d that learning from everyone makes one wise, controlling one's passions makes o ne strong, being satisfied with one's lot makes one rich, and honoring humanity makes one honored. Simeon ben Chalafta said that God has no better way of blessi ng than with peace. Under Severus Jews as well as Christians were persecuted for their religion. Aft er the civil war that consolidated the power of Severus, marauding bands in Pale stine were hunted down with the aid of teachers Eleazar, son of Simon ben Jochai , and Ishmael, son of Jose the Prudent. Many people including Joshua ben Karcha criticized them for this. Judah was succeeded by his son Gamaliel III, who empha sized that study should supplement essential work. In 216 the pressure of the Pe rsian war caused the Romans to end the allowance first given by Julius Caesar ma king Jews exempt from taxes during their sabbatical year in which fields lay fal low. So the authority Jannai proclaimed it permissible to cultivate the land tha t year. Judah II succeeded his father Gamaliel and moved the Sanhedrin from Sepp horis to the city of Tiberias. Stories and legends of a close friendship between Judah and a Roman Emperor or governor may refer to Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurel ius, or Alexander Severus. Most likely is the last, since Alexander included Abr aham in his pantheon of religious figures and was quite favorable to Jews. Jews had lived free of persecution in Babylon for generations; but when the new Persian Sassanid dynasty replaced the Parthians, the religious fanaticism of the Zarathustrian magi caused problems. Abba-Areka (c. 175-247) had studied with Ju

dah I in Tiberias. The Babylonian exilarch appointed Abba inspector of the marke ts responsible for controlling weights and measures. When Abba did not obey the exilarch's order to control prices, he was put in prison. About 219 Abba opened a school called Sidra that attracted 1200 students. Using the Mishnah for teachi ng, Abba tried to improve the morals of the Babylonians. He forbade solemnizing marriage until it was preceded by courtship, and he prohibited fathers from marr ying off their daughters without their consent. He stopped the legal devices tha t enabled a husband to make a divorce retroactive. Abba also strengthened the ju dicial system, obliging everyone to obey a summons. His rival Mar-Samuel went ev en farther and declared the secular laws as binding as the Jewish ones. This ena bled Samuel to have good relations with the court of Shapur I (r. 242-272). Soon under the Sassanid dynasty the Jewish courts lost their criminal jurisdiction, and Jews were no longer permitted to hold public offices. In 259 the Palmyran ki ng Odenathus destroyed the city of Nahardea and its Jewish community; Samuel's d aughters and others were taken as prisoners to Sepphoris. Irenaeus, Tertullian, Hippolytus, and Cyprian Probably during the reign of Marcus Aurelius a priest of the mother goddess Cybe le named Montanus, who had converted to Christianity in Phrygia, had ecstatic ex periences in which he believed the Holy Spirit spoke through him. Two prophetess es, Priscilla and Maximilla, who had left their husbands, had similar experience s and beliefs. From this in Asia Minor grew the Montanist movement, which consid ered itself the spiritual church, but which was opposed by many who believed the se supernatural experiences were not inspired by the Holy Spirit but devils. Irenaeus grew up in Smyrna, where he was taught by Polycarp. Irenaeus went to so uthern Gaul as a missionary, witnessed the persecution in Lugdunum (Lyons), and succeeded the martyred bishop Pothinus in 177. Irenaeus was sent to mediate the Montanist disputes with Eleutherus, who was bishop of Rome from 177 to 190. Whil e churches in Asia Minor celebrated Easter on the Jewish Passover and Roman chur ches did so on the following Sunday, Irenaeus advised the resentful Victor, Bish op of Rome, not to let this difference destroy church unity. In a letter to Vict or Irenaeus wrote that as long as one can do good to one's neighbors and does no t do so, that one will be considered a stranger to the love of God. He recommend ed speaking well of the deserving but never ill of the undeserving in order to a ttain the glory of God. Irenaeus observed that transgressions bound one by the c hains of one's own sins; but breaking the bonds by repentance loosens the shackl es. He thought the business of the Christian is always preparing for death. Iren aeus died before or possibly during the persecution of Emperor Septimius Severus in 202. Irenaeus knew that it is not easy to persuade one under the influence of error t oward a contrary opinion. His major work, Refutation of the Falsely Called Knowl edge (Gnosis), written in Greek, survives in Latin translation. In the first of five books Irenaeus described the doctrines of Gnostics such as Valentinus, Marc ion, and others. Then he demonstrated by scriptures and the apostolic tradition why orthodox Christian theology is better. His work and similar tracts by Tertul lian and others were so comprehensive and persuasive that the Gnostic sects decl ined rapidly in the third century, and most Gnostic texts were eradicated. Recen t discoveries in the 20th century of some Gnostic works have revealed the genera l accuracy of his presentation. Most of the differences are metaphysical and the ological rather than ethical; but Irenaeus did note Gnostic elitism in their sug gestion that good works are necessary to traditional Christians but not to those having the superior spiritual knowledge. Irenaeus charged that some Gnostics in dulged in lusts of the flesh in the belief that carnal things may be allowed to carnal nature, because spiritual things are provided to the spiritual nature. Irenaeus believed that God allowed humans to fall because of pride and to teach discipline by experience, making salvation a result of progressive education cul minating in the divine incarnation and the universal good message. Irenaeus ackn

owledged imperfection in the world but believed it has a purpose in developing c haracter by mastering temptations and difficulties. He believed that God made hu mans free with the ability to obey God voluntarily and not by compulsion. God do es not coerce, but good will is always present. Thus God did not make some good and others bad. Humans were given the mental ability to know good and evil, and by experience they learn that disobeying God deprives one of life. Irenaeus esta blished the importance of orthodox doctrines passed on by apostolic succession a s a protection against dangerous innovation and speculation. In contrast to Gnos tic dualism Irenaeus emphasized the unity of God as creator, ruler, and judge. T he wisdom of God excels all human wisdom, punishing the wicked and blessing the pious with infinite goodness and justice. Irenaeus prayed that his adversaries m ay be converted, loving them, he wrote, better than they love themselves. For he believed that the true way to God is love and that it is better to know only Ch rist than to fall into curious questions and paltry subtleties.

Tertullian was born in the middle of the second century at Carthage, where he wa s well educated. His father was probably a centurion. Tertullian went to Rome as a young man and probably practiced law. He did not convert to Christianity unti l he returned to Carthage near the end of the century. Twelve Christians had bee n martyred at Carthage in 180. Tertullian was impressed by the witness of martyr s, the moral discipline, and the devotion to one God. About 197 or so Tertullian wrote a defense of Christianity addressed to the rule rs of the Roman empire in which he pleaded for a hearing so that they would not condemn Christians in ignorance and therefore unjustly. He argued that those who once hated Christianity because they knew nothing about it, after knowing it, n ot only laid down their enmity but became its disciples. There is an outcry that the state is being filled with Christians of both sexes and of every age and co ndition, and this is true because many are passing over to the Christian faith. Most criminals are ashamed of their evils; but Christians are an exception, usua lly only being ashamed they had not been converted earlier. Christians alone are forbidden to explain what they did in order to help the judge make a correct de cision. All that public hatred demands is the confession of the name, not an exa mination of the charge. Usually criminals deny the offense and are tortured to c onfess; but Christians alone are tortured to make them deny their confession. Si nce there is no investigation of one's actions, clearly the only crime of a Chri stian is adhering to the name. The authorities are unwilling or ashamed to menti on the actual crimes. Tertullian argued that Romans hate the guiltless and a guiltless name, exhibitin g violence and the unjust domination of a tyranny, because the law to condemn fo r a mere name is unjust. He cited Nero and Domitian as examples of cruel tyrants who persecuted Christians, whereas the noble Marcus Aurelius put the law aside and condemned their accusers. Christians have kept their secrets as have the Sam othracian and Eleusinian mysteries. False rumors have spread of Christian enormi ties that have never been proven, such as child sacrifice, which was practiced p ublicly in Africa as recently as the proconsulship of Tiberius. Christians are charged with not worshipping the gods because they do not sacrifi ce for the Emperor. Tertullian believed there are no such gods. He wrote they wo rship the one God, who is invisible but created all things. Christ came once as a lowly human and expelled devils by a word, restored vision to the blind, clean sed lepers, reinvigorated paralytics, summoned the dead to life, and made the el ements of nature obey him by calming storms and walking on the sea, proving he w as the Logos of God. He was crucified; but he had predicted that, as he did also his resurrection. His disciples have spread over the world, as their master bad e them; they have suffered persecution by Jews and Romans.

Tertullian challenged the authorities to search and see if the divinity of Chris t is true. If its acceptance transforms a person to one truly good, one should r enounce what is opposed to it as false. Tertullian believed that Christ is comin g again to judge every soul. The charges recoil on the heads of the accusers not merely for refusing the religion of the one true God but for persecuting it. Ev en if their gods exist, is it not generally held that there is one higher and mo re powerful absolute God? Tertullian noted that empires are acquired by wars and victories that involve the taking of cities with the destruction of temples and killing of priests as well as citizens. "Thus the sacrileges of the Romans are as numerous as their trophies. They boast as many triumphs over the gods as over the nations."2 They have advanced to greatness by injuring religion. Tertullian argued that it is unjust to compel free persons to offer sacrifices a gainst their will, since honoring the gods should be voluntary. Jesus taught Chr istians to pray for their enemies and bless those who persecute them, and Paul s aid to pray for kings and rulers so that they may live in peace. Augustus, who f ounded the empire, would not accept the title Lord. Tertullian suggested they gi ve up worship of other beings as divine except God so that God will be propitiou s to the Emperor. To call Caesar god is to invoke a curse. Tertullian went on th at in addition to loving their enemies, Christians are forbidden to retaliate if they are injured lest they become as bad themselves. Thus who can suffer from t heir hands? He asked if anyone could point to a single act of Christian vengeanc e. Christians even help by exorcising evil spirits. Therefore Christians should receive milder treatment and have a place among the societies that are tolerated by the laws since they are not charged with any real crimes. Christians are not interested in affairs of state, because they acknowledge the one all-embracing commonwealth of the world. Tertullian described Christian society as a religious community bound by a unity of discipline and a common hope that meets together to pray to God. They pray f or emperors, those in authority, and for the welfare of the world in peace, and they read their sacred writings. They are known for loving one another. All are brothers by the law of their common mother nature, though their opponents are ha rdly men, being such unkind brothers. Those who have drunk in one spirit of holi ness are even more fit to be called brothers. One in mind and soul, they share t heir worldly goods with one another, having all things in common except their wi ves. Their feasts are known by the Greek term for affection, agape, as they bene fit the needy in modest gatherings that begin with prayer to God. They eat and d rink in chastity. Tertullian also observed that Christians fast and bind their p assions tightly and assail heaven with importunities; yet when they have awakene d the divine compassion, Jupiter gets the honor. Yet the Romans are the sources of trouble in human affairs, since they are always attracting public adversity. Christians live and work among them without retreating like Indian Brahmins, and their arts benefit the public. Tertullian believed that Christians alone are without crime, because they are ta ught by God what goodness is and have knowledge revealed by a perfect master. Th ey faithfully do God's will enjoined on them by a Judge they dare not despise. H e asked why they are not permitted equal liberty for their doctrines, which are similar to what the philosophers counsel - justice, patience, sobriety, and chas tity. Christians avoid sexual perversions, as the men confine themselves to wome n. If their speculations are presumptuous, they should be subjected to ridicule, not to swords, flames, crosses, and wild beasts. Yet even these martyrdoms are their joy, because they would rather be condemned than give up their faith in Go d. Like warriors, their battle is to be summoned before tribunals to face execut ion while testifying to the truth. They are overcome, but they conquer by dying, being victorious at the moment they are subdued. The unjust killing of Christia ns is the proof of their innocence. Although this cruelty is a temptation to Chr istians, the more often they are mowed down, the more their numbers grow, for th e blood of Christians is the seed. Those who inquire into their doctrines embrac

e them, and those who embrace them desire to partake fully of God's grace by giv ing their blood. Although they may be condemned by men, they are acquitted by th e Highest. Under Emperor Septimius Severus about 202 several Christians were martyred for t heir religious belief in Carthage. Tertullian may have edited the account of Viv ia Perpetua's arrest and visions, how Felicitas prayed and had her baby a month early, and a description of how these two women and Saturas were exposed to wild animals in the arena before being killed by swords. It was probably some time a fter these events that Tertullian supported Montanist prophecy and its strict mo ral discipline as he felt the traditional church was becoming lax and corrupt. In "The Crown" written probably in 204 Tertullian questioned whether warfare is proper at all for Christians. He asked, Shall it be held lawful to make an occupation of the sword, when the Lord proclaims that he who uses the sword shall perish by the sword? And shall the son of peace take part in the battle when it does not become him even to sue at law? And shall he apply the chain, and the prison, and the torture, and the punishment, who is not the avenger even of his own wrongs?3 He goes on to ask why one should watch others more than Christ or guard the temp les one has renounced. He suggested that when one becomes a believer, the milita ry profession should be abandoned. Like Irenaeus, Tertullian also wrote extensive treatises against the doctrines o f Marcion and the Valentinians. He wrote that without amendment repentance is va in. After repentance ignorance cannot be used as an excuse if one goes back into the same sin. The relapsing sinner rejects the Giver in abandoning the gift of forgiveness, denying the Benefactor and not honoring the benefit. Such are not o nly contumacious to the Lord but also ungrateful. How can one expect sins to be pardoned if repentance has not been fulfilled? Tertullian recommended confession and various kinds of penance. He also wrote about Christian baptism and prayer. Tertullian was married and presented a positive portrait of Christian family li fe. He strongly warned Christians to reject idolatrous corruption and certainly to avoid cruel spectacles. The fiery Tertullian wrote "Of Patience" although he confessed he was not good a t practicing that virtue. God is an example of patience in shining on the just a nd unjust, allowing the forces of nature to affect the worthy and unworthy, and in bearing with ungrateful nations. The example of Jesus is easier to imitate. H e despised no one's table or roof, cared for the ungrateful, yielded to those wh o ensnared him, tolerated his betrayer, and served others like an obedient slave . Tertullian suggested we be willing to lose earthly things since we can keep he avenly things. The whole world may perish so long as patience is gained. Christi ans should be patient in the face of personal violence and abusive speech. Why s hould one grieve or be impatient at the death of loved ones since death is only a departure? Tertullian cautioned against revenge. Vengeance cannot be regulated , because too little can make one mad, and too much puts one in danger of the la w. Patience enables one not to feel the pain so that one will not desire revenge . Eventually the severe Tertullian formed his own sect that lasted in Africa unt il the 5th century. He died some time after 220.

Similar arguments to those in Tertullian's Defense can be found in a dialog, Oct avius, by his contemporary Minucius Felix. Octavius persuades Caecilius and poin

ts out that Roman temples are built from the spoils of violence; but to adore wh at is taken by force is to consecrate sacrilege, not divinities. Octavius points out that Romans expose unwanted children to wild beasts, and their women cause abortions by drinking medical preparations. Christians are opposed to all homici de. Modest Christians abide by the bond of a single marriage or by none at all. They share with each other in sober banquets. They love one another, because the y do not know how to hate. They call each other brothers, as born of one God and Parent, and they are companions in faith. About 240 a North African bishop named Commodianus wrote poetic instructions in favor of Christian discipline. In the daily war he advised people to fight with lust, neglect the persuasions of luxury, be sparing with wine, restrain the tong ue from cursing, repress rage, beware of trampling on inferiors when weighed dow n by misery, lend yourself as a protector only and do no hurt, lead yourself on a right path unstained by jealousy, be gentle with your riches to those of littl e account, give your labor, clothe the naked, and thus you shall conquer. Hippolytus studied with Irenaeus and wrote The Refutation of All Heresies, which was discovered at Mount Athos in 1842. In this long work Hippolytus criticized 32 heresies, which he traced back to pagan philosophies. He also challenged the bishops of Rome, charging that Zephyrinus (199-217) was manipulated by Callistus (217-222), who arranged to be his successor. According to Hippolytus, Callistus operated a bank for his wealthy Christian master Carpophorus and, caught embezz ling money, Callistus caused a disturbance among Jews in a synagogue on the Sabb ath, resulting in the Roman prefect Fuscianus sending him to slave in the mines of Sardinia. During the reign of Commodus the bishop of Rome, Victor, through th e influence of Marcia obtained the release of Christians from this misery of ove rwork, malnutrition, and disease that soon produced death. Hippolytus wrote that Victor excepted Callistus because of his crimes; but Callistus pleaded and was released with the Christians, though it is difficult to explain why Victor gave Callistus a pension. Zephyrinus put Callistus in charge of the church's lucrative cemeteries. Callist us accused Hippolytus of heresy in a theological dispute and in 217 was elected bishop of Rome. Hippolytus became a rival bishop and has been called the first a nti-pope. He complained that Callistus connived with sensual indulgence by conti nually forgiving sins (such as adultery) of many who had been rejected by numero us sects, that priests twice married were allowed to remain as clergy, and that women were considered married to slaves and freedmen which Roman law did not rec ognize as such. Hippolytus thus favored a Christian community of saints includin g only the just, while Callistus, citing the parable of the tares, accepted sain ts and sinners while refusing to go along with Roman class distinctions. Hippoly tus also opposed Urban I (222-230) and Pontian (230-235); but in the persecution of 235 both Hippolytus and Pontian were exiled to Sardinia, where they were rec onciled before they died that year, ending the schism. Cyprian was born into a wealthy family at Carthage about 200. He was probably a lawyer, and according to Jerome he was a respected teacher of rhetoric. Cyprian did not convert to Christianity until 246 when he sold his estates to benefit th e poor, took a vow of chastity, and was baptized by Caecilius. He lived ascetica lly and opposed all pagan amusements. He studied the scriptures and the writing of Tertullian. Popular demand persuaded him to become bishop of Carthage only tw o years later. During the Decian persecution Cyprian hid himself and wrote lette rs to clergy and others at Rome and at Carthage for fourteen months while thousa nds of Christians rejected their faith to obtain libelli pacis certifying they h ad sacrificed to the pagan gods. Bishop Fabius of Rome died a martyr in January 250, and more than a year passed before Cornelius was elected bishop of Rome, while Novatian, who had continued o fficial correspondence for the Roman see during the interval, was consecrated by

only three Italian bishops. Many "confessors," who had maintained their faith, were willing to forgive the apostates and allow them back into the community; bu t Cyprian and councils of bishops strengthened church control by asserting that power to remit sins was in the hands of the clergy and that discipline rested wi th the bishops. Lapsed Christians were divided into categories of those who had sacrificed, burned incense, or obtained a certificate, and graduated penance was applied. The minority view for strict discipline was condemned by a council of sixty bishops at Rome in October 251, and Novatian was excommunicated. The Novat ian schism spread and continued for several centuries as a puritan sect in the E ast. Letters of Cornelius indicate he had 155 clerical personnel, including 46 p riests, supporting 1500 widows and dependents. From this, scholars estimate abou t 40,000 Christians lived among 900,000 inhabitants at Rome. Cyprian was able to return to Carthage in 251, and a council of bishops restored his authority. The next year during a plague he sacrificed himself in serving h is flock and taking care of his enemies. To support Cornelius against the Novati an schism, Cyprian wrote On the Unity of the Church in which he acknowledged the primacy given the chair of Peter. However, when two Spanish congregations appea led to Cyprian in 254, because Rome's Bishop Stephen had insisted they restore l apsed bishops, he summoned a council that decided the church was not obliged to retain a sinful priest. A controversy over re-baptizing those who had been bapti zed by the Novatian schism led to Cyprian calling three more councils and his ev en removing the words "chair of Peter" from his previous treatise. The conflict between Carthage and Rome ended in 257 when Stephen died, and his successor Sixt us II was more conciliatory. Cyprian was banished to Curubis by the proconsul during the persecution of Emper or Valerian in 257, and a year later he willingly suffered a martyr's death. Dur ing a vision forewarning him of his passion he asked for one day to arrange his property, and in fact the delay of one day enabled him to dispose of his goods i n care of the poor. Cyprian also wrote "On Works and Alms" in which he exhorted Christians to manifest their faith by works, arguing that contributing to the po or is the best investment. In "On the Advantage of Patience" he suggested that c harity, the great bond of brotherhood and the foundation of peace, depended on p atience to endure. "On Jealousy and Envy" warned that envy is the root of all wi ckedness. Loving one's enemies prevents envy, and love brings its own rewards. Clement of Alexandria and Origen A contemporary of Tertullian, Clement was born in the middle of the second centu ry at Athens. He traveled widely studying philosophy until he found in Egypt his teacher Pantaenus, a former Stoic and missionary to India. About 190 Clement su cceeded Pantaenus as head of the Christian catechetical school in Alexandria. In the next decade Clement wrote his three great works. The Exhortation to Convers ion was designed to win pagans to the Christian faith. The Educator aimed to for m and develop Christian character. The Miscellanies taught Christian philosophy and knowledge. In 202 Clement fled the persecution of Septimius Severus. He live d in Antioch, was in Jerusalem in 211, and died about 215. In his Exhortation (Protrepticus) Clement criticized the immoral idolatry of pag an culture and myths and the cruelty of their sacrifices; yet he found that the philosophers were often divinely inspired by the truth as were the prophets. He praised the benefits conferred by Christ and exhorted his readers to aspire to w hat is good, to become God-loving, and to attain God and life, which are incapab le of being harmed. No blessing is greater than salvation. Clement's Educator (Paedagogus) takes up the second stage of developing ethical habits. The educator, being practical rather than theoretical, aims to improve t he soul by character training, instead of teaching the intellect. As the disease d need a physician, the tutor must cure maladies so that a teacher may then trai n and guide a soul to knowledge. God alone is sinless, but we may try to sin as

little as possible. Deliverance from passions and disorders is most urgent; then one may check the liability of falling into habitual sins. Clement held that vi rtue is the same in men and women, because temperance and modesty are one; their food is common, and marriage is an equal yoke. All who walk according to truth are children of God. The instructor by being good artfully glides into censure, rousing the sluggish mind by sharp words if one does not respond to exhortation and praise. God punis hes the disobedient for correction; but He does not take vengeance. Revenge is r etribution for evil imposed for the advantage of the one taking revenge; but Chr ist teaches us "to pray for those who despitefully use us."4 The Divine Word sav es children by various methods. Admonition is the censure of loving care and pro duces understanding. Upbraiding censures what is base. Complaint is for those de spising or neglecting. Reproach chides. Reproof exposes sin. The educator may al so attempt to get one thinking by a severe rebuke or denunciation. Accusation is for wrong-doers. Bewailing one's fate is an artful and latent censure. Indignat ion is upbraiding from a sense of justice. All these are used for the sake of sa lvation. Clement believed that virtue resulted from obeying reason or the Word a nd is a will in conformity to Christ. In the second book and third books of The Educator Clement discussed specific mo ral issues and even manners. He acknowledged the Pythagorean idea that it is goo d not to eat flesh or drink wine; but he allowed for individual decisions. He wa rned us to guard with all our strength against drunkenness. He referred to costl y vessels as a deception of the vision. Christians' possessions should express t heir beautiful lives; but the best wealth is poverty of desires, and true magnan imity is to despise riches. Boasting about one's plate is base, because anyone c an buy it at the market. Clement advised us to abstain from filthy speech and to stop others with stern looks, by averting the face, or by mocking. Bad language exposes one as untrained and licentious. In living together he warned against j ibing as leading to insult, strife, contention, and enmity. He cautioned people against the use of ointments and crowns, although he allowed flowers and perfume s made from them. He noted that sleeping on soft feathers is injurious to the he alth, because turning the body is difficult; he found a bed of moderate softness most suitable. Clement counseled against excessive fondness for jewelry and dis approved of earrings. Clement began the third book emphasizing that the greatest lesson is to know one self, because self-knowledge leads to knowing God, which will make one like God by doing well and requiring as few things as possible. Another human beauty is l ove. It is better to decorate the soul with the ornament of goodness and adorn t he body with temperance than to beautify the outside with embellishments. In ass ociations Clement advised against having many domestic servants. Good people tre asure wealth in heaven. By selling one's goods and giving to the poor, one finds imperishable treasure. He recommended frugal living, because a voluptuous life is alien to refined pleasures, and love of wealth induces one to stop being asha med of what is shameful. Baths are used for cleanliness, heat, health, or pleasu re; but Clement suggested women use them for cleanliness and health, and men onl y for cleanliness, since they can use gymnastic exercise for health. One should associate with good people and avoid public spectacles. While respecting celibac y Clement also acknowledged the value of marriage. Clement's work on Christian philosophy and knowledge is a long compendium on var ious subjects called Miscellanies (Stromateis). He criticized the sophists but f ound that eclectic philosophy prepared the way for divine virtue. Clement did no t discuss rhetoric, probably because he believed that to act well is more import ant than to speak well. The ancient laws of the Jews also are a good foundation. They train one for piety and prescribe what is to be done, restraining one from sins. Clement emphasized that spiritual knowledge starts with faith. He endeavo red to recapture the term "gnostic" or knower from the heretical gnostics by giv

ing his ideal of the true Christian gnostic. The true gnostic imitates God as fa r as possible by conferring benefits. Patience is another characteristic of the divine. Clement praised martyrdom but did not approve of offering oneself to be martyred. He argued that women as well as men are capable of perfection. One may be perfect as pious, as patient, as continent, as a worker, as a martyr, or as a gnostic. The true gnostic does good not from fear of punishment or hope for reward but fo r the sake of goodness itself. For Clement true perfection is knowledge and love of God. Running down creation and vilifying the body are wrong, because the hum an frame was formed erect to contemplate heaven, and the senses are to gain know ledge; all its parts are arranged for good, not pleasure. Clement realized that God cannot be embraced in words or by the mind. Yet he put philosophy at the ser vice of Christianity more than any before him, believing that philosophy is know ledge given by God. Like the Stoic, the true gnostic is free of all perturbation s of the soul. The gnostic converses with God in prayer. The knower retains the objects contemplated in the mind. Knowledge produces consideration by teaching o ne to perceive the things that contribute to the permanence of virtue. God helps gnostics by overseeing them closely, for is not everything made for the sake of good persons? Those teaching others should excel in virtues. Clement described the life of true gnostics. They never prefer the pleasant to w hat is useful. Their souls are strong, like the body of an athlete. They are pru dent in judging what should be done by the just, applying the principles of God from above and having achieved physical moderation. Gnostic souls with perfect v irtue are the earthly image of divine power; their development results from natu re, training, and reason. The beautiful soul becomes the temple of the Holy Spir it when the whole life corresponds to the Gospel. The really good person transce nds the passions by the habit of virtue. They relieve the afflicted, helping wit h consolation, encouragement, and the necessities of life, giving to all who nee d. Who could become the enemy of a person who gives no cause for hurt in any way ? The truly continent not only control their passions but have mastered all good t hings as well, the accomplishments of science and the fruits of virtue. Gnostics ' entire lives are prayer and communication with God. They impoverish themselves in order to help those afflicted through perfect love, especially if they know they can bear it more easily than their brothers. Whenever they remember those w ho have sinned against them, they forgive them. They are not disturbed by anythi ng that happens, as they realize everything takes place by divine arrangement fo r good. They never prefer pleasure or profit to this divine arrangement, since t hey are trained by the divine commands to depend on the will of God. Clement also wrote a short essay, "Who Is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved?" Ric hes may be used to benefit one's neighbors. The important thing is to make the r ight use of them. He noted that one may give away riches and retain passions, th us gaining no advantage. One must put away what uses riches badly. He suggested that the truly rich are the virtuous, who are able to make a holy use of their f ortunes. The spurious rich turn their lives into outward possessing of what is p erishable that now belongs to one, then to another, and finally to no one. By be ing frugal one may escape superfluous riches and be able to enjoy the eternally good things. Clement recommended that the powerful and wealthy appoint some pers on of God as their trainer and governor. Clement did much to integrate Greek philosophy with Christian piety, and he pass ed the torch to his student and successor, Origen. Origen was born about 185 probably at Alexandria. He was well educated by his fa ther Leonidas, who made him memorize passages from the Bible, and by Clement in the Catechetical school. In the persecution of 202 when his father was arrested,

Origen was restrained by his mother from becoming a martyr by hiding all his cl othes, though he wrote encouraging his father not to change his beliefs for thei r sake. Leonidas was beheaded, and his property was confiscated, leaving Origen to provide for his mother and six younger brothers. Origen lived with a wealthy woman and earned money teaching Greek and copying manuscripts. Bishop Demetrius appointed Origen to succeed Clement as principal of the Catechetical school when he was only 18 years old. He attended classes of philosopher Ammonius Saccas, f ounder of Neo-Platonism. According to Eusebius while he was a young man, Origen castrated himself so as t o instruct freely young female catechumens. However, in 248 Origen wrote one sho uld not take literally the statement of Jesus in Matthew 19:12 that some "made t hemselves eunuchs because of the sovereignty of heaven." Eusebius also described how Origen fearlessly supported martyrs and barely escaped himself on numerous occasions. Origen arranged for Heraclas to teach elementary students so that he could learn Hebrew and devote himself to advanced teaching and writing. Origen l ived very ascetically, fasting often, rarely eating flesh, never drinking wine, having only one coat, no shoes, and sleeping on the bare floor. Origen traveled, meeting Hippolytus at Rome in 211, fleeing Emperor Caracalla's persecuting visit to Alexandria by going to Jerusalem and Caesarea in 216, and v isiting Alexander Severus' mother Mammaea at Antioch in 218. Back in Alexandria, the wealthy Ambrosius was converted from Valentinian beliefs and provided Orige n with books and seven stenographers. In 229 he was ordained a presbyter in Caes area on the way to a debate with Valentinian Candidus in Greece, where he answer ed the theory of predestination by asserting that Satan fell by free will and th erefore could repent. This caused Alexandrian bishop Demetrius to hold two churc h councils, excommunicating Origen in 231. Rome and other churches concurred, bu t bishops in Palestine, Arabia, Phoenicia, and Greece strongly supported Origen. He pitied and prayed for his enemies, opening a school at Caesarea in Palestine . During the persecution of 235 he fled to Cappadocia and stayed with the Christ ian woman Juliana for two years. At an Arabian council in 244 he persuaded bisho p Beryllus to change his theological position on the Christ. During the Decian p ersecution Origen was thrown into prison, tortured, and condemned; the Emperor's death in 251 freed him, but Origen died three years later in Tyre. While he was young in Alexandria, Origen wrote On Principles (De Principiis), wh ich except for fragments only exists in the Latin translation made by Rufinus in the late fourth century. In the prolog Rufinus admitted he made changes to make this work more consistent with Origen's later writings, thus making it more ort hodox. Origen believed that Christ, the Word of God, was in Moses and the prophe ts before it was in Jesus. He followed the apostolic teaching that the soul has its own life and after departing the world is rewarded according to its merit wi th eternal life or is punished for its crimes in eternal fire. Every rational so ul has free will and must struggle with opposing influences, though we may free ourselves from the burden of sins if we live correctly and wisely. In the resurr ection the soul rises in incorruptible glory. Origen held that the scriptures ar e inspired and therefore have meanings not apparent at first sight which he atte mpted to elucidate on various levels. Origen wrote that every rational creature is capable of earning praise by advanc ing to better things, acting in conformity to reason, or of receiving censure fo r falling away from what is right and so becoming justly liable to pains and pen alties. In addition to humans Origen included among these rational creatures the devil and its followers as well as angels. He believed in a final consummation in which the goodness of God through the Christ may recall all creatures to one end, including the enemies that have been conquered. While the heretical gnostic s separated the God of the law and justice from the good God of the Gospels, Ori gen perceived only one just and good God, who confers benefits justly and punish es with kindness; for the dignity of the divine nature must have both justice an

d goodness. With free will comes individual responsibility, and Origen cited Isa iah 1:11 for the idea that all sinners kindle for themselves their fire. No one is plunged into a fire kindled by another. When the soul has gathered a multitud e of evil works, the abundance of sins boils up to punishment. The mind then can see in signs and forms a history of its foul and shameful deeds. Thus the consc ience is harassed and becomes the accuser and witness against itself. The first chapter of the third book of On Principles about the freedom of will e xists in the original Greek. The just judgment of God urges people to live virtu ously and shun sin, because things worthy of praise or blame are within our powe r. In Origen's view the Creator makes vessels of honor and dishonor not from for eknowledge since that would be condemning or justifying ahead; but vessels of ho nor are for those who have cleansed themselves and those of dishonor are for tho se unpurged. Thus he inferred that older causes before the lifetime affect the d estiny and gave the example of Jacob and Esau. Ancient causes lead some to be bo rn into better vessels (or circumstances) than others. Also by the actions in th is life one may earn by reformation an honored vessel in the future, or one may fall back to a worse condition. These ideas clearly imply the doctrines of karma and reincarnation. To explain wisdom of the world, Origen suggested there are spiritual powers whic h use their freedom of will to produce certain effects. Those admiring worldly p ower adopt their way of life and habits and thus work for these spirits they ser ve. Thus souls in human bodies may attract different energies in operations usin g a diversity of good and evil spirits. Humans may be acted upon by good or evil spirits, previous to their birth as in the examples of John the Baptist and Jer emiah; for souls have free will whether in a body or not. In discussing temptati ons, Origen described an irrational component of the human psyche as well as a r ational one. The irrational part has two affections - coveting and passion. The rational and irrational psyches have been called the good, heavenly one and the other that is inferior and earthly. The wisdom of the flesh is dominated by a ma terial spirit, which is not subject to the law of God, because it has earthly wi shes and bodily desires. These desires can produce mental perturbations such as ambition, avarice, envy, pride, and so on. Origen suggested that the will of the soul is intermediate between the flesh and the spirit, obeying and serving one or the other. Those yielding to the pleasures of the flesh become carnal, and th ose uniting to the spirit become spiritual. As a result of his On Principles Origen would later be considered unorthodox on four points. 1. Human souls existed previously, and their life in material bodies reflects th e results of previous actions. 2. Christ existed previously and was united to the divine nature before incarnat ing as the son of God related in the Gospels. 3. The resurrection will occur in absolutely ethereal bodies rather than in mate rial ones. 4. All souls, even devils, will finally be restored through the mediation of Chr ist. As Origen let his readers choose what they think they should prefer, so I too wi ll let readers decide whether these principles may be true. When Origen was about sixty, Ambrosius asked him to respond to A True Discourse by Celsus that severely criticized Christianity. In a long work Origen repeated and answered every charge of Celsus, whom he called an Epicurean. Celsus believe d the Jews were barbarous, that through Moses and others they gained most of the ir wisdom from the Egyptians, and that their god Jehovah was an inhuman ogre. He considered Christianity a Jewish superstition aimed at the uneducated by the se lf-deluded. He thought Jewish and Christian religious beliefs ignored the intell

ectual problems posed by Greek philosophy. Celsus noted that Christianity attrac ted the wicked and shiftless from the fishermen and tax collectors who were disc iples to appealing to thieves, criminals, and blasphemers. He suggested that Jes us was the illegitimate son of a Roman soldier, who being rejected at home, went to Egypt, where he learned magic. Later he hawked a contradictory message, fail ed to overcome his enemies, and was abandoned by his disciples to a shameful dea th. Celsus argued that ethical teachings of Christianity are nothing new, since they could be found in Plato. Other mysteries like those of the Egyptians and Persia n Mithraism offered a similar ascent of the soul to God. Celsus also accused the Christians of treason in their secret and illegal associations, which supported the barbarian threats to the state. He criticized their presumption to have a m onopoly on God, and finally he asked them to reject their perverted nonsense and make common cause for the public welfare. Origen answered these objections by the usual methods of quoting scripture and p hilosophical arguments. He particularly noted that if Christianity seduced peopl e, it seduced them into much more ethical behavior, making them temperate instea d of dissolute, just instead of unjust, prudent instead of foolish, and courageo us instead of cowardly, especially in the struggles for the sake of their religi on. Origen appealed to the higher natural law as superior to the man-made laws o f the Romans. The legitimacy of the state depends on how well it fulfills the sp iritual laws. Origen argued that Christians do more good by praying than by figh ting in the army. Ultimately he hoped for a peaceful society in which every worl d citizen would display Christian virtue so that state compulsion would disappea r. Origen also wrote commentaries to many scriptures such as the Gospels of John an d Matthew. He interpreted these on the three levels of the physical, psychologic al, and spiritual, already described as the three parts of humans. Origen also w rote an Exhortation to Martyrdom, encouraging Christians not to be tempted by co mpromises, and On Prayer to counter determinists who believed that prayer had no effect. Gregory called Thaumaturgus ("wonder-worker") was born at Neo-Caesarea in Pontus early in the third century. After his father died when he was 14, he and his br other Athenodorus studied Roman law. He studied Neo-Platonism at Alexandria, mor e law at Berytus (Beirut), and was converted to Christianity by Origen at Caesar ea in Palestine. After studying with Origen for several years, Gregory wrote a t ribute to his teacher when he left to be a missionary in his native Neo-Caesarea in 238. He became bishop six years later, and it was said that in the next quar ter century he transformed this community that had had only 17 Christians to one that had only that many pagans. Stories of his exorcisms and miraculous abiliti es were still being told in the next century. In his panegyric oration Gregory described how Origen praised lovers of philosop hy and declared that the only life worthy of rational creatures is to aim at upr ight living, seeking first to know themselves, then to strive after what is trul y good and avoid really evil things. For Origen one could not be truly pious wit hout philosophizing. Gregory found that, like some spark lighting his inmost sou l, love was kindled and burst into flame within them - a love for the Holy Word and toward his friend. Gregory wrote that the soul is free and cannot be coerced by any means. He admitted that when his teacher perceived any infirmity or base ness in their minds, he pricked it with discourses and reasoning, causing them t o start up, as though out of sleep. Origen also taught them logic, natural scien ce, geometry, and astronomy; but the most important subject was ethics. The divi ne virtues were taught not only in words but by deeds too so that they would not only understand virtue but practice it as well. To the ancient cardinal virtues of justice, prudence, wisdom, temperance, and courage, he added patience and pi

ety so that they might become friends of God. Origen urged them to read all the philosophers and poets, excluding only atheists as unworthy to be studied. So wi th a prayer Gregory took leave of his teacher. Dionysius of Alexandria was also converted and taught by Origen, becoming princi pal at the Catechetical school in 232. Dionysius succeeded Heraclas as bishop of Alexandria in 248. He fled the Decian persecution two years later but wrote a d escription of the martyrs' ordeals to Bishop Fabius of Antioch. A mob charged in to the houses of their Christian neighbors to raid, plunder, and loot. Many reno unced their faith while others held out until torture became too much. Some who did not deny their faith were savagely torn to pieces or burnt alive with quickl ime. In 257 during the Valerian persecution Dionysius was banished by governor A emilian for refusing to worship any other gods beside the one Creator God. Durin g this persecution three men and a Marcionite woman came forward to confess the Christ at Caesarea in Palestine and were fed to beasts. Also at Caesarea a wealt hy man named Marinus, who was about to be appointed centurion, was beheaded for declaring he was a Christian. The amnesty of Gallienus allowed Dionysius to retu rn to Alexandria. During a severe epidemic in 263 Dionysius described how the Ch ristians nursed the sick and often died in their places, while the heathens fled from their dearest. Because of his outstanding writing, by the fourth century Dionysius was referred to as "the Great." In his book On Nature he challenged Epicurean determinism by arguing that human observation of design and purpose discredits notions of chan ce or coincidence and even demonstrates beauty and grace. In On Promises Dionysi us criticized the theory of Arsinoe bishop Nepos that scripture promises a mille nnium of bodily delights and indulgence. Although he admitted he did not underst and the book of Revelation, Dionysius argued with scholarly skill that this book was probably not written by the disciple John. Mani and Manichaeism Mani was born in Babylonia on April 14, 216 soon after Caracalla overthrew Volog ases V and made his brother Artaban IV (r. 215-226) the last Parthian king. When Mani was twelve, he was told in a vision to withdraw from a baptizing sect asso ciated with Elkhasai. This revelation coincided with Ardashir's overcoming the P arthians and reviving the Persian empire. Near his 24th birthday Mani was told b y his higher self or angelic teacher to proclaim himself a prophet. Two years la ter Shapur I became the king of Persia. Mani's mission took him to Ctesiphon and then into western India for two years. There he wrote a book diplomatically pra ising Shapur. Hindus found his teaching of celibacy too strict; but in 243 he ha d more success in Khorasan, where he converted governor Feroz, who told his brot her King Shapur that Mani had no political ambitions but wanted to unify the peo ple of the empire with this universal religion. After Mani spent a year in a cave making paintings, Shapur invited the prophet t o his court in 245, and Mani requested and received royal letters to all the Per sian governors telling them not to hinder his mission. For the next ten years Ma ni was able to spread his teachings throughout the Persian empire, establishing many churches and sending out disciples. Adda and Pateg carried the teachings of Mani to Egypt. When people made fun of an ugly saint, Mani pointed out that the soul is beautiful and is to be rescued from the material body. In 255 Zarathustrian magi led by Kartir persuaded Shapur to break with Mani and promote their religion in the empire, causing Mani to go into exile. In the next eighteen years the prophet returned to Khorasan and traveled in central Asia as far as western China, returning by way of Tibet and Kashmir. In 273 Shapur died and was succeeded by his son Hormizd I, governor of Khorasan, who supported the Manichaeans; but he died after reigning one year. His younger brother Vahram I loved pleasure and was cruel. He was persuaded by the magi to end toleration of heresies and foreign cults in order to promote the orthodox Sassanid religion. M

ani tried to meet with the new king at his winter palace in Ctesiphon but failed to do so. Mani was said to have been related to the Parthian Arsacid dynasty, a nd his association with King Baat, possibly a Parthian Armenian, as he lectured to his disciples at Phargalia, may have led to Mani's arrest at Gondeshapur (Bel apat). Mani was brought before an angry King Vahram and said he had done no harm but ha d helped the royal family by freeing their servants of demons and by healing the m. The king accused Mani of supporting the defeated Parthian cause. Mani replied that God sent him to bring the perfect commandments of Christ that he received from God through an angel so that many souls might be saved and escape punishmen t. Vahram asked why God did not reveal this to him, the king. Mani replied that God commands and decides whom to teach. The angry king silenced the prophet and had him chained in order to please the magi. Mani said that he had been protecte d by Shapur and Hormizd, but Vahram sentenced him to death and scourging. Mani w as chained heavily in prison for 26 days. There he consoled his disciples and ap pointed Sisin as his successor. Mani died in prison on February 26 in 274 or 277 , described as the Messenger of the Light withdrawing his soul from the body. Pu blic distress at the news stimulated the king to order Mani's body fed to birds and his head placed on a gate. So began persecution of the Manichaeans in the Pe rsian empire that would continue sporadically for centuries. Four years of persecution occurred before Sisin could organize the church. Many died as martyrs, and many fled to Khorasan or Turkestan. Some went west, and Pat eg is said to have preached against the Old Testament in Rome by 280. Vahram II lost Ctesiphon and Seleucia to the Roman Emperor Aurelius Carus in 282, while Am u traveled in central Asia and Adda put together scriptures in Africa. About fiv e years later African proconsul Julian warned Diocletian that this strange relig ion's ideas on sex, war, agriculture, and civic duties endangered Roman society. By 290 Manichaeism was flourishing in the Fayyum district of Egypt, and the Syr iac Psalms would soon be translated into Coptic. Terrible persecution broke out in the Persian empire in 291. Vahram II killed Sisin himself, and many Manichaea ns were slaughtered. Innai became the leader and is reported to have healed the king by prayer, giving peace to the new religion for a while. In 296 Diocletian extended the Christian persecution to the Manichaeans, resulti ng in numerous martyrs in Egypt and North Africa. Although Persian king Narses ( r. 296-303) lost Mesopotamia and western provinces to Rome after he was defeated by Galerius, he left the Manichaeans in peace. In 303 Hormizd II executed Innai , and the next four Manichaean leaders were also killed. In the fourth century M anichaeism spread throughout the Roman empire. Two Christians, Archelaus in his Disputation with Manes and Alexander of Lycopolis in his "Of the Manichaeans," t reated Manichaeism as a Christian heresy instead of a new religion, because Mani acknowledged Jesus as the Christ. In 372 Valentinian I prohibited all meetings, and Augustine adopted the faith for a decade until Christians urged Theodosius I to take away their civil rights in 381; the next year he decreed Manichaean el ders put to death, and in 383 Theodosius banished all Manichaeans. Exile was aga in decreed by Valentinian II, and in Rome their property was confiscated in 389. Since Mani believed that other religions had deteriorated because their original founders did not write down their teachings, he wrote several books himself in the Aramaic language of Syriac and made sure that they were accurately copied. H is first book, Shabuhragan, honored King Shapur I and assured him that he had no political ambitions. The Living Gospel was written and illustrated in the Turke stan cave and contains an account of the mission of Jesus. Mani began this book and his letters by referring to himself as the messenger of Jesus. The Treasure of Life describes how the soul comes from the pure Light and the body from the b ad darkness. Although Manichaeism is similar and has been compared to Gnosticism , this book refutes the Marcionite doctrine of a third intermediary principle, a nd it gives cures for errors. The Book of Mysteries teaches that souls are purge

d and educated through reincarnation, and it aims to cut away false beliefs. The Pragmateia suggests what ought to be done. His other main works are The Book of Giants, Letters, and The Book of Psalms and Prayers. Although these books were faithfully copied and translated into many languages a s the religion spread, the many persecutions eventually destroyed the books. As Manichaeism faded into Catharist movements in the 13th century, the religion dis appeared. In the 20th century Coptic documents were found at al-Fayyum in Egypt, and texts were also found in Turfan and Dun-huang in China. The Chinese catechi sm noted a book illustrating the two great principles, which may have been based on Mani's paintings made for those who cannot read. The largest work found at a l-Fayyum, the Kephalaia, contains the principal teachings of Mani described by d isciples. These discoveries, though difficult to piece together because the text s were deteriorating, provide a more balanced view to the already known Christia n works refuting Mani. Mani taught there are two sources that are unborn and eternal - God (Light) and matter (darkness). God as good has nothing in common with evil, because "a good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit." Mani explained the universe as having three moments involving these two substances. In the past Spirit and matter were at f irst separate. Then Spirit entered into matter as souls incarnated into bodies, which is the present condition. Mani as a messenger of Light is helping souls be come liberated from their bodies. The third moment is the future when the world will end as Spirit becomes purified again from matter. Somehow the king of darkn ess decided to enter the region of Light. God had no evil with which to punish, so Spirit entered into matter as souls went into bodies with the five faculties of intuition, thought, will, consideration, and reason. As souls mixed with matt er they began to feel material and thus became trapped in bodies. When the Mothe r of Life, the First Man, and the Living Spirit prayed to the Great Father, that one sent a Messenger with the following twelve virtues: royalty, wisdom, victor y, contentment, purity, truth, faith, patience, sincerity, kindness, justice, an d Light. According to Mani, Jesus lifted up the first man Adam to taste the Tree of Life. Mani also taught the trinity of the Father (God of truth), the beloved Son (Chr ist), and the Holy Spirit (Mother of Life). The five dark rulers may express the mselves as the tyranny of rulers, arrogance of officials, idolatrous errors, sup erstitious rites, and sorcery. Previous messengers of God include Zarathushtra, Buddha, and Jesus. True messengers may be known by the following five characteri stics: gentleness, austerity, beauty, wisdom, and transformation. Their mission is to teach and convert living beings in order to save them from their suffering . Mani planted good seeds of truth and strengthened his church, sending out envo ys to many lands. He fought greed and lust in order to teach people wisdom and k nowledge. The Psalms refer to the divine medicine that heals wounds, crushes evi l while crowning godliness, purifies the Light from the darkness, and gives rest to the souls. The Great Father is Love who gives oneself for everything. Souls are divine; even though they have fallen into the world, they will return to God . Although the Manichaean community had a hierarchy of five levels including Mani' s successor and twelve masters (teachers), 72 illuminates (overseers), elders (p riests), the rest of the elect, and hearers, the main distinction was between th e elect and the hearers. The elect have their hearts, hands, and mouths sealed b y celibacy, non-injury, and abstinence from alcohol and meat. The elect eat only a little in the morning and one meal in the evening. In their strict poverty th eir only possession was one garment that was replaced once a year. The elect tea ch by grace, wisdom, and faith. The duties of the hearers are to fast, pray, and give charity. They are to fast and be celibate on Sundays, and hearers pray fou r times a day. Giving charity includes providing food for the elect, who do no i njurious work such as farming, giving a relative to be one of the elect, and bui

lding a temple or dwelling place. The hearers could work in the fields and have one wife, but they were forbidden to fight in wars. The hearers confess to the e lect, and the elect confess to one another. The soul is from on high but is imprisoned in the body waiting to be liberated. Mani taught renouncing the world's possessions to find the peace of poverty. He advised wisely and skillfully strengthening oneself around the body's gates lest the sin of the body prevail and extinguish the Light. His religious methods inc lude singing and chanting spiritual words, reading and studying, discriminating with wisdom and accepting pure commands, always being clean in actions of body, mouth, and mind, practicing kind deeds, being gentle and amiable, bearing humili ation, following good rules and habits, resting the mind in the place of liberat ion, and leaping for joy in standing firm in the right way. Mani warned against, lying, anger, and hurtful words that may come from speaking for the sake of kil ling a man, beasts, or trees. Kindness and sincerity are for saints a base for b rightness and a wonderful gate which lets one see everywhere while walking a str aight path. Like the Mahayana Buddhists, Mani promised such would be born in a Pure Land, wh ere they would be free of penalties and could rejoice in calmness. The Light-min d of the Christ awakens those who sleep and gathers those who are scattered abro ad. God sends the soul to the judge of the dead that appears as in a mirror. The Great Judge has no partiality but knows how to forgive those who have repented. No one can hide when that one searches out their actions and repays them accord ing to their deserts. The saints go to the heaven of Light and are at peace. Uns tained by ignorance, passion, and desire, they are not pressed into rebirth. Plotinus and Neo-Platonism Plotinus was born in Egypt in 205, and at age eight he was attending a school of grammar. He studied philosophy in Alexandria but became depressed until he foun d the teacher he had been looking for in Ammonius Saccas when he was about 28. P lotinus stayed with Ammonius for eleven years. Hoping to learn Persian and India n philosophy, Plotinus traveled with Gordian III's military expedition against P ersia. However, Gordian was assassinated in Mesopotamia, and Plotinus found his way to Antioch and then to Rome by 245. For the next quarter century Plotinus ta ught philosophy in Rome, influencing many prominent people including Emperor Gal lienus. Porphyry became a disciple of Plotinus in 263, and his biography of the philosopher is based mostly on the next six years. Porphyry collected and edited 54 treatises of his teacher into The Six Enneads. Plotinus was a vegetarian and spent much time meditating in order to experience union with God. According to Porphyry during the time he knew him Plotinus attai ned this mystic realization four times. Plotinus acted as a mediator in disputes , and friends often appointed him guardian of their children's education. His pl an for a Platonic city in Campania was favorably considered by Gallienus; but th e Emperor's conflicts with the Senate never allowed the project to be realized. When Porphyry considered suicide, Plotinus persuaded him to rest in Sicily inste ad. Plotinus himself became ill and retired to Campania, where he died a year la ter in 270. His closest disciple Amelius had gone to Syria. Finally his physicia n Eustochius came to him, and Plotinus said that he would attempt to make the di vine within him rise up to the divine in the universe. In The First Ennead Plotinus discussed the relation between the soul and the bod y, virtue, dialectic, happiness, beauty, the good, and evil. That the soul uses the body indicates they are different. He also identified the good with the soul , because he did not believe it could be a joint affection. Thus the soul in us stands apart from the evils, which humans do and suffer that belong to the anima te couplement. Yet if the mind comes out of the soul, it is difficult to separat e them, because lower knowledge can be delusional and the cause of much evil. Pl otinus believed we do evil because we are worsted by our baser side in desire or

rage or some evil imagination. These do not always listen to the reasoning prin ciple. For Plotinus this intellectual principle transcends action and so is guil tless. However, we may or may not be in touch with this intellectual realm. Whil e the body is a living and brutal animal, the true person is this other intellec tual principle that is pure and naturally endowed with virtues in the soul. Yet practical virtues do not come from contemplative wisdom but belong to the couple ment that includes the vices. In the tractate "On Virtue" Plotinus asked how the soul can escape from evil. Th e answer he read (in Plato) is to be like God by becoming just, holy, and wise. The divine being, the soul of the universe, is most wonderful in wisdom. He aske d what could be more fitting than for us to become like the ruler of this world. Aspiring toward the ruling in the intelligible means looking for the source of virtues in ourselves. Plotinus distinguished this source of virtue from virtue i tself. Yet he observed that we become like the divine by possessing virtue. Even the civic virtues carry a trace of that highest good. The soul becomes evil whe n it is infused with the body, sharing its states and thoughts. Virtue throws of f the body's moods and devotes itself to its own action from wisdom that never a llows the passions to affect it (prudence), does not fear parting from the body (courage), and is ruled by reason (rectitude). Such virtue is like God and pure. The virtue is actually in the soul, not in the intellectual principle. Plotinus next asked whether purification is all of virtue or only its forerunner . Purification brings an alignment with the intellectual principle, and the alig nment brings about virtue within. Plotinus wondered how much purification can di spel emotions like anger, desire, and grief and to what degree disengagement fro m the body is possible. By disengagement he meant the soul withdrawing into itse lf above all emotions. Necessary pleasures still exist; but fear, for example, c eases except as a monitor. Desires will not be for vile things though they may p ass through the imagination in fleeting fancies. The soul will be free and will work to keep the irrational part from being violently assaulted, like a person l iving next door to a sage may be wise and good out of sheer shame, not venturing to do what a nobler mind would disapprove. For Plotinus this was not sin but discipline. His concern was not merely to be s inless but to be God. To associate with the reasoning phase of nature leads one to the highest self, as far as an earthly mind is capable. Virtue appears as wis dom, which contemplates all that exists in the intellectual principle. Virtue is dependent on the supreme being, which is independent. Purification of the soul produces the virtues. If any virtue is lacking, none is perfect. One will transc end beyond civic virtues in the final disengagement. Instead of living as a good person, one will live like the gods. To model oneself on good persons produces an image of an image; we must fix our gaze above the image and be like the supre me exemplar. Plotinus described two stages of the path as first: conversion from the lower li fe, and second: advancing within the realm of the intelligibles. The musician mu st learn to transcend specific harmonies and beauty to recognize absolute beauty itself. The lover must not be spellbound by one embodied form but be led by men tal discipline to discern the one principle in all. This ascent Plotinus called dialectic, the most precious part of philosophy. This dialectic provides the dis cipline for the understanding of ethics. Inferior virtues may exist without dial ectic; but one cannot be a sage or master in dialectic without the lower virtues . They develop together as the purification of the virtues leads to the developm ent of the greater wisdom and vice versa. Plotinus found that happiness is more than pleasure, because it depends on the f aculty capable of discerning that pleasure is good. Complete happiness depends o n living fully and possessing not merely what is good but also the supreme good. The sage finds the good within and only seeks outside desires that are necessit

ies for the sake of the body to which one is bound. One knows that one is above all such things but gives to them to keep the true life undiminished. Adverse fo rtune does not affect the felicity of one whose life is stable. Happiness is not freedom from pain, sickness, and disaster, but it is the fruition of the authen tic good. Anything such as health, which is desired because its opposite is anno ying, is not a good but a necessity. Even in pain the radiance of the inner soul shines like the light in a lantern when winds blow. The sage would like to see all people prosper but is still content when they do not. Pleasure for the sage is not found in gratifications of the body; but one is cheerful and untroubled. For Plotinus it is absurd to think that happiness is associated with the body; r ather it is the good life centered in the soul. The sage gives the body what is useful and possible as its master while remaining a member of a higher order. Plotinus observed that happiness is found in the present as the action of the go od life. The best life is of the authentic existence and is not measured by time but by eternity. Those who see with the soul know the beauty of noble conduct a nd moral wisdom. The spiritually ugly are dissolute and unjust, teeming with lus t, torn by internal discord, beset by cowardly fears and petty envies, thinking only of what is perishable and base, and perverse in impulses and unclean pleasu res, living in abandonment to bodily sensations and delighting in its deformity. Thus one becomes ugly by the alien fall into the body. The soul is dishonored b y ceasing to be clean and apart. Thus the soul must be cleared of the desires th at come from being intimately conversant with the body and must be emancipated a nd purged from passions by being withdrawn and solitary. We must ascend to the g ood, which is what every soul truly desires. To see into a virtuous soul and kno w its loveliness, withdraw into yourself and look. If you find that you are not yet beautiful, then act like a creator of a statue who cuts away the excessive, straightens the crooked, and smoothes it until it is lovely. Plotinus concluded that life in the body is evil, but the soul enters its good t hrough virtue by holding itself apart. This flight does not mean quitting earth but living our earth-life with justice and piety guided by the light of philosop hy. Vice is what we are to flee. He criticized the Gnostics for believing the wo rld and its creator are evil, and he noted that they neglected to mention virtue . For Plotinus virtue is what makes God in the soul manifest. God on the lips wi thout good conduct is only a word. Despising this world and its gods is not the way to goodness. Plotinus believed in tutelary spirits and suggested that souls return to this sphere under the same spirit or a new one according to the life i t is to live. He found the primal source of love in the soul's tendency toward p ure beauty, recognizing its kinship, while the vile clashes with nature and God. Copulative love is the will to generate in beauty. Nature seeks to produce the beautiful and thus does not desire to procreate in the ugly. Ultimately Plotinus believed that the life of gods, the godlike and the blessed liberates from the alien, taking no pleasure in the earthly but passing from the alone to the alone .

Porphyry was born at Tyre in 233, advanced rapidly in liberal education, and stu died in Athens with Cassius Longinus, who changed his name from the Syrian Malch us, meaning "king," to Porphyry, meaning "purple." Porphyry wanted to see Rome a nd met Plotinus when he was thirty, becoming completely devoted to him. When he wanted to give up his body, his teacher gave him strength and sent him to Sicily to recover. After Plotinus died, Porphyry returned to Rome and married Marcella to help educate her seven children, becoming head of the Neo-Platonist school. Porphyry was best known for his introduction to the Categories of Aristotle and other works on logic. He tried to show that the philosophies of Aristotle and Pl ato essentially agree. He wrote a long work of fifteen books criticizing the Chr istians; but it was ordered burned by Emperors Valentinian III and Theodosius II in 448, and only fragments remain. He tried to make the traditional Roman relig

ion more philosophical, as he also argued against its superstitious elements in his letter to Anebo, an Egyptian priest. In addition to his short biography of P lotinus he also wrote a life of Pythagoras. Porphyry was concerned with salvation and focused more on practical ethics than Plotinus. Porphyry taught abstinence from meat, sex, and theatrical performances . He believed the soul must purify itself by ascetic discipline in turning from the lower to the higher. The lowest stage is to reduce affections by the golden mean under the dominion of reason in human relations. The next level was the cle ansing virtues that lead to detachment. In the higher stages one develops the in tuition (nous). He emphasized that God values deeds not words. Literature in the Third Century Greek novels continue to stand out among the extant literature of western civili zation in the third century. The pastoral romance of Daphnis and Chloe was writt en by Longus about 200 CE and later influenced the literature of the Renaissance . In the prolog Longus claimed, "It will cure the sick, comfort the distress, st ir the memory of those who have loved, and educate those who haven't."5 On the i sland of Lesbos a baby boy and girl are exposed; the boy is suckled by goats and becomes a goatherd; the girl is nurtured by sheep and becomes a shepherd. They learn about love gradually on their own. Daphnis is captured by pirates and surv ives their shipwreck. Old Philetas tells Daphnis and Chloe about the god Love, w ho rules the stars and all creatures. He explains that the disease of love is cu red by kissing, embracing, and lying naked on the ground, which they innocently experience. They are attacked by Methymneans, who go to war with the Mytileneans . Nymphs and Pan help Chloe to escape unharmed. Daphnis and Chloe are confused about love, because they see goats doing it stand ing up from behind; but Lycaenion falls in love with Daphnis and shows him what to do. However, she warns him that Chloe will bleed the first time, and so he re frains, not wanting to hurt her. Soon Chloe attracts suitors, and Daphnis become s one of them. The homosexual Gnathon while drunk tries to force himself on Daph nis but is pushed away. Nymphs help Daphnis find a purse of silver so that he ca n marry Chloe. Lampis desires Chloe and abducts her, but Gnathon rescues her. Da phnis learns he is the son of Dionysophanes, who exposed him because he had enou gh children. Chloe turns out to be the daughter of a wealthy man, who, after bec oming poor by spending his money on dramatic choruses and warships, had exposed her. Finally the two lovers are happily married. The longest Greek novel of this era is The Ethiopian Story of Theagenes and Char ikleia by Heliodorus of Emesa. Scholars differ on when it was written - from abo ut 230 to the late 4th century. Byzantine culture enjoyed the novel and believed its author wrote it before converting to Christianity and becoming a bishop. Se t in the 6th century BC, in the western delta of the Nile some bandits find a sc ene of devastation and Charikleia treating the wounds of Theagenes. Bandits thri ve in nearby marshes, and more led by Thyamis soon appear. Charikleia vows to ha ng herself to preserve what even her lover Theagenes has not yet enjoyed. The At henian Knemon tells the lovers about his step-mother's passion for him and how s he died by the cleverness of Thisbe. Thyamis wants to marry Charikleia, who says Theagenes is her brother. Charikleia asks Thyamis to allow her to lay down her priesthood at a shrine of Apollo. When bandits attack Thyamis, he kills the woma n he thinks is Charikleia but who turns out to be Thisbe. Knemon meets the Egypt ian sage Kalasiris, who eats no animal food and drinks no wine. Kalasiris tells Knemon how he adopted Charikleia from her father Charikles, a priest of Apollo. At the Pythian games in Delphi Kalasiris learned that Charikles found the infant Charikleia with tokens indicating she is the daughter of Ethiopian queen Persin na, a friend of Kalasiris and the very daughter he has been seeking. Kalasiris h elped Charikleia and Theagenes escape from Delphi. Theagenes swore to honor the chastity of Charikleia; though he is the slave of love, he is the master of plea

sure. They were captured by pirates, and Peloris fought their leader for Charikl eia, because he was the first to board the ship and by their pirate custom shoul d have first prize. In Egypt the merchant Nausikles betroths his daughter Nausik leia to Knemon, while Theagenes is captured by Thyamis and taken to Memphis. Kal asiris and Charikleia disguise themselves as beggars. Egypt at this time is ruled by the Persian satrap Oroondates, whose queen Arsake likes to take lovers. Petosiris had replaced his older brother Thyamis as pries t by accusing him of adultery with Arsake. The two brothers fight in single comb at for the priesthood at Memphis until their father Kalasiris reveals himself in his sacerdotal dignity. Thyamis dismisses his men of Bessa, who were attacking Memphis, and he is ordained priest by his father, who soon dies. Arsake desires the handsome Theagenes and has her nurse Kybele arrange for him and Charikleia t o be imprisoned in the palace. Kybele's son Achaimenes wants Charikleia and gets the queen to promise her to him in exchange for the information that Theagenes is already enslaved to the Persian royalty but had escaped. However, Theagenes r efuses to gratify Arsake if Charikleia is married, and he reveals she is his bet rothed, not his sister. Having lost Charikleia, Achaimenes goes to the satrap Oroondates, who is fightin g the Ethiopians over the city of Philai and emerald mines. Achaimenes gets him to send the eunuch Bagoas for Theagenes and Charikleia to prevent his queen's ad ultery. Meanwhile Thyamis argues with Arsake that Theagenes should be freed in p eace time as a royal act. Kybele is poisoned while trying to kill Charikleia whe n a servant switches the cups. When Theagenes refuses to give in to her desires, Arsake charges Charikleia with this murder and has her burned at the stake; but Charikleia is miraculously untouched by the flames and is protected by the awestruck spectators. Theagenes and Charikleia are tortured by order of Arsake. Bag oas arrives to take Theagenes and Charikleia, and Arsake hangs herself. Before t hey get to the satrap, an Ethiopian ambush captures Bagoas and the young couple. As the first prisoners in this phase of the war, Ethiopian king Hydaspes reserv es Theagenes and Charikleia for human sacrifice according to their customs. The army of Hydaspes attacks and besieges the Persian-Egyptian forces of Oroondates at Syene (Aswan). Oroondates runs away and is forced to surrender to the Ethiopi ans. Hydaspes returns to his capital at Meroe, and people demand the human sacrifice. Both Theagenes and Charikleia are proved virgins by an ordeal of standing on a hot gridiron. The local Hindu philosophers led by Sisimithres protest human and animal sacrifices and are about to leave. Charikleia asks them to judge a suit b etween her and the king, claiming and proving that she is his daughter as Sisimi thres and Queen Persinna, her mother, recognize her and the royal tokens. Althou gh he acknowledges her as his daughter, King Hydaspes plans to sacrifice her any way but is persuaded not to by the people. Theagenes captures a run-away bull an d defeats the Ethiopian wrestling champion. As ambassadors appear, Charikles acc uses Theagenes of abducting his daughter Charikleia, proving to the king that Th eagenes knows and should marry Charikleia. Hydaspes recognizes that miracles hav e occurred and orders Sisimithres to proclaim that human sacrifice is abolished. At last Theagenes and Charikleia are to be wed, and the king crowns them with t he insignia of the priesthood. The purity of their love, their courage and deter mination have brought an end to human sacrifice in Ethiopia. Written in Greek between 140 CE and 340, the Alexander Romance was so popular th at it was translated into 24 languages and proliferated into eighty versions. In some manuscripts it was falsely attributed to Alexander's court historian Kalli sthenes. This combination of biography, history, and fantasy alters many facts a nd confuses the chronological sequence of events. His mother is still Olympias, but in this romance the Egyptian king Nektanebos impersonates the god Ammon in f athering Alexander. The boy kills this court astrologer, only then learning he w as his father. The precocious youth wins the Olympic chariot race by killing Nik

olaos, who was trying to kill him. At a banquet celebrating King Philip's weddin g to Cleopatra, Alexander kills Lysias for saying that Philip had many illegitim ate children; but the real Alexander after killing Attalos fled with Olympias to Epirus. Alexander tells the satraps of Persia that he will not pay them tribute . In the romance Alexander also apprehends Pausanias after he assassinated Phili p. He attacks Thebes out of anger and becomes ruler of Greece. In this version Alexander goes to Sicily, Italy, and Libya, though the historica l Alexander died before he could attempt those conquests. He is declared a god i n Egypt and crowned its king. He sacks Tyre and razes it to the ground. Persian king Darius sends him a strap for correction, a ball to play with as a child, an d a box of gold so that he could pay his brigands on their way home. Alexander t hreatens to kill the messenger, because Darius treated him as a brigand chief; b ut he doesn't, because he is a king. Alexander writes he will use the strap to r educe the barbarians to servitude, considers the ball a symbol of his ruling the world, and believes the money box means that he will be paid tribute. When his men are starving in the Black Sea region, he orders the horses killed and eaten. Alexander goes to Darius, pretending to be his own messenger, putting gold cups in his pocket, and sneaking out when he is recognized. In the battle Darius pan ics and flees. Alexander refuses to compromise, saying he believes Asia is his. In this romance Darius appeals to the Hindu king Poros. Darius warns Alexander t hat Fortune knows no king and gives him his daughter Roxana as a wife before he dies. Alexander writes to the Persians that they may keep their customs, but he demand s their gold, silver, and weapons. He makes the assassins of Darius "notable bef ore everyone" by having them crucified. Alexander writes to his mother of fantas tic adventures even beyond this world though a flying sage asks him why he inves tigates heaven when he has not grasped earthly things. His soldiers question why they should invade India, and so he uses his Persian forces. Alexander kills Po ros, though in history he allowed him to rule under himself. In his conversation with the sages of India, they define kingship as "An immoral force for superior power, daring maintained by opportunity, a golden burden."6 They ask him, if he is mortal, why he wages so many wars when he must leave behind the things he wi ns. Alexander goes to Queen Kandake as if he were Antigonus; finding out his tru e identity, she protects him. Alexander even negotiates with the Amazons. At Bab ylon Alexander is poisoned by Iollas, and his body is sent to Egypt. Thus the co nqueror became a popular figure, though the ethics of the literary hero are abou t as bad as the real Alexander. The Story of Apollonius King of Tyre was probably written in Greek in the 3rd ce ntury also, though its earliest extant versions are in Latin. The short novella has a complicated plot. King Antiochus in Antioch treats his beautiful daughter as his wife and eliminates suitors by demanding they solve an unsolvable riddle or be beheaded. Apollonius of Tyre realizes Antiochus is committing incest with his daughter, and the evil Antiochus sends a man to murder him and puts a price on his head. When the people of Tarsus agree to keep him secretly, Apollonius co ntributes grain to end their famine. Apollonius survives a shipwreck but is dest itute. A fisherman helps him, and he wins the favor of King Archistrates in the gymnasium playing ball. The many-talented Apollonius tutors the princess, and sh e marries him. When the cruel Antiochus dies, his kingdom is given to Apollonius . So he and his pregnant wife board a ship. She dies in childbirth and is buried at sea in an elaborate coffin, which is found. She is revived from a coma and t hen serves the goddess Diana. Apollonius names his daughter Tarsia after the city and entrusts her to his host s there, Stranguillio and Dionysias. Fourteen years later Dionysias resents Tars ia outshining her own daughter and orders her steward Theophilus to murder her; but Tarsia is captured by pirates and sold to a pimp at Mytilene, though its kin g Athenagora helps to preserve her virginity by urging her to tell her lamentabl

e story to each client. When Apollonius finally returns to Tarsus for her, he is told she died. The suicidal king, now a merchant, is eventually redeemed in joy by Tarsia when she tells Apollonius her story, and he realizes she is his daugh ter. The pimp is burned to death by the people of Mytilene, while his assistant is liberated for helping Tarsia. The prostitutes are given their earnings and th eir freedom. Apollonius makes a generous gift to repair the city's walls, and Ta rsia weds King Athenagora. Apollonius finds his wife in the temple of Diana, and they live as a couple happily for many years. Stranguillio and Dionysias are st oned to death. Apollonius is eventually succeeded as king by his son. This roman ce further typifies the value of chastity. Notes 1. Augustan History 4:1 in Lives of the Later Caesars tr. Anthony Birley, p. 164 . 2. Tertullian, Apology 25 in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, volume 3, p. 40. 3. Tertullian, "The Chaplet, or De Corona" 11 in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, volume 3, p. 99. 4. Matthew 5:44 as quoted by Clement. 5. Longus, Daphnis and Chloe tr. Christopher Gill in Collected Ancient Greek Nov els ed. B. P. Reardon, p. 289. 6. Alexander Romance 3:6 tr. Ken Dowden in Collected Ancient Greek Novels ed. B. P. Reardon, p. 717. 1999 -2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents Empire of Augustus and Tiberius Jesus and His Apostles Roman Decadence 37-96 Rome Under Better Emperors 96-180 Roman Empire In Turmoil 180-285 Roman Power and Christian Conflict 285-395 Augustine and the Fall of Rome 395-476 Goths, Franks, and Justinian's Empire 476-610 Muhammad and the Spread of Islam Beck home

Beck home Diocletian's Reforms 284-305 Constantine's Religious Revolution 306-337 Lactantius Constantine's Sons 337-361 Julian's Pagan Revival 361-363 Valentinian, Valens, Gratian, Theodosius Antony, Arius, and Athanasius Basil and Two Gregorys of Cappadocia Martin, Ambrose, and Prudentius John Chrysostom and Jerome Roman Power, Christian Conflict 285-395 Diocletian's Reforms 284-305 Diocletian rose through an army career to become a consul and governor of Moesia under Carus before becoming Emperor in 284, challenging and defeating Carinus. The reforms he implemented starting in 285 stabilized the Roman empire from fore ign aggression, army take-overs, and civil wars. His court only visited Rome onc

e briefly in the next twenty years. Diocletian first appointed Maximian as Caesa r and then as Augustus to rule the Western empire. The praetorian guard was redu ced to being a garrison of Rome. Diocletian kept on many Carinus officials, incl uding Aristobulus, a principal minister of the Carus house. The military was gre atly increased. Caracalla, seventy years before, had only 33 legions; but Diocle tian had about sixty. Lactantius complained (and exaggerated) that each of the f our Emperors had more troops than any one earlier Emperor. To smooth the success ion and extend imperial power Diocletian by 293 also appointed Constantius to be Caesar in the West under Maximian and Galerius to be Caesar in the East under h imself. His expanded administration and building programs required more funds; i ncreased taxes based on land (iugum) and persons (caput) fell heavily on agricul ture. Many tenant farmers had to abandon their fields. Maximian crushed a peasant revolt in Gaul and for several years responded to att acks by Alamanni, Burgundians, and Franks. A Messapian named Carausius plundered Saxon and Frankish pirates in the English channel, claimed to rule Britain, and based his navy at Gesoriacum (Boulogne). Diocletian left his headquarters at Ni comedia in Bithynia to defeat the Sarmatians in the Danube region in 289 and 292 . His army crushed another revolt of Nubian Blemmyes. In 293 Constantius took Ge soriacum away from Carausius, who was then killed by his chief minister Allectus . Two years later Constantius and praetorian prefect Asclepiodotus with two flee ts regained Britain by defeating and killing Allectus. Galerius repelled Gothic invaders; he ordered land reclaimed to make room for Carpi settlers. In 296 Dioc letian besieged Alexandria for eight months to end a rebellion led by Achilleus and Domitius Domitianus, killing thousands. Maximian and Constantius defeated in vasions by Alamanni in Gaul, while Galerius controlled the Danube area. Maximian suppressed an uprising of Moors in Africa in 298. Persian king Narses (r. 293-303) deposed Vahram III and expelled the Christian c onvert Tiridates III (r. 287-330) from the throne of Armenia. The Persians defea ted the army of Galerius in the plains near Carrhae in 296. After this humiliati on the next year Diocletian sent Galerius back with an army of 25,000 through Ar menia. The army of Narses was destroyed, and the Persian royal family was captur ed. A treaty was agreed upon, and the border between the two large empires was m oved east of the Tigris. Wild inflation caused Diocletian to introduce new coins and a revised taxation s ystem in 296. However, his expenditures on war, governmental bureaucracy, and bu ilding up his capital at Nicomedia continued to increase prices. So in 301 Diocl etian issued an edict setting maximum prices and wages; infringement was enforce d with capital punishment. He condemned excessive avarice that profiteered where ver the army went. Diocletian published a list of maximum prices and wages, thou gh a picture painter could still make 150 denarii per day, and silk dyed purple cost more than gold. Diocletian separated civil and military authority and reduc ed the size of administrative provinces by doubling the number to more than a hu ndred, organized into twelve dioceses - six in the East (Orient, Pontus, Asia, T hrace, Moesia, and Pannonia) and six in the West (Britain, Gaul, Vienne, Italy, Spain, and Africa). Diocletian instituted strict penalties for tax evasion, but he also banned the sale of children. An important contributor to the Palestinian Talmud, Jochanan, died in 279. Durin g the reign of Diocletian Judah III was patriarch (280-300) and sent Ami, Assi, and Chiya to inspect the religious and educational institutions in Judea. In one town an armed guard appeared, but no teachers could be found. They responded by pointing out that such guardians are destroyers of the city; the true guards ar e the teachers. When Abbahu heard that the Torah was no longer observed in Samar ia, he sent Ami and Assi, who investigated and determined that the Samaritans we re heathens. While most Christians were uniting, this rupture weakened both the Jews and the Samaritans. Abbahu (d. 320) lectured on the broader interpretations (Aggadah), while others like Chiya bar Abba confined themselves to the laws (Ha

lakhah). For twenty years Diocletian tolerated Christianity in the East. An example of th e Christian-Roman conflict over military service was the case of Maximilian, a t wenty-year-old Numidian, who was called to be enrolled as a soldier in 295 CE. H e declared that he was a Christian and could not fight. The proconsul Dion tried to mark him, but he refused. Dion gave him the choice of bearing arms, or he wo uld be killed. Maximilian asserted that he was not a soldier of this world, but a soldier of God. Dion asked him who persuaded him, and he said that it was his own mind and the one who called him. Dion tried to get his father to convince hi m, but the father said his son knew what was best for him. Maximilian continued to refuse to bear arms. Even when he was told that other Christians are soldiers and fight, he replied that others may know what is best for them; but as a Chri stian it was unlawful for him to do evil. Believing that he was going to Christ, Maximilian was beheaded. Three years later the centurion Marcellus threw away h is arms and refused to obey anyone but Jesus Christ; he was beheaded too. Galerius dismissed many Christian officers from their positions. In 303 Galerius persuaded Diocletian to issue an edict to demolish all churches in the empire a nd make holding secret religious meetings a capital crime. Church property was c onfiscated, and Christian books were burned in public squares. Judges were to he ar any accusation against a Christian; but Christians were not permitted to comp lain of any injury. When the edict was posted in Nicomedia, a Christian tore it down and was burned to death. Diocletian was opposed to bloodshed; but after two fires in his palace were blamed on Christians, this policy changed. News of rev olts in Melitene and Syria led by Christians also stimulated prosecution of Chri stian leaders, filling the prisons. The North African bishop Felix was beheaded in Lucania. When Diocletian was ill, Galerius issued a fourth edict that require d everyone to sacrifice on pain of death. The persecution may have brought on Di ocletian's illness and retirement in 305. Caesarea bishop Eusebius described how Christians were supernaturally protected from beasts incited to attack them in the arena so that the martyrs had to be bu tchered by the sword. At Thebes in Egypt as many as a hundred people were tortur ed and put to death in one day. The Christians ignored the tortures, spoke of th eir devotion to God in joy, laughed, and sang to their last breath. A little tow n in Phrygia, in which all were Christians, was surrounded by soldiers and compl etely massacred. Later when authorities ordered the killing to stop, orders were given to gouge out eyes and maim one leg. Eusebius recorded that bishops of Nic omedia, Tyre, Emesa, Gaza, and several in Egypt were all killed. In 305 Maximian also was persuaded to retire in Lucania. Galerius ruled the East and Constantius the West, holding Gaul, Britain, and Spain. Since Severus contr olled Italy, Africa, and Pannonia, he became Caesar along with the nephew of Gal erius, Maximin Daia, who oppressively ruled Egypt and Syria. When Constantius in 293 married Helena, a step-daughter of Emperor Maximian, to become Caesar, his son Constantine went to serve Diocletian in the wars against Persia and in Egypt . In 305 Constantius requested his son's assistance in his attack on the Picts ( Caledonians) in northern Britain. Constantine traveled quickly and helped his fa ther to victory in Britain. Constantine's Religious Revolution 306-337 When Constantius died at York the next year, Constantine was acclaimed Emperor b y the army. Galerius, however, declared Severus Augustus as Western Emperor and named Constantine Caesar. In Rome the son of Maximian, Maxentius, strengthened b y the disgruntled praetorian guard, was declared princeps, and he was supported by Africa and its grain. He and the Senate sent the imperial insignia to his fat her Maximian, who came out of retirement. Galerius responded to this challenge by ordering Severus against them. Bribes an

d old loyalties won soldiers from Severus to Maximian, and Severus retreated to Ravenna, where he was imprisoned. Maximian went to Gaul and gave his daughter Fa usta in marriage to Constantine. Galerius left Licinius in Illyricum and marched into Italy; but he had the same trouble as Severus and had to retreat to Pannon ia, as Severus was killed. In 307 Maximian quarreled with his son Maxentius in R ome and tried to tear the imperial purple from his body. The next year Galerius conferred with Diocletian and Maximian at Carnuntum. Licinius was appointed as A ugustus, and so it could be said there were six Emperors, not counting the retir ed Diocletian. In Rome the strict Marcellus became bishop and was opposed by tho se more willing to forgive lapsed Christians. Their conflicts in the streets bec ame so bloody that Maxentius banished Marcellus. In 308 Eusebius was elected bis hop of Rome; but he too was opposed and banished to Sicily. A different Eusebius , bishop of Caesarea, wrote that Maxentius dishonored countless free women with his lust and that at least one Christian wife of a senator committed suicide to preserve her chastity. He also wrote that Maxentius had his guards kill many Rom ans. Constantine and his army gained experience fighting off barbarians in the Rhine region. The elderly Maximian tried to take his troops away and was eventually be sieged and captured at Massilia (Marseilles) before committing suicide in 310. C onstantine changed his image from the Herculius of his dead father-in-law to the Invincible sun (Sol Invictus), claiming descent from Emperor Claudius II. In Af rica Domitius Alexander declared himself Emperor, but he was defeated and killed by forces of Maxentius , which punished Carthage in 311. That year Galerius lev ied taxes to celebrate twenty years of rule; after years of persecuting them he issued an edict legally recognizing Christians as he was dying of illness. Maxim in Daia marched north to claim Asia; he captured Byzantium but was stopped by Li cinius at the Bosphorus and defeated at Adrianople. Daia, holding Asia, resumed the persecution. When Licinius was betrothed to Constantine's sister Constantia, Maxentius and Maximin Daia allied. Miltiades became bishop of Rome, and Christi ans in the West were given even greater tolerance than in the recent edict of th e dying Galerius. In 312 Constantine with an army of 40,000 marched from Gaul and took Turin and t he imperial palace at Milan. Constantine prevented his men from plundering citie s and was welcomed with enthusiasm in Italy. After a short siege Verona surrende red. In order to avoid the defeats by evil spirits experienced by Severus and Ga lerius, Constantine turned to Christianity. Two contemporary Christian writers d escribed Constantine's vision of a cross of light with the saying "Conquer by th is." Eusebius wrote that he saw this in the sky at noon and that it was followed by a dream; according to Lactantius he merely saw it in a dream. As he approach ed Rome, Constantine had his soldiers paint the Greek letters chi and rho on the ir shields as an emblem for Christ. Constantine's army defeated that of Maxentiu s at the Milvian bridge, and Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber. The sons of Max entius were put to death, but Constantine stopped his men from killing his suppo rters. The Senate declared Constantine Augustus. Maximin Daia had died at Tarsus, leaving the East to Licinius, who ordered kille d the sons of Daia, Severus, and Galerius. Constantine met Licinius at Milan in 313, and they agreed upon religious freedom throughout the Roman empire. The nex t year Constantine granted ecclesiastics free transport and the use of inns, hor ses, and mules at public expense. Constantine nominated Bassianus, who had marri ed his sister Anastasia, as Caesar; but a conspiracy of Bassianus and supporters of Licinius was discovered. Constantine's army of 20,000 defeated the 35,000 of Licinius at Cibalae in Pannonia; in the treaty Licinius lost all his European t erritory except Thrace. The Donatist controversy arose in Africa after Diocletian had ordered Christians to give up their books. Those who obeyed (Some turned in apocryphal books.) wer e called traditores. In 311 two bishops were chosen in Carthage, because the Don

atists believed that Felix was a traditore and could not consecrate his successo r Caecilian. The next year Constantine sent Caecilian money for the "catholic ch urch" and directed him to turn in the troublesome people to the civil authoritie s. In 313 a small council in Rome decided in favor of Caecilian, and the next ye ar a larger council of Western churches at Arles confirmed that Felix was not a traditore. They also confirmed the Roman date of Easter and other doctrines alre ady accepted in Rome. The Emperor decided against the Donatists again at Milan i n 316. A persecution began, and Donatist fanatics were involved in disorders. Th e next year Constantine ordered authorities not to retaliate, and in 321 the use less persecution was ended when he granted toleration. About 320 Licinius banned church councils and meetings except in the open air ou tside of cities; women and men were not allowed to worship together. In 323 Cons tantine in attacking Goths entered the territory of Licinius. At Adrianople the army of Licinius was defeated by Constantine's as 34,000 were killed. Constantin e's navy, led by his son Crispus, defeated the fleet of Licinius. While Constant ine was besieging Byzantium, Licinius raised another large army in Bithynia; but Constantine invaded Asia and at Chrysopolis his army slaughtered another 25,000 men. Licinius was defeated and banished to Thessalonica. Thus in 324 the era of persecuting Christians ended. Constantine began transforming the city of Byzant ium. Pagan temples remained, but sacrifices were banned. 40,000 Goths constructe d new buildings, and in 330 the new capital of Constantinople was officially ded icated with forty days of festivities. Diocletian and Constantine increased the Oriental pomp of the imperial court. Th e Emperor's power grew, as every official was nominated by him. Even the advisin g sacred council had to stand up in the presence of Constantine. A master of the offices (magister officiorum) was created in 320 to oversee most of the adminis tration. The praetorian guard was disbanded, and praetorian prefects lost their military functions as they became civil officials on judicial and financial matt ers. The Senate gave up its jurisdiction as the city prefect's court of law took up all civil suits and criminal cases in Rome. The chaos of the third century h ad increased the power of wealthy land-owners called latifundia, and they transf ormed their tenant farmers called coloni into hereditary serfs who could be boun d by chains, while most land was still cultivated by slaves. In 321 Constantine granted women the right to control their property except in landed estate sales, and to safeguard their modesty he prohibited summoning women before tribunals. Constantine tried to get rid of concubinage; divorces required just causes; adul tery was prosecuted as a capital crime. Constantine imposed new taxes on gold and silver for merchants and corporations and on senators based on their land. The state with its bureaucracy and large mi litary establishment increased its control of the economy. Most occupations beca me hereditary. Feudal tenures developed, and sons of soldiers were required to f ollow their father's profession or be punished. Military levies could be escaped by paying 42 pieces of gold, and some youths lacking such funds cut off fingers on their right hands in order to avoid military service. Constantine prevented the exposure of children by assisting poor parents. He ins tituted laws to protect those who could not pay their taxes from being tortured or imprisoned, not allowing working farmers to be dragged off to extraordinary b urdens. However, some tax collectors, who tried to escape into the military, wer e to be dragged back to the municipal duty. Some thanked Constantine for remitti ng tax arrears for five years. Yet his laws on rape included capital punishment against consenting couples who elope without their parents' permission also as w ell as painful executions of slaves who assisted them. Constantine attempted to reduce unjust exactions and bribery of officials. He began prison reform, and so me claimed he abolished crucifixion and branding the face; but laws against info rmers specified that slaves or freedmen who inform against their masters were to be crucified. Laws on slavery required owners to keep loved ones together. To p

rotect the Emperor on cases of treason torture could still be applied. Constantine tried to ameliorate past persecutions by releasing Christian martyrs from imprisonment or slave labor or by restoring their property to their living relatives. The church inherited their property when there were no heirs. He pro moted Christians to high offices and forbade other governors to offer sacrifice. Constantine prayed that all would become Christians, but he did not compel anyo ne to do so. Constantine became concerned about the controversy that grew from the excommunic ation of Arius by Alexander in Alexandria. Christians were becoming divided over verbal conflicts. The Emperor believed these disputes should have been buried i n profound silence, and he called for mutual forgiveness. So many of God's peopl e should not be divided over such insignificant issues. Constantine believed it was childish ignorance to quarrel over trivial and unessential points, and in a letter he encouraged them to resume their mutual feelings of friendship. However , the conflict was too large to be resolved by a letter, and Constantine ordered a universal council to be held at Nicaea in Bithynia in 325 to resolve such que stions. According to Eusebius this was attended by 255 bishops from various nati ons throughout the empire, though the vast majority were from the East. Constantine began by burning the complaints the bishops made against each other, and he told the council that he considered intestine strife within the church a s more evil and dangerous than any kind of war. Eusebius, who also spoke, credit ed Constantine with bringing them to one mind on every disputed question. The ce lebration of Easter was set so as not to have it in common with the Jews, whom C onstantine detested. After the conference he sent a letter to the churches urgin g them to adopt its decrees and indicating that they would be bound by them. He exhorted the bishops to avoid contentious disputes and jealousy of each other. Constantine ordered a church built at the holy place of the Savior's resurrectio n in Jerusalem, and the temple of Aeclepius at Aegae was razed to the ground by his order. The temple of Venus at Phoenician Heliopolis was replaced by the city 's first church. Constantine issued an edict against the heresies that included Novatians, Valentinians, Marcionites, Paulians, and Cataphrygians, and they were forbidden to meet in public or privately. Searches were made for their prohibit ed books. As more churches were built, the Greek word for church (ekklesia) mean ing "assembly" was beginning to be replaced by kyriakon meaning "the Lord's hous e." Constantine exempted all Christian clergy from public duties, because he con sidered their serving God an immense contribution to the community's welfare. Eusebius in his Life of Constantine also wrote that the Emperor tried to equaliz e oppressive taxes. When Scythians attacked the Sarmatians, they armed their sla ves in defense. After overcoming the invaders, the slaves turned on their master s and drove them out so that the Sarmatians had to take refuge in Constantine's empire. The Emperor accepted some into the Roman army and allotted land to the o thers. Constantine forbade by law placing a statue of him in any temple, and he prohibited the worship of idols and every kind of sacrifice. Eusebius wrote that bloody combats of gladiators were no longer allowed to pollute cities, though a ctually circus games continued to be popular. An imperial decree prohibited a Ch ristian from being a slave to a Jew. Because of Constantine's clemency, capital punishment was no longer a deterrent, and some criticized the Emperor for that. In an oration Constantine commended the view of Plato that the spirits of the go od and virtuous enter the fairest mansions of heaven after separating from the b ody. He believed that the propensity to good or evil depended on human will and that a life of virtue comes nearest to the divine uncreated being. He believed t hat God is pleased with virtue and that every act of goodness is rewarded. Constantine had by his second wife Fausta three sons, whom he had made Caesars a t ten-year intervals. To celebrate the twentieth year of his reign Constantine m

oved his court from Nicomedia to Rome. Apparently his oldest son Crispus was sus pected of a conspiracy; for Constantine had him executed after a short and priva te trial in 326. About this time Constantine also had Licinius and his son put t o death and possibly his wife Fausta and several of his friends. After the civil wars the last dozen years of Constantine's reign were fairly peaceful. In 331 S armatians and Vandals were defeated by Goths and appealed to Constantine, whose son Constantine won a victory over Gothic king Araric the next year after he had invaded Moesia. A treaty gave the Goths subsidies of iron, grain, oil, and othe r needed items, retained Araric's son as hostage, and kept the Goths as allies o f Rome. Sarmatians then attacked the Goths and encroached on the empire. Constan tine allowed the Gothic king Geberic to defeat Wisumar, the Vandal king, while k illing many Sarmatians. Trying to fight the Goths by arming their slaves, these Limigantes turned against their masters and drove the Sarmatians out of their te rritory. About 300,000 Sarmatians were given land by Constantine to settle in Pa nnonia and other provinces. Near the end of his life Constantine also elevated his two nephews Dalmatius to Caesar and Hannibalianus to Nobilissimus. Only when he was dying did Constantine ask to be baptized; but then he took off his royal purple and passed on in a wh ite Christian robe. Lactantius Arnobius taught rhetoric in Sicca on the Nubian border southwest of Carthage. He converted to Christianity as an adult and wrote Adversus Gentes (Against the Ge ntiles) about 303. The first two books defend Christianity, and the next five at tack Roman religion. Arnobius argued that wars are diminishing because of Christ 's teaching not to requite evil with evil but even shed our own blood rather tha n stain our hands and conscience. Savage ferocity is being softened, as some hav e begun to withhold hostile hands from fellow creatures. If all people capable o f reason would listen to these peaceful rules, the whole world may turn the use of steel into peaceful occupations, uniting in harmony and respecting the sancti ty of treaties. Lactantius was born about the middle of the third century. He studied in the sch ool of Arnobius at Sicca. He surpassed his teacher as a master of rhetoric and w as invited to teach at Nicomedia by Emperor Diocletian. Since most people there spoke Greek while he taught Latin, Lactantius had few students and suffered pove rty. He converted to Christianity during the persecution in 303. He was consider ed an old man about 317 when he settled in Gaul and tutored Crispus, the oldest son of Constantine. Lactantius died about ten years later, and the Emperor execu ted Crispus in 326. The principal work of Lactantius, Divine Institutes, was designed to complete th e Latin writings of Tertullian, Minucius Felix, and Cyprian. The work is dedicat ed to Constantine, whom he praised as the first Roman Prince to repudiate errors and acknowledge the one true God, restoring justice and expiating the shameful deeds of others. Lactantius aimed to direct the learned to true wisdom and the u nlearned to true religion. Lactantius began by asserting it is better to investi gate and know human and divine things than to be occupied in heaping up riches. Some have given up property and pleasures in order to follow the simple truth wi thout impediments, believing that truth offers the greatest good. Lactantius bel ieved that truth is the secret of the Highest God, creator of all, and that it c annot be attained by our own ability and perceptions. Otherwise there would be n o difference between God and humans. Lactantius admitted that bitterness is mingled with the virtues and that pleasur es season the vices, causing some to be seduced by evils; but these errors can b e encountered by religion. Philosophy is more valuable than rhetoric, because ph ilosophers teach right living, which is useful to all, while speaking well is ne eded only by a few. Lactantius found the cause of perverseness in ignorance of o

neself. He believed religion needs wisdom, and wisdom cannot be approved without religion. He observed the providence of God in the beauty and design of the uni verse. There must be only one God, because otherwise other gods would be lesser. He criticized the licentious behavior of the Roman and barbarian gods, and he s aw the heavenly bodies, like the Sun and Moon, as the work of the divine creator rather than as gods. The second book of the Divine Institutes is on the origin of error. Lactantius n oticed that many people never remember God until they are in trouble. He observe d that from prosperity arises luxury and other vices that lead to impiety. In th e third book he criticized various philosophers. Moral philosophy is the most im portant, because these errors really affect one's life. Yet daily experiments ca n teach us what is truer and better. Philosophers disagree on what is the chief good. Lactantius discounted the goals of pleasure, living according to nature, a nd worldly success as ends shared by other animals. Knowing and worshipping God is what elevates humans. Ultimate happiness is found in immortality, which is ga ined by religion in knowing God. He criticized Stoics for approving suicide. Lac tantius believed God placed us in the body, and we should not withdraw from it e xcept by God's command. We must endure violence offered to us with equanimity, b ecause the death of an innocent person cannot be unavenged; but taking vengeance is in the hands of the great Judge (God). In the fourth book on true wisdom and religion Lactantius argued that the exampl e of Jesus and the religion of the Catholic church are best. He derived the word "religion" from the Latin religare, meaning "to bind again." It is the bond of piety, because God binds humans to Himself. Christian reunion of humans with God is through reconciliation. The original unity was separated by sin but has been restored again. The fifth book discusses justice. Lactantius noted, "Most wicked murderers have invented impious laws against the pious."1 He asked what should be done to those tyrants who inflicted tortures on the innocent and yet wish to appear just and prudent when they are clearly wrong. Yet the number of Christians has been incre asing and has not been lessened by persecutions. Because they have not turned aw ay from God, the truth has prevailed by its own power. Certainly these martyrs h ave demonstrated the virtue of courage. For Lactantius no one is poor in the sig ht of God except the unjust, and no one is rich, except those full of virtues. G reeks and Romans did not possess justice, because they had people differing by d egrees from poor to rich and from humble to powerful. Without equity there is no real justice. Lactantius believed that riches do not make one illustrious unles s they make one conspicuous by good works. The truly rich use their wealth for w orks of justice and charity; those who seem poor may be rich, because they desir e nothing. In humility the free and slaves are equal, the rich and poor, because God's sigh t distinguishes by virtue. The unjust and those ignorant of God may abound in ri ches, power, and honors, for these are the rewards of injustice; but they are no t perpetual and are sought through lust and violence. The just and wise do not d esire what belongs to another lest they should injure anyone and violate the law s of humanity. They even do not defend their own if it is taken by violence. To bear with injury inflicted is virtuous. Lactantius believed that God allowed the persecutions so that the people of God could be increased. Many were driven fro m their false gods, because they hated cruelty. They wanted to know what that go od is, which believers defended even to death, preferring it to everything pleas ant and beloved in life so that neither loss of goods nor torture could deter th em. In the sixth book on true worship Lactantius pointed out that knowledge precedes virtue but must be united with it, because knowledge is of no avail unless it i s followed by right action. Virtue restrains anger, desire, and lust in order to

flee from vice, for almost all wrong and dishonest actions result from these em otions. Thus crimes and disgraceful actions can be eliminated if these emotions are calmed by virtue. Lactantius argued that it is not virtue to defend the good or be an enemy of the bad, because virtue is not subject to chance. He believed that the philosophers, though they may be naturally good, are not wise as long as they are ignorant of God, the Head of virtue and knowledge. For him the first duty of justice is to be united with God in religion, and the second, to be uni ted with humans, is called mercy or kindness. Worshipers of God share this virtu e in the common life. This brotherhood means never doing evil but always doing g ood. The God of Lactantius prescribes this good as aiding the oppressed and givi ng food to the destitute. A kind God wishes us to be a social animal, as all hum ans require mutual support. Thus hospitality is a principal virtue, and it is a great work of justice to protect and defend orphans and widows who need assistan ce. Why fear poverty when the philosophers praise it as a calm life. Lactantius recommended examining your conscience and healing your wounds. God co mmands repentance, offers mercy and forgives sins. The fear of God can free one from all other fears. Lactantius questioned some traditional values. Frugality m ay arise from the love of possessing, and prodigality may give food to the needy out of pity. Money may lead to vice if it is spent on one's own appetites, but it is a virtue to lay it out well. Those who give way to grief and anger in doin g wrong do not fulfill the duty of virtue. Whoever tries to return an injury des ires to imitate the very person by whom one had been injured. How can imitating a bad person be good? The wise do not try to remove their adversaries, which can not be done without guilt and danger; but they wish to put an end to the conflic t, which may be done with justice and mutual advantage. Thus patience is the ver y great virtue of the just person; for patience opposes all vices. For Lactantiu s the three passions that drive people to crime are anger, desire, and lust. Tho se who know Christ may repent and be forgiven. Repentance recognizes the wisdom of God's justice. Those who do the will of God will be strengthened in their str uggles with a heroic passion. The seventh and last book of the Divine Institutes is on the happy life. Lactant ius believed the chief good is the immortality that only God can grant, and virt ue is rewarded not on earth but by life eternal. Thus ultimately piety is confir med. In his Epitome of the Divine Institutes Lactantius concluded by exhorting e veryone to train themselves for justice, self-restraint, and virtue so that an a dversary waging war may not be able with force, terror, or torture to drive them to senseless fictions; but they may uprightly acknowledge the one true God, cas t away pleasures, hold to innocence, be of service to as many as possible, and w ith God as their judge gain incorruptible treasures by good works and with the m erits of their virtue gain the crown of faith and the reward of immortality. Lactantius wrote "A Treatise on the Anger of God" to counter Stoic conceptions, arguing that God is angry at the impious and unjust just as God loves and is kin d to the pious and just. God is moved to take vengeance against the wicked and d estroys the pestilent and guilty in order to promote the interests of the good. Lactantius showed this from history in his short work "On the Manner in Which th e Persecutors Died." In the era of Constantine he could argue that God raised up princes to rescind the impious and bloody edicts of tyrants in order to provide for the welfare of humanity. Past clouds have been dispelled, and peace gladden s all hearts. Lactantius noted that Nero was killed soon after he crucified Pete r and executed Paul. Domitian persecuted the just and suffered due punishment. D ecius afflicted the church and was quickly slain by barbarians and his own army. Valerian persecuted Christians and suffered the humiliation of being captured a nd killed by the Persians. Aurelian's edicts shed blood in distant provinces, an d he was assassinated by his friends in Thrace. Lactantius described in more detail the persecution started by Diocletian and ca rried out by Maximian and Galerius. Lactantius blamed the mother of Galerius for

instigating her son to persuade Emperor Diocletian to destroy Christians. Diocl etian tried to avoid bloodshed but became ill and retired. Galerius changed the milder punishments of exile, imprisonment, and slavery in the mines to the cruel ty of burning, crucifying, and exposing to wild beasts; even minor offenses resu lted in torture. As he began to gain power, Constantine restored the rights of C hristians. Galerius tried to collect money to celebrate twenty years of rule; bu t before he could do so, God struck him with a horrible disease, which obliged h im to acknowledge God and atone for his misdeeds before he died. Daia revoked th e toleration Galerius had granted, and his idea of clemency was to mutilate ears , noses, hands, feet, and eyes rather than kill. Daia's excessive taxes caused f amine, while he personally debauched countless women. Lactantius wrote how Constantine was guided by a dream to have his soldiers use a Christian sign on their shields, and Licinius was told how to pray. Thus both Constantine won battles in the West and Licinius in the East against Daia even t hough their armies were usually outnumbered by their enemies. When Licinius retu rned to Nicomedia after meeting Constantine at Milan, he published their agreeme nt to restore the rights and goods of Christians. According to Lactantius eventu ally Daia died of poisoning at Tarsus. Licinius put to death sons of Galerius, S everus, and Daia. Thus Lactantius exulted in the victory of the Christians as le d by Constantine. Constantine's Sons 337-361 When Constantine died in 337, his three sons and two nephews were ruling portion s of his empire. The armies (under whose influence is not really known) decided only the three sons would rule, and all other relatives including the two nephew s and their families, except the child Julian and his brother Gallus, were kille d. The powerful prefect Ablavius was also eliminated. Constantine II held Gaul, Spain and Britain, and as eldest was given his father's new capital. Constantius ruled over the East and Egypt. Constans, the youngest at 17, was given the rest of Roman Europe and Africa. After taking care of his father's funeral and settling all this, Constantius had to rush off to fight the Persians, who were besieging Nisibis, which would with stand three such attacks by Shapur II. Armenia under Roman-educated Tiridates II I (r. 287-330) had become Christian about 314 and had formed good relations with Constantine. Despite internal divisions Armenia held off the Persian invasions until the death of King Khosrov II (r. 331-338). Many Christians in Persia were massacred. The army of Constantius finally defeated the Persians, probably in 34 4, putting to death the crown prince after Shapur fled. Armenian king Tigranes V was handed over to Shapur and blinded in 350. During the long reign of Shapur II (r. 309-379) Jews were saved from worse perse cution by the sympathy of his mother Ifra-Ormuzd. Rabba died in flight from Pumb edita in 330. Shapur persecuted Christians and moved an estimated 71,000 Jews to Susiana and Ispahan. After Shapur ordered Raba punished for exercising criminal jurisdiction, Ifra sent Raba 400 golden denars. In 339 Constantius proclaimed t he death penalty for marriages between Christians and Jews or for circumcision o f a Christian slave. Jews were also forbidden from proselytizing heathen slaves. During the pressure of the Persian war in 351 Ursicinus made Jews in Palestine violate their Sabbath to supply the Roman army. A revolt started in Sepphoris an d spread, but by the next year Sepphoris had been razed, while Tiberias and Lydd a were damaged. In 357 under the influence of Eusebius, Constantius proclaimed t hat Christians who joined Jewish communities were to have their property confisc ated, and Jews themselves were burdened with heavy taxes. Hillel II wrote down t he rules for determining the Jewish calendar in 359, thus enabling communities t o be more independent. Constantine II tried to legislate for Africa, and in 339 he attempted to take It aly from his brother Constans; but he was killed in an ambush at Aquileia the ne

xt year. Constans thus acquired the Gauls, Spain, and Britain. His army drove ba ck the Franks for two years, and in 343 he crossed over to Britain to take on th e Picts and Scots. In 350 a court conspiracy organized by Marcellinus and led by Magnentius took control while Constans was off hunting. Constans fled and was m urdered at the foot of the Pyrenees. In Rome Nepotianus, a cousin of Constantius , ruled for a month before he was killed by soldiers of Magnentius. In Illyricum military commander Vetranio was acclaimed Emperor and appealed to Constantius b ut then allied himself to Magnentius. Both then sent an embassy to Constantius, who arrived and won over the Illyricum troops with his oratory. Vetranio submitt ed to Constantius and was allowed to retire to Prusa on a pension. Emperor Const antius appointed his nephew Gallus Caesar and married him to his sister Constant ia. Taking Vetranio's army and his own, Constantius marched into Gaul to meet Magnen tius, who used tactics to harass them. Constantius offered the provinces west of the Alps in a treaty, but Magnentius refused. In a bloody battle at Mursa the a rmy of Constantius was double that of Magnentius; they won although they lost 30 ,000 men, while the army of Magnentius had 24,000 killed. This slaughter greatly weakened the imperial army and was the first victory of newly formed heavy cava lry. Constantius granted amnesty to all but the leaders; Magnentius fled and eve ntually committed suicide. Many others suspected of opposing Constantius were ex ecuted or banished. Fearing powerful generals and distrusting his ministers, Constantius in Oriental fashion relied on palace eunuchs, especially his chamberlain Eusebius, to gover n. Provincial complaints were disregarded, as justice and honors were sold to in crease the wealth of these officials. Pro-prefect Martinus complained that the i nnocent in provinces he governed were being punished. Martinus threatened to res ign and was accused by Paul "the Chain." Martinus tried to kill Paul, and failin g, committed suicide. Paul then returned to the Emperor with many chained prison ers, who either lost their property, were banished, or executed. Constantius sup ported the Arian Christianity popular in the East, and he prohibited offering pa gan sacrifices anywhere in the empire under penalty of death and confiscation of property. At age 24 Gallus was made Caesar and from Antioch ruled harshly five eastern dio ceses. The slightest rumors led to executions. Others had their property confisc ated and were driven into exile. This Caesar did not even bother to give such vi ctims the appearance of a trial. Gallus ordered the leading senators of Antioch executed, but this was stopped by Honoratus, count of the East. Instead of actin g to alleviate a famine, Gallus turned over Syrian governor Theophilus to be mur dered by a mob in Antioch. This caused Constantius to send Eastern prefect Domit ian to summon Gallus to Italy. When the Caesar had Domitian arrested, palace qua estor Montius warned the guards they were essentially overthrowing the rule of C onstantius. Gallus roused his soldiers against Montius, and they roughly took Do mitian and Montius into the streets, where they were trampled to death. Before h e died, Montius had named Epigonus and Eusebius as officials who had promised to help him. Caesar held treason trials, and the first two executed had these name s, although they were not the ones Montius meant. Musonian became praetorian pre fect for the East, and in these trials he gained property from the rich while co ndemning the innocent poor. Meanwhile Persians were invading Armenia and Mesopot amia. In 354 Constantius went to Valentia to stop the Alamanni raids into Gaul led by brothers Gundomad and Vadomar. According to historian Ammianus Marcellinus, Cons tantius addressed his troops and persuaded them to accept a peace treaty with th e Alamanni. To get Gallus to meet him at Milan, Constantius invited his sister C onstantia, Caesar's wife, to visit him. She died along the way, and Gallus was e ventually beheaded for his crimes. At Milan commander Ursecinus and the prince J ulian were both accused of treason but were able to defend themselves. The patro

nage of Empress Eusebia allowed Julian to study at the Academy in Athens. Julian's mother had died a few months after his birth, and he was only six when his father was murdered. He was well educated by his tutor Mardonius in Greek li terature and philosophy and was raised as a Christian by the Arian Eusebius, bis hop of Nicomedia and later of Constantinople. Julian studied the writings of the greatest rhetorician of the era, Libanius, who promoted Hellenism and despised Christianity. The orphan was also influenced by Neo-Platonism as taught at Perga mum by Aidesios and Chrysanthius, two disciples of the occult Iamblichus, and by Maximus in Ephesus, where Julian was initiated when he adopted the ancient reli gion and the cult of the Invincible Sun. As rhetorical exercises Julian wrote tw o orations praising Emperor Constantius according to the traditional form. Since Julian likely resented the murder of his family and the "Christian" rule of the Emperor, the sincerity of these has been questioned. Julian agreed with Plato t hat man and especially a king should rely on God as found within the soul rather than on the actions of other men. Piety is the child of Justice, which obviousl y is the more divine type of soul. Julian's "Panegyric in Honor of the Empress E usebia" shows a more sincere respect and gratitude for the woman who helped and advised him. Julian expressed his religious beliefs in prose hymns to the sun an d the "mother of the gods." The Emperor Constantius campaigned against the Alamanni tribe Lentienses in Raet ia. Silvanus was accused of plotting, and under torture Eusebius admitted being part of the conspiracy. Silvanus declared himself Emperor, and Ursecinus was sen t by Constantius. Ursecinus pretended to be sympathetic to Sylvanus but arranged to have him assassinated while on his way to a Christian service after a reign of one month. Constantius appointed Julian Caesar in 355 and assigned him to govern afflicted Gaul. After marrying Helena, sister of Constantius, Julian learned that Franks h ad taken Cologne, and the Alamanni had attacked Autun. Julian led his army again st the Alamanni, and he recovered Cologne. Known for his self-discipline of work ing and studying at night and eating the food of the common soldiers, Julian was usually popular with the soldiers. He sent provincial governors to hear cases, checked on the results, and often moderated the punishments. Yet Julian punished officials and judges who abused their positions. During his government Julian r educed the taxation in Gaul from 25 gold pieces to seven. Alamanni king Chnodoma r, Serapio, and other kings ravaged Gaul with an army of 35,000; but in 357 they were soundly defeated by Julian's army in a battle by the Rhine, in which the R omans were said to have lost only 250 men, while 6,000 dead Alamanni were counte d, and many were carried away by the river. Julian sent Chnodomar to Constantius and then persuaded his men to invade beyond the Rhine to take prisoners and bur n their houses. These disasters convinced the Alamanni kings Suomar and Hortar t o accept the harsh terms of Julian. In five years Julian restored security and p rosperity to Gaul, recovering 20,000 prisoners. The officials of Constantius continued to gain wealth from the provinces. Rufinu s was praetorian prefect, and Arbitio was master of the cavalry. Constantius had a huge obelisk moved from Thebes in Egypt to the circus of Rome, and he pleased Christians and angered pagans by removing the altar to Victory from the Senatehouse. Persians were raiding Mesopotamia for men and cattle. Shapur II sent an o ffer to Constantius, in which he acknowledged that perfect justice rules and hop ed that the Romans had learned by disasters what results from the greed to posse ss what belongs to others. He claimed Mesopotamia and Armenia from his grandfath er and asked the Roman Emperor to hand it over. Shapur commented, "Never will I accept the principle which your overweening pride leads you to enunciate, that a ll is fair in war that brings success, whether it be achieved by force or fraud. "2 Yet Shapur concluded by threatening to mobilize his forces to take this terri tory. Constantius replied by accusing Shapur of greed and noting that although R ome may lose a battle, it had never lost an entire war.

Meanwhile Constantius used his forces to despoil and burn the land of the Sarmat ians and Quadi in the Danube region. However, when they surrendered, they were a llowed to keep their homes if they gave up all prisoners along with hostages and promised to obey the Romans. After similar devastation Constantius forced the r ebelling Limigantes to emigrate from the territory they took from their former m asters. He placed the "free" Sarmatians under the rule of the pliant king Zizais . Infantry commander Barbatio and his wife were investigated by Arbitio and behe aded for plotting. Wealthy trader Antoninus became a financial official and then a staff officer under the Roman commander in Mesopotamia; financial reverses ca used by greedy persons led him to transfer his debts to the imperial treasury an d begin spying for the Persians. Shapur and his Persian army invaded Mesopotamia and spent 73 days losing 30,000 men besieging Amida. Ammianus and a few escaped from Amida; but most Romans were massacred or captured. The Persian king of kin gs then ordered Singara dismantled and Bezabde fortified while he returned to Pe rsia. While Constantius was wintering in Sirmium, in the Danube region the Limigantes began roaming outside of the territory assigned to them. At a meeting with Const antius, they even tried to kill the Emperor. He escaped, and his army slaughtere d many of the rebels. The Persian threat led Constantius to request more than ha lf of Julian's army for the East. At Paris Julian hesitated, because the local s oldiers had volunteered to serve with the understanding that they would not be s tationed beyond the Alps. Not wanting to leave their families, a force going to Emperor Constantius stopped in Paris to proclaim Julian Augustus instead. Julian tried to dissuade them; but failing to do so, he accepted the position of Emper or, promising each man five gold pieces and a pound of silver. Julian sent a let ter of explanation to Constantius, who chose to deal first with the Persian thre at. Julian's army campaigned for three months against the Attuarii Franks on the lower Rhine before wintering more to the east in Vienne. Constantius confirmed his diplomatic relationship with Armenian king Arsaces but failed to recapture B ezabde. In the spring of 361 Julian managed to remove the threat of an Alamanni invasion when he captured Vadomar by treachery. Julian publicly announced that he entrusted his safety to the immortal gods, thu s renouncing the religion and friendship of Constantius, who increased his caval ry and reinforced the imperial legions in preparation for civil war. Julian repl aced the prefect of Gaul nominated by Constantius and sent cavalry commanded by Jovius and Jovinus into Italy. The Roman Senate accepted Julian's claims but adv ised him to respect the author of his own fortune. Julian sent letters explaining his position to Rome, Sparta, Corinth, and Athens ; but only the one to Athens is extant. In that he praised Athens for its glorio us history and then described his life. When Constantius and his two brothers fi rst became Emperors, Julian, their cousin, had experienced six cousins, his fath er, and two uncles put to death without a trial. He and his brother Gallus were sent into exile. For six years they were imprisoned on a farm in Cappadocia. The ir property had been inherited by Constantius. After Constantius had Gallus made Caesar and then murdered, Julian was protected at Milan by Empress Eusebia. Jul ian believed that the wisdom of the gods sees the whole and may direct one to br ing about what is best. Constantius sent Julian into Gaul with only 360 soldiers but gave him command of all the forces there in 357, and Julian was able to dri ve out the barbarians in three years. He claimed he captured 10,000 prisoners in one siege across the Rhine. Julian complained that the Emperor hired the notori ous sycophants Paul and Gaudentius to attack him and replaced his friend Sallust . When the soldiers proclaimed Julian Emperor, he persuaded them not to punish t he friends of Constantius. Julian referred to the cruelty Constantius practiced everywhere but did not describe it. Julian marched east to be welcomed at Sirmium, where he pleased the people by ce

lebrating with chariot races. Two legions from Sirmium led by Nigrinus mutinied in favor of Constantius and held out in the fortress at Aquileia, where they wer e besieged by Jovinus. Fortunately a civil war was avoided when Constantius beca me ill and died on November 3, 361. It was reported that he named Julian as his successor, and this was accepted by the army. Constantius had mistrusted militar y heroes and kept them from gaining political power by using eunuchs and adminis trators to crush any suspicion of treason. Yet he appointed only experienced vet erans to command troops. The many civil and foreign wars demanded excessive taxa tion, and greedy tax collectors were greatly hated. Constantius oversaw and in s ome ways promoted much dissension among the Christians; Ammianus commented that bishops traveling to synods hamstrung the postal service. Julian's Pagan Revival 361-363 Julian was informed that he was undisputed Emperor by the officers Theolaifus an d Aligildus, while the eunuch Eusebius and the court party were forced to give u p their plan to appoint someone else. Agilo was sent to Aquileia and was able to persuade the resistance to surrender. Nigrinus and two other leaders were put t o death, but the rest were pardoned. Julian stopped in Dacia before triumphantly entering Constantinople. He appointed Secundus Salutius praetorian prefect and ordered Mamertinus, Arbitio, Agilo, and Nevitta to assist in the treason trials. Paul "the chain" and Apodemius, who had conducted treason trials for Constantiu s, were executed along with Eusebius and Gaul treasurer Ursulus, whose only crim e seems to have been that troops hated him. Julian on February 4, 362 ordered the temples opened and public sacrifices. He p roclaimed tolerance of all Christian worship and allowed the bishops banished by Constantius to return. Ammianus argued that by permitting Christians to practic e their varying beliefs boldly Julian hoped the new religion would weaken itself by its divisions. Churches lost their state privileges and subsidies such as pu blic transport, and Christian clergy were no longer exempt from taxes. Julian de creed that pagans should be preferred to Christians for public offices, and Ammi anus criticized him for prohibiting Christians from teaching rhetoric or literat ure. Temples of the old religion were to be returned to their former owners. Aft er seeing an elegantly dressed barber, the new Emperor greatly reduced the numbe r of servants in the palace. He tried to relieve the people's distress by reduci ng taxes. The spies, agents, and informers, who had repressed many to protect Co nstantius, were dismissed. Julian proclaimed the senate at Constantinople equal to that of the revered Roman Senate. Julian knew that he had a temper, and so he encouraged those around him to criticize him when necessary. He once even fined himself for violating a court procedure. Gaudentius and another Julian, who had been sent by Constantius to oppose Julian in Africa, were arrested and executed. Artemius, the army commander in Egypt, w ho had committed outrageous crimes, was also put to death. When Alexandrians mur dered their repressive bishop, George of Cappadocia, the Emperor merely admonish ed them. Julian prepared his troops for a war with the Persians. Bloody sacrific es of numerous bulls, white birds, and other animals provided large quantities o f meat for his troops. Julian revoked the special taxes on Jews and appointed Al ypius of Antioch to restore the great temple at Jerusalem so that they could sac rifice; but calamities from fires or earthquake caused the project to be abandon ed. Julian wrote "To the Uneducated Cynics," contrasting contemporaries, who imitate d Diogenes in only the easiest and least burdensome ways rather than seeing the noble side of him, Antisthenes, and Crates. Julian urged the philosophical pursu it of making oneself like God by acquiring knowledge of the essential nature of things, arguing the gods know all things. In another oration to a Cynic Julian c omplained that Heracleios treated the gods irreverently in expounding a myth, an d he argued that only ethical philosophers and theologians should be allowed to interpret myths. In "The Caesars" Julian satirized the Roman Emperors from Juliu

s Caesar to Constantius. A contest between Julius Caesar, Octavian, Trajan, Marc us Aurelius, and Constantine was won by Marcus Aurelius. Julian and his army spent some time in the metropolis of Antioch, where a poor h arvest and greedy monopolists sent the price of bread so high that many went hun gry. Julian had the wealthy senators put in prison for a while, and during the l icentious Saturnalia festival the Emperor was greatly satirized. He responded wi th his own sarcastic writing called Beard-hater, in which he satirized his own p erson and austere practices. His own self-restraint is contrasted to the indulge nt independence of the Antiochians. Julian asked if he had wronged them in any w ay. He let them elect their richest men to the Senate; but when their greed rais ed prices on scarce grain, he set a fair price and imported 400,000 measures of wheat. Was their ingratitude because he fed them from his own purse? Yet Julian concluded by taking responsibility for wrongs done to him, because he had transf ormed them to ungracious ways. Julian was upset that Antioch, which was strongly Christian, did not support his animal sacrifices. When a fire broke out in the temple at Daphne, Christians were suspected. Julian closed the main church in An tioch and sacrilegiously robbed its treasures. Julian wanted the ancient religion to adopt many of the innovations of Christian ity, such as its hierarchical organization and its charity. He wrote to a pagan priest urging him to practice philanthropy, because it gains the good will of th e gods. Julian asked who had ever become poor by helping one's neighbors. Julian found that giving lavishly to the poor brought blessings from the gods. Money, he wrote, should be shared with all men, but more generously with the good, thou gh he noted that we give to the humanity of the poor, not to their moral charact er. Julian believed humans are social animals. Along with reverence towards the gods and benevolence toward humans, he recommended personal chastity. He wrote t hat if a priest proves to be wicked, he should have his office taken from him. H e warned the priest against the discourses of Epicurus and the skeptical Pyrrho. He urged prayer both in private and in public. Priests should avoid licentious theatrical shows and hunting spectacles with dogs. Julian admitted that the Gali leans had gained ascendancy by their philanthropic deeds. Julian also wrote a bo ok against the Galileans, which only survived in quotations from the Christian C yril of Alexandria. Most of these are from the first of three books and discuss Moses and the Jews. Julian sent Procopius with an army along the Tigris; but they were not able to j oin the forces of the Armenian king Arsaces, because Persian king Narses had alr eady seized Armenia. The Christian Arsaces resented the way Julian treated him a s an enemy of the gods. Julian's army of 65,000 crossed the Euphrates and invade d Mesopotamia. Food and supplies were provided by 1100 ships in the Euphrates Ri ver. The Romans besieged and took Porisabora, where 2500 surrendered before the city was set on fire. A Persian force led by the Surena captured a Roman standar d, causing Julian to dismiss the officers of the patrol and put to death every t enth soldier who ran away. Then he praised his army for their victory at Porisab ora and promised each soldier one hundred pieces of silver. As they invaded Assy ria, Julian's army took what they wanted and then burned the crops and huts. The Assyrians reacted by flooding the fields from the canals. Julian encouraged his men by offering the riches of the Persians as spoils. They stormed and sacked t he city of Maiozamalcha, reducing it to ruins. Julian rejected peace offers from the Persians and advice from his generals to abandon Persia. Instead he had all the ships burned but twelve small ones put on wagons. The Persians deserted their villages, drove away their cattle, and burned their fields so that Julian's army soon had to retreat toward the Roman territory of C orduene while repulsing Persian attacks. During a sudden rearguard action Julian neglected to put on his breastplate, and a spear pierced his ribs and entered h is liver. The Emperor was carried into a tent; unable to fight anymore, he disco ursed on how the soul is superior to the body and on how death is a blessing, be

fore finding out for himself June 26, 363. There were no relatives to succeed hi m, and he refrained from trying to name the best man. Valentinian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius A senior staff officer, Jovian, was elected Emperor, and he negotiated a peace w ith the Surena that conceded to the Persians the five provinces east of the Tigr is and the towns of Nisibis and Singara without their inhabitants. The Romans ag reed not to interfere on behalf of Armenia, much of which was seized by Parthian s. The treaty was intended to last thirty years. Jovian was a Christian and reve rsed many of Julian's pagan policies. Devoted to the Nicene Creed, Jovian procla imed religious toleration and allowed sacrifices at pagan temples, though he ord ered sacrilegious rites of magic severely punished. The Roman army marched west, and in 364 on the way through Bithynia and Galatia Jovian was found dead in his bed. Valentinian, an impressive Pannonian officer, was elected Emperor by the traveli ng court and the army. He was encouraged to select a co-Emperor and chose his br other Valens to rule the East. Valentinian I (r. 364-375) also followed the Nice ne Creed and restored the clergy's privileges granted by Constantine I, tolerati ng paganism and diverse beliefs. Valens (r. 364-378), however, declared himself an Arian and persecuted heretics. Non-Arian monks, who abandoned society for the desert, were forced to do civic duties and even serve in the imperial army. Abo ut 370 Arian priests accompanied 3,000 soldiers marching from Alexandria; of the 5,000 monks in the desert of Nitria apparently many refused to cooperate and we re slaughtered. The frontiers of the empire were being challenged by the Alamanni in Gaul and Ra etia, by the Sarmatians and Quadi in Pannonia, by the Picts, Saxons, Scots, and Attacotti in Britain, by the Austoriani and Moors in Africa, by the Goths in Thr ace and Moesia, and by the Persians, who had invaded Armenia. Valentinian set up court at Milan, leaving Constantinople to Valens. Procopius was from a noble Ci lician family and claimed the imperial power by inheritance. He used this argume nt and monetary rewards to win over Goths sent to Constantinople and war-like tr ibes in Thrace, but he alienated Arbitio by burning his house when he did not ru sh to his defense. Procopius took over Bithynia and the Hellespont but was defea ted by the army of Valens in Phrygia and beheaded. Valens spent three years figh ting the rebelling Goths until he and Athanaric, meeting on the Danube River, ag reed to a treaty in 369. Valentinian himself led a large army across the Rhine in 368 and defeated the Al amanni at Solicinium. Smaller campaigns in the Rhine region were carried out in 371 and 374. When Valentinian became ill, he appointed his son Gratian to succee d him. Valentinian could be quite cruel, ordering Illyricum treasurer Diocles bu rned at the stake and local senators executed in Pannonia. The historian Ammianu s lamented that such power frightened the Emperor's enemies into silence so that wrong actions were not corrected. He also criticized Valentinian for allowing m ilitary leaders to harm the state while punishing the offenses of common soldier s. Persia's Shapur II invited Armenian king Arsaces to a banquet, then had his eyes put out before having him tortured and killed some years later. This and other incursions stimulated the Romans to break the treaty by sending help to the Arme nians. Valentinian empowered Maximin as pro-prefect of Rome and appointed Leo to help him prosecute many people for treason, sorcery, fornication, and adultery, re-instituting torture and resulting in many executions. Former urban prefect P raetextatus and others complained that punishments were out of proportion to the offenses and argued that no senator should be subjected to torture for anything . Emperor Valentinian denied that he made such a decree, and so Praetextatus was able to get the cruel edict repealed.

Theodosius crossed to Britain with an army to defeat the plundering Picts and Sc ots, winning popularity by restoring most of it to the owners. Theodosius brough t about reforms in Britain, rebuilding cities and garrison towns. He dismissed s ecret service agents, who were convicted of taking bribes for passing on informa tion. In Germany Valentinian and his army were able to keep back the barbarians, although an attempt to capture Alamanni king Macrianus failed. Valentinian sent Palladius to investigate the government of Africa; but the corrupt commander Ro manus managed to inveigle him into silence by getting officers to relinquish the ir donatives to Palladius. The Moorish prince Firmus collected persecuted Donati sts, frustrated soldiers, and urged provincials to claim the imperial crown. Val entinian sent Theodosius, who spent two years fighting the Moors before they wer e defeated and Firmius killed himself. After Valentinian died in 375, Theodosius was beheaded by intriguing enemies in Carthage. While Theodosius was campaignin g in Mauretania and Africa, the Quadi and Sarmatians invaded Pannonia after Maxi min invited Quadi king Gabinius to dinner and had him treacherously killed. Even tually an army in Moesia led by the younger Theodosius defeated the Free Sarmati ans. In the East many conspiracies had formed against the intolerant Valens, and in A ntioch the jails overflowed with suspects on trial. After an attempt on his life by targeteer Sallustius, Valens had some condemned to death even before they kn ew they were suspected. Suspects and witnesses were tortured for information. Be cause of obscure prophecies regarding the syllables "Theo," the innocent Theodor us and the rest of the accused were all beheaded. The philosopher Maximus, who h ad taught Julian, had predicted that those who heard the oracle would be execute d, and he was taken to his native Ephesus and beheaded too. Throughout the East anyone whom an informer accused of treason or magic was liable to be executed. V alens was persuaded by praetorian prefect Modestus to pay less attention to civi l suits, allowing corrupt judges and advocates to enrich themselves and win high positions by selling out the interests of the poor to military commanders and t hose with influence in the palace. Valens had given refuge to the young Armenian king Pap; but some corrupt men in the government charged Pap, who escaped with 300 men from Tarsus. The Emperor Va lens sent an army after them, but Pap was welcomed safely back to his kingdom. T he Armenian king remained loyal in spite of false accusations but was also treac herously slain at a banquet. Shapur was upset by Pap's death and sent the Surena to take over Armenian territories that had been grabbed by the Roman commander in Mesopotamia Urbicius and his cavalry leader Victor. Because the Goths were ov errunning Thrace, the Romans could not stop this. Meanwhile in 374 Valentinian made peace with Macrianus on the Rhine. After battl ing the Quadi Valentinian became so angry at their envoys that he died of a bust ed blood vessel in 375. Because of the expensive Persian campaign and the constr uction of elaborate defenses in the north to stop frontier incursions, Valentini an had had to impose high taxes to pay troops. Ammianus believed that although h e disciplined soldiers for trivial offenses, Valentinian let serious offenses by superiors go unchecked, resulting in disturbances in Britain and devastation in Africa and Illyricum. He did ban the exposing of infants and subsidized fourtee n physicians in the fourteen districts of Rome. Valentinian also promoted educat ional academies in Rome and Constantinople that taught both Latin and Greek. He was succeeded in the West by his 16-year-old son Gratian. Christianity began spreading among the Goths in Asia in the third century, and t heir bishop Theophilus represented them at the ecumenical council in Nicaea in 3 25. During the fourth century Ulfila taught Arian doctrine and translated the Go spels, using a Gothic alphabet he invented. Hermanric ruled over a Gothic empire that extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. However, many of his vassals jo ined the invading Huns instead of resisting them. After Hermanric had the wife o f the chief Roxolani torn apart by horses, her brothers wounded the Gothic king.

Hermanric died in despair and was succeeded by Withimer; but he was slain in a decisive battle against the Huns and Alani. Thus the eastern Ostrogoths ("bright Goths") succumbed to the Huns, though Alatheus and Saphrax took the infant king Witheric, leading a western migration toward the Dniester. The banks of that ri ver were defended by the western Visigoths ("Wise Goths") led by King Athanaric, who tried to remain firm; but most of the Goths abandoned him. Fritigern and Alavivus led the Visigoth Thervingi to spread along the bank of th e Danube, sending agents to Valens for permission to cross the Danube into Roman territory. Fritigern and his followers in conflict with Athanaric at this time adopted Arian Christianity. The Emperor did allow about 200,000 men and their fa milies to settle in Thrace; but Greuthungi king Videric's similar request was re jected. Athanaric, fearing rejection also, retired with his people to Caucalanda , driving away the Sarmatians. The Thervingi suffered from inadequate supplies b ecause of corrupt government by Lupicinus and Maximus, who imposed heavy taxes o n the hungry immigrants. Food was sold for high prices, and soon the Visigoths w ere selling their children into slavery for dog-meat to survive. Such abuses by Roman soldiers stimulated the Goths to roam around Thrace. When Lupicinus brough t troops against the Visigoth rebellion led by Fritigern and Alavivus, the Ostro goth Greuthungi led by Alatheus and Saphrax began sneaking across the Danube. Th e desperate Ostrogoths accepted the military leadership of Fritigern and attacke d the troops of Lupicinus, killing many and taking their weapons. In 377 Valens sent legions from the Armenia conflict; these forces were outnumbe red and suffered losses, while Gratian sent general Frigeridus with Pannonian an d Transalpine troops. Both sides had heavy casualties in the battle at Salices. A threatened alliance of the Goths with the Alans and Huns caused Saturninus to pull his imperial troops away from the river, and soon Goths were devastating al l of Thrace, though the army of Frigeridus defeated the Goths and Taifali under Gothic chief Farnobius. The next year Gratian's forces defeated the Alammanic tribe of Lentienses, who h ad been raiding across the border of Raetia. According to Ammianus only 5,000 of 40,000 armed men escaped slaughter by the Roman troops. In 378 Valens decided t o fight the Goths without waiting for reinforcements from Gratian, and he was de feated and killed at Adrianople. Only a third of the Roman army escaped, and Amm ianus called it the second worst massacre of Roman troops ever. The Goths besieg ed Adrianople, and in reckless attacks many on both sides were killed. Goths wit h some Huns and Alans that Fritigern had recruited moved against Constantinople; but a group of Saracens helped the Romans save their capital. Ammianus Marcelli nus concluded his history with an account of how Taurus commander Julius ordered all the Romans in charge of Goths in Asia to round them up by promising to pay their wages; then they were all put to death. Ammianus credited this "wise plan" with saving the East from serious danger. Five months after Valens died, Emperor Gratian presented the 32-year-old general Theodosius as Augustus to rule over Thrace, Asia, Egypt, and because of the Got h crisis over Dacia and Macedonia as well. In 380 Theodosius became dangerously ill and was baptized by the Catholic bishop of Thessalonica, Acholius, before ca mpaigning against the Goths. The next year after Gregory of Nazianzus was made b ishop of Constantinople, Theodosius expelled from churches in his dominions all clergy not accepting the Nicene creed. During his reign Emperor Theodosius issue d fifteen edicts against heretics, mostly against those who rejected the doctrin e of the Trinity. Theodosius gave Athanaric refuge in Constantinople. When the Visigoth king died in 382, he was honored with a funeral. Many Visigoths became loyal to the Roman empire, as Theodosius made a treaty with Fritigern, allowing them to settle as a llies in Lower Moesia. The Goths became divided, some following the liberal peac e and justice of Fravitta and many supporting the aggressive independence of Eri

wulf. After a bitter argument at a banquet with Theodosius, Fravitta, afraid of civil war breaking out, killed Eriwulf with his sword. The imperial palace-guard s restrained the Goths from taking revenge. After roaming around northern Europe for a few years the Ostrogoths led by Alatheus returned to the Danube. The army of Theodosius defeated them, and they agreed to settle in Phrygia and Lydia. While Emperor Gratian diverted himself slaying wild beasts, an army rival of The odosius in Britain named Maximus defeated the Picts and Scots and was acclaimed Augustus by his army. His revolt gathered strength as he and his followers invad ed Gaul in 383. After some fighting even his own troops abandoned Gratian, as he fled Paris toward Lyons with only 300 horses. The governor of that province tur ned Gratian over to Andragathius, the cavalry general of Maximus, and he was put to death. Theodosius negotiated an agreement with the usurping Maximus, giving him territory beyond the Alps as long as Gratian's young brother Valentinian II could rule Italy, Africa, and Western Illyricum. In 385 Priscillian, bishop of A vila in Spain, and six others were tortured and executed for heresy by a prefect of Maximus. The Arian Justina was able to get her young son Valentinian II to g rant religious toleration to the dioceses ruled by him from Milan. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, murdered the general Merobaudes, and entered Milan in triumph as Valentinian and his mother fled to Thessalonica, where they were joined by Theodosius, who had recently married Valentinian's sister Galla. Theod osius raised a large army with support from Goths, Huns, and Alans, and the next year advanced against Maximus, who was defeated and surrendered at Aquileia, wh ere he and a few in his guard were executed. The fleet of Maximus was defeated o ff Sicily, and his son Victor, who had been ruling Gaul, was killed by general A rbogast. A general pardon quieted Italy, and Theodosius spent three years in Mil an, taking one trip to Rome. The West was restored to Valentinian II, now 17, an d the death of his mother facilitated his conversion by Ambrose to the orthodox faith. During the civil war against Maximus some Goths deserted to Macedonia and ravaged its neighbors. In 387 Theodosius made a treaty with Persian king Shapur III (r. 383-388), giving the Persians four-fifths of Armenia and the Roman empi re one-fifth. Franks crossed the Rhine and raided so effectively, defeating Roman forces, that Theodosius sent general Arbogast to help the West; but he began by putting to d eath the infant son of Maximus. The Frankish general turned against his former t ribe, demanding the Franks restore booty and turn over those who instigated the war. They refused, but in 389 Arbogast negotiated a treaty with the Marcomir and Sunno. The next year Visigoths led by the young Alaric invaded Thrace. Theodosi us issued an edict allowing inhabitants in the region to carry arms and attack m arauders. In 391 Theodosius was ambushed and defeated on the Maritza, but the Em peror was rescued by general Promotus. After Promotus was killed in the war, The odosius appointed the Vandal Stilicho commander in Thrace. He was able to surrou nd the rebellious Goths on the Maritza, and the Emperor let them go free under a treaty in 392. Costs of the civil war against Maximus and his decennalia celebrations led Theod osius to impose extra taxes on Antioch. After their riots threw down his statues , Antiochians awaited his displeasure; but he was forgiving. However, in 390 at Thessalonica general Botheric imprisoned a popular chariot driver for seducing h is male lover. The angry racing fans murdered Botheric and several of his office rs, dragging their bodies through the streets. Theodosius ordered a treacherous revenge. The Thessalonicans were invited to attend games in the circus, and then soldiers surrounded and massacred about 7,000. Because of this, Milan bishop Am brose would not give communion to the Emperor until he performed public penance on December 25. In 391 and 392 Theodosius issued edicts against paganism. Sacrifices and divinat ion were prohibited as treason, and a commission was established in the East to

shut the temples, seize idols, abolish priestly privileges, and confiscate pagan property for the Emperor, his army, or the church. In Egypt the temple of Serap is was demolished in 391, and the great library of Alexandria was destroyed. Tha t year Theodosius freed children who had been sold as slaves by their poor fathe rs. War captives were still enslaved. After Stilicho defeated Rhadagaisus, 200,0 00 Goths and Germans were put up for sale, lowering the price of a slave from 25 gold pieces to one. Gladiator shows continued. In 391 the consul Symmachus comp lained that 29 Saxon prisoners chose suicide rather than public exhibition. The last celebration of the ancient Olympic games was in 393. Libanius, the great rh etorican of Antioch and advocate of paganism, who had tried to get Theodosius to punish those who destroyed temples, was nearly 80 when he died in 393. In 392 the Frankish general Arbogast had Valentinian II murdered (Some said it w as suicide.) at Vienne and set up the rhetorician Eugenius as Emperor in order t o restore paganism. To prepare for the approaching civil war Arbogast's army dev astated the territories of the Bructeri and Chamavi, recruiting Alamanni and Fra nks to join their forces. Theodosius marched against them using many Goths. Arbi tio changed sides to the East, and a hurricane seemed to show divine favor for t he army of Theodosius. The troops of the usurpers ran away in panic, and Eugeniu s was killed in 394 as Arbogast fled and committed suicide. Theodosius granted a general pardon, but his health deteriorated. His son Honorius was summoned from Constantinople and arrived in Milan to see his father die on January 17, 395. P erhaps the diplomacy of Theodosius had contributed to making the Goths better al lies than the Alamanni and Franks in the West. He eased penalties that affected the sons of criminals. Because of brigands in Macedonia, he allowed victims to s lay those who robbed them. Theodosius was succeeded by his sons Arcadius, 18, in the East, and Honorius, only 11, in the West. Antony, Arius, and Athanasius Origen's higher morality of voluntary celibacy and poverty prepared the way for the asceticism that developed into monasticism. The examples of the Essenes and the Therapeutae may also have influenced its first appearing in Egypt. During th e Decian persecution of 250 21-year-old Paul of Thebes retired into a distant ca ve, and according to Jerome's short life of him he lived there for ninety years, finally meeting Antony just before he died. Antony was born about 251 into a Ch ristian family near Thebes. About 270 his parents died, leaving him a considerab le estate and the care of his sister. Six months later he took the advice of Jes us and gave his 300 acres to local inhabitants, sold his property to benefit the poor, and entrusted his sister to some pious virgins. He studied the local Chri stian ascetics in order to learn virtues such as graciousness, continual prayer, gentleness, charity, watching, steadfastness, fasting, mildness, patience, and love. When he was about 35, he withdrew into seclusion and thus founded the anch orite tradition. At first he lived in a sepulcher. He spent twenty years in the ruins of a castle and his last years on Mount Colzim, where he died after a very long life in 356. Believing he should work, Antony wove baskets while he prayed as constantly as h e could. He ate one meal a day after sunset of bread, salt, and water and someti mes dates. In this Egyptian climate, bread could keep for six months; so Antony might only see visitors who brought bread twice a year. He slept on the ground o r on straw. A hair shirt, sheepskin, and loin-cloth were his only clothes. He wa s often tempted by devils but always believed that Christ had broken their power to do him any real harm. He argued that the mind itself is superior to learning , and his only books were his memories and the natural world. When he learned th at the Emperor had become a Christian, he advised him to think of the future jud gment and so practice justice, love people, and care for the poor. Athanasius wr ote in his biography of Antony of the desert that he healed many people and enco uraged them to take up a solitary life, inducing numerous monks to go forth into the deserts and the mountains. Antony asked why possess things one cannot take away. Rather it is better to possess prudence, justice, temperance, courage, und

erstanding, faith, charity, love of the poor, gentleness, and hospitality, which can be taken into the next life. He noted that Greeks go abroad to study letter s, but he found heaven and virtue where he was. Virtue therefore, needs only our will, since it is within us and grows from us. For virtue grows when the soul keeps the understanding according to nature. It is according to nature when it remains as it was made. Now it was made beautiful and perfectly straight.3 For Antony the soul becomes evil when it bends and gets twisted away from nature . So the task is to remain as God made us. If we give our minds to evil, we beco me wicked. The task would be difficult if what we seek is outside of ourselves; but it is easy, because it is within us. By keeping our soul as we received it f rom God, we may recognize His work as it was made. Antony urged fighting not to be mastered by anger nor to be enslaved by desires. He had ways of distinguishin g between good and evil visions. He counseled others not to fear Satan, because the devil can do nothing. In his "First Letter" Antony described three kinds of souls. The first, like Abr aham, are called by the Spirit of God. The second, like David, respond to the wr itten law. The third kind have hard hearts and persist in sin; but God sends the m afflictions so they may repent. Repentance works first from a call by the Spir it, which teaches one how to return to God and makes rules for the mind and body . The guiding Spirit opens the eyes of the soul and teaches the mind how to disc riminate and how to purify the soul and body, leading them back to their origina l condition. Antony also described three movements of the body: the soul consent s to the first, which are natural; the second results from gluttony and excessiv e drinking; in the third evil spirits tempt us out of envy. The latter result wh en the mind spurns the testimonies of the Spirit. When the mind prays to the Spi rit, then it can expel the afflictions that come from greed. The mind may learn how to discipline the eyes, ears, tongue, hands, belly, genitals, and feet. The soul may also be tempted apart from the body by pride, insolence, hatred, envy, anger, cowardice, impatience, and so on. If one gives oneself to God wholehearte dly, the Spirit of repentance using prolonged fasts, vigils, study of scripture, many prayers, and by renouncing the world may bring help by God's mercy. The other six letters of Antony emphasis self-knowledge and preparing for the pr esence of Jesus. For Antony those who know themselves know God, the dispensation s of the Creator, their time, and the essential unity that is immortal. Antony b elieved that unless one hates all earthly possessions and renounces them, stretc hing out one's heart to God, one cannot be saved. Because of unity, to do wrong to one's neighbor is to do wrong to oneself, and to do good to one's neighbor is to do good to oneself. He wrote, "You should not regard your progress and entry into the service of God as your own work; rather a divine power supports you al ways."4 During the persecution under Maximinus in 311 Antony followed the martyrs to Ale xandria, and he ministered to the confessors in the mines and prisons. He zealou sly appeared with them before the tribunal, and he mourned when he was not selec ted for martyrdom. After the persecution ended, he went back to his monastery. M iracles were attributed to his prayers and urging of others to pray. According t o Athanasius he opposed the Arians and taught people not to defile themselves by associating with them. Antony persuaded many soldiers and wealthy people to put aside their burdens and become monks. Athanasius called him a "healer given to Egypt by God."5 When banished in 340 Athanasius took two of Antony's monks to Ro me, introducing the ascetic way of monks. When Athanasius returned six years lat er, he was greeted by Antony. Until the very end of his centenarian life Antony maintained a good disposition and better health than those with rich diets, bath

s, and many clothes; he had all his teeth although they were worn nearly to the gums. Antony opposed mummification and requested that his body be buried in a se cret place. Hilarion was born near Gaza; but as a youth he studied in Alexandria, where he b ecame a Christian and spent two months with Antony. When his parents died in 306 , he was only 15; but Hilarion gave his inheritance to his brothers and the poor , becoming a hermit on a road near Gaza while weaving baskets for his subsistenc e. He fasted, chanted the Old Testament, and sang psalms. His cell was only five feet high; he slept on the ground, only changed his garment after it turned to rags, and cut his hair each Easter. According to Jerome's biography he healed ma ny, expelled demons, and converted Saracens. His reputation for holiness was sai d to have attracted as many as ten thousand visitors. Hilarion established a Pal estinian monastery in 329 and then traveled to Thebes in Egypt, North Africa, Si cily, Dalmatia, and finally to Cyprus in order to find solitude. He was credited with prophesying the religious revolution decreed by Emperor Julian, and he die d in 371. Pachomius was born to Egyptian parents and served in the army under the tyrannic al Maximin when he was campaigning against Constantine and Licinius. Pachomius w as won over by the kind treatment he received from Christians in Thebes. After h is discharge from the army, he was baptized and in 313 began to study with the a ged hermit Palemon, who ate only bread and salt, spending half the night singing psalms and meditating. In 325 Pachomius believed he was directed by an angel to found a monastery on the island of Tabenne in the Nile, which by his death in 3 48 had grown to nine cloisters with several thousand monks. A century later it h ad 50,000 members. His rules, thought to have been communicated by an angel, wer e translated into Latin by Jerome. Rigid vows were not required until after thre e years of probation. In addition to weaving, monks worked at ship-building and farming so they could support the poor and the sick. Monks were graded for their piety into 24 classes represented by the letters of the Greek alphabet. Monks l ived three per cell and kept silence and their faces covered during common meals . Pachomius also established a cloister for nuns, but he refused to see his sist er. Other female cloisters developed around the sister of Antony and the wife of Ammon. After Pachomius fifty monasteries sprang up on the Nitrian mountain with seven bakeries to supply anchorites. Eustathius founded monasteries in Armenia, Pontus, and Paphlagonia; but his sect believed that marriage prevented salvation, was condemned for this by a council at Gangra about 341, and eventually died out. Audians founded monasteries in Sc ythia that lasted about a century, and Euchites called Enthusiasts roamed around Mesopotamia and Syria praying continually while despising labor. They were pers ecuted near the end of the 4th century by ecclesiastical and civil authorities b ut managed to survive. In Rome Jovinian wrote in opposition to monasticism, crit icizing its asceticism. He believed eating with thanksgiving was as good as fast ing and that being married was of equal merit with celibacy although he himself never married. About 390 Jovinian was excommunicated by the bishop of Rome, Siri cius, who opposed the marriage of priests. Athanasius was born about 298 and so was a child during the Diocletian persecuti on. In 313 Alexandrian bishop Alexander saw the young Athanasius playing a bisho p with his friends, took the youth into his care, appointing him his secretary a nd later archdeacon. Athanasius probably wrote The Incarnation of the Word of Go d before the Arian controversy began. In this work he emphasized the moral neces sity of the divine incarnation because of the increase of adulteries, thefts, mu rder, rape, corruption, injustice, and various iniquities perpetrated by individ uals and groups. Cities warred against cities, and nations rose against nations, dividing the whole earth into factions and battles as they strove to outdo each other in their wickedness. Christ assumed a body in order to show the way to sa lvation and overcome death by surrendering his own temple to destruction by sinf

ul people, demonstrating life by resurrection after an undeniable public executi on. Athanasius argued his case to Jews and Greeks and concluded, "One cannot pos sibly understand the teaching of the saints unless one has a pure mind and is tr ying to imitate their life."6 About 319 an Alexandrian priest named Arius began teaching a Neo-Platonist doctr ine that emphasized the oneness of God but making Christ as the word of God a se condary deity substantially different than the uncreated Father and subordinate to his will. The ideas of Arius were published in his poem Thalia. Arius taught that although Christ created the world, he was created by the one God and was th us not as divine. At a council of one hundred bishops called in 321 by bishop Al exander 98 condemned Arius; his two supporters and other clerics were deposed. A rius went to bishop Eusebius in Caesarea, and the famous church historian helped by sending to others such as the Nicomedia bishop also named Eusebius, who summ oned a council of bishops that reinstated Arius. He then returned to Alexandria, where the conflict raged. When his emissaries failed to mediate the conflict, Emperor Constantine called t he first ecumenical meeting. Athanasius accompanied his bishop to the council at Nicaea in 325 and distinguished himself by his arguments refuting the doctrines of Arius that he believed denied the deity of Christ. About twenty Arian bishop s were led by Eusebius of Nicomedia; but their proposed creed was defeated, and all but two of them abandoned it. Eusebius of Caesarea offered a creed without t he word homoousios, but a majority insisted the word be added to what became the Nicene creed. Under Constantine's leadership the council decided in favor of a divine trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, in which the Son (Christ and the Word of God) is considered to be of the same essence (homoousios) as the Father (God). Arius and two Egyptian bishops refused to sign the formula and were decl ared heretics. In the first civil punishment of heresy the books of Arius were o rdered burned. This council also settled the Meletian controversy that previousl y had disturbed Alexandria, and it established the Roman rather than the Jewish dating of Easter. Twenty canons helped to resolve problems concerning those who had fallen away during the persecutions, enabled schismatics to return, prohibit ed ordination of eunuchs and recent converts, and established the jurisdictions under the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Three years later in 328 Athanasius was made bishop of Alexandria even though he was not quite old enough. Constantine was persuaded by Eusebius of Caesarea to recall Arius from exile. At an Arian church council led by the historian Eusebiu s at Tyre in 335 Athanasius was condemned and deposed for making false accusatio ns against Arius, and the next year he was banished to Gaul by the Emperor for d isturbing the peace of the church and threatening to disrupt the grain supply fr om Egypt. Arius had been acquitted of heresy by a council at Jerusalem the year before, but he died in his eighties of cholera at Constantinople in 336. Emperor Constantine II recalled Athanasius from exile in 338; but under Constantius Ari anism prevailed in the East, and Athanasius was banished again. Constantius and his brother Constans, who was ruling the West, called a council at Sardica in 34 3 to resolve the conflict; but when the Arian bishops stayed away because Athana sius was admitted, the Nicene doctrine was confirmed. Instead the Eastern bishop s met at nearby Philippopolis and confirmed the Antioch council held two years e arlier. Athanasius was restored in 346; but after Constans died in 350, Constantius call ed four councils within seven years to promote a moderated Arianism that taught a similarity (homoiousios) of essence rather than a difference. Yet this resulte d in the banning of bishops Liberius of Rome, Hosius of Cordova, Hilary of Poiti ers, Lucifer of Calaris, and again Athanasius, who in 356 was driven out of his cathedral by 5,000 soldiers and was replaced by the avaricious Arian George of C appadocia. Then in 359 Eastern bishops met at Seleucia in Isauria while Western bishops conferred at Rimini in Italy. As Jerome put it, everyone seemed to wake

up one day to lament and marvel at finding themselves Arian. After Constantius d ied in 361, George was murdered, enabling Athanasius to return again, only to be sent into exile the next year by Julian until the pagan Emperor died in 363. At hanasius was banished a final fifth time in 365 by Emperor Valens but was reinst ated the next year and was able to spend the rest of his life in peace correspon ding with Basil, who founded monasteries in Cappadocia. In writing to Epictetus, bishop of Corinth, Athanasius defended the humanity of Christ, and in a letter to Dracontius he urged the monk to leave the desert to s erve the episcopate. Athanasius remains controversial to this day as scholars ar e divided; some criticize him for using Mafia-like tactics, while others claim t hat in his battles against the world he only used spiritual weapons and never fa vored the use of force. He suffered frequent persecution, but his supporters say he never practiced it against others, following the maxim that orthodoxy should persuade faith, not force it. Athanasius died in 373, and for a time Arians wer e able to oppress their opponents in Alexandria. Cyril became bishop of Jerusalem about 350; but he was deposed by a local counci l of bishops in 357. One of the charges was selling church property to relieve t he poor during a famine. His deposition was confirmed by an Arian council in 360 . After Constantius died in 361, Cyril was restored when Emperor Julian allowed all exiled prelates to return. He was deposed again by Emperor Valens in 367 and allowed to return to his position at Jerusalem by Theodosius in 379. He died in 386. His Catachetical Lectures were written forty years earlier. In these Cyril emphasized that faith and works are equally important. He believed that faith i nvolved subscribing to a creed and trusting in God. Works depend on one's free w ill, not heredity or environmental factors. For Cyril good works did not exclude the moderate use of wealth, the body, sex, marriage, clothes, wine, and food, b ecause he believed the body is beautiful and merits tender treatment. He believe d in confession and taught that salvation depends on baptism or martyrdom. Basil and Two Gregorys of Cappadocia Basil was born about 329 in the Cappadocia capital at Caesarea, which is along t he military road between Antioch and Constantinople. His paternal grandmother Ma crina was a devout Christian and had been a disciple of Gregory Thaumaturgos, an d his maternal grandfather died a Christian martyr. Basil's father was a promine nt lawyer and teacher of rhetoric. His younger brother was known as Gregory of N yssa. Basil, Gregory, and their brother Peter became bishops; Basil, Gregory, an d their sister Macrina were canonized as saints. Basil studied at Constantinople , perhaps with Libanius, and while learning at Athens from 351 to 356 he met his best friend, Gregory of Nazianzus. Basil began a secular career at Caesarea, bu t the piety of his sister Macrina influenced him to take up an ascetic life. Bas il and some friends established a monastic community on his family estate at Ann esi in Pontus. He retreated from the city as a source of many evils, but still h e found that even in solitude he could not forsake himself. Tormented by restles sness, the next year Basil toured the monasteries of Egypt. He adopted and adapt ed the cenobite (community) monasticism practiced by Pachomius. He eventually fo und that seclusion from the world's business, celibacy, solitude, study of the s criptures, living with Godly men, prayer, contemplation, and ascetic severity co uld help train the wild passions in order to attain quietness of soul. Basil disagreed with his Arian bishop Dianius, who died in 362. His successor, E usebius, disliked the asceticism of Basil, who withdrew to Annesi. Basil was ord ained a priest in 364. About this time Basil wrote a treatise against the Arian Eunomius, who was so extreme in his views he had even been banished by Constanti us. When the church was threatened by the Arian Emperor Valens in 365, Basil ret urned to Caesarea and tried to unite the semi-Arians and supporters of the Nicen e doctrine under the formula of "three persons in one substance." Basil studied with his friend Gregory, and together they made extracts from the works of Orige n in the Philocalia. When Eusebius died in 370, Basil became archbishop of Caesa

rea. He founded charitable institutions to help the poor, travelers, and the sic k, notably the hospital Basilias for the many lepers in the area. When Emperor V alens visited Caesarea in 371, Basil refused to submit to him. The next year Val ens divided the province; but Basil appointed Gregory of Nazianzus at Sasima and his own brother Gregory at Nyssa. However, Gregory of Nazianzus resented Basil using their friendship in this political way and probably never took up the post at Sasima. Basil wrote influential Longer Rules and Shorter Rules for monasteries. He set r easonable standards for austerity to avoid the rivalries in ascetic rigor he saw in Egypt. Private fasts could not be undertaken without the superior's permissi on. Basil insisted on obedience to the superior, although elder brothers could a dmonish the superior when necessary. He found silence to be a useful discipline for novices. Basil preferred the community monastery that could express love of God and neighbors as they cooperated together in their efforts toward perfection . Seclusion did not offer the opportunity to practice humility, obedience, chari ty, and other social virtues. Basil is credited with systematizing if not foundi ng the common house, the common table, and prayer in common. By living near secu lar brothers and sisters the monks could offer a model of Christian living and c ould undertake external works to love their neighbors. Yet both philanthropic wo rks and communal living were only means to the greater end of union with God. In his Address to Young Men Basil defended the study of pagan literature. In add ition to the 365 extant letters, Basil wrote homilies and moral essays. In an ea rly letter he wrote of the perfection of solitary life. A Christian should not b e doubtful nor swear, lie, speak evil, fight, or be angry. He should be patient, moderate, avoid slander, and be subject to God's will. A monk should work witho ut complaining and should not offend with glances, words, or deeds nor be enviou s or hold grudges. He should not seek the riches of the world but rejoice in pov erty. In an exhortation to renounce the world Basil wrote that the soul is an im age of heaven because the Lord dwells in it, while the flesh is of earth wherein live mortal humans and irrational beasts. The needs of the body should be regul ated in conformity with the hours of prayer. He began "A Discourse on Ascetical Discipline" by stating that foremost the monk should own nothing in this world b ut should possess solitude, modesty, a modulated tone of voice, and well-ordered speech. In The Morals Basil listed eighty rules for Christians, supporting them with quo tations from the scriptures. Some of these include not lying, imitating the equa l relations observed by children, and being compassionate and generous. His long est discourse is on Rule 70 regarding appointing blameless deacons and priests w hose past life has been investigated and found worthy. The last rule calls on Ch ristians to conform to the pattern of what they see and hear in Christ. Like Antony, Basil in "Give Heed to Thyself" recommended paying attention to one self and to the purity in the ruling part of the soul. He noted that we are easi ly prone to sins of thought and believed that the impulse received from the inte ntion is the major element in sin. When the thoughts of a person run off to sin, the imagination may see objects of desire and draw pictures of sensual pleasure s. The sins of intention can occur with the swiftness of thought. One should pay attention to oneself instead of to possessions and the objects around one. Desp ise the flesh, which passes away, and be solicitous of the soul that never dies. Acquire an exact understanding of yourself so that you may know how to regulate the two sides of your nature, providing for the needs of both body and soul. Be soberly vigilant and watch yourself. Basil distinguished the rational part of t he soul from the non-rational emotions; the former should have authority, and th e latter should submit. Never allow the mind to become the slave of the passions nor permit the emotions to rise up against reason and usurp the power of the so ul. By yielding to carnal passions the soul destroys its proper beauty; but the practice of virtue purifies one from such shame.

In a homily Basil warned against anger. Just as medical precepts are learned by the test of experience, so the wisdom of spiritual counsel can be demonstrated b y the results produced. When anger usurps dominion over the soul, it makes the p erson bestial in a temporary madness. He advised against trying to cure one evil with another by trying to outdo another in inflicting harm. Do not make your en emy your model by imitating what you hate. Basil wrote, "If you remain unruffled , you silence your insolent assailant by giving him a practical illustration of self-control."7 Anger may be used constructively when the soul becomes enervated by pleasure in order to restore it from its weak and flaccid condition to rigor . How does one keep one's passions from being aroused against improper objects? Basil recommends the humility , which Jesus taught in words and illustrated in h is life. Basil also warned against envy, which he wrote is a pain caused by our neighbor' s prosperity. Its cure is in not regarding the goods of this world as admirable. If you desire glory, he suggested you turn your aspirations toward acquiring vi rtue and free yourself from the desire for earthly riches. In "On Detachment" Ba sil wrote that a person with one's best interests at heart will be concerned wit h the soul and will spare no pains to keep it stainless and true to itself. After Basil died on January 1, 379 Gregory of Nazianzus composed a funeral orati on praising his friend. He recounted how during a famine Basil sold possessions to buy food and got the rich to open their storehouses to give bread to the poor ; he set out caldrons of pea soup for the hungry. Gregory also told how when a w idow was violently importuned by an assessor to marry her, she fled for sanctuar y to the altar of a church. Basil refused to give her up and was summoned before the judge, ready to undergo the lash. However, people heard and came with torch es and clubs, hurling stones. Then Basil protected the judge from these irate me n and women. Gregory noted that Basil had no wealth but the cross, which alone w as his life , which he deemed more precious than the greatest riches. Gregory ob served that Basil could cherish virtue with a smile of commendation or repress v ice with the reproach of silence. The elder Gregory of Nazianzus was converted from a monotheistic sect by his wif e Nonna, who was later canonized along with her children Gregory, Caesarius, and Gorgonia. She consecrated her son Gregory to serve God even before he was born. The younger Gregory shared the Athenian education of his friend Basil and excel led at oratory, delivering funeral eulogies of his father, brother, sister, and Basil. He commended his mother's self-sacrificing love for the poor and sick, bu t he noted that she was intolerant toward "heathen women." This Gregory, guided by his mother and a dream, chose celibacy although his father was one of the few married bishops. Caesarius was a renowned physician and served Emperor Constant ius in that position. Gregory of Nazianzus criticized Emperor Julian and was sai d to have prophesied the evil he would cause the empire when he knew Julian at s chool in Athens. When he was about 30, Gregory adopted an ascetic life, though h is love of his parents kept him from seclusion. Gregory, like Basil and later Au gustine, was ordained a presbyter (priest) against his will in 362. When his fat her died in 374, Gregory became bishop of Nazianzus; but he retired again the ne xt year to Seleucia in Isauria. Gregory of Nazianzus wrote that to praise Athanasius was to praise virtue, becau se he embraced virtue in its entirety. This Gregory from 379 worked at Constanti nople to promote what soon became the orthodox doctrine. The next year Emperor T heodosius made Gregory the capital's patriarch and began issuing edicts condemni ng the Arians. He called the second ecumenical council at Constantinople in 381. After Antioch bishop Meletius died, Gregory of Nazianzus presided, and the patr iarch of Constantinople as the "new Rome" was ranked second after the bishop of Rome. There 36 semi-Arians walked out, and 150 bishops, none of whom were from t he Latin church, established a revised Nicene Creed without the filioque (and th

e son) later added by the Latin church. When bishops from Egypt and Macedonia di sputed Gregory's election, he resigned in disgust over the party strife, offerin g to sacrifice himself like Jonah in order to save the ship of the church. Grego ry left Constantinople and spent his remaining years in solitude on his paternal estate in Nazianzum. Called the theologian, Gregory in his Five Theological Ora tions emphasized the qualities of purity and integrity. He criticized the Eunomi ans for degrading the divinity of Christ and the Macedonians for lessening the H oly Spirit. Basil's younger brother Gregory of Nyssa was also influenced by Origen, and he t oo retired into a quiet life in Pontus. Though he married, Gregory commended vir ginity as the perfect freedom of true philosophy. The purpose of asceticism for Gregory was not to afflict the body but to facilitate the spiritual functions. B asil appointed him bishop of Nyssa in 372. He also supported the Nicene faith, a nd in 375 during Arianizing pressure from Emperor Valens a provincial governor a ccused Gregory of maladministration. The next year he was deposed by a synod and driven into exile. After Emperor Valens died two years later, Gratian allowed G regory to recover his bishopric at Nyssa. Gregory was influential in the ecumeni cal council at Constantinople in 381. The council sent him on a tour of Arabia a nd Palestine, where he found hatred toward brothers he believed only should be e xpressed against the devil and sin. In his extensive writing Gregory of Nyssa used Origen's allegorical interpretati on and agreed with him that punishment is medicinal and educative in preparation for the universal salvation of all souls and the ultimate abolition of evil as negative and thus non-existent in God. In his major theological work, The Great Catechism, written in 385, Gregory attempted to synthesize Jewish monotheism and Hellenic polytheism into the unique Christian doctrine of the trinity. He empha sized free will and the human ability to choose, and he applied the Platonic doc trine of virtue's wholeness to his analysis of redemption. His Life of Moses tre ated the great law-giver as a pattern for the progress of the soul from the temp tations of the world to a vision of God. Martin, Ambrose, and Prudentius Hilary of Poitiers of southwestern Gaul was converted to Christianity along with his wife and daughter. He was made bishop of his town about 350, but five years later he was banished to Phrygia by Emperor Constantius for refusing to sign th e condemnation of Athanasius. Hilary wrote to Constantius, pleading for peace wi thin the church. During his four years in Phrygia Hilary wrote a long work in tw elve books On the Trinity. After the council at Seleucia, Hilary appealed again to the Emperor, at least that he be allowed to debate the Arian issue. To avoid this in 360 the Arians got Constantius to send Hilary back to Gaul, where he was welcomed as the "Athanasius of the West." In 364 Hilary went to Milan to debate the Arian bishop Auxentius, who had taken control of that see. Hilary died a fe w years later. Martin was born about 330 to pagan parents in Pannonia (Hungary). Since his fath er was a tribune in the army, by Roman law Martin was required to serve in the m ilitary also. At age ten against the wishes of his parents he became a Christian catechumen. Among the soldiers he lived like a monk. Once in winter he tore his only cloak in half to clothe a beggar that others with extra clothes had ignore d, and in a dream he saw Jesus with that cloak he gave away. This stimulated Mar tin to be baptized. He remained a soldier for two more years until Emperor Julia n was offering them a bonus. Martin refused to accept it, saying he could not fi ght anymore, because he was Christ's soldier. When Julian called him a coward, M artin volunteered to face the enemy unarmed with only the sign of the cross. He was arrested; but envoys made peace the next day, and Martin was soon released f rom the army. Martin went to Poitiers bishop Hilary and was made a deacon. In the Alps Martin

got lost and was set upon by brigands; but his faith in danger converted one of the robbers. When Hilary was banished in 355, Martin became a hermit at Milan, w here he was persecuted and driven out by Bishop Auxentius. Martin went to Rome t o greet the returning Hilary. Martin was said to have revived from death a catec humen, who said that while he was out of his body, two angels told the Judge tha t Martin was praying for him; then the two angels brought him back. In 360 Hilar y provided land at Ligug, where Martin established the first monastery in Gaul. A bout 371 the reluctant Martin was elected bishop at Tours. When a pagan of consu lar rank named Tetradius promised to become a Christian if Martin expelled the d emon from his serf, Martin healed the boy. As bishop, Martin continued to live l ike a monk and even moved away from the city. Martin tore down pagan temples and preached as a missionary as far away as Vienn e. He was credited with curing the eyes of Paulinus of Nola. During a synod at B ordeaux in 384 Martin appealed to Emperor Maximus on behalf of the Gnostic and M anichaean Priscillian and his followers; but Ossanova bishop Itacius urged they be put to death. Although Maximus promised Martin not to spill their blood, his prefect Evodius had Priscillian and others beheaded. Martin continued to interve ne in order to prevent a bloody persecution of Spanish Priscillianists. Martin w ould not join in communion with the bishops who were persecuting the heretics to death, and for a while this conflict seemed to diminish his spiritual powers. M artin died in 397, and his funeral was attended by two thousand monks. He was on e of the first non-martyrs to be canonized, and he became the patron saint of Fr ance. Ambrose was born in 339 at Trier in the palace of his father, who governed Gaul. His father died when Ambrose was a child, and he was educated at Rome, living w ith his mother and sister Marcellina, who had taken a vow of virginity. Ambrose was a successful lawyer and was appointed praetorian prefect for Upper Italy at Milan. When the Arian Auxentius died in 374, so much disturbance was expected ov er the election of a new bishop that Ambrose went to prevent a riot. A child cri ed out, "Ambrose for bishop," and he was unanimously elected. In eight days he w as baptized and passed through the grades of the church's ministry. Ambrose sold his estates and used his gold and silver to help the poor, leaving an allowance for Marcellina. He began studying the scriptures and the works of Origen and Ba sil. Any member of his congregation could speak with Ambrose at any time. He pre ached so persuasively for virginity that mothers kept their daughters away from his sermons. When he was accused of trying to depopulate the empire, he replied that wars, not maidens, were destroying the human race. Ambrose was grieved by t he avarice of those in positions of authority, because business with them was tr oublesome as they retailed everything for a price. Before Emperor Gratian went east to fight the Goths with the Arian Emperor Valen s in 378, he asked Ambrose for instruction against heresy; the bishop responded by writing his work On Faith. After Valens was defeated and killed at Adrianople , Ambrose argued this was a divine judgment against Arianism. When Maximus usurp ed the place of Gratian in 383, Ambrose helped Justina prevent her young son Val entinian II from being sent to Trier. He also went to recover the body of Gratia n, asking Maximus to do penance for the murder of Gratian. He cautioned the usur ping Emperor not to attack Valentinian II. In 384 Ambrose persuaded Valentinian to reject a request by Symmachus to restore the statue of Victory in the senate at Rome. After the Priscillian heretics were beheaded, Ambrose excommunicated Ma ximus. Ambrose managed to consecrate Anemius bishop at Sirmium in spite of effor ts by Empress Justina to place an Arian in that cathedral. Ambrose was summoned to the court of Valentinian II to debate the Arian views of the younger Auxentius. Ambrose wrote a letter to the Emperor refusing, because in questions of faith bishops usually judge Emperors, not the reverse. He invite d Auxentius to come to his church for a discussion before the people. If there i s to be a conference about the faith, it should be of bishops, as it was under C

onstantine. Ambrose advised the Emperor to obey his own laws. While in a church Ambrose and his congregation were surrounded by imperial troops during holy week of 386. Under siege for several days they sang hymns composed by Ambrose that e ventually influenced the soldiers. In a sermon against Auxentius Ambrose said he would not depart willingly, though he would not resist force. His only weapons were his tears. He cried out to the Emperor as a free priest; only by taking his life could he take away his faith. Ambrose criticized Auxentius for trying to s ubstitute laws for faith. The Church belongs to God, not to Caesar. The Emperor is within the Church, not above it, and a good Emperor aims to help the Church, not oppose it. While Emperor Theodosius was residing at Milan after defeating Maximus, Bishop A mbrose had two confrontations with him. After Christians pulled down a synagogue at Kallinikum in Mesopotamia, Theodosius ordered the bishop to rebuild it. Ambr ose protested that a bishop should not be required to erect a structure for anot her religion and refused to sing mass until the Emperor revoked his order. After the massacre ordered by Theodosius at Thessalonica in 390, Ambrose made the Emp eror do public penance before he would receive his offering at the altar. He did not give Theodosius absolution until he issued a law delaying capital punishmen t until thirty days after its pronouncement. When Arbogast took control of the W est and made Eugenius Emperor, Ambrose departed from Milan before Eugenius arriv ed, sending him a letter appealing to his conscience. Ambrose strengthened the p eople against the invaders, and the forces of Theodosius soon defeated those of Arbogast. A few months later in 395 at Milan Theodosius died in the arms of Ambr ose, who delivered his funeral oration. Ambrose himself died a day or two before Easter in 397. Ambrose wrote a book on Christian ethics called On the Duties of Ministers. Mode led on Cicero's On Duties, Ambrose aimed to show that Christian ethics are super ior to pagan ideas and, deriving from the Old Testament, much older too. The fir st book is on virtue. Ambrose took seriously the advice of Jesus to sell all our goods and give to the poor in order to enter life and be perfect. The young sho uld fear God, obey their parents, honor elders, and preserve their purity. One s hould not despise humility but love patience and modesty. Anger must be guarded. Language should be mild, kind, courteous, and free of insults. Ambrose recommen ded three principles: controlling passions with reason, proportioning efforts to the importance of the goal, and maintaining the correct order and timing of one 's actions. Ambrose also emphasized the four classic virtues of wisdom, justice, courage, an d temperance. Wisdom is the source of all virtues, because it comes from the aut hor of our being, whom we must seek in order to learn how God rules and judges t he world. Ambrose's order of right goes from God to country to parents and then to others. Society is held together by justice and also kindness, which consists of good will and liberality. Courage enables us to train the mind and reduce th e flesh so that one listens to the commands of reason. This means loving what is best and having contempt for the world. Temperance means being peaceful, gentle , moderate, and attentive to what is virtuous. The second book is on what is useful. Ambrose found scriptures taught that etern al life comes from the knowledge of God and the fruits of good works. Riches do not help one live in a holy way and may be a hindrance, while poverty may help. For Ambrose what is useful is what brings one closer to God; thus the virtuous i s most useful. Nothing is more useful than being loved; therefore one should be kind to others and serve them. Giving impartial and prudent advice may also help . Liberality may also win friends, but one should not be sparing to the needy. Y et beggars can be greedy, and so one must be prudent if one is to sustain the po or. Company with the good and wise is useful, while defending the weak and offer ing hospitality enhance one's reputation. Being too mild may present a false vir tue. One should act mercifully. Ambrose was hated by some for melting down sacre

d vessels to redeem captives; but he argued that the Church's gold should be spe nt on those in need, preferring to preserve living vessels rather than gold ones . In the third book of On the Duties of Ministers Ambrose agreed with Cicero that one should not increase one's own advantage to the disadvantage of others. Human s live in community; if one is injured, the whole is wounded. The Church rises i n one body bound together in the oneness of faith and love. Because of human uni ty the advantage of the individual is the same as that of everyone, and so nothi ng should be considered advantageous that is not for the common good. Ambrose be lieved we should never do evil even if one would not be discovered. He wrote tha t we should exclude the love of money from our hearts, because it leads to shrew dness and tricks to profit from the misfortune of others. We are obligated to av oid fraud, deceit, and false promises. Saints by seeking virtue have achieved wh at is useful. Ambrose found friendship to be the most beautiful thing in the wor ld, and no one is more hateful than the person who violates it. Yet he cautioned that friendship should not be placed above religion, patriotism, or justice. We should reproach an erring friend but without harshness, bitterness, or arroganc e, and an innocent friend should never be forsaken. Most precious is friendship with God, who promises to be our friend if we do what God commands us. Prudentius was born in 348 at Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza) in Spain. He became a law yer and governed two provinces. He retired to write Christian poetry in 392 and published his works in 405. Prudentius wrote hymns for different parts of the da y and for Christian festivals. A hymn on the Trinity describes the divinity of C hrist, and in "The Origin of Sin" he argued against the Gnostic dualism of Marci on. Two books replied to the request by Symmachus to restore the altar to Victor y in the Roman senate. Psychomachia (Soul Battle) starts with Biblical heroes but soon turns to the all egorical portrayal of abstract qualities in conflict with each other. Faith take s the field and is countered by Worship-of-the-Old-Gods. Chastity is attacked by Lust. Prudentius argued that Christ has made us humans divine too. Patience wit hstands Anger and is protected by Virtue, who overcomes Vice. Fury is its own en emy, and Anger dies by her own weapons. Pride gallops forth to look down on Humi lity, who turns to Hope. The War-Queen cannot rouse Brotherly Love, Justice, Hon esty, Sobriety, Fasting, Purity, and unarmed Simplicity. Deceit lays a trap; but Pride, not Humility, falls into it. Vices like Luxury, Desire, Pomp, Strife, an d Pleasure are overcome by Sobriety. Greed, accompanied by Care, Hunger, Fear, A nguish, Perjury, Pallor, Corruption, Treachery, Falsehood, Insomnia, and Meannes s, seems to conquer the world; but powerful Reason defends the virtues and is re inforced by Good Works. Invincible Virtue strikes Avarice like a thunderbolt, an d the teachings of the Christ drive away Fear, Suffering, Violence, Crime, and F raud. Kind Peace banishes war, and happy Concord signals the victors to return to thei r tents. However, Discord enters their ranks disguised as a friend. Yet the Virt ues surround her and expose her as Heresy, who is killed by Faith and torn to pi eces. Peaceful Sentiments and Concord swear to love Christ. Faith and Concord bu ild a temple, and Spirit encircles private Soul. Wisdom is enthroned and sets in order all the government with laws to protect humanity. Prudentius concluded th at a savage war rages in the two-sided human nature until Christ comes to our ai d and orders the virtues so that Wisdom can reign forever. This allegorical meth od would become popular in Medieval and Renaissance literature. Prudentius composed hymns to honor those who died for Christianity in his Crowns of Martyrdom. Two men in Spain were killed for refusing to serve in the Roman a rmy. In 258 the bishop of Rome, Sixtus II, and others were killed because of an edict by Valerian. Lawrence was ordered to bring the gold concealed by the churc h. Lawrence asked for three days to produce the treasures of the church and then

came back with beggars. Lawrence was tortured by the prefect and prophesied tha t Rome would become a city of Christian worship and that the ancient statues wou ld be cleansed from blood and become guiltless. In Lawrence's martyrdom Prudenti us saw his victory over the ancient temples. In Lusitania the courageous Eulalia presented herself voluntarily to the seat of authority to challenge their madne ss, asking why Maximian prostituted himself to his gods and persecuted noble hea rts. Finally Eulalia breathed in the torturing fire and released her soul like t he whitest dove from her mouth. Vincent was among eighteen martyrs who were killed in Caesaraugusta. Vincent bra vely said to Governor Datianus that his tortures were mere sport to Christians. His speech was ordered imprisoned with a cruel rack and strokes; but Vincent bec ame even more cheerful and radiant, pointing out that within the body is another who is unconfined, undisturbed, unharmed, and exempt from the grievous pains. T arraco bishop Fructuosus and two deacons were burned to death in 259 because of an order by Caesar Gallienus. Quirinus was drowned in a river of Illyricum durin g persecution by Galerius. The longest account of a martyrdom by Prudentius was of Romanus, a Christian leader, who was tortured as he preached before he was ki lled at Antioch, also during the cruel government of Galerius. Prudentius also d escribed the martyrdoms of Peter, Paul, and Cyprian. John Chrysostom and Jerome John became known as Chrysostom (meaning "golden-mouthed" for his eloquence) in the 6th century. He was born at Antioch in Syria in 347 and was raised by his Ch ristian mother Anthusa. His father had been a military officer but died soon aft er John was born. John studied with Libanius, a stalwart pagan and the foremost rhetorician of this century. Before he died in 393, Libanius said that he would have liked to name John as his successor, but the Christians had carried him awa y. John became a successful lawyer and enjoyed the theater; but after he was ins tructed for three years by Antioch bishop Meletius, he was baptized. He wanted t o become a monk; but he agreed to stay with his mother, and Meletius made him a reader. In 370 John avoided appointment as a bishop by arranging for a friend named Basi l to be elected. His dialog On the Priesthood describes the white lie he told, b ecause he believed he was not qualified to be a priest. In this era talented men were often consecrated as bishops by the elders almost without their consent. M istrusting his own inexperience and ambition, Chrysostom believed Basil would be better. So he deceived his friend into thinking he would accept the position so that Basil would not try to avoid it. Basil was in fact seized and ordained. Jo hn described the qualifications for a priest and advised against accepting the v ocation without adequate preparation and valid motives. John was afraid he would be selected for his wealth. Chrysostom believed that divine law excluded women from the priesthood, and he complained that they use their power to select and r eject priests. A priest must cast out the lust of domination, be wise and patien t, and control his anger. Chrysostom believed (and later demonstrated himself) t hat a good priest has great speaking ability and skill in argument. He should be indifferent to praise and take no notice of slander. He warned against the doct rines of Jews and Manichaeans. It is much easier for a monk to save his own soul than for a priest to save the souls of others. Ultimately priests are entrusted with the government of the world and should shine like a light. After his mother died in 374, John spent six years as a monk in the hills south of Antioch. Chrysostom's early writings praised the monastic life and celibacy. In two long letters to his friend Theodore (later bishop of Mopsuestia), who wan ted to give up his monastic vow in order to marry, Chrysostom warned him that to sin is human, but to persist in sin is devilish, and to fall may not ruin the s oul, but to remain on the ground may. To challenge a 373 decree by Emperor Valen s compelling monks to serve the state in the military or civil service, Chrysost om wrote three books against the opponents of monasticism. Health required John

to return to Antioch, where Meletius ordained him a deacon. Meletius died while presiding at the ecumenical council at Constantinople in 381, and he was succeed ed by Flavius, who in 386 ordained Chrysostom a presbyter. When the people of Antioch, provoked by excessive taxation for the war against M aximus and imperial celebrations, rioted and destroyed the statues of Emperor Th eodosius and his late wife Flacilla, Bishop Flavius went to Constantinople to as k pardon for the city. During Lent in 387 Chrysostom preached a series of sermon s later collected as Twenty-one Homilies on the Statues in order to help resolve the disturbance. Although he said it was more a time for prayer than for preach ing, he pointed out that he had warned them to chastise those who resort to viol ence; but they had not paid attention to him. He criticized the "high-minded" ri ch who put wealth before virtue. He consoled them in their fear of punishment, u rged them to correct their vices, and reminded them that those who suffer unjust ly gain spiritually. He repeatedly warned them against taking oaths and careless speech. Fasting is not useful unless one also abstains from vice. Humans are ge ntle animals and are not furnished with horns, tusks, or claws. Humans minister with the rational soul, and God has provided us with a conscience by natural law so that we can act rationally according to God's will. Flavius returned with a full pardon from Emperor Theodosius just in time for the Easter sermon. Chrysost om then led the people in giving thanks for their preservation. In 398 Eutropius, the prime minister of Emperor Arcadius, chose Chrysostom to su cceed Nectarius as archbishop of Constantinople. A military escort was sent to b ring the reluctant Chrysostom to the capital, where he was consecrated by his ri val patriarch of Alexandria, Theophilus. John sold the expensive plate and furni ture of the episcopal palace to benefit the poor and hospitals, while he lived s imply himself. He disciplined the clergy and opposed the traditional custom of a llowing priests to live with "spiritual sisters." His eloquence helped him to ga in a large following among the people; but his castigating the misuse of riches antagonized the wealthy. The eunuch Eutropius was born a slave, but in the imperial palace he rose to be the most powerful person in the Eastern empire. As a eunuch he was not supposed to hold a state office, but he became consul in 399. When the Goths threatened, Eutropius offered their commander Tribigild a donative; but he refused, ravaged the country, and demanded Eutropius be deposed. Although Eutropius had enacted a law abolishing the right of sanctuary in churches, he himself fled into Chrysos tom's church. The archbishop gave him refuge and refused to give him up to autho rities, using him as an object lesson in his sermons. Eutropius was the first to break his own law. Church-goers could see a rich man fallen from the pinnacle o f power. Yet Chrysostom urged mercy not judgment and asked his congregation to p ray for the captive fugitive. When Eutropius did leave the church, he was captur ed and eventually beheaded. Chrysostom pointed out that the church did not leave him, but he left the church. All of this showed the vanity and insignificance o f human affairs. In 401 Chrysostom held a synod at Ephesus and deposed six bishops for simony. Wh en he returned, he found a cabal led by Empress Eudoxia formed against him. Chry sostom exacerbated the conflict by calling her a Jezebel from the pulpit. Fifty Origenists were banished from Alexandria by Bishop Theophilus; four "tall brothe rs" fled to Constantinople and appealed to Chrysostom. Although he did not agree with their views, John opposed their persecution. Epiphanius was said to have been from a poor Jewish family in Palestine but was educated by a rich Jewish lawyer. He was the first Jewish convert since Paul to become a prominent Christian father. In 367 he was unanimously elected bishop of Salamis on Cyprus. He wrote lengthy books against heresy, naming 80 different h eresies. He particularly aimed his venom at anchorite followers of Origen he had seen while a monk in Egypt. In 402 Epiphanius went to Constantinople to challen

ge its bishop Chrysostom for defending Origenists expelled from Alexandria. Howe ver, Epiphanius was persuaded that Alexandria bishop Theophilus had made false c harges in order to depose John. Epiphanius died on the return voyage to Cyprus t he next year. After Epiphanius failed to achieve his purpose, Theophilus went to Constantinopl e himself and accused Chrysostom before a secret council of 36 bishops, 29 of wh om were from Egypt. This synod of the Oak deposed and banished Chrysostom for im morality and treason in 403. Chrysostom refused to appear before this tribunal a nd appealed for a general council. The people were indignant they might lose the ir popular preacher; but to avoid a riot Chrysostom surrendered himself to imper ial officers. Nonetheless Constantinople was on the verge of insurrection, and o n the following night the city was convulsed with an earthquake, which frightene d Eudoxia so much she begged Emperor Arcadius to recall Chrysostom. He returned in triumph, and Theophilus sailed for Alexandria. Later that year a silver statue of Empress Eudoxia was erected for public adorat ion. Chrysostom's sermon on Herodias raging for the head of John the Baptist aga in aroused her ire. Arcadius was persuaded to remove Chrysostom. This time John refused to leave his church and was dragged away by imperial guards, disrupting the resurrection vigil of 404 as John's partisans were imprisoned and tortured. Chrysostom was held in the episcopal palace until Arcadius signed the banishment several weeks later. John submitted calmly and was sent to a harsh climate in A rmenia. He appealed to the bishop of Rome, Innocent I, and to the Western Empero r Honorius, who sent a delegation of five bishops to Constantinople; but on the way their dispatches were stolen, and they accomplished nothing. In exile Chryso stom wrote 242 letters and a short treatise on the Platonic theme that no one ca n harm a person who does not injure oneself by sin. Depriving one of wealth is n ot an evil, because riches can be a source of evils, and the poor often enjoy be tter health. Adversity does not injure a good person just as advantages do not r eally benefit a bad person. After being forced to make an exhausting journey to Pontus, Chrysostom died in 407. Chrysostom hated sin more than error, and he placed charity above being orthodox . More than seven hundred homilies by Chrysostom still exist. In one of his homi lies he wrote that nothing could be more chilling than to see a Christian making no effort to save others. There is no excuse for not meeting the obligation of this great duty. To pretend to be too weak to do so is to insult God. In a homil y on humility John noted that sin with humility is not as bad as being right but proud. Humility is the basis of the love of wisdom and all the virtues. Conside r then, he asked, into how deep a hell sin with pride can drag one, and how bein g just and humble can take one into heaven. Love casts out all inequality and kn ows no superiority. Chrysostom argued that demons do not govern the world and that no one is control led by the devil except through indolence; virtue can always be attained by bein g diligent. He listed five ways of repentance as condemning sins, forgiving othe rs, praying, giving charity, and being humble. Chrysostom reprimanded his congre gation for their apathy and also disapproved of their applauding his eloquence. He urged conquering enemies by kindness and suggested that reconciliation with e nemies in this world will save us from judgment in the next. Even if we are unju stly treated, we should pardon those who wrong us. Jerome was born about 347 near Aquileia. His parents were wealthy Christians, an d the family moved to Rome when Jerome was about 12. As a boy he played in the u nderground catacombs. He was well educated, studying Latin grammar under the pag an Donatus and rhetoric with the Christian convert Victorinus. Jerome lost his c hastity in the corrupt city, which he later painfully confessed. He is believed to have been baptized by Pope Liberius in 366. He traveled to Treves in Gaul wit h his friend Bonosius. For three years he studied scriptures in Aquileia with a

group of ascetics that included Rufinus and several future bishops. In 373 the g roup broke up, and Jerome traveled to Antioch. There during a nearly fatal fever Jerome dreamed he was brought before a Judge in dazzling light, who accused him of being a Ciceronian and not a Christian. In the dream he was flogged, and he vowed not to own or read profane books. Jerome spent about five years living asc etically in the desert of Chalcis, and his early writings praised the monastic l ife. In 378 he was ordained a presbyter by Antioch bishop Paulinus with the unde rstanding that priestly functions would not be forced on him. He next studied un der Gregory of Nazianzus in Constantinople. In 382 Jerome returned to Rome and served as a secretary to Pope Damasus for thr ee years. At the request of the Pope he began revising the old Latin translation of the scriptures, starting with the Gospels. Jerome's classes were attended by several widows and virgins, and he urged noble Roman families to donate charity . Jerome assisted Marcella in transforming her Aventine palace, founding the fir st convent in Rome. He wrote that Mary remained a virgin, arguing that reference s to the brothers and sisters of Jesus could mean cousins or children of Joseph by a previous marriage. Jerome held up Mary as the ideal for virgins to follow. He satirized Roman virgins who continued luxurious lives, being carried in litte rs and entertaining flatterers at lavish feasts. His criticism of lax monks, pri ests, and hypocritical virgins led to charges being brought against him after Da masus died. Although Jerome was acquitted by an ecclesiastical court, he was for ced to leave Rome to go to his diocese in Antioch. There he was joined by the wi dow Paula and her daughter Eustochium. In 386 Jerome settled in Bethlehem, where he would live the rest of his life. By 389 Paula had completed a monastery for men headed by Jerome with three cloiste rs for women under her supervision. Jerome had been studying Greek and Hebrew, a nd his knowledge of the latter was now greatly aided by secret study sessions wi th Rabbi Bar-Anina. He also learned Chaldean. While writing commentaries on vari ous scriptures Jerome worked on his Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible that was completed in 406, which would dominate Christian culture for a millennium. Jerome wrote an account of how the Theban Paul became the first hermit in Egypt during the Decian persecution in 250 before Antony, who was born the next year. So reclusive were Paul and Antony that they did not meet until some ninety years later just before Paul died. In the longer Life of Hilarion Jerome described ma ny wondrous deeds of that monk, and he also wrote how a Syrian monk named Malchu s was forced to marry but lived in chastity with his wife, who was actually alre ady married. Jerome's On Illustrious Men has short biographies of 135 literary m en, all Christians except Philo, Josephus, and Seneca from Peter to his own cont emporaries. He included unorthodox writers such as Tatian, Novatian, Donatus, Ph otinus, Eunomius, and Priscillian. Jerome also wrote letters, of which 120 survived. He praised the monastic life o f celibacy and asceticism. He warned his friend Heliodorus that coveting is a fo rm of idolatry. He wrote a long letter to Paula's daughter Eustochium in defense of virginity and warning her not to be tempted by frivolous thoughts. Jerome al so responded to false rumors about his relations with his lady friends. He advis ed Rusticus to learn cooperation by living with other monks before attempting to face a solitary life, and he warned him not even to look upon women. Jerome als o engaged in several controversies. His Dialog Against the Luciferians challenge d the view of Lucifer that anyone who had compromised with Arianism should be ba rred from ecclesiastical office. A Roman monk named Jovinian had taken monastic vows but refused to join a monastery. Jovinian also published his views that vir ginity, marriage and widowhood are equal in God's eyes if one is pious, and that it does not matter whether one fasts or not if one gives thanks. These views we re condemned by Pope Siricius, Ambrose, and Augustine. Jerome wrote so vehementl y against Jovinian that he was accused of showing contempt for marriage.

Although he did not agree with all his views, Jerome promoted the writings of Or igen by translating them from Greek into Latin, including On Principles. Later h e opposed the Origenists, translated the encyclicals of Theophilus against them, and even was able to get Origen condemned in the West through his friends Pamma chius, Marcella, and Eusebius. In the Origen controversy Jerome sided with Epiph anius against John of Jerusalem. To prevent the monks of Bethlehem from being de prived of clerical ministration by Bishop John, Epiphanius ordained Jerome's you nger brother Paulinian against his will, using force to gag him. John appealed t o Rome, Theophilus in Alexandria, and to Rufinus, praetorian prefect in Constant inople. This controversy was resolved, and Jerome's condemnation of John was nev er published. Jerome had studied Origen with his friend Rufinus; but after a council condemned his ideas in 400, Rufinus remained loyal to Origen while Jerome followed the co uncil. Vigilantius had accused Jerome of Origenism. Supported by the bishop of T oulouse, Vigilantius criticized the reverence people paid to relics, late vigils , sending alms to Jerusalem instead of to local poor, and the exaggerated admira tion of virginity. Jerome abused the views of Vigilantius, as did many other chu rch authorities of the time, and such practices would persist throughout the mid dle ages. Jerome corresponded with Augustine, and for a time they were at odds because a l etter by Augustine critical of Jerome had circulated in the West but had not bee n delivered to Jerome for nine years. Later, however, their friendship was confi rmed, and Jerome greatly praised Augustine. When Pelagius and his followers, who believed that a person could be without sin by will, were favorably received in Palestine in 416, Augustine appealed to Jerome, who wrote a dialog condemning P elagius as a heretic. In reaction some Pelagian monks attacked the Bethlehem mon asteries, destroyed buildings, and killed a deacon, though Jerome survived in a tower. The violence was stopped by a strong letter from Pope Innocent to Bishop John. The health of Jerome declined, and he died in 419. Notes 1. Lactantius, Divine Institutes 5:11 tr. William Fletcher in The Ante-Nicene Fa thers, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, volume 7, p. 147. 2. Ammianus Marcelllinus 5:4 tr. Walter Hamilton, p. 124. 3. Athanasius, St. Antony of the Desert tr. J. B. McLaughlin, p. 27. 4. The Letters of St. Antony 6:82 tr. Samuel Rubenson, p. 221-222. 5. Athanasius, St. Antony of the Desert, p. 99. 6. Athanasius, On the Incarnation tr. a religious of C. S. M. V., chapter 57, p. 96. 7. Saint Basil, "Against Anger" in Ascetical Works tr. M. Monica Wagner, p. 454. 1999 -2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents Empire of Augustus and Tiberius Jesus and His Apostles Roman Decadence 37-96 Rome Under Better Emperors 96-180 Roman Empire In Turmoil 180-285 Roman Power and Christian Conflict 285-395 Augustine and the Fall of Rome 395-476 Goths, Franks, and Justinian's Empire 476-610 Muhammad and the Spread of Islam Beck home

Beck home Augustine's Confessions Augustine, The Church Augustine's City of God Roman Empire Invaded 395-425 Macrobius and Cassian Roman Empire Reduced 425-476 Orosius and Salvian Leo, Patrick, and Severin Talmud Augustine: The Fall Of Rome 395-476 Augustine's Confessions Aurelius Augustine was born on November 13, 354 at Tagaste in the Africa diocese of the Western Roman empire. His father Patricius was a pagan until shortly bef ore he died in 371, but his mother Monica was a devout Christian. Augustine wrot e his Confessions soon after he was consecrated assistant bishop of Hippo in 396 . This remarkably innovative book is a long prayer to God that confessed his fai th and described his life with its human errors up to the year 387 when he was b aptized during Easter. Augustine began his Confessions by asking whether he should pray for help or pra ise God, whether he must know God before he can ask for aid, or whether humans c an learn to know God through praying. He admits that he does not know where he c ame from before he was born into this life, but he is grateful for the mercy he found in the world as he was nursed. He observed that even infants without langu age become jealous of a foster-brother at the breast. At school Augustine was be aten if he was idle at his studies. He thanked God for what he learned, because others only aimed to satisfy the desire for poverty called wealth and infamy kno wn as fame. He was punished for not wishing to study, but in retrospect he belie ved that every soul brings punishment on itself. Yet he observed, "We learn bett er in a free spirit of curiosity than under fear and compulsion."1 He asked pati ence for people who are more concerned with rules of grammar than with the etern al rules of human relations such as when we damage our own hearts by persecuting others. Augustine confessed that he stole from his parents' larder to trade for toys. Even when he was caught cheating, he would not give in. In adolescence Augustine found difficulty in distinguishing true love from murky lust even though his mother warned him about fornication, especially with anoth er man's wife. Yet he did not want to be less depraved than his fellows. With hi s peers he stole pears, only to give them to pigs, because they found pleasure i n doing what was forbidden. Augustine compared human faults with the perfection of God. Pride only pretends to the superiority that is God's. Ambition is only c raving for honor and glory, but only God is glorious. The powerful use cruel wea pons, but God is omnipotent. The lusty crave winning love, but God's charity and love of truth are more rewarding. The inquisitive seek knowledge, but God knows all. You are innocent even of the harm , which overtakes the wicked, for it is the result of their own actions. Sloth poses as the love of peace: yet what certain peace is there besides the Lord? Extravagance masquerades as fullness and abundance: but you are the full, unfailing store of never-dying sweetness. The spendthrift makes a pretense of liberality; but you are the most generous dispenser of all good. The covetous want many possessions for themselves: you possess all. The envious struggle for preferment: but what is to be preferred before you? Anger demands revenge: but what vengeance is as just as yours?2

Augustine realized he must have enjoyed the company of those committing the crim e, as he was bewitched by this unfriendly friendship. Augustine aimed to be a persuasive speaker to gratify his vanity, but he was lif ted into the love of wisdom by reading Cicero, which made the scriptures seem un worthy. He fell in with sensualists and clever speakers, greedy for gain in the illusion of liberty instead of loving the greater good of all. Their willingness to explain their religion philosophically led Augustine to accept Manichaean te achings for nine years until he was 27. For money he taught the art of speaking to those who wanted to win debates. He lived with an unnamed woman as a mistress ; but he was faithful to her. Later he realized that to cling to any beauty outs ide of God or the soul is only clinging to sorrow. Now he commands his soul to l ead instead of following the flesh. Under Manichaean influence he believed that evil is a substance that leads to crimes of violence and sins of passion. Now he realizes that free will makes him responsible for his own errors that become hi s punishment. Augustine studied astronomy, which helped him realize that Mani was trying to te ach about scientific questions, of which he was ignorant. Because Mani claimed t o know what he clearly did not, Augustine concluded that Mani lacked wisdom and was not the divine person he claimed to be. Augustine hoped that the Manichaean expert Faustus would be able to answer his questions, but he could not. While te aching rhetoric in Carthage, Augustine found that the students were too disrupti ve; so he moved to Rome, where he hoped they would be more disciplined. In order to leave his mother he had to deceive her about his departure. She cried and pr ayed for him. In Rome Augustine continued to associate with Manichaeans, who bel ieved that an evil force, not themselves, was committing the sin. Augustine foun d that this made his sin incurable until he later realized that he was responsib le as the sinner. Augustine was hired to teach literature and speech in Milan, where he met Bishop Ambrose. There he was joined by his devoted mother. Now Augustine began to favo r the Catholic teaching of the church that asked him to believe certain things b ut did not claim it could prove them. He found in the practicality of living tha t many things had to be taken on trust in order to accomplish anything. He lived with his close friends Alypius and Nebridus. Alypius had been seduced by gladia torial games, and Augustine tried to free him from the "spell of this insane spo rt." Augustine was hoping to marry a girl, but he had to wait two years until sh e was old enough. This caused his mistress to leave him and go back to Africa. A slave of lust, he took another mistress out of wedlock. Intellectually he was still trying to find the cause of evil. He repudiated the Manichaeans, because he thought they were full of evil while denying they were c apable of committing it. He was trying to grasp the idea that we do evil because we choose to do so by our free will, and we suffer from it because of God's jus tice. He adopted the belief that all things are good and that evil is not a subs tance, all substances being made by God. Those who find fault with the creation he considered bereft of reason. Even vipers and worms are good although they are in the lower order of creation. Wickedness, he decided, is a perversion of the will when it turns away from God. Augustine went to Suplicianus, a teacher of Ambrose, who told him about the dram atic conversion of the pagan rhetorician Victorinus. A man in the Emperor's hous ehold named Ponticianus told Augustine and Alypius about the Egyptian monk Anton y and the monasteries; there was even one near Milan. In the past Augustine had prayed for chastity; but part of him was not ready for it and would add "but not yet." Now he experienced a struggle between two parts of himself. He thought hi s will wanted to dedicate himself completely to God; but another will still oppo sed his making the decision. He was held back by his old attachments. Finally wh

en he read a passage from Paul's letter to the Romans (13:13-14), he decided to give himself to Christ and spend no more time on nature's appetites. Alypius app lied the next passage of Paul's letter to himself about making room for a man of delicate conscience. Augustine no longer desired a wife but stood firmly now in his faith. He quietly retired from the market by completing his teaching up to the autumn holidays. After a visit to the country with Alypius, his mother and o thers, Augustine took his 15-year-old son Adeodatus, who was "born of my sin," b ack to Milan. Adeodatus died about two years later. Augustine decided to return to Africa; but just before he left, his mother Monica died. Augustine began investigating his own mind and wrote particularly about memory, trying to explain how it works. He worked to free himself of temptations. He was more afraid of the uncleanness of gluttony than unclean meat. He believed he co uld not trust even his own mind based on its experience as much as God's mercy, because even those who have improved might pass from a better to a worse conditi on. In addition to sensual pleasures he found that his mind could be tempted by idle curiosity. In the last three books of his Confessions Augustine discussed G enesis and the problem of time. He concluded that we only are impelled to do goo d after being inspired by the Holy Spirit. Prior to that, he believed that the h uman impulse is to do wrong. Yet God is always good. He hoped to find rest in th e presence of God. To understand this truth we must seek it; when we do, the doo r will be opened. Augustine and the Catholic Church In 386 and 387, before he was baptized, Augustine held discussions with his moth er and friends. In the evening he wrote his own thoughts in Soliloquies. In thes e Augustine conversed with Reason. He believed that by loving the soul he also l oved his friends. Humans are worthy of being loved because they have reason, eve n if they sometimes make a bad use of it. Between his baptism and ordination Aug ustine wrote a dialog with his son Adeodatus on the teacher called The Master in which he adapted Platonic ideas by suggesting that the Christ within is the cha ngeless power of God. Every soul can consult this wisdom. Christ is revealed acc ording to each person's capacity depending on whether one's will is good or bad. Thus things are known by consulting this inner teacher, Christ, making knowledg e depend on illumination. During this period Augustine also started writing On Free Choice of the Will, bu t he did not finish it until 395. In the first book he asserted that each evil p erson is the cause of one's evil-doing. Otherwise it would not be just for God t o punish evil deeds. Augustine believed that murder is not a sin when a soldier kills an enemy or an official executes a criminal. He also wrote that an unjust law is not a law. He believed that no one can force a soul to be a slave to lust . A spirit armed with virtue can overcome a vicious spirit. Augustine believed t hat happiness and sorrow result from good and bad will. Eternal law orders us to turn our love away from temporal things to the purity of the eternal. Yet lovin g temporal goods is not punished unless one takes them dishonestly from others. Although humans are given free will, they can turn it to sin. In the third book Augustine tries to explain how God's foreknowledge is not inconsistent with free dom of the will. Our personal experience is that nothing is so completely in our power as our own will. He argues that God foreknows our power of will; but he d id not explain how God's foreknowing the results of our actions does not pre-det ermine them. In 391 Augustine went to the Numidian port at Hippo and was quickly ordained by the bishop Valerius amid the acclamation of the congregation. Valerius asked him to preach on Sundays, and Augustine began giving sermons such as the one in whi ch he condemned drunkenness as a relaxation of morals. The sermons were written down as they were delivered, and more than 400 remain. Alypius had been made bis hop of Tagaste, and Valerius got Augustine appointed assistant bishop of Hippo i n 396. Valerius died a year later, and Augustine became bishop. Much of his time

was spent arbitrating cases to prevent Christians from bringing formal legal ac tions before non-believers. Augustine believed that killing was always wrong unl ess a soldier or public officer was acting not for himself but to defend others. He interpreted that not resisting evil does not mean we should neglect the duty of restraining people from sin. He acknowledged forgiving of sins after baptism . He decided the only unforgivable sin is remaining impenitent until death. Howe ver, his belief that only the Catholic Church possessed the Holy Spirit led to t he unfortunate conclusion that not being a Catholic was an unforgivable sin too. In writing against the Manichaean Faustus in 397 Augustine suggested that the re al evils of war are the love of violence, revenge, cruelty, implacable enmity, w ild resistance, the lust for power, and so on. Force may be required to inflict punishment against these in obedience to God or some lawful authority. Thus in s ome circumstances Augustine believed that good men undertake wars. Augustine wrote the first three books of On Christian Doctrine in 397, but the l ast book was written thirty years later. In this work he held that the spiritual ly mature person in faith, hope, and love no longer needs the scripture except f or instructing others. To correct scripture Augustine held that whatever in its literal sense is inconsistent with purity of life or correct doctrine should be interpreted figuratively, carefully meditating on it in order to find an interpr etation that tends to establish the reign of love. Augustine recommended that th e Christian teacher should pray before preaching. He concluded that the main aim is to help the hearer understand the truth, hear it with gladness, and practice it. He exhorted teachers to fulfill their responsibility by leading a life in h armony with the teaching, showing a good example to all. Augustine also wrote in fluential catechetical instructions and a long work, The Trinity. In a handbook called Faith, Hope, and Charity he was one of the first to establish the idea of purgatory, and he adamantly maintained his belief in eternal hell against the O rigenist view that it would eventually end. Augustine held to the view that God' s mercy is unmerited by sinful humans and is given only by the grace of Christ. Augustine wrote works praising virginity, the good of marriage, the good of wido whood, and continence. Shortly before becoming bishop he wrote On Lying. He note d that not all false statements are lies, if the person believes it is true. Som e justify telling some lies for "doing good," while others believe we must never lie, following the decalog against bearing false witness. Augustine argued that the mind should not corrupt itself for the sake of its body. He made an excepti on for the case when lying may be the only way of preventing someone from forcin g one to do an unclean act. Augustine described eight kinds of lies. The first five are definitely to be avo ided and are 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) what what what what what concerns religion, helps no one and hurts someone, helps one but hurts another, is for the desire of lying, and pleases others in agreeable talk.

The next two are what hurts no one and helps someone as 6) when someone demands money from someone unjustly and one knows where it is, o r 7) if a judge is interrogating for a capital case. Although these are controversial, Augustine believes that brave and truthful men and women should still tell the truth. 8) is what hurts no one and does good by preserving one from corporal defilement

. The examples of the scriptures and saints are not to lie. Augustine concluded th at we should follow the commandment and not lie at all; but if a person does lie , the further down the scale toward the eighth the less the sin. The Priscillian ists believed it right to conceal their heresy by lying, and some Catholics want ed to pretend they were Priscillianists in order to penetrate their group; but A ugustine opposed this hypocritical practice, asking, "How then by a lie shall I rightly be able to prosecute lies?"3 After the Donatist bishop Maximin rebaptized a Catholic deacon, Augustine tried to resolve this ecclesiastical conflict by mediation without the Catholics appea ling to the imperial power of Rome or the Donatists using the rebellious Circumc ellions. Augustine was able to get the Donatists to join his side in a debate ag ainst the Manichaean Fortunatus. Augustine affirmed that evil springs from choic e of the will, while Fortunatus argued that evil is co-eternal with God. Under G ildo's leadership the Donatist church grew, and in 397 his stopping the departur e of grain ships to Italy forced a confrontation with Rome. Augustine contacted Fortunius to try to arrange a conference, and they agreed not to bring up the ex cesses of the bad men on either side; but a larger conference Augustine proposed was never held. The Roman navy invaded and destroyed Gildo and many Donatist pa rtisans, including their bishop Optatus of Timgad. In the coming years continuin g imperial edicts would repress the Donatist sect. Augustine himself was in dang er from Donatists and the Circumcellions. An attempted kidnapping failed because his guide took a wrong road. Once returning home from Calama, he was ambushed, wounding some of the men with him. To counter Donatist ideas Augustine wrote On Baptism in 401. The Donatist bishop Petilian complained to Augustine that Catholics carried on a war against them, and the Donatists' only victories were to be killed or escape . He asked how he could justify this persecution since Jesus never persecuted an yone. Augustine replied by suggesting that Christian love meant ecclesiastical u nity. Petilian angrily charged that love does not persecute nor inflame emperors to take away lives and plunder people's goods. He accused Augustine of still be ing Manichaean and blamed him for introducing monasteries to Africa. Augustine f ound Christ persecuting when Jesus expelled merchants from the temple with a whi p. Vincentius, an old friend of Augustine from Carthage and a leader in the Dona tist sect of Rogatists, was shocked that the Hippo bishop favored using state po wer to quell Donatists in order to force them into the Catholic church. Augustin e argued that Paul was struck blind on the Damascus road and that Elijah killed false prophets. Many Donatists were joining the Catholic unity because they fear ed the imperial edicts. He also referred to the parable of the banquet in Luke 1 4 when later guests were compelled to come. In 411 Emperor Honorius sent Marcellinus to solve the Donatist problem by holdin g a conference at Carthage that was attended by 286 Catholic bishops and 284 Don atist bishops. After a week of debate Marcellinus decided in favor of the Cathol ics. Soon an imperial edict authorized confiscating all Donatist property and fi ning their clergy. Any who persisted as Donatists lost their civil rights, and s ome were deported. Marcellinus also complained to Augustine that Christian teach ing contradicted the duties of Roman citizens, especially the not resisting evil with evil when the empire was being invaded by barbarians. Augustine would even tually answer Marcellinus in his book, City of God. Augustine also appealed to M arcellinus not to use capital punishment on Donatists so they would not be marty rs. Finally about 420 Donatists led by bishop Gaudentius fortified the cathedral at Timgad and threatened to set it on fire if they were attacked. The confronta tion went on for several months while Gaudentius reminded the officer that Jesus sent out fishermen, not soldiers, to spread the faith. Augustine refused to see them as martyrs and considered their threatened suicide a mad aberration. Yet h e wrote it would be better for them to perish in their own fire than burn in the

eternal fire of hell. No commemoration remains at this site, and what resulted is unknown. Augustine also placed celibacy above marriage. He approved of marriage to one pe rson only, and he opposed fornication before marriage, adultery after it, and di vorce. Only death could terminate a marriage, and sexual intercourse should be l imited to what was necessary to produce children. Pelagius and his friend Coeles tius believed that the doctrine of original sin with its implied weakness of hum an nature led to moral weakness, because people believed only the grace of God c ould help them. They visited Africa, and Pelagius went on to Jerusalem. Coelesti us was condemned by a council of bishops presided over by Augustine in 412 and t hen left Africa. He did not believe that Adam's sin extended to the entire human race. Pelagius believed that people are born in a neutral state without virtue or vice; Adam and his descendants sin by choice. Pelagius also ridiculed the ide a that God has selected a few for salvation while condemning a majority to be lo st, because it mocked the idea that God wants all to be saved. Augustine held to the conviction that baptism is essential to salvation regardless of one's age. Pelagius was accused by a Palestinian council in 415 but escaped censure, though under pressure from Africa eventually Pope Zosimus condemned both Pelagius and Coelestius. Yet Augustine believed that love is the essential quality that distinguishes the true Christian. Whatever you do, he advised, do it with love; for who can do il l to someone one loves? If you love, you cannot but do well. Augustine traveled to the capital of Mauretania at Caesarea in order to prevent the annual civil ba ttle between two hostile factions of families, and he was able to stop the blood shed. Honorius also issued edicts against any bishop who would not condemn the v iews of Pelagius, and in 419 a bishop from Italy, Julian, was deposed and banish ed. Julian wrote against the views of the "Carthaginian" Augustine, and the Hipp o bishop countered with his own arguments. Julian criticized Augustine for denig rating sexual desire, which Julian considered ordained by God. Julian also charg ed his adversary with denying free will because of his view that God predestined some for salvation and others to damnation. Julian believed that humans do good or evil by free will, assisted by God's grace or incited by the devil. He asser ted that if God created humans, they cannot have evil in them; if sins are forgi ven, children cannot be condemned for the sins of their parents. Augustine wrote his response in Against Julian in 421, citing scriptures and quoting Ambrose. Augustine's City of God After Alaric pillaged Rome in 410, many blamed Christianity for having weakened the Roman empire. The pagan Volusianus complained to Marcellinus, who in turn wr ote to Augustine. He began his immense work, The City of God, in 413 and did not complete it until 426. In the preface Augustine undertook to defend the gloriou s city of God, attempting to convince proud men of the power of humility, and he must also write of the earthly city that lusts to dominate the world by bending nations to its yoke. From the earthly city come the enemies against whom the ci ty of God must be defended. He observed that the cruelties suffered in war may i ncite the corrupt to reform their lives. Providence may test with afflictions ev en the virtuous and exemplary. Even the barbarians spared many for Christ's sake . Instead of believing that the gods could have saved Rome from destruction, Aug ustine argued that Rome had kept the gods alive for a long time. Those who blame d Christ for what they deserved to suffer did not seem to realize that they were spared for the sake of Christ. Augustine showed from history that temples and s tatues of gods were not usually spared during war. He believed that the good als o suffer in this earthly life, because they loved sweet things and did not feel compunction while others sinned. Augustine believed that the happiness of a city springs from the same source as that of individuals, because it is many individuals associating harmoniously. Vi rtue governs the good life from the seat of the soul rendering the body holy by

acts of will. As long as the will remains unyielding to crime, what others perpe trate on the body lays no guilt on the soul. Thus even a woman who is raped does not lose her chastity, because she has not lost her virtue. He argued against s uicide as a means to protect chastity. Augustine believed that anyone who kills a human being, whether another or oneself, is guilty of murder. The reward for g ood Christians is not possession of earthly things. The bad and good seem to gai n those. Yet Augustine found those of pure soul, who were outraged by the soldie rs, to be free of guilt. Augustine argued that the pagan fables and theatrical performances corrupted the virtues of the early Romans, and in his view those gods did not teach good laws nor the right moral code. Thus Plato banned the poets from his Republic. As Rom e's morals declined, it increased its craving for world power and the enjoyment of obscene ceremonies. Augustine believed that the pagan gods were unclean and l ying spirits. He compared a wealthy person with one of moderate means. The rich person suffers from excessive fear and worries because of feverish greed, while the modest person is content and has good relations, is self-restrained, morally chaste, and at peace. Augustine considered rule by the good a blessing for huma nity, while the wicked inflict greater harm on themselves because of the greater wrong they can do ruling. A good person, even a slave, is free; but a wicked pe rson, even if a king, is really a slave; for the wicked have to serve many vices . Augustine did not credit the Roman empire's expansion to its gods anymore than the military conquests of the previous Assyrian, Persian, or Alexandrian empire s were due to theirs. Cicero emphasized freedom of choice and in doing so denied foreknowledge. For Au gustine this meant giving up God to make humans free; for his faith held both. H e believed that God is aware of all things, including the human choices made wil lingly. The early Roman desire to live free or die soon developed into the love of domination as they won wars, led by ambitious men like Julius Caesar. The val ues of honor, glory, and power of Caesar triumphed over the virtue of Marcus Cat o. Augustine advised that the love of praise should yield to the love of truth. Christian martyrs exemplified a greater humility. For virtue to serve human glor y is as shameful as it is to serve bodily pleasures. Even the wars depended on G od's mercy and justice. God rewarded the piety of Constantine and Theodosius wit h prosperity. Augustine reviewed Roman religion and found no mention of eternal life. In turning to ethics Augustine noted that the greatest good, the goal of ethics, is sometimes supplemented with extrinsic goods like honor, glory, and wealth. F or Plato the good life is virtuous and is based on the love of God. However, Aug ustine criticized the view of Apuleius that intermediary spirits or demons betwe en God and humans may be rightly used for magic. Christians may revere martyrs; but they do not offer them sacrifices nor do they convert their sins into sacred rites. Augustine did not agree that demons are better beings than humans, becau se he accepted the popular belief that demons are evil beings. For Augustine onl y Christ should be the mediator between humans and God. Angels in his Christian theology Augustine placed above the demons, because their love of God makes them holy; he believed angels have higher knowledge and are never mistaken like demo ns. From the divinity and sacrifice of the Christ Augustine derived his belief in th e day of judgment, resurrection of the dead, eternal damnation of the wicked, an d an eternal kingdom of a glorious city of God whose citizens will forever enjoy the vision of God. Yet he believed that by love of what is good a person may in crease in the love of what is right and decrease love for what is evil until one 's entire life is transformed and made perfect. Evil is never absolute, because it only exists as relative defects in what is good. He believed that it is good for vitiated natures to be punished by justice. No one is punished for natural d efects but only for deliberate faults. Even a bad habit began in the will. Augus

tine believed that the whole universe is beautiful, and ugliness is only a limit ed perception of part of the whole. In such a case we should use faith to accept the greater master work of the Creator. All natures are good by their existence with their own beauty and peace. Changing things become better or worse dependi ng on whether they promote the good governance of the Creator. The dissolution o f mutable things in death is part of the divine process. The angels who fell tur ned away from God to themselves by the sin of pride. There is no efficient cause of evil will; but evil will is the efficient cause of a bad action. Greed is a defect in a person who desires gold more than justice. Lust is not a defect in bodies but in the soul who loves corporal pleasures more than temperan ce. Augustine believed that shame resulted from the sin of lust. Boastfulness is loving the applause of others, and pride is loving one's own power more than an other's. The evil will is its own cause because it starts the evil in mutable sp irits, and it does so by deserting the way of God. Thus vices may injure. For Au gustine human will is all-important, because if it is badly directed, the emotio ns will be perverted; but if it is well directed, they will be worthy of praise. The person who lives according to God does not hate other people but should hat e the sin because of the corruption while loving the sinner. Once the vice is cu red, only love remains. Augustine noted how the Stoics aim to replace desire wit h will, joy with contentment, and fear with caution. For Augustine fear should b e replaced with love. Augustine divided humanity into those who live according to man and those who li ve according to God, and so he wrote of two cities or human societies. One is de stined for eternal life under God, the other for eternal punishment with the dev il. The earthly city loves self in contempt of God, while the heavenly loves God in contempt of one's self. Augustine found the beginning of his city of God in the martyrdom of Abel and its opposite in Cain's murdering his brother. His city of man is full of contention and divided by wars and domestic quarrels. A city that raises its standard in war is enthralled in its wickedness; even when it co nquers, its victory is spoiled by pride. Or if it considers human vicissitudes a nd future failure, its triumph is only momentary. The earthly city loves dominat ion instead of being of service to others. Augustine observed that the city of m an was and remains in a chronic condition of civil war. The two largest earthly empires that arose were first the Assyrian in the East and then the Roman in the West. For Augustine the city of God places the supreme good in eternal life and the su preme evil in eternal death, and the method he recommends for finding this life is faith. Virtue, the highest of human goods, comes with education and is one un ending war with evil inclinations within ourselves. Augustine affirmed the tradi tional virtues of temperance, prudence, justice, and courage. He interpreted jus tice as the soul being subordinate to God and the body being subordinate to the soul. He found conflict even in one's own house, as scripture warns. Even in a p eaceful city some men sit in judgment of others, causing much grief and misery; for no human judge can read the human conscience. Thus many innocent witnesses a re tortured to try to gain information. The accused may be tortured to find out if they are guilty. Beyond the city is the world community, which has one war after another involvin g tremendous slaughtering of men. Developing empires have even worse conflicts w ithin from civil wars and social uprisings that create anxieties for humans livi ng in fear. Augustine admitted that a good ruler will only wage wars that are ju st, though a truly good person would be compelled to wage no wars at all. For Au gustine a just war is only justified against an unjust aggressor. The end of gen uine Christian virtue is the greatest peace. Yet many go to war to make their en emies their own and impose their will on them, calling it peace. Sinful people h ate human equality and love to impose their sovereignty over their fellow humans . They hate the just peace of God, preferring their own unjust peace. Augustine

defined peace as the ordered equilibrium of all its parts. For the irrational so ul this means its appetites; for the rational soul it is the harmonious correspo ndence of conduct and conviction; for the soul and body together it is a well-or dered life and health; between a mortal person and the Creator it is ordered obe dience guided by faith under God's law; between persons it is regulated fellowsh ip; in the home it is authority and obedience between members of the family; in the political community it is authority and obedience among citizens; the heaven ly city has harmonious communion of those who find joy in God. The earthly city uses temporal goods for worldly peace, but the heavenly city en joys eternal peace. God teaches loving God and one's neighbors. The fundamental duty is to look out for one's own home. Augustine believed that God did not mean for a person to have dominion over other persons but persons over beasts. Slave ry resulted from sin; but those who commit sin are slaves of sin. For Augustine being a slave of a man is not as bad as being enslaved to passion. Slaves by ser ving loyally with love may become free of fear until the injustice is ended. Tho se living in the heavenly city should also obey the civil laws of the earthly ci ty so that the two cities may make common cause, though Augustine noted there is often religious conflict. In the ancient Roman republic he found little true ju stice, which should recognize the rights of all and give each one's due. For Aug ustine pagans, who do not worship the one God, lack religious control of soul ov er body and reason over appetite and therefore true justice. Thus by his religio us definition any city that is not monotheistic is unjust. For Augustine there c an be no true virtue without true religion. Augustine observed that the good may be unfortunate and the wicked fortunate, a seeming injustice in this world; but God's judgments are inscrutable, and all wi ll be made just in the divine judgment at the end of the world. Following script ure, Augustine believed that in the last judgment the Jews will believe; the ant ichrist will persecute the church; Christ will judge; the dead will rise; the go od will be separated from the bad; the world will suffer from fire but be renewe d. Augustine countered arguments of those who believed that the punishment of he ll is not everlasting. In the last book Augustine described the eternal bliss of the city of God and how its citizens will be clothed with the personal immortal ity the angels never lost. Augustine cited several miracles as proof of Christia n teaching. Fallen humans have the two resources of law and education to learn t he authority of holy doctrine. The purpose of all punishment is to dispel ignora nce and control untamed desires, though Augustine did not explain how this is tr ue for eternal punishment. Augustine concluded by describing the final beatific vision of the saints before thanking God. The City of God would be very influent ial for more than a thousand years, and there are more manuscript copies of it t han of any book except the Bible. In 428 a youth from Hippo named Hilary and the theologian Prosper wrote to Augus tine from Gaul that people in Marseilles were disturbed by his "new theory" whic h they believed made preaching useless. How could the number of the elect be fix ed? Does it not depend on human free will? If God already has determined salvati on and damnation, would that not undermine all human effort? Augustine replied t o them in The Predestination of the Saints and The Gift of Perseverance, holding to the idea that people do not believe in order to be elected but that they are elected to believe, usually quoting Paul for support. He argued that Paul belie ved as he does and yet continued to preach. In 430 the Vandals besieged Hippo. A ugustine wrote a letter to Bishop Honoratus arguing that the priest should stay with his flock instead of fleeing to another city. In the third month of the sie ge Augustine became ill, and he died on August 28. Roman Empire Invaded 395-425 Thanks to a mutual respect for each other's empires, the treaties Rome made with Persia by Jovian in 363 and the one negotiated by Stilicho between Theodosius a nd Shapur III in 387 would last amid relative peaceful co-existence throughout t

he fourth century. Persians built and defended northern defenses, and Rome suppl ied gold to help pay for them. In 395 the Huns invaded Armenia, Cappadocia, and northern Syria, making it even more important to continue this arrangement. Acco rding to the historian Procopius, just before Arcadius died in 408, he sent a le tter to Yazdgard I (r. 399-421) asking the Persian monarch to be the guardian of his young son Theodosius II. The next year Yazdgard granted Christians freedom of worship and restored their churches. Persian fears of Christians intriguing f or Rome were relieved when the Christian church of Iran became independent of Co nstantinople. Yazdgard kept the peace with the Roman empire; but in the year bef ore he died, a bishop destroyed a Zarathustran fire temple in Susa, stimulating the persecution of Christians. After Vahram V (r. 421-438) had won a struggle fo r power, a large Persian army attacked Roman territory; but neither side was vic torious though many may have been killed. Bishop Acadius of Amida was credited w ith selling church plate to redeem 7,000 Persian captives. Anatolius negotiated a truce for a hundred years, and it lasted nearly that long until early in the s ixth century. Armenia continued to be divided with the Persian vassal Khusrau ruling over the most extensive territory in the east, while the western portion was loyal to the Roman emperor Arcadius and was ruled by Arsaces until the long Arsacid dynasty finally ended with his death about 430. Then the Roman military took control of this area. Persian king Yazdgard II (r. 438-459) studied all the religions but p ersecuted Jews and Christians. His attempt to convert Armenia to the Zarathustra n faith led to a rebellion; but he marched an army into Armenia and carried off to Iran the leaders of the great families and clergy. Under Peroz (r. 459-484) w ars against the Ephthalites or white Huns and famine devastated Persia. Jews wer e persecuted, and Christians were divided into the sects of the Nestorians and t he Monophysites, partly because bishops from Persia and Armenia did not attend t he Catholic church councils. Thus the Eastern half of the Roman empire had relat ive stability on that side while the Western suffered more incursions from Germa ns and Huns. Theodosius had briefly reunited the Roman empire under the rule of one man for t he last time; but with his death in 395 his 10-year-old son Honorius reigned in the West, and 17-year-old son Arcadius ruled the East; both were to be guided by the commander Stilicho, who was born a Vandal. He was opposed though by Rufinus , Praetorian Prefect of the East, who had accused Tatian and his son Proculus of corrupt administration as prefects of the East and Constantinople; Proculus was beheaded, and Tatian was banished. Rufinus even stigmatized their country Lycia by not allowing anyone from there to be an officer in the imperial government. The Latin poet Claudian wrote two books against Rufinus accusing him of extortin g oppressive taxes, bribery, unjust confiscations, forced and fictitious wills b y which he gained inheritances of his enemies, the public sale of justice, and o ther corruption. Claudian exaggerated the evils of Rufinus, because he favored h is patron Stilicho; but much of it was probably true. The Goths selected Alaric as their leader and ravaged Thrace and Macedonia before advancing on Constantino ple. Rufinus dressed as a Goth and persuaded them to march west. Lucian used mon ey his father Florentius had extorted from Gaul to get Rufinus to appoint him Co unt of the East; but when Lucian refused to favor the Emperor's uncle, Rufinus w ent to Antioch and had Lucian condemned and cruelly punished. Rufinus tried to m arry his daughter to Arcadius, but the Emperor preferred the beautiful Eudoxia, the daughter of Bauto, a Frank general serving Rome. The East still lacked troops that had been moved west for the war against Eugeni us. Stilicho was to return with them, and he imposed the will of Theodosius, giv ing Honorius dominion over Thrace. Rufinus got Arcadius to call for Stilicho fro m the conflict with the Visigoths in that region, and the Gothic officer Gainas marched the imperial legions to Constantinople. Rufinus met the troops of Gainas but was assassinated by them, and this was blamed on Stilicho. Meanwhile Huns f

rom the north invaded Mesopotamia and ravaged Syria. With Rufinus dead the eunuc h chamberlain Eutropius dominated the government of Arcadius. By intrigue Eutrop ius managed to kill and appropriate the wealth of military commanders Abundantiu s and Timasius. Claudian also wrote two books of poetry against Eutropius, criti cizing his greedy ambition and exaggerating his sale of offices. The poet wrote that the only passion the mutilated body of Eutropius could indulge was the pass ion for gold, and he even wondered whether the effeminate slave could blush or f eel shame. In 396 the Visigoths led by Alaric moved south into Greece, taking Boeotia, Athe ns, Megara, Corinth, Argos, and Sparta. Athens was spared, but the temple at Ele usis was plundered, according to Eunapius by a band of fanatical monks accompany ing the Gothic army. Thus the Eleusinian mysteries, which had given Hellenic cul ture a mystical basis in agricultural symbolism for eighteen centuries, were no longer celebrated. About this time Claudian wrote the poem The Rape of Proserpin e describing that part of the founding myth of these mysteries. The story of the underworld's king Pluto coming from underground by chariot to carry off the dau ghter of the barley mother Ceres (Demeter) symbolizes civilization's development of agriculture in the raping of the earth that led to wars over property. Ironi cally this poem marking the end of those mysteries that were founded when the Gr eeks were at that stage coincides with the invasion of the Goths and Huns, whose populations had increased to the point where they too must find enough land to settle down into an agricultural way of life. In Claudian's poem Jupiter compare s his reign to his father's golden era. Wealth blunts the minds of men. I arranged that necessity, mother of invention, would spur their lazy minds so that, little by little, they might discover the cause of things that are both hidden and open to view. An age of industry replaced a golden age.... Can a life that is hidden in a forest bring happiness to one who is more than animal?4 Stilicho led forces across from Italy and met Alaric at Elis. They made an agree ment, and Alaric withdrew to Epirus being recognized as master of Illyricum. The Senate in Constantinople resented Stilicho entering Greece and declared him a p ublic enemy, while Claudian flattered Honorius with empty praise. In 397 the Donatist Gildo withheld grain in Africa, though Stilicho supplied Rom e from Gaul and Spain. The Roman Senate unanimously declared Gildo a public enem y and sent Stilicho against him with an army of about 10,000 led by Gildo's brot her Mascezel, whose children had been murdered by their uncle when Mascezel had taken refuge in Milan. Yet the senators allowed their wealthy class the option o f paying 25 solidi for each recruit they had to provide. From that time and in t he next fifteen years nine imperial edicts on desertion and the concealment of d eserters were issued. The African forces refused to support Gildo, who was put t o death or committed suicide. According to the historian Zosimus, the jealous St ilicho had his bodyguards murder Mascezel while he was crossing a bridge. Claudi an celebrated Stilicho's victory in his poem The War Against Gildo in which Masc ezel is barely mentioned, and the poem ends abruptly after one book. Stilicho co nsolidated his power in the west by marrying his daughter Maria to Emperor Honor ius. In the East in 397 Arcadius enacted a law that anyone who conspires against the emperor or an imperial official shall be punished with death or confiscation; ev en knowledge of a wrong intention if not revealed or soliciting to pardon a trai tor could be equally criminal. The next year Eutropius seems to have led a succe ssful campaign driving barbarians back to the Caucasus, and his elevation to con sul in 399 stimulated Claudian to turn his invective poetry against the eunuch.

Italians were scandalized by a eunuch consul as a violation of their traditions, and the West refused to recognize his consulship. The German Gainas, who had been directed by Stilicho to lead the Eastern army ba ck to Constantinople, had become Master of Soldiers. Ostrogoths in Phrygia led b y Tribigild invaded Galatia, Pisidia, and Bithynia, as Arcadius was retiring to a resort at Ancyra for the summer of 399. Generals Gainas and Leo, a friend of E utropius, were sent against the invaders. Synesius, a philosopher from Cyrene ar rived in Constantinople and wrote against Germans in the state, arguing that giv ing arms to foreign Germans was like a shepherd trying to tame the cubs of wolve s. Gainas secretly reinforced the Ostrogoths and got his own Germans to revolt, resulting in the death of Leo. While pretending to be overwhelmed by Ostrogothic power, Gainas urged Arcadius to meet Tribigild's demand of deposing Eutropius. The empress Eudoxia also turned against Eutropius, who fled for sanctuary in the church St. Sophia. There he was protected by John Chrysostom, who preached on t he vanity of the world. Eutropius surrendered when offered his life and was bani shed to Cyprus. Eutychian was replaced as Praetorian Prefect of the East by Aurelian as the anti -German party triumphed. Gainas openly allied with Tribigild, and they plundered the Propontis. Apparently they got Aurelian replaced by an unknown person refer red to as Typhos in a literary work by Synesius called Egyptians. The Patriarch Chrysostom persuaded Gainas to banish rather than kill the three hostages Aureli an, Saturninus, and John, the lover of Empress Eudoxia. Gainas marched into Cons tantinople with his army and ruled there for the first half of the year 400. The n when the Goths left the capital, many were trapped in a church and killed. The one called Typhos fell, and Aurelian again became Prefect. Gainas became a decl ared enemy and plundered Thrace. At Abydos the Goths ran into the imperial navy commanded by the loyal Goth Fravitta. The troops of Gainas were defeated, and he was driven to the Hun king Uldin, who cut off the head of Gainas and sent it to Arcadius. Thus the East escaped the barbarian threat, and Stilicho could no lon ger plot against them. Stilicho became consul in Rome, venerated again by the po etry of Claudian. In 401 Vandals led by Radagaisus invaded Noricum and Raetia. While Stilicho's ar my was stopping them, Alaric crossed the Italian Alps to capture Aquileia. Stili cho gathered Goth auxiliaries and returned to Italy, and on Easter in 402 at Pol lentia his forces captured Alaric's camp and some of his family. Negotiations re sulted in Alaric leaving Italy. The next year Alaric attacked Verona and was aga in defeated by Stilicho, who nonetheless allowed the Goths to occupy Dalmatia an d Pannonia so that they could help him annex Eastern Illyricum. Emperor Honorius visited Rome and celebrated with games. An appeal by Christian poet Prudentius led to the prohibition of gladiatorial games after the aged monk Telemachus trie d to separate two combatants in the Colosseum and was killed by the stones of an gry spectators. Honorius closed the Colosseum in 405. In the East John Chrysostom criticized rich nobles, many of whom had a dozen or more mansions and a thousand or more slaves, who were often brutally treated. He preached that the marriage rights of the wife are equal to those of the husband . John opposed granting the Arian Goths a church in the capital, but he visited the church of the orthodox Goths often. Empress Eudoxia wanted Arcadius to tear down the heathen temples in Gaza and build a church there. In 401 John Chrysosto m investigated Ephesus bishop Antoninus for simony and other offenses, and Chrys ostom went beyond his jurisdiction in replacing at least thirteen bishops. Chrys ostom himself was accused of various offenses by his archdeacon John; but he did not appear at the Synod of the Oak, where he was condemned mostly by Egyptian b ishops and deposed. Chrysostom requested a general council and withdrew from Con stantinople; but the ire of the people on his behalf and an earthquake frightene d Eudoxia into inviting him back. After Eudoxia celebrated a silver statue of he rself erected by city prefect Simplicius near St. Sophia church, Chrysostom rage

d against her as a Herodias. A council met in 404 and ordered Chrysostom to remain in his palace during the E aster celebrations. On June 20 Arcadius banished Chrysostom. That night a fire b roke out in St. Sophia, beginning from the archbishop's chair and spreading to t he Senate-house next door. Investigators blamed the conflagration on Chrysostom or his friends. An Italian Synod declared the condemnation of Chrysostom illegal and demanded a general council; but efforts on his behalf by Western Emperor Ho norius were to no avail, and Chrysostom died in exile in 407. Eudoxia had died o f a miscarriage in 404, and Arcadius died in 408. As Theodosius, the son of Arca dius, was only seven years old, in this interval Praetorian Prefect of the East Anthemius was prime minister, while much of Asia Minor was devastated by Isauria n brigands. Anthemius improved the navy on the Danube, and after a famine in 408 he re-organized the Egyptian grain supply. In the West Germans with mostly Ostrogoths invaded northern Italy in 405. Even t he Emperor's estates were not exempted from the law that penalized those refusin g to supply the army by requiring them to provide four times what was due. The f orce led by Radagaisus attacked Florence; but the next year Stilicho recruited s laves by offering them freedom and two pieces of gold. With nearly 20,000 men he forced the Germans to retreat to Fiesole, where they were starved into surrende r. The Germans who were not slaughtered were sold as slaves; even though Radagai sus capitulated, he was beheaded. However, the Rhine was left undefended, and la te in 406 Germans began pouring into Gaul, and the same year King Gunderic led t he Vandals into Spain. Stilicho turned to Illyricum, stimulated by the imprisonm ent of ecclesiastical emissaries sent by Honorius to complain about the Eastern Emperor's treatment of John Chrysostom. Stilicho closed Italian ports to ships f rom the East. While Alaric was holding Epirus for Honorius, Jovius was appointed Praetorian Prefect of Illyricum. However, Alaric marched his army to Noricum and demanded 4,000 pounds of gold fr om Rome. Stilicho persuaded the Roman Senate to send the money. When Stilicho's daughter Empress Maria died, Honorius married her sister Thermantia. Stilicho ma naged to get the federated Franks to fight for the Roman empire. Invading Alans divided when their king Goar also sided with the Romans in Gaul; but after the A sding king Godeigisel was killed along with thousands of Vandals, the other Alan king Respendial defeated the Franks and plundered Mainz, massacring many inhabi tants who took refuge in a church. The Alans invaded Belgica and ravaged much of Gaul. The land north of the Alps to the Rhine had been effectively taken over b y the Suevi, Vandals, Alans, and the Burgundians, who would retreat behind the R hine no more. Honorius learned of his brother's death in 408 while returning to Ravenna. Stili cho persuaded the Western Emperor to allow him to go to Constantinople to protec t young Theodosius, while Alaric was sent as a master general of imperial armies against Constantine in Gaul. The minister Olympius made Honorius suspect that S tilicho was going to kill Theodosius, causing a military revolt that killed many of the top officials attending on Honorius. Stilicho marched to Ravenna, but th ere he was executed by Heraclian, who was rewarded by being made Count of Africa . Stilicho's son Eucherius was killed at Rome, and Honorius repudiated his virgi n wife Thermantia. Stilicho's edict against traders from the East was rescinded. Emperor Honorius excluded from office those who were not Catholic, rejecting man y skilled pagans and Arian barbarians. This policy led Roman troops to massacre families of barbarian auxiliaries, causing 30,000 foreign soldiers to join Alari c in Noricum. Alaric offered to withdraw into Pannonia for more money and an exc hange of hostages; but Honorius, guided by his minister Olympius, declined. So i n 408 Alaric entered Italy for the third time and besieged Rome. The Senate reac ted by having Stilicho's widow Serena strangled. As Romans suffered hunger and p lague, Alaric demanded all their goods, leaving them only their lives. Honorius

agreed to send the treasure of Rome, and Alaric withdrew to Etruria, as barbaria n slaves from Rome swelled his army to 40,000. A garrison of 6,000 sent from Dal matia to protect Rome were almost all killed or captured by Alaric's army. Olymp ius sent some troops against a force of Goths and Huns led by Athaulf, Alaric's brother-in-law. This dangerous alliance stimulated the enemies of Olympius to re place him with Jovius as Praetorian Prefect of Italy. Jovius was a friend of Ala ric and negotiated with him, but Honorius refused to grant lands for the Goths t o settle and put slaves in the army by promising them emancipation. Alaric blockaded Rome again and appointed city prefect Attalus the new emperor w ith himself as military leader and Athaulf as Chief of the Domestics. To protect the grain they sent Constans with Roman soldiers against African count Heraclia n, who was loyal to Honorius; but Constans was killed. Jovius joined the side of Alaric. Alaric besieged Ravenna, but Honorius was reinforced by the East. In 41 0 Alaric deposed Athaulf and met with Honorius; but negotiations were broken off when the Visigoth Sarus attacked Alaric's camp. Alaric marched on Rome for the third time and allowed his troops to sack the city, though as an Arian Christian he had the churches spared; he died before the end of 410. To succeed him, the Ostrogoth Athaulf was elected king of the Visigoths. The Emperor required provincial governors to return to Rome guildsmen who had fl ed. Men were not allowed to marry out of their guild; if a woman did so, her hus band had to follow her father's occupation. The imperial administration often ha d difficulty doling out in Rome bread, pork, wine, and oil, instead of merely th e wheat that had been supplied in previous eras. In the provinces assemblies no longer elected their municipal magistrates. The curia were now landholders who o wned more than 25 jugera. Their duties of collecting taxes or paying the costs t hemselves had become so onerous that curiales had to be compelled to remain in t heir positions, as the class became weaker. Such pressures and the failure of co loni farmers to pay their taxes resulted in wealthy landowners increasing their holdings, while they often avoided paying taxes themselves. The increase of depe ndent tenant farmers under rich landlords and the making of most occupations her editary gradually would develop into the feudal system. In Britain Marcus had been proclaimed emperor; but in 407 he was killed and repl aced by Gratian. Four months later a soldier named Constantine replaced Gratian and crossed with his army over to Gaul, leaving Britain open to invasion by Saxo ns, who took over the country about 410 when Honorius wrote to the British the e mpire could no longer defend them. Gaining Gallic legions, Constantine took cont rol of the eastern strip of Gaul, while the Vandals, Suevians, and Alans ravaged the rest of Gaul. The next year an imperial army led by Sarus crossed the Alps and defeated Constantine but then returned to Italy. Constantine sent his Caesar Constans to invade Spain and later made him Augustus (emperor) too. In 409 the beleaguered Honorius recognized Constantine as a legitimate emperor. Constans le ft his general Gerontius in charge of Spain and returned to Gaul. Asdings led by King Gunderic, Silings, Sueves, and Alans crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Spai n. Gerontius negotiated with them and appointed a new emperor named Maximus. The influence of Rome's Bishop Innocent may have stimulated the 409 law expelling t he mathematici (diviners and sorcerers) from Rome and all Italian cities. In 410 the Roman empire had six emperors: Honorius and his nephew Theodosius, At talus at Rome, Constantine and Constans at Arles, and Maximus at Tarragona. Hono rius sent generals Constantius and Ulfila to regain Gaul. The army of Gerontius fled, and Gerontius returned to Spain; there his troops turned against him, and he was killed. Constantine was besieged at Arles; reinforcements from the Alaman ni and Franks were defeated, and his general Edobich was treacherously killed. C onstantine and his son were sent to Honorius, who put both of them to death in 4 11. In Gaul Burgundian king Gundahar and Alan king Goar proclaimed the Gallic Roman

Jovinus emperor. In 412 King Athaulf led the Visigoths across the Alps with the captives Placidia and Attalus. Sarus with only twenty men was captured by Athaul f's army and put to death. When Jovinus appointed his brother Sebastian Augustus also, Athaulf sent envoys to Honorius in Ravenna and soon sent him the heads of both Jovinus and Sebastian. Such upstart tyrants also stimulated Count Heraclia n of Africa, who tried to attack Italy, was defeated, and beheaded in 413 after fleeing back to Carthage. He had stopped the grain supply though, causing hunger in the Gothic camp. Athaulf tried to take Marseilles, but he was repulsed and wounded by Boniface. H owever, Athaulf was able to capture Narbonne, Bordeaux, and Toulouse, and he mar ried the sister of Honorius, Placidia, who apparently shifted his ambitions in t he Roman direction. Yet when Honorius did not respond, Athaulf proclaimed Attalu s. Deprived of provisions by Constantius, Athaulf wasted Aquitane, burned Bordea ux, and went to Barcelona in 415. Attalus was abandoned and captured by Constant ius. Athaulf and Placidia had a son named Theodosius, but he soon died. Athaulf himself was murdered by a follower of Sarus in revenge. So many poor men had los t everything and in desperation joined marauding bandits that in 416 the Emperor proclaimed a general amnesty for such crimes. Singeric, a friend of Sarus, claimed the kingship and had Athaulf's other sons k illed. This usurper was slain after only seven days, and Wallia was duly elected king of the Visigoths. He got 600,000 measures of grain for his people in excha nge for returning Placidia and fighting for the empire against barbarians in Spa in. Constantius had long been in love with Placidia, and he married her on the f irst day of 417. Wallia attacked the Silings in Baetica, capturing their king. H e also subjugated the Alans, while the Asdings and Suevians were accepted as Fed erates by Honorius. The resisting Silings were practically exterminated, and esc aping Alans joined the Asding Vandals, making Gunderic "King of the Vandals and Alans." Wallia's Goths were rewarded with the Gallic province of Aquitania Secun da, gaining two-thirds of the land while Romans only retained one-third. The oth er Teutonic kingdom in Gaul was the Burgundians on the Rhine. When Wallia died i n 418, Theodoric I, grandson of Alaric, was elected Visigoth king. That year Hon orius established an assembly to meet annually at Arles to represent seven gover nors in southern Gaul. In Spain Vandals led by King Gunderic blockaded the Suevi ans; but an imperial force led by Asterius forced them to abandon the blockade, and the Vandals migrated to Baetica. In the East in 413 regent and praetorian prefect Anthemius had a wall with numer ous towers erected around Constantinople that would make it very difficult to at tack the city. Later city prefect Cyrus had walls constructed along the seashore too. 16-year-old Pulcheria became Augusta in 414, and Aurelian succeeded Anthem ius as Prefect of the East. Pulcheria took control of her younger brother's educ ation and removed the eunuch Antiochus. Theodosius was gentle and reluctant to i nflict capital punishment. In troubled Alexandria in 412 the patriarch Theophilus was succeeded by his neph ew Cyril, who coveted power in order to extirpate paganism and persecute Jews. T he distinguished mathematician and Neo-Platonic philosopher Hypatia was in her f orties and was much admired for her beauty and wisdom, lecturing to large crowds . Cyril hated her because she was the friend of the pagan prefect of Egypt, Ores tes. Cyril menaced the Jews so much that they reacted by massacring some Christi ans. Cyril then banished all Hebrews and allowed Christians to plunder their pro perty. 500 monks publicly insulted Orestes, and one who hit him with a stone was executed; he was treated as a martyr by Cyril. In 415 another mob of monks call ed parabalani, who were supposed to tend the sick, seized Hypatia, because they believed she hindered a reconciliation between Orestes and Cyril. They dragged h er to a church, tore off her garments, and dismembered her body. The ecclesiasti cal historian Socrates held Cyril morally responsible for this atrocity.

In 421 Theodosius married Athenian-educated Eudocia, and two years later she was declared Augusta. Also in 421 Honorius allowed Constantius to be crowned August us and his wife Placidia Augusta; but in Constantinople they were not recognized by young Theodosius and his sister Pulcheria. Constantius died seven months lat er, and Placidia took refuge with her family in Constantinople. After reigning 2 8 years Honorius died in 423. A usurper named John was proclaimed emperor at Rav enna, but Theodosius and Pulcheria supported Placidia and her 4-year-old son Val entinian, Placidia agreeing to return Dalmatia and part of Pannonia to the East. Theodosius exiled John's envoys and sent a large army commanded by Ardaburius a nd his son Aspar, accompanied by Placidia and Valentinian. The fleet was scatter ed in a storm, and Ardaburius was captured and taken to Ravenna. Aspar attacked the city; John was captured and publicly executed before Aetius arrived with 60, 000 Huns. Aetius as a boy had been a hostage with Alaric and with the Huns. Aeti us agreed to support Placidia, and the Huns were bought off with money and retur ned to their homes. At Rome Valentinian III was named Augustus in 425. Like the 4th century, the 5th century had little noteworthy literature that was not of a religious nature. Claudian's panegyric poetry and his Rape of Proserpin e were already mentioned. Later Sidonius would also use poetry to praise the emp erors Avitus, Majorian, and Anthemius. One anonymous comedy called Querolus surv ives from the early 5th century. It is the only Roman comedy extant after Terenc e and the only Roman play extant after Seneca. The play is dedicated to the poet Rutilius Namatianus. It satirizes many current religious and philosophical idea s indirectly. Querolus asks the household god why the wicked prosper and the good suffer; but the god shows him that since he has committed thefts, lies, and adultery accordi ng to the times, his woes are his own fault. The god advises him to know the cha racter and vices of people and avoid parties, wine, and crowds. When asked what he wants, Querolus asks for moderate wealth and military honors. Since he has no military skill, the god offers him money and tells him to put his trust in a de ceiver, to help those who plot against him, and to welcome thieves into his hous e. Querolus does so, as Mandrogerus poses as a fortune teller and brings Swindle r and Sardanapallus in to get an urn of gold the late father of Querolus told Ma ndrogerus he could share with his son Querolus if he used no fraud. They remove a chest with the urn but find only ashes. So they throw the urn back into the ho use; it breaks, and Querolus discovers the gold. Then Mandrogerus returns to sho w the letter from the father and get his share even though he tried to cheat. Fi nally Querolus adopts him into his house, because Mandrogerus can recite the lat est decree concerning parasites. Macrobius and Cassian Not much is known about the life of the Neo-Platonist philosopher Macrobius. He may have been a prefect in Spain in 399, proconsul in Africa in 410, and grand c hamberlain in 422. Macrobius in his Saturnalia portrayed several prominent pagan aristocrats in a discussion held during the three days of that festival. Praete xtatus, in whose house they talk, had been proconsul of Achaea under Julian (361 -363), was praetorian prefect under Theodosius I, and was consul in 385; he had been initiated into many cults of Syria and Egypt and was known for his priestly lore. Flavianus also rose to power under Julian and retired during the reign of Valentinian I; but when Gratian ruled, he joined the circle of the poet Ausoniu s and as proconsul of Africa tolerated heretics. Flavianus became prefect of Ita ly in 393 and supported the rebellion of Eugenius, restoring the altar to Victor y in the Senate-house. When Eugenius was defeated by Theodosius in the battle on the Frigidus in 394, Flavianus took his own life. They are joined by the rhetor ician Eustathius and the critic Servius. These men were also friends of the most prominent pagan of this era, Symmachus, whose letters describe the lives of wealthy pagans. He was best known for his sp eech which failed to persuade Emperor Gratian to restore the statue to Victory i

n the Roman Senate in 382. His letters indicate that women had gained greater so cial prestige in this era, and that often pagan men had sympathetic Christian wi ves. Symmachus wrote that Furiola founded a hospital, and Gratian's widow Laeta fed the starving people in Rome during the siege by Alaric. The guests in the Saturnalia claim that their society has less luxury and dissip ation than earlier ones, and they disdain to associate with actors. When Euangel us mocks the idea that God cares about slaves, Praetextatus responds that he val ues people not by their status but by their character. He suggests they treat th eir slaves with gentle goodness and admit them into their intimate conversations . He says that their ancestors removed the pride of the master and the shame of the slave by making them part of their families. Everyone is a slave of God or F ortune. Even the greatest bear the yoke. A slave is really a fellow servant subj ect to the same chances and changes. The real slave is the person in bondage to passions. No servitude is more shameful than that which is self-imposed. Treat y our slave as a friend, for it is better to be loved and respected than feared. O f course Praetextatus referred to household slaves; it is difficult to imagine a rich landowner having close friendships with hundreds of workers. Macrobius' Commentary on Cicero's "Dream of Scipio" preserved that portion of Ci cero's Republic for posterity and described a mystical cosmology using Pythagore an ideas. He saw the universe as a hierarchy of God filled with the divine prese nce in a great chain of being from the highest stars to the lowest animals. Mind in contact with matter becomes a soul. All below the moon is mortal except the higher principle in humans. The soul descends through the seven spheres. The pla nets represent the harmony of the spheres with Saturn standing for human intelle ct, Jupiter for practical morality, Mars for spirited emotions, and Venus for se nsuality. He also observed that Venus and Mercury orbit the Sun. Macrobius emphasized the cardinal Hellenic virtues, held out the prospect of rew ard after death, and believed in the divine origin and destiny of the human soul . Being in a body is a kind of death until one dies to sin and corporeal passion . However, one must not terminate one's imprisonment by suicide, because such an act rebels from the Great Master. One must continue to work for improvement dur ing this probation in order to win a better reward. Degraded souls who cling to the mortal elements after death do not ascend into the divine world but return t o be born again in a body. The only way to achieve eternal happiness is by virtu e. Although civic virtue may control the passions, Macrobius recommended cleansi ng virtues to eradicate them by turning from glory to conscience. John Cassian was born about 365 and grew up in a wooded area of Europe with no m onks; but he was well educated and while young he renounced the world and joined a monastery in Bethlehem with his friend Germanus. The two gained permission to visit the monasteries in Egypt and stayed there seven years. They were welcomed by Pinufius, abbot of a famous monastery, who had previously fled that responsi bility to go as an unknown monk to Bethlehem, where he had been assigned to Cass ian's cell until his identity was discovered and he was sent back. Cassian and G ermanus were inspired by Abbot Piamun to seek the Anchorite life of isolation; b ut after visiting Abbot Paul's monastery with more than two hundred monks they w ere influenced by Abbot John to learn obedience from the community life of the C enobites. Yet another abbot named Theonas drew them back to Anchorite asceticism by giving them his cell and building another for himself. After returning to th eir brothers in Bethlehem, Cassian and Germanus went back again to Egypt to expl ore more monasteries in the valley of Nitria, where as many as 5,000 monks lived . In 399 the Abbot Paphnutius allowed the letters of Alexandrian bishop Theophil us against the Anthropomorphite heresy to be read, and their view of the Godhead became less materialistic. About 400 Cassian and Germanus went to Constantinople, were ordained deacons and put in charge of the treasury. When John Chrysostom was banished in 404, German

us and Cassian were sent with letters to Bishop Innocent in Rome, where Cassian was probably ordained a priest. Eventually Cassian went to Gaul and in 415 he fo unded a nunnery and the monastery of St. Victor at Marseilles, where he served a s abbot until his death some time after 432. About 420 Cassian wrote The Institu tes of the Cenobites and the Remedies for the Eight Principal Faults as instruct ions for establishing other monasteries in the area. He first described the simp le dress of the monks and then the canonical system of nocturnal and daily praye rs and psalms which he adopted from Egypt. The fourth book is on renunciation an d includes the story of Pinuficius leaving his monastery. The last eight books a re on the spirit of the eight principal faults, which are gluttony, fornication, covetousness, anger, dejection, laziness, ambition, and pride. Cassian describe d the discipline of the monks as being athletes and soldiers of Christ who, when they have conquered the flesh, still must fight against principalities, powers, and world-rulers. In writing on dejection he emphasized patience and learning h ow to get along with everyone. In a long work entitled Conferences completed by 428 Cassian described what he a nd his friend Germanus learned from their meetings with various Egyptian monks. In the first conference Moses discussed the monk's goal, which Cassian and Germa nus believed is the sovereignty of God. Moses said that to achieve that one must have a clean heart, and the reward of that sanctification is eternal life. For this purpose monks take on loneliness, fasting, vigils, work, reading scriptures , and virtuous activities in order to rise to higher levels of love. Anything th at could trouble the purity and peace of the heart must be avoided as dangerous even if it may seem useful or necessary. Because of temptations on all sides the mind cannot be free of turbulent thoughts; but zeal and diligence can decide wh ich thoughts to cultivate. Moses said that all thoughts come from God, the devil , and ourselves, and we must discern their origin. In the second conference Mose s continued to discuss discernment, which is necessary for one to reach the heig hts and perfection. He told of how Hero was deluded that he was free of danger a nd died after falling into a well. Moses recommended humility first and obeying the scrutiny of elders. Discernment keeps one free of the two excesses, which ar e too much self-denial and carelessness. In the third conference Paphnutius described the three renunciations. The first relates to the body and involves giving up riches and worldly goods. The second renunciation repels vices and passions, and the third draws one away from the vi sible world to the unseen spirit. In the 4th book with Abbot Daniel on lust, the y found the third factor in the conflict between flesh and spirit is the human w ill. In the 5th book the ascetic Serapion told them of the eight principal fault s. In the 6th book Theodore reminded them that evil cannot be forced on anyone a gainst one's will. In encountering an inconstant mind and spiritual evils in the 7th and 8th books, Serenus suggested the answer is relying both on help from Go d and on the power of free will. Isaac discussed prayer in the 9th and 10th conferences. First one must remove al l cares of bodily things, worries, memories, and feelings of anger, sadness, and desire. Next comes building virtue. Thus before praying one must act as one wou ld wish one to act while praying. The purified soul will be lifted up by its nat ural goodness. Isaac listed four types of prayer as supplicating or petitioning, offering or promising, pleading for others, and giving thanks. The three ways t o direct a wandering mind are vigils, meditation, and prayer. In the 11th confer ence Chaeremon observed that the three things that keep people from sin are fear of hell or earthly laws, hope and desire for heaven, and goodness itself and th e love of virtue. Fear and hope for reward are imperfect, but Chaeremon saw thes e as stages toward the perfection of revering love. In the 12th and 13th books C haeremon discussed chastity and emphasized that the grace of God is more importa nt than human effort. Nestoros discussed spiritual knowledge in the 14th conference. First one must kn

ow one's sins and how to cure them. Second one must discern the order of virtues in order to shape one's spirit by their perfection. The practical side of knowl edge has many professions and disciplines. Nestoros divided the contemplative si de of knowledge into historical or empirical interpretation and three levels of spiritual insight he called allegory, anagoge, and tropology. History is the pas t, and the empirical is the perceptible. Allegory finds another meaning by symbo lism. Anagoge includes prophecy of the future or the invisible. Tropology is the ethical teaching designed for amending one's life. Nestoros reminded his listen ers of the importance of humility and that it is impossible to acquire spiritual knowledge with an unclean heart. As the prophet Hosea wrote, to attain spiritua l knowledge you must first sow integrity for yourselves. In the 15th conference Nestoros said that spiritual gifts, such as healing and prophecy, may be caused by the merit earned by holiness or may be for the edification of the church or m ay even be a trick worked by demons. Saints do not make selfish use of their abi lity to work miracles. Nestoros argued that it is a greater miracle to root out luxury, restrain anger, and exclude depression than it is to cast out unclean sp irits or sickness from someone else. In the 16th book on friendship Joseph emphasized that love not only belongs to G od but is God, and in the next book Joseph warned against making absolute promis es and discussed in what circumstances lying might be justified. Three kinds of monks are defined by Piamun in the 18th conference. First are the cenobites who live together in community; they began with the apostolic preaching. Second are the anchorites who are first trained in monasteries and then choose solitude; th ey started when Paulus and Antony fled persecution into the desert of Egypt. Pia mun deplored the third group he called sarabites. These include anyone who tries to be a hermit without first being trained in a community or who does not recei ve the sacrament on feast days of the church or who keeps no rules or who makes up one's own rules without consulting the experience and judgment of earlier fat hers. He wished the sarabites made better use of the money they got with bad obj ectives. Piamun also believed that envy is the hardest vice to cure. In the 19th book John debated the merits of cenobite community living versus bei ng an anchorite hermit. Pinufius in the 20th book on penitence indicated the val ue of forgetting past sins. In the next three books Theonas discussed different levels of goodness, explored nocturnal illusions, and reminded Cassian that no o ne is completely free of sin. In the 24th and last book of the Conferences Abrah am discussed the practice of asceticism. In 428 Emperor Theodosius II appointed a monk from Antioch named Nestorius as pa triarch of Constantinople, and he began persecuting Arians, Novatians, Quartodec imanians, and Macedonians, getting Theodosius to enact strict laws against heres y. Yet Nestorius sympathized with the free will doctrine of the Pelagians, and h e welcomed and interceded on behalf of Julian, Coelestius, and others in exile. Nestorius objected to describing Mary as the "mother of God" and the use of imag es. In 430 his adversary in Alexandria, Bishop Cyril, accused Nestorius of twelv e anathemas and threatened to depose him if he did not recant in ten days. The n ext year at the council of Ephesus Cyril and his Egyptian bishops deposed Nestor ius before Antioch patriarch John even arrived. Then both Nestorius and Cyril we re deposed by the Emperor's council. The Roman legates attended the assembly of Cyril and signed the decree against Nestorius. Nestorius did not attend, and his house had to be protected by soldiers from armed mobs. Public sentiment and Pul cheria urged the Emperor to let Cyril resume his position; Nestorius, complainin g that Cyril had used bribery, was declared sacrilegious; he was sent into exile , and his books were ordered burned. During this controversy Leo, the Archdeacon at Rome, asked his friend Cassian to refute the new heresy, and Cassian wrote seven books against Nestorius. In this work Cassian opposed the Nestorian and Pelagian heresies that were condemned at Ephesus. He is considered a Semi-Pelagian because he took a moderate view betwe

en the Pelagian doctrine that humans are not inherently sinful and the view of t he prominent Augustine that divine grace has pre-destined by election some to be saved. Cassian believed that human freedom was only weakened by the fall, that humans are sick but can be saved by cooperating with the grace of the divine phy sician. In many cases human will initiates, and in others, such as with Matthew and Paul, God overcomes a resisting will. About the time Cassian died, Prosper o f Aquitane wrote a book defending Augustine's views on grace and free will again st the Pelagianism of Cassian. About 450 Prosper wrote The Call of All Nations i n which he held that God wills all to be saved; but some are not saved, because they do not cooperate. Yet he still held Augustine's view that God foreknows who will be elected. Roman Empire Reduced 425-476 While Valentinian III was a child, Empress Placidia ruled the West. When King Th eodoric led the Goths to besiege Arles in 427, her supreme commander Felix sent Aetius to relieve the city. The peace of 430 kept the Goths in the territories g ranted to Wallia. In Lower Belgica Salian Franks led by Merovingian king Chlodio invaded Artois. Imperial forces led by Aetius defeated them at Vicus Helenae. U sing many Huns in his army, Aetius now had the power to replace Felix in 429. In Britain Vortigern came to power about 425 and ruled there for about thirty ye ars. The first known king of the Picts was Drust, son of Erp, who was said to ha ve reigned from 414 to 458. According to the chronicler Nennius, the Picts invad ed Britain in the fourth year of Vortigern's reign. The Dane Hengest and his bro ther Hors, who had been exiled in Germany, arrived and were made commanders by V ortigern. With Saxon help the British were able to counter-attack and drive away the Picts. In 429 the Catholic church sent Auxerre bishop Germanus to Britain i n order to retrieve Christians from their Pelagian heresy. In the 430s Vortigern was challenged by Ambrosius, who was said to have made war on him in 437. In Africa Count Boniface seemed to be more interested in enhancing his own power than in repelling incursions by the Moors. Placidia recalled him; but he refuse d to go, and three commanders sent against him were killed in 427. The next year an army headed by a new count, Sigisvult, seized Hippo and Carthage. Boniface c alled in the Vandals from Spain. Castinus had led an army of Romans and Goths ag ainst the Vandals in Baetica; but they were defeated, and Castinus fled to Tarra gona. Vandal king Gunderic died in 428 and was succeeded by his brother Gaiseric . In 429 about 80,000 Vandals crossed over to Mauretania. To counter this threat, Placidia sent Darius to reconcile Boniface, and he made a truce with Gaiseric; b ut Boniface's proposals were not accepted, and Gaiseric plundered eastern Africa , invaded Numidia, defeated Boniface, and besieged Hippo in 430. Aspar sailed wi th an army from Constantinople to relieve the siege; but the next year he and Bo niface were defeated, as Hippo was taken. Placidia tried to replace Aetius with Boniface; but Aetius would not submit, causing a civil war. Boniface won a battl e near Ariminum but then died of a wound. Aetius escaped to Dalmatia and the cou rt of Hun king Rugila. Somehow Aetius regained his position as Patrician at Rave nna in 434. In Africa Valentinian's ambassador Trygetius made a treaty with Gais eric allowing the Vandals to retain the Mauretanias and part of Numidia, but the y had to pay an annual tribute to Rome. The regency of Placidia was waning, and Aetius as Master of Soldiers sent Huns a gainst the Burgundians, killing perhaps as many as 20,000 of them in 436 and end ing the first Burgundian kingdom at Worms. The peasant revolt of the Bagaudae wa s also quelled after their leader Tibatto was captured. Visigothic king Theodori c besieged Narbonne. Aetius sent Litorius to subdue the rebels in Armorica, and Litorius also relieved the siege of Narbonne. Avitus negotiated a truce; but the Goths soon attacked Roman territory again. Litorius drove the Goths back to the ir capital at Toulouse but was defeated and fatally wounded near there. These Go

ths had become independent of Rome. Valentinian III married Licinia Eudoxia in 4 37 at Constantinople; but even though his wife was beautiful, he engaged in affa irs with other men's wives. The Alans and Burgundians were settled as federates. Some Alans were in Valence, and others under King Goar settled near Orleans in 442. The next year the Burgundians found a permanent home in Savoy. However, Aet ius pushed the Ripuarian Franks back across the Rhine. Reduced income from Gaul led to new taxes on sales and the senatorial class in 444. About 442 the Saxons led by Hengest took control of Britain. The British appeale d to Aetius, but he was busy with the Huns. About 446 Roman troops made their fi nal departure from Britain, and Armoricans and Celts though federates were essen tially independent. Germanus returned and was more successful at persuading the Pelagians. After ten years of Saxon rule the British were victorious at Richboro ugh. However, at a diplomatic conference about 458 Hengest and the Saxons massac red about 300 of Vortigern's elders and imprisoned the king, who had to relinqui sh the districts of Essex and Sussex. In the next year many Britons migrated to Brittany. English resistance to the Saxons in the 460s was led by Ambrosius Aure lianus, a Roman, whose parents had worn the purple before they were killed. Ambr osius would die about 475 and be succeeded by Arthur, and the war would go on fo r about thirty years. Gaiseric soon violated the treaty; by the time he captured Carthage in 439 reven ue was no longer coming from Africa. In 440 to maintain their armies Theodosius II and Valentinian III made concealing deserters a capital crime. Gaiseric attac ked Sicily, and in 442 a new treaty with Rome was more favorable to the Vandals. Gaiseric strengthened his alliance with Rome by marrying his son Huneric to Val entinian's daughter Eudocia; but to do so Huneric renounced his wife, the daught er of Theodoric. He accused her of attempting to poison him and had her face mut ilated, which resulted in enmity between the Vandals and Visigoths. The Vandals made Carthage their new capital; its senators were deported; all the churches we re made Arian, and Catholics were persecuted. The Vandals were the first Teutoni c people to develop a Mediterranean navy. Gaiseric seems to have abolished the a ssembly of the Vandal people, and he made his kingship hereditary. In Spain Suev ian king Rechiar married another daughter of Theodoric in 449 and devastated the province of Tarraconensis. A new university was founded in Constantinople in 425 that endowed ten Latin and ten Greek grammarians, five Latin and three Greek rhetors, two chairs in jurisp rudence and one in philosophy. In 429 Theodosius II established a commission of nine men to collect all the Roman constitutions, and a code was jointly issued b y him and Valentinian III nine years later. After Rugila died about 433, Attila and his brother Bleda ruled the Hun empire that stretched from the Baltic and th e Alps in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east. Theodosius agreed to pay 700 pounds of gold annually to the Huns and surrender any deserters. In 441 while im perial armies were fighting both Vandals and Persians, the Huns besieged Ratiari a, captured and plundered it, continuing up the Danube. Approaching Constantinop le, Attila took Philippopolis, Arcadiopolis, and the fort at Athyras. After impe rial troops returned from battling Vandals and Persians, a treaty was negotiated by Anatolius in 443 in which the Emperor agreed to triple the annual gold tribu te and pay 6,000 pounds at once. Attila now had his brother Bleda killed and bec ame sole ruler of the united Huns. Empress Eudocia, visited Egypt and Jerusalem, and on her return to Constantinopl e she formed a close friendship with the pagan Cyrus of Panopolis, who was prefe ct of the East and of the city. An intriguing eunuch named Chrysaphius Zstommas got Pulcheria to retire to another palace and made Theodosius II suspect that hi s wife Eudocia was having an affair with Paulinus, whom the Emperor put to death in 444. The alienated Eudocia had gone to Jerusalem the year before; but the je alous Theodosius sent Saturninus to investigate, and he slew her confidants, the priest Severus and the deacon John. In revenge Saturninus was assassinated. Ill

yrian provinces were suffering from Hun plundering, and the imperial government went broke buying off the invaders while Chrysaphius controlled the policy. In 4 47 the Huns devastated Lower Moesia and Scythia. Constantinople was threatened, and many people fled. Another treaty in 448 left a stretch along the Danube unin habited. Chrysaphius tried to have Attila assassinated; but the plot was discove red by Attila, who let the eunuch live and agreed not to cross the Danube. Theod osius died in 450. Before he died, Theodosius II chose the officer Marcian as his successor, and Pu lcheria agreed to be his nominal wife to preserve the dynasty. Marcian began by executing Chrysaphius, and he stopped paying tribute to the Huns and ended the p ractice of selling administrative offices. He also changed the law to recognize marriages to women of low social status. Marcian called the fourth ecumenical co uncil at Chalcedon, and by his death in 457 the treasury had been replenished. P ulcheria died in 453 and left all her possessions to the poor. In 448 the historian Priscus accompanied the ambassador Maximin to the court of Attila and described what he saw. A Scythian, who had been captured and made a s lave before winning his freedom by fighting against the Romans, was critical of the Roman system of justice. But the condition of the subjects in time of peace is far more grievous than the evils of war, for the exaction of the taxes is very severe, and unprincipled men inflict injuries on others, because the laws are practically not valid against all classes. A transgressor who belongs to the wealthy classes is not punished for his injustice, while a poor man, who does not understand business, undergoes the legal penalty, that is if he does not depart this life before the trial, so long is the course of lawsuits protracted, and so much money is expended on them. The climax of the misery is to have to pay in order to obtain justice. For no one will give a court to the injured man unless he pay a sum of money to the judge and the judge's clerks.5 In response Priscus argued that lawsuits take a long time because of the concern for justice. He added that Romans treat their servants better than the Scythian king treats his subjects, admonishing them, as they do their children, to absta in from evil. Romans were not allowed to inflict death on their servants as Scyt hians did. In 449 Valentinian's sister Justa Grata Honoria intrigued against her brother wi th her lover Eugenius, who was caught and put to death. She was forced to marry the rich senator Flavius Bassus Herculanus. To get out of the hated marriage, Ho noria sent a eunuch with her ring, asking for help from Attila, who claimed her as his bride and wrote to Theodosius II demanding half of Valentinian's territor y. Theodosius advised his fellow emperor to hand over Honoria; but when he died and Marcian stopped the tribute to the Huns, Attila decided to invade Gaul, writ ing to the Goths that he was against the Romans and to Ravenna that he aimed at Rome's enemies. In 451 Attila led a large army of his own Huns along with Gepids led by King Ard aric, Ostrogoths led by chiefs Walamir, Theodemir, and Widimir, Scirians, Heruls , Thuringians, Alans, and others. At the Rhine they were joined by Burgundians a nd Ripuarian Franks. Aetius called up the federated Salian Franks and Burgundian s of Savoy along with the Celts of Armorica; King Theodoric's Visigoths were neu tral but were persuaded by senator Avitus to join the Romans when Attila invaded the Loire. Together the Roman army led by Aetius and the Goths were able to kee

p the Huns out of Orleans. A bloody battle at Mauriac killed tens of thousands, including Theodoric. Aetius refrained from destroying his old allies, the Huns, and he persuaded Theodoric's son Thorismud to return to the Visigoth capital at Tolosa (Toulouse). Attila still claimed Honoria as a bride and invaded Italy the next year, taking Aquileia and razing it to the ground. In Rome Emperor Valenti nian sent Pope Leo and senators Avienus and Trygetius to negotiate with Attila, who, faced with plague, hunger, and reinforcements sent from the East by Marcian , decided to retreat. Attila died in 454, and the German vassals led by the Gepi d Ardaric, who had been Attila's chief advisor, revolted against the Huns and de feated them at a battle near the Nedao River in Pannonia, breaking up the shortlived Hun empire. Marcian allied with the Gepids, assigned the Ostrogoths a federate in northern P annonia and the Rugians one north of the Danube, while some tribes settled in de populated Illyricum and Thrace. The senator Petronius Maximus persuaded Valentin ian III that he should kill Aetius before that man had him murdered. On Septembe r 21, 454 in court the Emperor himself attacked Aetius with his sword, slaying h im with the assistance of his eunuch chamberlain Heraclius. Praetorian Prefect B oethius was killed at the same time, and important friends of Aetius were summon ed to the palace and dispatched too. When Heraclius persuaded Valentinian not to give the position of Aetius to Maximus, the latter sent two barbarians to assas sinate Emperor Valentinian and his chamberlain six months later. All this allowe d Salian Franks led by Chlodio to take Cambrai and proceed to the Somme, while R ipuarian Franks and Alamanni crossed the Rhine again. The wealth of Petronius Maximus enabled his faction to win the purple over the f action of Maximian, who had been steward of Aetius. Maximus wanted to marry Empr ess Eudoxia; but she was so repelled by the idea that it was said she appealed t o the Vandal Gaiseric. As Gaiseric's forces approached Rome, people scattered, a nd the abandoned Maximus was killed by a mob while fleeing. Three days later Rom e's Bishop Leo met Gaiseric at the gates to prevent a massacre and conflagration while the Vandals plundered the city for two weeks in June 455. The Vandals the n returned to Africa loaded with booty and thousands of captives, including Empr ess Eudoxia and her two daughters, Eudocia and Placidia. Placidia was already ma rried to the Roman Olybrius, and Huneric married Eudocia. Carthage bishop Deogra tias sold church gold and silver to purchase the freedom of some captives, and t wo churches were converted into hospitals to treat the sick. In 453 Visigothic king Thorismud had been assassinated by his brothers Theodoric and Frederic after threatening them. Avitus, master of the imperial military in Gaul, was visiting the new king Theodoric II at Tolosa when he learned that Pet ronius Maximus was dead. Avitus was proclaimed emperor by the Goths. Avitus, acc ompanied by his son-in-law poet Apollinaris Sidonius, crossed the Alps; but neit her the senators nor the soldiers made him welcome at Rome, and Marcian would no t recognize him. Theodoric II resumed federate status and quelled an anti-imperi alist uprising in Spain, inducing his brother-in-law Rechiar to restore Carthagi niensia to the empire in 454. Gaiseric had taken over more of Africa and now inv aded again with sixty ships. Avitus sent general Ricimer, son of a Sueve and a V isigothic princess, to Sicily with an army, and he defeated the Vandals in Corsi can waters in 456. Hunger in Rome caused Avitus to dismiss his federate troops, and he had bronze statues melted down to buy food. Allied with the Romans, Visig othic king Theodoric II marched an army to Spain, where he defeated the rebellio us Suevians near Astorga. Meanwhile Ricimer and Eudoxia's friend Majorian rebell ed against Avitus, who fled to Arles and was captured at Placentia. Avitus was m ade bishop of Placentia but died on the way to Auvergne. For six months there wa s no emperor in the West. After Marcian died, Eastern Emperor Leo nominated Majorian, and he was proclaime d Western Emperor in April 457 as Ricimer was declared Patrician. Majorian grant ed universal amnesty on back tribute and debt to the government, and he restored

provincial jurisdiction over the collection of taxes. He encouraged the people to meet in local assemblies in order to elect a representative to protect the po or from the tyranny of the rich and to inform the Emperor of any imperial abuses . Majorian took an army of Germans into Gaul, forced the Burgundians at Lugdunen sis (Lyons) to surrender; as punishment he imposed heavier taxes, though they we re later remitted. Aegidius with imperial reinforcements drove the Goths back fr om Arles. Majorian was content with Theodoric accepting again federate status. S idonius contributed a panegyric to Emperor Majorian, portraying Rome as the warr ior queen of the earth with Africa at her feet pleading for help against the Van dals. An imperial expedition of 300 ships organized in Spain by Majorian was def eated by the Vandal navy in 460, and Gaiseric made Majorian accept a humiliating treaty. After visiting Arles, Majorian returned to Italy without an army and wa s beheaded by officers of Ricimer at Tortona in 461. Two army masters threw off their allegiance - Marcellinus and Aegidius. Marcelli nus had to leave Sicily after Ricimer bribed his Hun soldiers to abandon him. Ma rcellinus went to Dalmatia, where he ruled under the Eastern Emperor Leo. The Va ndals and Moors ravaged Sicily, and diplomats from Ricimer could do nothing; but Leo got Gaiseric to return some Theodosian women, though Eudocia stayed with he r husband Huneric with a dowry of territory in Africa. Ricimer then asked Leo to mediate between Marcellinus and Gaiseric, and Marcellinus was persuaded not to war against the Romans. Aegidius in Gaul was kept from invading Italy by allowin g Burgundian king Gundioc to occupy Lyons. Goths extended their territories in S pain; but Frederic's Goths were kept from crossing the Loire when they were defe ated by Aegidius near Orleans in 463 with the aid of King Childeric of the Salia n Franks. Ricimer ruled in the West, though Libius Severus was proclaimed empero r a few months later; after the death of Severus in 465, no successor was appoin ted for seventeen months. Marcian had died in 457 without choosing a successor for the East. The Alan Aspa r was disqualified as an Arian, but he chose the orthodox Christian Leo, a Dacia n who had served in the army directly under him. Aspar's son Ardaburius was made Master of the Soldiers in the East. To counter the many Germans who had joined the imperial army, Leo recruited Isaurian mountaineers, and he married his daugh ter Ariadne to their chieftain Tarasicodissa, who changed his name to Zeno. In 4 67 Leo had the patrician Anthemius proclaimed Emperor of the West. An expedition against the Vandals said to have involved 1113 ships in 468 commanded by Basili scus scattered the Vandal fleet near Sicily; but Gaiseric gathered a new fleet a nd destroyed the navy of Basiliscus so badly that the general was suspected of h aving been bribed by Aspar, who had opposed the campaign. Marcellinus had briefl y recovered Sardinia for the West; but he was assassinated in Sicily, and Gaiser ic soon regained Sardinia and later Sicily. The costly armaments had bankrupted Constantinople's treasury of its 100,000 pounds of gold. The next year Zeno led the campaign against the Hun invasion of Thrace. Aspar tried to have Zeno assass inated, but he escaped to Sardica, returned to Constantinople, and then suppress ed the Isaurian brigand Indacus. Leo made Aspar's son Patricius Caesar, announci ng that Patricius was renouncing Arianism for the Catholic faith. Poet Sidonius lauded Emperor Anthemius, hailed Constantinople in verse, and was appointed Prefect of Rome; but his friend Arvandus, Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, was prosecuted by the Council of the Seven Provinces before the Roman Senate for malversation and treason, and he was condemned. Euric had followed his brother Theodoric II's example by murdering him to become king of the Visigoths in 466. Euric defeated the Breton king Riothamus on the Indre and took Bourges and north ern Aquitanica Prima; but he was kept south of the Loire by Count Paulus and, af ter Paulus died in 470, by Syagrius, son of Aegidius, and King Childeric's Frank s. Euric's Visigoths besieged Arles and defeated an imperial army led by Anthemi olus, the son of Athemius, and three other generals, who were all slain. Then th e Visigoths marched through the Rhone valley burning crops and taking towns. Eur ic then took command of the Gothic war against the Suevians in Spain and conquer

ed most of the peninsula except for the Suevians' home in the northwest. This Gothic aggression gave Anthemius so many problems that the West was practic ally divided between the Emperor at Rome and Patrician Ricimer at Mediolanum (Mi lan). Ticinum bishop Epiphanius tried to reconcile them. Gaiseric urged his sonin-law Olybrius to aspire to the imperial throne, and Olybrius visited Constanti nople. In 472 Leo sent Olybrius to Rome ostensibly to reconcile Anthemius and Ri cimer but with a messenger telling Anthemius to put Olybrius to death. However, Ricimer intercepted the letter, made Olybrius emperor, and besieged Rome with hi s army. Anthemius was found hiding in a church and was beheaded. Ricimer himself died six weeks later and was replaced as Master of Soldiers by the Burgundian G undobad. In the East when Ardaburius planned a rebellion in 471, he and his father Aspar were killed in the palace by eunuchs; Caesar Patricius was wounded but recovered . Emperor Leo was named the Butcher; but after the troops of Count Ostrys entere d the palace and were defeated by the Isaurian guards, the Isaurians had quelled the attempted take-over by the German faction. Because of Isaurian brigands, ma ny rich people had hired guards and armed their slaves; but Emperor Leo outlawed the practice. Leo maintained the orthodoxy of the Chalcedon council. He died in 474, leaving his six-year-old grandson Leo as his successor. The Isaurian Zeno served as Leo II's regent and replaced him nine months later when the boy died. Olybrius ruled the West for a year and a half but was not recognized by the East , nor was Glycerius, who reigned for three months in 473 after being proclaimed at Ravenna by Gundobad's soldiers. Glycerius did manage to keep the Ostrogoths o ut of Italy; so Widemir led them into Gaul. Eastern Emperor Leo chose Julius Nep os as his Western counterpart. Nepos arrived in Italy with Eastern troops. Gundo bad retired to Burgundy, soon to become their king, while the deposed Glycerius was ordained bishop of Salona in Dalmatia. In 475 Nepos made a peace with Euric recognizing the Gothic conquests made in Spain and Gaul. Sidonius had become bis hop of Clermont and resented the surrender of Auvergne to the Goths; but he was imprisoned in a fort at Livia. Sidonius complained in a letter to the bishop of Marseilles, "Our slavery is the price paid for the security of others."6 The nex t year Euric broke the treaty by invading Provence, seizing Arles and Marseilles , and Emperor Zeno conceded southern Provence to the Goths. Euric's legal code o f 475 made the segregation of Germans and Romans state policy. Zeno was hated in Constantinople as an Isaurian. When he fled to Isauria in 475, the ministers and Senate proclaimed Basiliscus emperor; but his greed and favor ing Monophysitism, issuing a decree against the Council of Chalcedon, made him v ery unpopular. Basiliscus sent an expedition against Zeno; but encouraged by the angry ministers, the general Illus changed sides and joined forces with Zeno. B asiliscus tried to recall his ecclesiastical edicts, but it was too late. His Ma ster of Soldiers Armatus avoided Zeno's forces, who entered Constantinople witho ut resistance in 476. Basiliscus and his family were beheaded. The Pannonian Orestes had been Attila's secretary; but he did not follow Attila' s sons north to Scythia, and he refused to accept the Ostrogoth's usurpation of Pannonia. Orestes was appointed patrician and master general of the army by West ern Emperor Nepos. When his troops rebelled against Nepos, Orestes had his son A ugustus Romulus (Augustulus) proclaimed emperor in 475. Nepos was driven out of Rome but lived in Salona for five years still recognized in the East and in Gaul . Orestes ruled Italy for one year in the name of his son; but his eastern Germa n Herul, Rugian, and Scirian troops demanded settlement in Italy with one-third of the land. Orestes rejected their demand; so one of his chief officers, the Sc irian Odovacar, had Orestes killed at Ticinum and deposed his son Augustulus, gr anting him a pension in Campania. In 476 Odovacar was proclaimed king of Italy b y the soldiers. He had Augustulus formally abdicate his authority to the Eastern emperor Zeno, and Roman senators were sent to Constantinople to declare that a

Western emperor was no longer needed. Zeno recognized Odovacar and made him a pa trician. Orosius and Salvian Orosius was born probably in the 380s at Bracara in western Spain. He was appare ntly well educated and became a presbyter, writing about current Priscillianist and Origenist controversies. Because of the invasions by the Alans and Vandals, Orosius departed from Bracara in 414. Providentially his ship was driven by a st orm to the African coast near Hippo, where he spent several years under the infl uence of Augustine. The Hippo bishop was impressed by the young Orosius, and the following spring he sent him to Bethlehem to consult with Jerome on the Pelagia n controversy. Orosius presented the views of Augustine and Jerome on Pelagianis m to a council of bishops at Jerusalem, arguing against the presiding bishop Joh n, and he wrote a book defending their position against Pelagian. Early in 416 O rosius brought a letter and a treatise from Jerome back to Augustine. At this ti me Augustine had written the first eleven books of his City of God, and he asked Orosius to discover from histories and annals how pagan cultures had suffered c alamities from war, disease, famine, earthquakes, floods, fires, storms, and cri mes in order to answer critics that Christianity was responsible for the deterio ration of the Roman empire. By 418 Orosius had completed his Seven Books of Hist ory Against the Pagans, and no more is known about him after that. Orosius dedicated his work to Augustine and his request. At the beginning he sta ted his basic belief. IIn the first place, we hold that if the world and man are directed by a Divine Providence that is as good as it is just, and if man is both weak and stubborn on account of the changeableness of his nature and his freedom of choice, then it is necessary for man to be guided in the spirit of filial affection when he has need of help; but when he abuses his freedom, he must be reproved in a spirit of strict justice. Everyone who sees mankind reflected through himself and in himself perceives that this world has been disciplined since the creation of man by alternating periods of good and bad times.7 He noted that even his opponents have described history as "nothing but wars and calamities." Orosius took the Christian view that sin and its punishment began with the first man. After describing the geography of his known world which exte nded only to India in the east, Orosius jumped from the punishment of the Biblic al flood to Assyrian king Ninus about 2000 BC. He only mentioned Egypt in connec tion with the story of Joseph in Genesis and of Moses in Exodus, emphasizing aga in God's punishment of the Egyptians. However, Orosius did not go into the histo ry of Israel much at all after that but turned instead to the legends of early G reek history and especially their wars. He mentioned the Assyrian Sardanapalus a nd the brief empire of the Medes that was overthrown by the Persians. He contras ted the ancient tyrants' torturing of the innocent to the later Christian Roman emperors, who did not punish tyrants whose overthrow benefited the republic. Orosius believed that all power and government come from God and that it is bett er for one kingdom to be supreme. Probably because of Daniel's prophecy of four great beasts, Orosius summarized his history as four main kingdoms from the card inal points as the Babylonian in the east, the Carthaginian in the south, the Ma cedonian in the north, and the Roman in the west. Even though he had hardly ment ioned the Babylonians, he included with them the Assyrians, Medes, and Persians. Because Orosius based most of history on epitomes (especially 4th-century Eutro pius) of earlier histories, his facts are often not too accurate. From the found ing of Rome in 754 BC Orosius mostly described Roman history and some Greek hist ory involving their wars with Persia, the Peloponnesian War, and the Macedonian

wars. He wrote that Alexander was punished for his "wicked appetite" by being po isoned after oppressing the world for twelve years. Then his generals tore the w orld apart for another fourteen years. In his preface to the fourth book Orosius observed that present miseries always seem worse than what is past or future possibilities, because they cause so much more trouble. In describing the Punic wars he judged that because of their basi c discord the Carthaginians never enjoyed prosperity or peace, and he argued tha t their human sacrifices did more to cause pestilence than prevent it. Orosius t ook a larger perspective on Roman victories; by taking the whole world into cons ideration he noted that when Romans might be happy, the conquered world was unha ppy. For two centuries (3rd and 2nd BC) Spanish fields were drenched with their own blood. Orosius believed the Numantines exemplified the virtues of justice, f aith, courage, and mercy more than the Romans. In his view in the past Rome exto rted from people by the sword for luxuries, but now she contributes to maintaini ng government. Orosius did not mind having to leave Spain, because he argued tha t he could take refuge anywhere and still find the same law and his religion. Th ere was a large area he could visit as a Roman and a Christian and still find Ro mans and Christians. Orosius contrasted the present wars in which Italy was bein g attacked by foreigners to the past wars begun by herself and directed against herself in cruel civil strife. Orosius believed it was providential that Augustus had established the imperial Pax Romana as a preparation for the birth of Jesus. The Christian religion, he w rote, could not be stamped out in spite of generations of "fury from nations, ki ngs, laws, slaughter, crucifixion, and death."8 Orosius found that Christian tim es were an improvement on the past, and he challenged the reader to find any tim e in history more fortunate than the present era. Orosius contended that countle ss wars had been stilled, usurpers destroyed, and savage tribes checked, confine d, incorporated, or annihilated with little loss. (Apparently he meant little lo ss among Romans, since most of the imperial soldiers in this era were Germans.) Thus he presented his Christian philosophy of history, and the work of Orosius b ecame the most influential history book of the medieval period. At least some kn owledge of history was being passed on, although the earlier original histories would have offered much more complete and detailed accounts. Also his emphasis o n the calamities and wars in order to prove his thesis gave the middle ages a ra ther negative view of pagan culture. Salvian was born in Gaul about 400, and he probably witnessed the destruction of Trier by the Germans in 406. When the young Salvian married Palladia, her paren ts were pagans. They had a daughter; but after a long discussion he entered the monastery of Lerins, and she went into a convent. Salvian taught rhetoric and be came well known as a teacher and preacher. He must have had a long life, because he was still alive late in the 5th century. His extant works consist of nine le tters, eight books On the Present Judgment later retitled The Governance of God, and four books To the Church also called Against Avarice. On the Present Judgment was written between 440 and 450, and it has often been c ompared to Augustine's City of God. Salvian turned a more critical eye to the Ro man Christians in this century of crisis and strongly suggested that Christians should be practicing the higher ethics Jesus taught in his sermon on the mount. He criticized the rich for impoverishing the state, whereas the ancient magistra tes were poor and made the state rich. He observed that ascetics may weaken thei r bodies, but this sharpens mental vigor when desires no longer unbalance the mi nd. Salvian as a Christian believed along with Pythagoreans, Platonists, and Sto ics that God created and regulates the universe, and that this is a model for hu man governance to regulate its lesser parts and members. Salvian aimed to prove that God is present, governs, and judges, and he used the three methods of reaso n, examples, and authority, often referring to Judeo-Christian scriptures. Jerem iah as the closest parallel to his times was quoted more than any other. In tryi

ng to get at the root of hostility, he noted that anger is the mother of hatred. He observed that Christians are so far from following the precepts of Jesus and Paul that instead of acting for others they first consider their own affairs re gardless of whether that disturbs others. Salvian asked Christians to examine their consciences in relation to the many cr imes he described. He saw men of business engaging in fraud and perjury, land-ow ners being unjust, officials slandering, and the army plundering. How can one be called a Christian if one does not perform the work of a Christian? Salvian mad e his accusations in the first person. We wish to sin, but not to be punished. Herein we have the same attitude as our slaves.... We are most harsh to others, most lenient with ourselves. We punish others, but forgive ourselves for the same crimean act of intolerable arrogance and presumption. We are unwilling to acknowledge guilt in ourselves, but we dare to arrogate to ourselves the right to judge others. What can be more unjust and what more perverse? The very crime we think justifiable in us we condemn most severely in others.9 The tyranny of the rich oppressed not only the poor but most of humanity. Politi cal position was used for plundering, and poor states were pillaged by those in power. He observed that the Roman state was drawing its last breath, strangled b y taxation imposed by the rich on the poor. Salvian admitted that the barbarians were also unjust, avaricious, unfaithful, greedy, lewd, and vicious; but so wer e the Romans, who should know better. The Huns might be lewd, the Franks perfidi ous, the Alamanni drunkards, the Alans rapacious, Huns or Gepids cheats, and Fra nks liars; but Romans were no better. Because the Christians have been taught sp iritual laws, Salvian argued that their behavior is morally worse. They do not p ractice what they preach. We are like the sick who get worse because of our vice s but blame the doctor for being incompetent. Salvian observed that barbarians of the same tribe love one another, while most Romans persecute each other. Where are there widows and orphans not devoured by the leading men of the cities? Many of the poor found more Roman dignity with th e barbarians, because they could not bear the barbarous indignity of the Romans. Many migrated to the Goths or joined the Bagaudae, who were peasants organized after being victimized by tax-gatherers. They found the enemy more lenient to th em than the tax collectors, who extorted tribute from the poor for the rich, mak ing the weaker carry the burden for the stronger. Many people were loaded with debt, while the rich, who made them debtors, were t hemselves free of debt. When taxes were mitigated, the poor were the last to be relieved, because the rich held the political power. Salvian was not surprised t hat the Goths conquered much of the population since many Romans preferred to li ve among them. Many in the middle class were driven to give themselves to the up per classes as captives of the rich. When they lost their land because of taxes, they became dependents as tenant farmers (coloni) or serfs. They not only lost their property and goods but their rights of citizenship as well. So many had be en oppressed and captured in this way that it was no wonder that barbarians capt ured people too. Salvian lamented that not being merciful to exiles and wanderer s, they were becoming wanderers to be cheated too. Salvian condemned the crimes and vices found at the games, and he excoriated the ir cruelty. By gladly watching them the spectators were approving and sharing in the crimes. Yet the misery and poverty had become so great that they could no l onger lavish expenses on unprofitable games. He believed that cities like Trier and Mainz had been destroyed because of their avarice and drunkenness. He descri

bed the gruesome disasters that befell the conquered cities after their ruin. Ye t a few nobles who survived asked the emperors for circuses. For Salvian the cit y of Aquitane was like a brothel of sordid vices as husbands violated their marr iages with household maids. Yet fornication was not lawful among the Goths, and Salvian believed that the chaste Vandals subjugated the Spaniards because of the ir impurity. In the last war the Romans put their hope in the Huns against the G oths; but the Goths turned to God. The Visigothic force led by Romans Boniface a nd Castinus were defeated by the Vandals, because the Roman leaders out of pride could not cooperate. Events showed the judgment of God. The Goths and Vandals w ere increasing, while the Romans decreased. Salvian noted that every nation had bad habits. The Goths lied but were chaste. The Alans lied less but were unchaste. The Franks lied but were generous. The Sa xons were cruel but chaste. The Roman Africans he criticized mainly for lust, an d yet the orphans, widows, and the poor suffered too. The Romans had many vices and much hypocrisy, because they outlawed theft yet robbed or embezzled. He who punished rapine plundered; he who punished an assassin was a swordsman; he who p unished a breaker of doors destroyed towns; he who punished burglars of houses r avaged provinces. When the Vandals took over Africa, they removed prostitution b y marrying the prostitutes, and they made ordinances against unchastity. Salvian asked the Romans to be ashamed of their lives, because it was the vices of thei r bad lives that alone conquered them. No one was more cruel to them than themse lves. They were being punished by God; but it was because they went against the will of God that they were tortured. In his four books To the Church Salvian warned about the problem of avarice and urged Christians to give charity not only to expiate sin but as a virtue. The co vetous bring their own suffering upon themselves. Good works are necessary for b oth saints and sinners. Christ exemplified universal poverty. One can benefit on eself most in gaining eternal life by giving all one's possessions to the saints , the maimed, the blind, and the weak. If your wealth nourishes the wretched, yo u will be filled with all you need. Make Christ your heir and follow God. Anyone who has begun to be good cannot help but love the law of God, because the essen ce of that law is what holy people have in their ethics. Leo, Patrick, and Severin About three years after the Ephesus council Vincent, a monk of Lerins, wrote A C ommonitory for the Antiquity and Universality of the Catholic Faith Against the Profane Novelties of All Heresies to argue for orthodox Christianity and against any changes in doctrine. Vincent argued for the principle that the church shoul d accept and hold to the faith that has been believed everywhere, always, and by all. Thus he felt Christians should follow the divine law of the scriptures and Catholic tradition. The opinions of the whole church should take precedent over a dissenting part; antiquity should prevail over new views; a council's pronoun cements were to be accepted over the ideas of a few individuals. These three cri teria he called universality, antiquity, and consent. He argued that if these pr inciples were applied, Donatism and Arianism never would have spread, and the vi ews of Nestorius, Photinus, and Apollinaris would be dismissed. Vincent held tha t heretical views of eminent teachers, such as Tertullian and Origen, were allow ed by God in order to test the faithful. For Vincent the genuine Catholic loves the truth of God, the church, the body of Christ, and the Catholic faith above e very authority, genius, eloquence, and philosophy of every person. Leo served as archdeacon under Rome's bishops Celestine (423-432) and Sixtus III (432-440). Leo was visiting Gaul when he was elected bishop of Rome in 440. Leo claimed primacy as the legacy of Peter, and this assertion of authority after s everal centuries would result in only the bishop of Rome being called the Pope. In 443 he banished Manichaeans and Pelagians from Italy, threatening bishops wit h his wrath if they did not purge the heretics from their churches. Leo also ref uted the heresies of the Spanish Priscillianists with eighteen anathemas.

Eutyches was charged with heresy for believing that the human nature of Christ w as absorbed into the divine nature after the incarnation. He was condemned by a local synod in 448 presided over by Constantinople patriarch Flavian. Eutyches a ppealed to Rome's bishop Leo. Theodosius II called a council at Ephesus in 449 t o settle the issue. Preoccupied with the threat of Attila, Leo sent three repres entatives with his dogmatic letter to Flavian or Tome pronouncing his view that Eutyches was heretical. Leo affirmed as orthodox doctrine that Jesus Christ has both a divine and a human nature united in one person as the word of God incarna te. Leo noted that Eutyches denied the human reality of Jesus' redemptive passio n and implied that the divine nature endured these. Alexandria's Bishop Dioscoru s presided over the council, and favoring Eutyches, he did not allow Leo's lette r to be read. Dioscorus wanted Flavian and others deposed; Flavian was imprisone d and died, and the others were deposed. Leo called a synod at Rome to annul the decisions of what he called the "robber council." Leo refused to acknowledge Anatolius, the successor of Flavian, and se nt four legates to Constantinople. Theodosius died, and his sister Pulcheria and Marcian supported Leo and confined Eutyches to his monastery. In 451 the fourth ecumenical council met at Chalcedon and deposed Dioscorus. Although only six of the 350 participants were from the West, Leo's influence was felt. A commission affirmed the creeds of Nicaea and Constantinople, the 431 council at Ephesus, t he synodal letter of Cyril, and the Tome of Leo. Leo in Rome accepted all the de cisions of the council except Canon 28, which gave the See of Constantinople pre cedence over the Apostolic Sees of Antioch and Alexandria. Leo argued that its i mperial status was not as important as the latters' apostolic authority. In Egyp t and Syria many Monophysites continued to believe that Christ has only one natu re. Leo was given credit for persuading Attila not to attack Rome in 452 after he ha d destroyed Aquileia, and in 455 he boldly met Vandal king Gaiseric at the gate of Rome and managed to keep them from burning the city and killing people, altho ugh the imperial capital was pillaged for fourteen days. Egyptian bishops refuse d to accept the Tome of Leo, and with Dioscorus in exile his friend Proterius wa s designated his successor in Alexandria. In 457 anti-Chalcedonians ordained Tim othy Aelurus as bishop. He was arrested, but dissenters murdered Bishop Proteriu s during a liturgy and made Timothy Aelurus bishop. Emperor Marcian punished the assassins but accepted Timothy as bishop. Riots also occurred in Palestine led by a monk named Theodosius, who criticized Jerusalem patriarch Juvenal for betra ying Cyril's theology, and some bishops were murdered. In 460 Timothy Aelurus wa s replaced in Alexandria by a lawfully elected successor, Timothy Salophacialus. Leo wrote letters to influential religious and political leaders throughout the Roman empire, and of these 143 remain along with 96 sermons. He wrote that deaco ns and high clergy should not cohabit with their wives. He organized ecclesiasti cal government hierarchically under his authority and held that only large citie s should have bishops. Any controversial questions should be submitted to Rome. He believed that penance involves confessing to priests, and those under peniten tial discipline must avoid the temptations of business, legal issues, and milita ry service. Leo claimed that obedience is imperative, even for the popular Hilar y in Gaul. Leo asked Emperor Valentinian III to take away the political rights o f Manichaeans. In his sermons Leo also asserted his Petrine authority, and he ur ged his congregation to pray and give charity. He said that prayer propitiates, fasting purifies, and charity redeems. All must involve the serious purpose of a mendment. Leo held that usury is incompatible with charity. Leo died in 461. Patrick was born about 385 in Britain; his father was a decurion official and we althy enough to have servants. Patrick's grandfather had been a priest in the er a when they still married. Roman Britain was often invaded by pirates in the lat e 4th century. At the turn of the century larger attacks were led by the high ki

ng Niall of the Nine Hostages. They devastated the country and carried off slave s. In the last of these raids in 401 young Patrick was captured and sold into sl avery in Ireland. While tending flocks in the mountains and swine in the woods, Patrick began to pray more and more; he also learned the Gaelic language. After six years as a slave Patrick was guided to run away to the shore, where a ship w ould take him to his fatherland. At first refused, after praying, Patrick was ta ken aboard. They went to Gaul and spent 28 days marching through country that ha d been ravaged by Vandals and Alans. Then Patrick was able to return to his fami ly home in Britain. To prepare himself to be a missionary to the Irish, Patrick traveled to monaster ies in Gaul. He spent perhaps about three years at Lerins under the guidance of abbot Honoratus before staying for fifteen years at the Auxerre monastery founde d and supervised by Germanus. During the mission of Germanus to Britain in 429 a conference was held to discuss evangelizing the Irish, because many Christian B ritons were enslaved there. Patrick was present at a meeting with a similar purp ose held the next year at Auxerre. During a discussion of whether to make Patric k a bishop, his friend revealed a grave sin that Patrick had committed when he w as fifteen and had confessed. Instead Palladius was made a bishop by Rome's Cele stine and was sent to Ireland in 431. Patrick was ordained a priest and sent by Germanus with an elderly priest Segitius to assist Palladius; but a report that Palladius died caused them to turn back. Germanus then made Patrick a bishop, an d in 432 he sailed to Ireland. On the east coast of Ireland Patrick converted a local king named Dichu, who con tributed some land and a barn for his first church. Patrick made many conversion s in eastern Ireland, and in 439 bishops Secundinus, Auxilius, and Iserninus arr ived to assist him. Soon after Leo was ordained bishop of Rome, he formally appr oved of Patrick's mission. Patrick's main bishopric Armagh was founded in 444. H e visited many of Ireland's kings. The high king Laoghaire (r. 428-463) gave Pat rick permission to preach and convert. When Laoghaire appointed a commission of nine men to study, revise, and write down Ireland's laws (that by an oral tradit ion went back to the high king Ollamh Fodhla in the 8th century BC), the three C hristians selected included Patrick. The commission's work took three years. The 7th-century biography of Patrick by Muirchu Moccu Machteni of Armagh claimed th at Patrick converted Laoghaire, but in the same century biographer Tirechan wrot e that he did not. Patrick had to contend with Druids and their powerful oral tr adition of occult practices. In the Brehon laws Patrick tried to have their magi cal rituals prohibited. Like the Druids, Patrick might fast to urge others towar d justice. Near the end of his life Patrick resigned as bishop of Armagh and was succeeded by his disciple Benignus. Patrick died on March 17, 461. Two writings of Patrick remain - his Confession and a Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus. He confessed that his captivity was deserved because he had turned aw ay from God and did not keep the commandments. While a slave he might say as man y as a hundred prayers in one day and nearly as many at night. His long training in the monasteries of Gaul enabled him to quote the scriptures easily. In addit ion to the Irish he also took pleasure in converting the sons and daughters of t he Scots to become monks and virgins of Christ. Patrick believed, "The flesh, ou r enemy, is always dragging us unto death, that is, to the allurements which end in evil."10 Patrick worked to watch over himself and his Christian brothers and the virgins in Christ. When devout women gave him little gifts, he would return them. He baptized many thousands and received no money for doing so. He occasio nally gave presents to kings, and sometimes he was seized because they wanted to kill him. He was once bound in irons for two weeks; but his time had not yet co me. He daily expected to be murdered, robbed, or enslaved; but he did not fear t hem because of his faith in God. His only motive was to spread the good message in the nation from which he had escaped. In the Letter to the Soldiers of Coroticus Patrick admitted that he was not lear

ned, though he had been established as a bishop in Ireland among the heathens fo r the love of God. He wrote not to his fellow citizens and the holy Romans but t o the fellows of demons, allies of the Scots and the Picts, who shed the innocen t blood of Christians. These marauders slaughter with swords for booty and to ta ke captives. He protested against the tyranny of Coroticus and their guilty murd ering. Patrick admitted he sold his nobility for the profit of others, and he be came of slave of Christ to a foreign nation. He saw his flock torn apart and acc used those who betrayed Christians into the hands of the Scots and Picts. They l ive by plunder and fill their houses with the spoil of dead Christians and then entertain their friends. Freemen are put for sale, and Christians are made slave s to the apostate Picts. Patrick beseeched them to repent of these murders and t o liberate the baptized women captives. Early in the 6th century the abbot Eugippius of Lucullanum wrote a biography of the saintly Severin. It is not known when or where Severin was born; but some ti me after Attila died in 453, he was called from the east to Noricum in the easte rn Alps. He founded monasteries at Favianis and other places in Noricum. Severin died in 482. According to Eugippius he was blessed with extraordinary psychic a nd healing abilities. Severin helped the town of Comagenis stave off the barbari ans by urging them to fast and pray, and Eugippius credited his prayers with rel ieving Favianis of famine. Severin warned Rugi king Flaccitheus of an ambush, an d he prophesied that young Odovacar would be king. Eugippius described many mira culous healings performed by Severin, and he even occasionally brought the dead back to life, though one said he wanted to return to his heavenly rest. Severin was often able to warn people because of his vision into the future. Those who d isregarded his advice often suffered. He felt the cold of the poor and made sure they had ample clothes. Severin persuaded Alamanni king Gibuld to restore captives. His letters urged No ricum to strengthen themselves by fasting and giving charity so that enemy raids would not harm them. When King Feva of the Rugi arrived with an army at Lauriac um, Severin persuaded him to protect the people by moving them further down the Danube River. A monk who asked for better eyesight was given an inner gift inste ad. Severin wore only one cloak and did not eat until sunset except on feast day s. During Lent he ate only one meal per week. Severin encouraged tithing for cha ritable purposes. Talmud The Palestinian Talmud was written down in the late 4th century. The longer Baby lonian Talmud was compiled by Rabbana Ashi (352-427) during the reign (400-420) of Sassanian king Yazdgard I. Ashi was head of the academy at Mata Machasia for nearly sixty years. Yazdgard invited Ashi, Mar Zutra of Pumbedita, and Amemar of Nehardea to his court, and he honored the exilarch Rav Huna bar Nathan. In the Roman empire hatred of Jews had been increased by such influential Christ ians as Ambrose, John Chrysostom, Jerome, and Augustine. In 415 Alexandria bisho p Cyril handed over Jewish property to a Christian mob. Edicts by Theodosius II prohibited Jews from building synagogues, from serving as judges in cases involv ing Christians, and from owning Christian slaves. Under this emperor the physici an Gamaliel VI was the last of the Jewish patriarchs. Theodosius II revoked his powers in 415, leaving him with only his title until his death in 426. In 429 th e primates were ordered to hand over Jewish taxes directly to the imperial treas ury. In that year Persia regained control of Armenia, and under Yazdgard II (r. 438-4 59) Jews were forbidden to celebrate the Sabbath in 456. Yazdgard II persecuted Christians, Manichaeans, and Jews. Persian king Peroz (r. 459-484) had half the Jewish population of Ispahan put to death and ordered the Jewish children to be raised in the Persian religion. The Jewish exilarch and two teachers were martyr ed in 470. A few years later increasing persecution by the magi eventually destr

oyed the Jewish intellectual centers at Sura, Pumbedita, and Nehardea. The Babyl onian Talmud was completed the year of Rabina's death in 499. The Halakhah laws often implied a deeper ethics. If those authorities passing ju dgment did not act with temperance and mercy, their behavior could bring about d estruction. Another name for the Avot tractate called the "Ethics of the Fathers " is the mishnat hassidim, meaning inside the law. Examples were often given to show that a person who could afford a loss should go beyond the law to fulfill a higher duty. Even though a person may be exempt by human law, one may take mora l responsibility because of divine law. For example, if a person went back on an oral promise, a court may not be able to enforce it; yet the teaching would con sider such a person cursed. Here is a sampling of wisdom from the Talmud, also called the Gemara. All Israel ites are responsible for each other. It is worse to cheat a Gentile than a Jew, because in addition to violating moral law it brings the religion into contempt. Kindness is the highest wisdom. Charity is independent of race and creed. Rabbi Hanina found that he learned much from his teachers, more from his colleagues, and most from his students. Judah ben Ilai said that a man who does not teach hi s son a trade, teaches robbery. Raba suggested that an assistant should be appoi nted if there are more than 25 elementary students, and fifty children in a clas s require two instructors. The right of a worker takes precedence over the emplo yer. More people die from over-eating than from malnutrition. As fish die out of water, so people perish without law and order. The community should first be consulted before a ruler is appointed. An absent person cannot b e declared guilty. Judgment delayed is judgment denied. An evil impulse may be s weet in the beginning, but it is bitter in the end. Johanan ben Torta said that the first Temple was destroyed because of idolatry, lewdness, and murder; but th e second Temple was destroyed because the people hated each other. This shows th at hatred of fellow humans is as serious as idolatry, lewdness, and murder. Many rabbis disapproved of self-imposed asceticism. Isaac asked if the things prohib ited in the law were not enough. The penalty for liars is that when they tell th e truth, no one believes them. Notes 1. Augustine, Confessions 1:14 tr. R. S. Pine-Coffin, p. 35. 2. Ibid., 2:6, p. 50. 3. Augustine, To Consentius: Against Lying 1 tr. H. Browne in Moral Treatises in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, volume 3, p. 481. 4. Claudius Claudianus, The Rape of Proserpine III tr. Harold Isbell in The Last Poets of Imperial Rome, p. 95. 5. Priscus quoted in Bury, J. B, History of the Later Roman Empire, p. 284. 6. Sidonius, Epistles 7:7. 7. Orosius, Seven Books of History Against the Pagans 1:1 tr. Irving Woodworth R aymond, p. 33. 8. Ibid., 6:1, p. 266. 9. Salvian, The Governance of God tr. Jeremiah F. O'Sullivan, p. 94. 10. Confession of St. Patrick tr. Martin P. Harney in The Legacy of Saint Patric k, p. 113. 2000-2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents Empire of Augustus and Tiberius Jesus and His Apostles Roman Decadence 37-96 Rome Under Better Emperors 96-180 Roman Empire In Turmoil 180-285 Roman Power and Christian Conflict 285-395 Augustine and the Fall of Rome 395-476

Goths, Franks, and Justinian's Empire 476-610 Muhammad and the Spread of Islam Beck home

Beck home Zeno, Anastasius, and Theodoric's Ostrogoths Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy Frank Kingdom of Clovis, His Sons Benedict's Monastic Rule Justinian's Imperial Wars to 540 Justinian's Imperial Wars after 540 Justinian and Roman Law Roman Empire Disintegration 565-610 Frank Civil Wars, Brunhild 561-613 Saxon Kingdoms in Britain 476-616 Pope Gregory's Reforms 590-604 Goths, Franks, and Justinian's Empire 476-610 Zeno, Anastasius, and Theodoric's Ostrogoths The Isaurian Zeno was restored in Constantinople as Emperor of the Roman empire in 476; but Praetorian Prefect Erythrius had resigned, because he refused to opp ress people to gain the needed revenue. He was replaced by Sebastian, who raised funds by selling offices. Zeno appointed Illus Master of the Offices; but Illus was hated by the empresses Verina and Ariadne, who instigated attempts on his l ife. Prefect Epinicus was banished for hiring an assassin, who failed. Illus lea rned from Epinicus about Verina's part and insisted on Zeno removing her. Verina became a nun and was also exiled to Isauria. This stimulated Marcian, son of We stern Emperor Anthemius, to try to overthrow Zeno in 479 based on the innovative claim of his marriage to Leo's daughter Leontia. The barbarians in the capital, supporting Marcian and his brother Procopius, overcame the imperial guards; but they were defeated the next day. Marcian was ordained a priest and banished to Cappadocia, while his wife Leontia entered a convent. Ariadne also sent an assas sin, who wounded Illus and was killed. Illus went to Antioch as Master of Soldie rs in 481. Alexandria patriarch Timothy Salophaciol sent the monk John Talaia to Constantin ople to urge the Emperor to support the Chalcedon doctrine. Zeno agreed but made Talaia swear he would not accept the episcopal office. However, when Salophacio l died in 482, Talaia was elected bishop of Alexandria. Zeno was afraid that Ill us would use Talaia to get the Egyptians against him. So the Emperor deposed Tal aia and accepted Constantinople patriarch Acacius' advice that Peter Mongus shou ld be the Alexandrian patriarch. Zeno issued an edict called the Act of Union (H enotikon) that affirmed the councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus agai nst any other views including those of Chalcedon, thus ambiguously refusing to a ccept or reject Chalcedonian decrees. In 483 the new Roman pope Felix wrote Zeno and Acacius that Peter Mongus was a condemned heretic, although Peter accepted the Henotikon, and Felix was persuaded by Talaia to summon Acacius. When the Byz antine patriarch did not comply, Pope Felix excommunicated Acacius the next year , causing a schism between Rome and Constantinople. Although Emperor Zeno continued to recognize as Western emperor the exiled Nepos until he was murdered in 480, he declared Italy's new king Odovacar Patrician. Consuls were still elected for the empire from the West; but Odovacar only allow ed Rome's city prefects to serve for one year. The Roman nobility was compelled to support the army, and the Herulian Odovacar settled about 20,000 of his Germa ns in Italy. To keep Odovacar out of Illyricum, Zeno got the Rugians to invade I taly; but they were defeated, and the Rugian king Feletheus and his queen were b

eheaded. A Roman synod excommunicated the patriarch of Alexandria, because they challenged the Emperor Zeno's right to dictate to the church. Theodemir's son Theodoric had spent much of his youth as a hostage in Constantin ople, although he apparently did not learn to write. Theodoric succeeded his fat her before 475 and settled his people in Lower Moesia. Another Theodoric named S trabo had been proclaimed king by German troops and made a general by Emperor Le o; but the restored Zeno gave Strabo's military position to Theodoric. Zeno got Theodoric to march against Strabo; but then he joined his namesake in 478. Zeno prepared for war; but when his army disbanded in winter, he made terms with Stra bo, because Theodoric was destroying Thrace. Now Strabo replaced the other Theod oric as master of soldiers. So Theodoric fled with his army into Macedonia. Thes salonicans rebelled against Illyricum's praetorian prefect and gave his keys to their archbishop. While Zeno's envoy Adamantius tried to negotiate with Theodori c, Zeno's general Sabinian Magnus fought the Goths in Epirus. After a year and a half Sabinian was murdered and replaced by John the Scythian. During Marcian's revolt of 479 Strabo's forces approached Constantinople and got money from Zeno; but refusing to surrender two conspirators in his camp, Strabo was declared an enemy, allied with Theodoric again, and ravaged Thrace. In 481 Strabo's army marched on Constantinople but was turned away. After Strabo's acci dental death, his place was taken by his son Recitach; he ruled Thrace even wors e than his father. Three years later Zeno instigated Theodoric to murder Recitac h. The Emperor gave Moesia and Dacia Ripensis to Theodoric's Ostrogoths and rece ived his help against Illus. Yet in 486 Theodoric ravaged Thrace. In 484 when Illus refused to release Zeno's imprisoned brother Longinus, the Emp eror replaced Illus with John the Scythian and confiscated the property of Illus ' friends. This resulted in a civil war that lasted four years as Illus proclaim ed Marcian emperor. Illus appealed to Odovacar and the Persians; but Odovacar re fused, and the Persians had their hands full fighting the Ephthalites, who kille d Persian emperor Peroz that year. Illus retrieved Verina and got her to crown t he patrician Leontius in place of Marcian while repudiating Zeno for avarice. Th ough rejected at Chalcis and Edessa, the new Emperor was welcomed at Antioch. Ze no appealed to Ostrogoth king Theodoric to supplement his Isaurian troops. Zeno' s army then defeated the rebellion the same year; but the siege of the fortress of Cherris lasted four years until it was treacherously taken. Illus and Leontiu s were beheaded. Zeno died of epilepsy in 491. Before Theodoric invaded Italy in 489, he got Zeno to agree that he could replac e Odovacar. Theodoric's army defeated the forces of Odovacar, who fled to Ravenn a, as his commander Tufa surrendered most of his army. Theodoric trusted Tufa wi th some of his Gothic troops; but Tufa rejoined Odovacar instead of attacking hi m and put the Goths in irons. The next year Odovacar was able to regain Milan; b ut Visigoths reinforced the Ostrogoths, and Theodoric decisively defeated Odovac ar, who fled again to Ravenna. The Roman Senate acknowledged that Theodoric rule d southern Italy and Sicily. Meanwhile Burgundian king Gundobad's army plundered northern Italy, capturing thousands. Theodoric also had to fight the Vandals, w ho were trying to regain Sicily. Odovacar held out under siege for two and a hal f years until a blockade compelled him to negotiate in 493. However, Theodoric s uspected Odovacar, and ten days later at a banquet he was killed with a sword. T heodoric then had Odovacar's wife, son, and many of his supporters slaughtered. The next year Bishop Epiphanius crossed the Alps to plead with Gundobad and pers uaded him to restore more than 6,000 captives to Italy. In 497 Epiphanius got Th eodoric to reduce taxes on Liguria by two-thirds. At Constantinople in 491 Empress Ariadne chose Anastasius to succeed Zeno, thoug h the church patriarch Euphemius insisted that Anastasius declare his orthodoxy in writing. Ariadne married Anastasius the next month. The Isaurians had expecte d Longinus to succeed his brother Zeno; when they rioted at the Hippodrome and s

et it on fire, Anastasius ordered his soldiers to expel the Isaurians from the c apital. He replaced the unpopular city prefect Julian with his brother-in-law Se cundinus. Longinus was exiled to a religious life at the Thebaid in Egypt. Anast asius confiscated Zeno's property and 1400 pounds of gold the late emperor had a llowed his countrymen. A rebellion of 100,000 in Isauria was defeated in Phrygia by the imperial army under John of Scythia and John the Hunchback in 493. Isaur ians led by Longinus of Kardala and Athenodorus held out in fortresses until the y were captured and executed four years later. Large colonies of Isaurians were re-settled in Thrace. Anastasius economized on state expenditures and in 498 abolished the Chrysargyro n tax that had oppressed the poorest people. Christians were pleased by this, be cause it had tacitly acknowledged the work of prostitutes by taxing them. More r evenue was gained from the private estates. Anastasius appointed the Syrian Mari nus, and he relieved local community leaders from collecting taxes by assigning the job to vindices, though they could be bribed. Curial assemblies often had be en afraid to offend wealthy landowners. Many farmers had been driven into bankru ptcy, and this put the tax burden on the other farms. Though many governmental o fficials were less affluent because of the new policies, Anastasius was able to build up a public reserve of 320,000 pounds of gold. In 498 an invasion of Saracens from the desert into Euphratesia, Syria, and Pale stine was defeated. Another brief raid four years later led by the Saracen Harit h resulted in a treaty. Huns known as Bulgarians had encroached on the empire as early as 493, and they invaded again in 499 and 502, stimulating Anastasius to build a long wall around Constantinople. A century of invasions by Germans and H uns into the Balkans had depopulated the region. In Persia Balash (r. 484-488) succeeded Peroz and kept peace with Armenia by gra nting them religious toleration. Yet the Ephthalites to the east of Persia were exacting tribute, and Kavadh (r. 488-531), who spent his youth there, became kin g of Persia only four years after these White Huns had defeated and killed Peroz . Persia had suffered from the wars and famines, and in the economic hardship Ka vadh tried to borrow money from Anastasius to no avail. Mazdak started a movemen t based on the teachings of Mani and the socialist sharing of goods (including w ives), and Kavadh championed the people against the aristocracy. Kavadh enacted laws to liberate women from harems; but he was deposed, imprisoned, and put on t rial. Mazdak was also imprisoned but was freed by his disciples. Then Kavadh esc aped to the Ephthalite court, returned with their army in 499, and took the thro ne back from his brother Zamasp. The long truce with Rome was breaking up. Becau se Persia had not given back Nisibis in 483 after 120 years according to the 363 treaty, Rome had stopped making payments. Dependent on Ephthalite soldiers and needing to pay them tribute, in 502 Kavadh invaded Armenia, gained Theodosiopoli s by treachery, took Martyropolis by force, and besieged Amida. A persuasive pri est prevented a massacre, and the inhabitants of Amida were enslaved and replace d by a garrison of 3,000. Anastasius sent an army led by Areobindus, Patricius, and his nephew Hypatius. A personal conflict between the latter two resulted in a Persian victory. Areobin dus retreated into Edessa, which Christians believed was specially protected by Jesus Christ. Kavadh blockaded Edessa and then agreed to withdraw for 2,000 poun ds of gold. When payment was not made, he renewed the blockade but eventually ab andoned it. Jews in Constantia were suspected of conspiring to deliver the city, and Greeks slaughtered many of them. Celer replaced Hypatius and devastated Arz anene, while Areobindus invaded Persian Armenia, and Patricius tried to liberate Amida, which agreed to surrender for 1,000 pounds of gold. Since Kavadh was now at war with the Ephthalites, he agreed to a truce with Celer in 505. During the wars the people suffered so much from the occupation by the German mercenaries in the imperial army that many preferred Persian rule. Near Nisibis that defende d the Persians, the Emperor had a fortress built and named after himself Anastas

iopolis. In theology Emperor Anastasius inclined toward the Monophysites. Complaints by A lexandrian and Jerusalem patriarchs that Euthemius was a heretic led to the Cons tantinople patriarch being deposed by a local council in 496. His successor Mace donius held similar views but was more compliant and signed the Henotikon. Two y ears later rock-throwing at the Hippodrome in the presence of the Emperor escala ted to another fire. A new city prefect named Plato was appointed. Anastasius ab olished contests with wild beasts in 499, and a pagan dance of the Brytae festiv al that caused bloody riots was also banned two years later. In 511 Macedonius w as forced to abdicate and was replaced by the Monophysite Timothy. A noisy confl ict between orthodox church-goers and heretical priests caused Praetorian Prefec t of the East Marinus and City Prefect Plato to send in imperial troops, killing some and imprisoning others. The next day people proclaimed Emperor the general Areobindus, who was married to Valentinian III's granddaughter; they pulled dow n statues of Anastasius and burned the house of Marinus. Anastasius was ready to abdicate, but after his speech in the Hippodrome, the people persuaded him to r emain. In Antioch the moderate patriarch Flavian was replaced by the leading Monophysit e theologian Pisidian Severus in 512. Vitalian was the military Count of the fed erates in Thrace, who were mostly Bulgarians. He championed the religious cause of Flavian and Macedonius, and he claimed that his federates had been deprived o f promised provisions. Hypatius was Master of Soldiers in Thrace, but he retreat ed to Constantinople. Vitalian marched on the capital with a reported 50,000 men . Anastasius made gifts and promises, recommending that the church of Rome decid e the religious issue. Vitalian and his army returned to Lower Moesia, followed by Cyril, who had replaced Hypatius. When Cyril was assassinated, the Senate declared Vitalian a public enemy and sen t an army (said to have 80,000 men) under the Emperor's nephew, another Hypatius . After an initial victory in 513 the imperial army was driven over precipices a nd lost a reported 60,000 men. Hypatius was captured and ransomed for 9,000 poun ds of gold. Vitalian, after raising a navy of 200 ships, was appointed Master of Soldiers in Thrace. A church council was scheduled for 515 but never met. So on ce again Vitalian marched to the capital. Marinus commanded the imperial forces that defeated the rebels in the naval battle of the Golden Horn. A chemical comp ound invented by an Athenian that set fire to ships greatly aided the imperial v ictory. Vitalian fled with the remains of his army. Emperor Anastasius was 88 wh en he died three years later in 518. As Patrician Theodoric (r. 490-526) replaced many of Odovacar's Germans with his Ostrogoths. The Roman senator Liberius assigned the Goths one-third of the Roma n estates. It was not until 497 that Anastasius recognized Theodoric as the Gove rnor of Italy. Being under the Emperor, Theodoric could issue edicts but could n ot make laws though he called himself king. Theodoric acknowledged the Roman Sen ate as a comparable authority. Civil offices were reserved for Romans; but the m ilitary was all Goths, as Romans were forbidden to carry arms. Theodoric, like t he Emperor, could hear any judicial case as the supreme royal court and did so m ore often than the Emperor. In religion Theodoric was tolerant, and he wrote to all the Jews of Genoa that people could not be compelled to believe against thei r will. Theodoric apparently got along well with Romans, but the society essenti ally segregated Goths and Romans. Intermarriage was illegal, and Goths used the Gothic language. According to Cassiodorus the Goths learned how to respect laws and refrain from private revenge. As the king's secretary Cassiodorus wrote letters for Theodoric. In one to a swo rd-bearer named Unigis, the king expressed his delight living under Roman laws a nd his interest in maintaining morality even in war. What benefit is there in en ding the turmoil of barbarians, he asked, unless they live under law? He would l

et other kings glory winning battles, taking cities, and causing ruin, his purpo se with God's help was to rule in such a way that his subjects would grieve they had not gained the blessing of his dominion sooner. Theodoric urged racial harm ony and civility, restraining Goths from oppressing the Romans. He made alliance s by marrying his daughters to the Visigothic king Alaric II and the Burgundian prince Sigismund in 494. Theodoric married Audafleda, sister of Clovis, and his sister Amalfrida wed the Vandal king Thrasamud in 500. After Symmachus and Laurentius were both elected pope in Rome on the same day in 498, Theodoric the next year chose Symmachus. The Byzantine-supported Laurentiu s went on but had to retire after the Sirmium conflict aroused Italian patriotis m against the empire; Symmachus also excommunicated him. While fighting Gepids t o recover Sirmium, the Gothic army clashed with imperial troops in 504 and held the city against a force led by Sabinian the next year. In 507 Theodoric settled some Alamannic people in Pannonia. Campaigns in Gaul saved Arles and Narbonensi s, and Provence was taken from Burgundy. Alaric II died in 507, and after 511 Th eodoric ruled Spain for his grandson Amalaric. Theodoric chose Ravenna as his ca pital and built a new palace and an Arian church dedicated to St. Martin. Near the end of his life Theodoric was concerned about the persecution of Arian Christians in the Eastern empire, and he sent Pope John (523-526) to Constantino ple to persuade Justin to moderate the decree against the Arians. When Albinus w as charged with political sympathy for imperial rule, the Master of the Offices Boethius defended him in the Senate. Even Pope John was suspected, and after ret urning from Constantinople he died in Theodoric's prison. Without investigating their cases properly Theodoric had the philosopher Boethius and the patrician Sy mmachus executed. Guilt over this and a sudden illness left Theodoric dead in 52 6. Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy Proclus was born about 410 in Constantinople and studied philosophy under Olympi odorus at Alexandria, then at Athens under a Plutarch and Syrianus, whom he succ eeded as teacher at the Academy. Considered the last major Neo-Platonist, Proclu s attempted to systematize the philosophy in his Elements of Theology, commentar ies on Plato, and in other works. He never married, was a vegetarian, and believ ed he was the reincarnation of the Neo-Pythagorean Nicomachus. Proclus died in 4 85 and was succeeded by his biographer Marinus. In 529 Justinian prohibited teac hing philosophy at Athens, and the last seven members of the Neo-Platonic school went to Khusrau I in Persia; they were disappointed and returned to Athens, tho ugh in the treaty of 532 Khusrau got Justinian to agree not to persecute them or force them to be Christians. Proclus emphasized the unity of God and the universe in a hierarchy that descend ed from being, the ultimate cause, to power (of the cause) to mind (activity of the cause) to the world soul (power of that activity) and finally to becoming, t he world of appearances. From the one God derived the gods of Greek religion and the Platonic ideas. The ethics of Proclus focused on the oneness of this absolu te goodness. By renouncing the appearances of the body and its unnecessary physi cal desires, social and political relations, one could ascend into higher levels of awareness and increasing virtue. Three main stages are love, truth, and fait h. Truth takes the soul beyond love to the beautiful and a knowledge of the true reality. Faith represents the mystical silence of the ineffable. The good is wh at draws all souls back to God, and evil is only the imperfection found in the l owest levels of becoming. Everyone naturally seeks the good. Greatly influenced by the ideas of Proclus are the writings attributed to Dionys ius the Areopagite that appeared about 500 and transformed his Neo-Platonic hier archy into a Christian cosmology that included seraphim, cherubim, thrones, domi nions, powers, authorities, principalities, archangels, and angels. In the Divin e Names Dionysius attempted to understand the indescribable godhead by using suc

h terms as goodness, being, eternal life, wisdom, mind, truth, cause, beginning, reason, and power. For Dionysius goodness is the highest name, and it is experi enced by means of prayer. Evil is only a term that is used for what is deficient in goodness or is inadequate; but it has no existence of its own. Evil is only a deprivation, defect, weakness, disproportion, error, or absence of divine qual ities such as purpose, beauty, life, understanding, reason, and perfection. In M ystical Theology Dionysius attempted to describe a way toward the knowledge of G od, which is essentially mystical and ineffable. Paradoxically this reality can only be experienced in the darkness of unknowing. God is in all and yet transcen ds all as the cause of all things. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius was born about 480 into the illustrious Anici an Roman family that had been Christian for about a century. His father was a co nsul in 487 but died soon after that. Boethius translated Greek works on theolog y by Plato, logic by Aristotle, arithmetic by Nicomachus, geometry by Euclid, mu sic by Pythagoras, and astronomy by Ptolemy into Latin, and he wrote four tracta tes on Christian theology. In these he attempted to explain with Aristotelian lo gic the unity of God as substance and the trinity of divine persons in terms of relation, describing Christ as having both divine and human nature. He was consu l of Rome in 510, and in 522 his two sons were appointed consuls by King Theodor ic and Emperor Justinian, while Boethius himself was serving as master of the of fices. When Senator Albinus was accused of conspiring with Emperor Justin, Boethius in the Senate said the charge by Cyprian was false and that if Albinus was guilty, then he and the entire Senate were also. This led to the charge of treason being extended to Boethius but not to other senators. Cyprian then brought forth fals e witnesses against both Albinus and Boethius. In 523 Boethius was locked up in prison at Ticinum (Pavia) about 300 miles from Rome for about a year while his c onviction was confirmed by the Senate. He had hoped to translate all the works o f Plato and Aristotle to show their essential agreement; but left without his li brary, Boethius wrote the brilliant work, The Consolation of Philosophy. Boethiu s was tortured and beaten to death with a club in 524, and his father-in-law Sym machus was taken from Rome to Ravenna to be executed the next year. The Consolation of Philosophy alternates passages of verse with prose. Boethius is bewailing his fate in prison after his sudden fall from the peak of good fort une when Philosophy appears to him in a gown that stretches from the practical o n the lower hem to the theoretical or divine at the top as symbolized by the Gre ek letters Pi and Theta. Boethius complains that he is suffering unjustly. He ha d followed the advice of Plato that the wise should go into politics lest the go od be destroyed by bad citizens; but in watching justice with a free conscience he displeased the powerful. He had worked to reduce taxes during famine and stop ped an enforced sale. Having seen the brave consul Paulinus devoured by Palatine dogs, he exposed himself to the informer Cyprian in order to prevent a similar injustice against Albinus. He was then denounced by the informers Basilius, Opil io, and Gaudentius so that they would not be expelled by royal decree. Boethius explained that forged letters blamed him because he hoped for Roman liberty, and he believed he would be vindicated by the wise judgment of posterity. Harmful p enalties due the wicked are pressing the innocent, while perverted morals on a h igh throne trample on the pious. Philosophy promises to cure him. She uses a dialectical method and discovers tha t at least Boethius understands that God created the universe and watches over i t; but she is surprised that knowing the beginning, he does not understand how t he universe is governed and to what end. Boethius thinks of himself as a reasoni ng but mortal animal, and this belief she diagnoses as the chief cause of his il lness, not knowing how the universe is guided. His attitude makes things appear wretched, because he seeks happiness outside instead of within himself. Philosop hy discusses how the various human desires for riches, gems, clothes, servants,

and so on do not extend their external good to their possessors. Most creatures are satisfied with their own intrinsic good; only humans lower themselves to see k worthless things. Yet humans can know themselves. Because power, position, and fame may be used for evil, they have no intrinsic good. Philosophy suggests tha t he let Fortune and her friends depart so that he can find more precious friend s such as love. Love is what binds all people together by treaties they may not break. Love binds in holy wedlock and trusted friendship; it even rules the univ erse. Boethius is now ready for the sharper remedy of Philosophy. She reveals that the true goal is the highest good that includes all happiness which everyone seeks. The vanity of riches, positions, political power, fame, noble birth, and desire s of the flesh lead people astray from what is their true good. Human welfare is troubled, because it is not whole, and it may not continue. Sufficiency easily becomes excess by adding what is unpleasant or harmful. Honor does not come to t he virtuous from their position; but rather from virtue honor comes to the posit ion. Paradoxically Philosophy points out that adversity is more beneficial than fortune, because the latter is a pretense of happiness that deceives with extern al goods, while the former instructs by true experience that brings wisdom and g oodness. Fortune draws one away from the truly good by devious allurements, but adversity leads one back to the good. The dialectic determines that the highest good includes happiness, satisfaction, power, glory, veneration, and joy. They b egin by calling on God as Philosophy's pupil Plato did in his Timaeus and discov er that the highest and perfect good is found in the highest Deity that includes true happiness. Thus God rules the universe for the highest good, and all thing s move toward that good according to their own will. In the fourth book Philosophy discusses good and evil. Boethius asks why the vir tuous lack rewards and are trampled under the feet of the wicked, being punished instead of the criminals. She says that would be monstrous if true; but the goo d is always powerful, and evils are helpless. Ultimately vice cannot escape pena lty, and virtue is not without reward; for happiness comes to the good, while th e bad cannot help but suffer misfortune eventually. Everyone seeks the good, and those who gain it are strong. Evil is really nothing, and the dishonest are inc apable of achieving anything real. The bad are really weak, because they have no t attained the good. The bad have limited themselves to a partial reality. From God's viewpoint everything is good, because the bad are improved by the punishme nt their actions bring, and good actions in spite of adversity strengthen virtue , which is a lasting good. By honesty alone may someone rise beyond the human level to the divine, while th e dishonest lower their condition. A violent robber is like a wolf, the quarrels ome like a dog, the deceptive ambusher like a fox, the angry like a lion, the fe arful like a deer, the lazy like an ass, the trivial like flighty birds, and the lusty like swine. By deserting honesty one is turned into a beast, not physical ly but psychologically. Schemes of crimes are often destroyed suddenly, limiting the misery. The longer one is worthless the worse it is. The dishonest are made happier by paying their punishment than if there were no penalty of justice. Ba seness makes one wretched by its own nature; yet the misery of the injured victi m is not the recipient's but the perpetrator's. All fortune, whether pleasant or difficult, is to reward and discipline the good, or to punish and correct the d ishonest. In the fifth and last book Philosophy explains that chance events are unexpected , because they are different than the conscious purpose. Yet they have their own causes too. Fate is used to describe events when one is far from the center of God, and so they seem random. Those closer to the creator can more easily see th e hand of divine providence. Finally Philosophy takes on the difficult dilemma o f resolving how free will can still exist if God is omniscient and knows the fut ure. She uses the example of a man walking into the Sunset. Everyone knows that

the movement of the setting Sun is inevitable, but the man is freely choosing to walk. In this way God is able to watch the future just as we are able to watch the present. The awareness of God is more like providence than foreseeing and is beyond not only sense perception but reason as well. Divine light illuminates a ll and is aware of all while still allowing individuals their free expression. P erhaps another way of putting it is that God understands all the possibilities a nd probabilities which may be chosen and all their possible results. Since some things are determined by necessity, while other human concerns result from the a bility to choose and act, humans are responsible for the consequences of their a ctions and the discipline, rewards, or penalties that result. Thus the divine la ws are just, and prayers to God are not in vain. Philosophy concludes, Then reject vices, cultivate virtues, lift up your soul to right hopes, offer to the heights humble prayers. Great is the necessity of honesty indicated for you, if you are not to deceive with appearances, since you do all before the eyes of a discerning judge.2 Next to the Bible, The Consolation of Philosophy would become the most widely di stributed book during the middle ages by which many could absorb the essential P latonic principles of ethics that affirm virtue, self-knowledge, and the inner s piritual life of love and joy rather than the extrinsic values of outer baubles like riches, pleasures, positions, and honors. It would be translated into Old, Middle, and Elizabethan English by King Alfred, Chaucer, and Queen Elizabeth. Frank Kingdom of Clovis and His Sons Although Guizot wrote that the German race called themselves Franks, meaning fre emen, in the Attic language Frank means fierce. Childeric, the Merovingian chief of the Salian Franks, died in 481 and was succeeded by his 15-year-old son Clov is. After the Visigoth king Euric died in 486, Clovis and his relative Ragnachar attacked at Soissons the Roman authority of Syagrius, son of Aegidius. The forc es of Syagrius were defeated and fled to the new Goth king Alaric II at Toulouse . Alaric handed Syagrius over to Clovis, who had him imprisoned and later secret ly killed. The pagan Franks plundered the churches, and once Clovis killed one o f his soldiers for denying his right to take a valuable vase. Five years later t hey subjected the Thuringians as Frank rule expanded its territory. In 493 Ostro goth king Theodoric married the sister of Clovis, Audafleda, and Clovis married Chilperic's exiled daughter Clotild. When their first child was baptized into th e Catholic faith and died, Clovis complained; but a second baptized child, Chlod omer, survived. In 496 while battling the Alamanni, Clovis prayed to Jesus Chris t for a victory. When his enemies submitted, Clovis became a Christian. 3,000 of his warriors deserted him for Ragnachar, the Frank king of Cambrai, but another 3,000 soldiers were baptized along with Clovis and his two sisters. A letter from the Arian Godigisel in Burgundy, offering to betray his brother Gu ndobad, persuaded Clovis to march his army against the latter. During the battle Godigisel joined forces with Clovis, and they defeated Gundobad near Dijon. Gun dobad retreated to Avignon and, besieged, promised to pay an annual tribute but then did not do so. Instead he besieged his brother at Vienne, and Godigisel was killed along with an Arian bishop in a church. In 498 Clovis met Alaric II on a n island in the Loire, and they swore eternal friendship. Alaric promulgated the Roman law of the Visigoths for Spain and part of Gaul in 506. However, the next year Clovis assembled his chiefs and decided to attack the Arian Goths at Poiti ers. At Tours he gave orders to respect St. Martin and take only grass and water . As an example he slew a soldier who had robbed a poor farmer of his hay. Clovi s killed Alaric but was wounded. The next year the Franks occupied the Visigoth capital at Toulouse. While his so n Theodoric subdued the region, Clovis managed to take Angouleme. However, King

Theodoric from Italy sent forces to keep the Franks out of the eastern provinces of the Visigoths. The Ostrogoth army took Provence, and their general Ibbas ret ook Septimia. Yet Frank territory had expanded from the Loire to the Pyrenees. C lovis ordered all captured clergy, widows, and serfs of the church to be release d. Churches were reconsecrated for the Catholic faith, and Arian priests could b e reconciled by a laying on of hands. Emperor Anastasius sent word that he made Clovis honorary consul, and the Frank king calling himself Augustus established his capital at Paris. Now Clovis aimed to unite all the Franks. He secretly sent a message to Chloderi c, son of Ripuarian Frank king Sigibert, and the prince had his father assassina ted. Chloderic offered to share his treasure with Clovis, but the envoys who cam e for it murdered him. Yet Clovis claimed he had no part in this crime against h is relative. Next Clovis marched against Chararic, who twenty years before had r efused to support him against Syagrius. He ordered Chararic and his son to have their hair cut short for the religious life; but when they threatened to let the ir hair grow long in the royal manner of the Franks, Clovis had them beheaded. A lthough Ragnachar had supported him against Syagrius, Clovis bribed his guards w ith counterfeit gold and defeated Ragnachar's army. Clovis then used his ax to k ill Ragnachar and his brother Ricchar. He ordered a third brother to be put to d eath at Le Mans. Thus by eliminating his own relatives Clovis united the Frank k ingdom; yet he later lamented that he had no relations left to help him. In 511 a church convocation of 32 bishops at Orleans drew up 31 canons granting the chu rch great privileges and influence, expressing respect for human rights, and bin ding the church to the state while giving royalty great power. Clovis approved t hem before dying later that year at Paris after ruling for thirty years. Also before he died, Clovis proclaimed the laws of the Salian Franks in writing as the Lex Salica. This codified ancient German common laws of vengeance that fo rced criminals to pay wergild, meaning man-payment. Only half went to the state, as half went to the victim or the family of the deceased. The amount was based on the seriousness of the offense and on the social position of the victim. For murder of a king's follower one had to pay 600 solidi. The Roman gold coin solid us was equal to one cow, and payment was usually in livestock. A freeman was wor th 200, a pregnant woman 700, a priest 600, a bishop 900, a Roman landowner or a German serf 100, a slave 30, or more if skilled in a craft. If one could not pa y, the criminal might be executed or mutilated, cutting off an ear or a finger. Torture and flogging were common. A thief might lose an eye for the first offens e, a nose for the second, and one's life for the third. Yet free Franks feared i mprisonment or slavery even more than these. The accused might swear innocence w ith a solemn oath or undergo an ordeal by various forms of burning. Under the Sa lic law personal property was equally divided by sons and daughters, but all the land must go to a male heir. After Clovis died in 511, the Frank kingdom was ruled by his four sons who all c alled themselves kings - Theodoric of Metz, Chlodomer of Orleans, Childebert of Paris, and Chlotar of Soissons. Their sister Clotild was sent to Spain with a do wry to marry Visigoth king Amalaric. When Danes led by king Hygelac raided the c oast, Theodoric sent his son Theudebert with an army that defeated them and kill ed their king in a naval battle. The Thuringians across the Rhine were ruled by three brothers; but Hermanfrid defeated and killed Berthar. Hermanfrid then offe red to share part of this kingdom with Theodoric if he would help him defeat and kill the other brother Baderic. Theodoric did so, but Hermanfrid did not keep h is promise. In Burgundy Sigismund succeeded his father Gundobad as king; but his second wife suspected her step-son and persuaded her husband to have the boy st rangled. To avenge her parents Frank Queen Clotild urged her four sons to attack Sigismund and his brother Godomar. After the Burgundian army was defeated in 52 3, Sigismund was captured; but Godomar escaped, rallied his forces, and won back the kingdom.

Although the abbot Avitus urged him not to murder Sigismund and his family lest he be killed in battle, Chlodomer nonetheless ordered them thrown into a well. H is brother Theodoric marched to support Chlodomer; but in 524 the Burgundians is olated Chlodomer and cut off his head. Nevertheless the Franks forced Godomar to flee and took over his territory until Godomar won it back a third time. In 528 Theodoric got Chlotar's help marching against Hermanfrid. After a bloody battle Hermanfrid fled, and the Franks took over the Thuringian territory. While there Theodoric plotted to kill Chlotar with an ambush, but Chlotar perceived the dan ger and survived. Theodoric gave Hermanfrid safe conduct and gifts; but someone pushed him off a wall to his death. By 531 the Thuringians had lost their indepe ndence. Chlotar married the captured Thuringian princess Radegund, but she left him to found a nunnery at Poitiers. From Spain the Catholic Clotild wrote that her husband Amalaric was mistreating her. Childebert left Clermont, and one of his soldiers killed Amalaric as he was entering a church. Childebert carried off much church treasure, but his sister Clotild died on the journey back to Paris. In 534 Chlotar and Childebert attacke d Burgundy and besieged Autun; once again Godomar fled as they occupied all of B urgundy. When Munderic proclaimed himself king, Theodoric sent Aregisel to promi se him safety and then kill him. Theodoric and Childebert made a treaty not to a ttack each other, and they exchanged hostages. At Paris Childebert became jealou s that his mother Clotild was lavishing all her affection on the sons of Chlodom er. So he summoned Chlotar, and they sent Arcadius to the queen with scissors an d a sword, asking her if she wanted her grandsons to have their hair cut or be k illed. She defiantly chose the latter if they could not be kings. Chlotar killed the oldest boy. Then even though a weeping Childebert pleaded for the other boy , Chlotar murdered him too. Then their attendants and tutors were slain. The thi rd son Chlodovald escaped and devoted his life to God as a priest. Chlodomer's l ands were equally divided between kings Childebert and Chlotar. The Goths had regained much territory they had lost to Clovis; so Theodoric sent his son Theudebert, and Chlotar sent his son Gunthar to try to win it back. Whi le her husband was away, Theudebert fell in love with Deuteria, and they conceiv ed a child. Theodoric killed his relative Sigivald and sent his son Theudebert a secret message to kill Sigivald's son; but Theudebert warned the younger Sigiva ld instead, and he fled to Arles and Italy. Theodoric died of illness in 534. Ch ildebert and Chlotar tried to take his kingdom, but Theudebert bought them off a nd then married Deuteria. Young Sigivald returned from Italy, and Theudebert res tored to him the property his father had confiscated from Sigivald's father. The historian Gregory of Tours praised Theudebert for being virtuous and liberal to the churches and the poor. Theudebert had been engaged to Wisigard for seven ye ars, and he eventually gave in to social pressure to desert Deuteria and marry h er. Wisigard soon died though, but Theudebert married another woman and did not take Deuteria back, possibly because she had killed their daughter out of jealou sy. When Childebert and Theudebert joined forces to march against their brother Chlo tar, Queen Clotild prayed to St. Martin to prevent civil war. According to Grego ry, a hailstorm stopped the aggressors. In 542 Childebert and Chlotar attacked Z aragoza and conquered a large part of Spain, bringing back St. Vincent's tunic a s a relic to Paris. Theuda (r. 531-548) succeeded Amalaric as king of Visigothic Spain; but he was assassinated, as were his successors Theudigisel in 549 and A gila in 554. Gregory considered this killing of kings they did not like a repreh ensible habit of the Goths. Theudebert's army invaded Italy in 539 and gained bo oty, but many soldiers died in an epidemic. Queen Clotild died in 544, and king Theudebert died after a long illness in 548. The Franks hated Parthenius so much for levying taxes that they took this opportunity to stone him to death. Theude bert was succeeded by his son Theudebald. Chlotar demanded that the churches in his kingdom pay one-third of their revenue

to his treasury, but Tours bishop Injuriosus refused to pay the king money that should help the poor. Chlotar feared St. Martin would punish him and apologized , canceling his order. Count Chanao of Breton killed three of his brothers, but Macliaw escaped to become a bishop. After Chanao, died, Macliaw renounced his vo ws and grew his hair long, for which he was excommunicated. Theudebald had a str oke and died in 555, and Chlotar took over the lands of the Ripuarian Franks. Th at year the Saxons revolted, and Chlotar marched an army against them. The Saxon s asked for peace and offered to pay half of all they had; Chlotar was willing t o accept, but his soldiers insisted on fighting. The Franks were victorious, but many were killed on both sides. The Saxons had to pay an annual tribute of 500 cows, and Thuringia was ravaged for supporting the Saxons. Childebert also died after a long illness in 558. Chlotar by taking his territory and treasure now ru led over a united Francia. His son Chramm had conspired against him with Childeb ert and committed many crimes. When he marched his army against his father's, Ch ramm was defeated. Chlotar ordered Chramm burnt to death with his wife and daugh ters. Exactly one year later in 561 Chlotar died of a fever. Benedict's Monastic Rule Julianus Pomerius was the teacher of Caesarius at Arles, and about 500 at the re quest of a bishop he wrote The Contemplative Life. The contemplative life is to see God; but life in the world is a trial and confusing. God is not really seen until one receives the reward of a virtuous life, though by discipline one can r eceive intimations of God's glory. The active life is what makes a person holy b y restraining the body according to reason and seeking perfection. The active li fe is the journey; the contemplative life is the summit attained. Pomerius warne d that bishops can become so preoccupied with worldly business that they think m ore of themselves and their reputations than of virtue and God, thus losing the benefits of contemplation. He recommended confession as a way of reconciling one self with God and of escaping the vice of deceit. Pomerius held that priests should have no possessions and that the church should share its possessions as common goods. To seek profit from the church or to den y the church the goods it needs to help sinners is a sin. He criticized the pret ension of virtue as a lie that is doubly guilty, because one refuses to do what God demands and is deceitful too. Pomerius believed that pride is the cause of a ll sins, which are contempt for God. The virtue of humility will lead to all the other virtues. He also extolled charity as the goal of heaven's precepts. Pomer ius believed that the four cardinal virtues of temperance, prudence, justice, an d courage are gifts of God and are given to those who live by faith. Fear, desir e, sorrow, and joy can be good emotions when they accompany virtue. Caesarius was born into a wealthy Gallo-Roman family in Chalon-sur-Saone in 470. When he was 20, he entered the Lerins monastery. After being ordained a priest he served as abbot on an islet monastery in the Rhone near Arles. In 502 Caesari us succeeded his relative Aeonius as archbishop of Arles. Three years later he w as briefly banished to Bordeaux by Alaric II for suspicion of favoring Burgundia n rule. When Caesarius was released, he prevented his accuser Licinianus from be ing stoned. After Alaric was killed by Clovis in 507, Arles was besieged by the Franks and Burgundians, who destroyed a nunnery Caesarius was having built. Arle s was rescued by Italy's King Theodoric the next year. Caesarius used much churc h treasure to ransom captives. In 513 Caesarius was arrested and taken to Ravenn a. Theodoric was impressed with him and gave him a large silver dish, but Caesar ius sold it to free more captives. In Rome Pope Symmachus appointed Caesarius papal vicar of Gaul, and he organized several synods. The most important was the second council of Orange in 529 when he settled a controversy by rejecting the semi-Pelagianism of John Cassian and accepting a moderate interpretation of Augustine. A brief biography by his colle agues glorified his pastoral service and numerous healings by prayer. Caesarius was especially known for the persuasiveness of his sermons, which were published

and circulated. Caesarius also wrote a monastic rule. After nearly 40 years as archbishop of Arles, Caesarius died in 542. Benedict was born at Nursia in the aristocratic Anicius family about 480. He was educated in Rome but was shocked by the licentiousness he saw there. When he wa s fourteen, Benedict retired to a cave forty miles away near Subiaco, where for three years the monk Romanus provided him with food for his hermit life. To end the temptation to go back and find a beautiful woman he had met previously, Bene dict took off his clothing of skins and rolled in thorns and briers. He became t he head of a monastery at Vicovars; but his way of disciplining was so unpopular that the monks attempted to poison him, and he returned to Subiaco. As disciple s came to him, Benedict founded twelve monasteries, each with twelve monks and a prior and all under his authority. Intrigues of a neighboring priest caused him to leave there. At Monte Cassino, halfway between Rome and Naples, about 530 Benedict founded a monastery on the ruins of a temple of Apollo. There he converted many pagans by his preaching, charity, and healings. His sister Scholastica founded and supervi sed a nunnery nearby, and they would see each other once a year. Benedict receiv ed visitors, the most noteworthy being the Gothic king Totila about 542. When he died standing up about 547, Benedict left behind the Rule he had written for th e monastic community that would become extremely influential. Benedict establish ed a second cloister near Terracina, and his disciples Placidus and Maurus took his regulations to Sicily and France. Monte Cassino was destroyed by Lombard Duk e Zotto in 589 and was not rebuilt until 720. The Rule of Benedict begins with a prolog that advises the monk to listen with t he "ear of the heart" to the master's instructions and put them into practice. T he labor of obedience will bring one back from where he may have drifted by slot h. Every good work should be begun with prayer, and the sovereignty of God will be attained by good deeds. Life is extended like a truce so that we may amend ou r misdeeds. These regulations were drawn up for a school of the Lord's service w ithout being harsh or burdensome. Some strictness is in order to amend faults an d safeguard love for the good of all concerned. Progress in this way of life wil l enable one to run on the path of God's commandments. The Rule contains 73 succinct chapters. The four kinds of monks are the cenobite s who serve under a rule and an abbot, hermits who are self-reliant, sarabaites who do whatever they like, and worst of all are the gyrovagues who wander as gue sts to different monasteries and are slaves to their appetites. The abbot must n ever teach anything that deviates from the Lord's instructions, and he is addres sed as the Christ. He should point out what is good more by example than by word s, and he must not do what he teaches should not be done. The abbot should avoid favoritism, but he may change anyone's rank according to justice. After giving one or two verbal warnings he may use blows or physical punishment. He should no t gloss over sins but cut them out as soon as he can before they sprout. The stu bborn, arrogant, or disobedient may require blows at the first offense. The abbo t must remember that as the shepherd he is responsible for his flock. He may sum mon all the brothers to a council to hear their advice. The brothers may humbly express their opinions but should not defend them obstinately. The decision is t he abbot's, and all must obey. In a monastery no one is to follow their heart's desire nor should anyone presume to contend with the abbot. On less important ma tters the abbot may confer with only the senior monks. Monks are taught not to injure anyone and to bear injuries patiently. "If you no tice something good in yourself, give credit to God, not to yourself, but be cer tain that the evil you commit is always your own and yours to acknowledge."2 Kee p careful watch over all you do, aware that God sees all. The abbot is to be obe yed without reservation even if his conduct is at odds with what he says. For th ose who cherish Christ, humility comes from obedience that should be given gladl

y and without grudging. Those who grumble will be punished rather than rewarded unless they change for the better. Silence is practiced unless one is given perm ission to speak. Teaching is the master's task; the disciples are to be silent a nd listen. The Rule outlines twelve steps of humility as always remembering that God knows our thoughts, not to love one's own will nor take pleasure in satisfy ing one's desires, submitting obediently to one's superior, obeying even under d ifficult or unjust conditions, not concealing sinful thoughts from the abbot, be ing content with low and menial treatment, being convinced that one is inferior to all, following the common rule of the monastery, remaining silent unless aske d a question, not laughing, speaking gently and with modesty, and having a humbl e bearing by bowing the head and looking down. Monks were allowed nearly eight hours sleep, spent five hours or so praying and in liturgy, worked for five or six hours, and read scriptures and spiritual writ ings for about four hours, though community prayers were to be brief. For a larg e community the Rule recommends a dean for every group of ten. Monks slept in th eir clothes in separate beds but in the same room. Those who did not reform coul d be excommunicated. Associating with an excommunicated brother without authoriz ation could also result in excommunication. The abbot was to care for wayward br others as a physician does for the sick. Anyone who refuses to amend after frequ ent reproofs might be expelled so that one diseased sheep will not infect the fl ock. Yet brothers who leave could be re-admitted as many as three times. Those w ho join the monastery give up all private property to the poor or the monastery. The abbot assigns clothing, tools, and other goods according to need. The origi nal probationary period of one year was later extended to three years. Then a th ree-fold vow that implied poverty, chastity, and obedience to the abbot as the r epresentative of God isolated the monk from the world. If anyone commits a fault, loses or breaks something, he should come to the abbo t and make satisfaction. If it is made known by another, the correction is more severe. Guests eat at the abbot's table, and no one is allowed to associate with guests unless bidden. Monks must get the abbot's permission to exchange letters or gifts. Monks are ranked by date of entry and by the decision of the abbot ac cording to virtue. The abbot is elected by the whole community or by some part o f it that has sounder judgment. This is to prevent the community from electing s omeone to go along with their evil ways. Qualities the abbot should not have are being excitable, anxious, extreme, obstinate, jealous, or overly suspicious. Th e Rule recommends that the prior be chosen by the abbot instead of elected so th at he will not engage in conflict with the abbot. In conclusion the Rule once ag ain emphasizes obedience as the way to God, though the Rule is only the beginnin g of perfection. During his long life of nearly a century Cassiodorus had a varied career. He ser ved the Ostrogoth king Theodoric as quaestor (507-511) and consul (514); in 523 he replaced Boethius as master of the offices, acting as the king's secretary du ring his last years. He had written a historical chronicle up to the year 519, b ut his History of the Goths in twelve books only survived in a short abridgment by Jordanes. Cassiodorus became praetorian prefect under Athalaric in 533. Four years later he published twelve books of Variae that included 468 official lette rs and documents he wrote for Theodoric; his own treatise on the soul and its im mortality was added in 540. After that he founded the monastery Vivarium, collec ted a library, and worked to perpetuate classical culture. His encyclopedic writ ings did much to preserve ancient learning through the middle ages. In his most important work for the future of education, Divine Institutions and Secular Literature, Cassiodorus emphasized the seven liberal arts recommended by the fourth-century pagan Martianus Capella that to the traditional Roman triviu m of grammar, rhetoric, and logic added the mathematical quadrivium of arithmeti c, geometry, astronomy, and music. In his 93rd year Cassiodorus compiled De Orth ographia from the works of eight grammarians. He had two monasteries in Calabria

; one was a hermitage for solitary asceticism, scriptorium for the copying of secular as well actice would be adopted by the Benedictine and at the ancient culture would continue to exist

but at Vivarium he established a as religious manuscripts. This pr other monastic institutions so th in writing.

Justinian's Imperial Wars to 540 When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, the high chamberlain Amantius gave money to Justin, Count of the Excubitors, in order to bribe troops and make Theocritus e mperor. At the Hippodrome other names were put forward, but no one was accepted. So the Senate elected Justin, and he was crowned by the patriarch John and accl aimed Emperor by the assembly; he donated a pound of silver to each soldier. Jus tin was 66 and an Illyrian peasant brought up with Latin, but he was uneducated. He joined the army at Constantinople and served in the Isaurian and Persian war s. He married a captive concubine he had purchased, and she was crowned Augusta Euphemia. He had adopted his elder nephew who took the name Justinian. Justin be gan his reign by executing Amantius and Theocritus, though some blamed Justinian for this. Vitalian was summoned and assured of the orthodoxy of the new Emperor , and he was appointed master of the soldiers. Justinian was appointed count of the domestics and also helped restore the ecclesiastical unity. However, this le d to persecution of the Monophysites. Marinus was made praetorian prefect of the East in 519. Justinian was held responsible for the murder of consul Vitalian in 520. From th en until his succession seven years later, Justinian was considered the power be hind the throne. He took the side of the Blue partisans who were orthodox and mo stly from the upper classes, and he protected them from being punished for their many riots until in 524 a scandalous murder led Justin to have many executed wh ile Justinian was ill. This restrained the Blues, and the next few years were mo re peaceful. In 527 Justin became seriously ill, and the Patriarch crowned Justi nian Emperor before the imperial guards rather than in the Hippodrome. Justin re covered but died a few months later. Justinian was about 45 when he became Emper or. He was interested in theology and loved to study and work. He abstained from wine and lived on salads with oil and vinegar. His great ambition was to extend his power in a larger empire, and he claimed control over the church. Those ent ering the presence of the Emperor or Empress had to prostrate themselves, and of ficials called them Lord and Lady. Empress Theodora was the illegitimate child of a bear-keeper, an actress who per formed lascivious mimes, and probably a prostitute; but as Augusta she was faith ful to the Emperor and powerful with her own intelligence service. Her devotion to the Monophysites offered some balance to her husband's position, as she tried to protect them from his laws. The Greens she supported also tended to be Monop hysites from the lower classes. As Empress she had large estates and access to g reat financial resources for her intrigues. By her influence strict laws were en acted to suppress the procuring of young girls for prostitution, and she paid th e compensation given for the girls who were liberated. The women were put into a converted convent called Metanoia, meaning repentance. According to the Secret History by Procopius, Theodora often cruelly punished those who had offended her , and she was greatly feared. Theodora banished the corrupt imperial secretary P riscus, who had become rich on public money, and Justinian confiscated his prope rty. The large surplus built up by the frugality of Anastasius had been dissipated du ring the reign of Justin, and the destruction caused by the 526 Antioch earthqua ke and the ensuing Persian wars led to heavy taxes being imposed. The aging Pers ian king Kavadh wanted to secure the throne for his younger son Khusrau and aske d Justin to adopt him. The quaestor Proclus dissuaded the Emperor by pointing ou t that his son could then legally inherit the Roman empire. During Justin's reig n Theodora's brother-in-law Sittas had been sent to subdue raiding by the Tzani on the borders of Lazica (Colchis) and Armenia, and they had accepted Christiani

ty. Lazi king Tzath visited Constantinople. Persia had previously ruled the Lazi , but now they were Christian too. Kavadh ordered their neighbor Iberians to sto p burying their dead (as Christians instead of exposing them like the Zarathustr ans). The Iberian king Gurgenes appealed to the Roman Emperor for protection. As the Persians invaded Iberia, Gurgenes fled to Lazica and then Constantinople. S ittas and Belisarius attacked Persarmenia, but the Romans' second expedition was defeated. When Justinian became emperor, he ordered Belisarius to fortify Daras (Anastasio polis), and the historian Procopius was selected as his advisor. In 528 Persian prince Xerxes led an army of 30,000 into Mesopotamia and defeated the Roman army while incurring heavy losses. Belisarius escaped, and Justinian sent more troop s. The next year Hira king Mundhir with Persian and Saracen forces raided Syria and quickly retreated. In reaction Phrygians plundered Persian and Saracen count ry. Belisarius, only 25, was appointed master of soldiers in the East, but negot iations failed. That year Samaritans revolted, and 50,000 who escaped the massac re threatened to betray Palestine to the empire's enemies. The Heruls had been granted land in Illyria, where their practices of killing th e old and sick and letting wives hang themselves at their husbands' funerals wer e modified when they were converted to Christianity after Justinian became Emper or in 527; then they were given better land in Second Pannonia. Some Heruls sent to Scandinavia for a king, while others preferred Suartuas, who had been select ed by Justinian. This conflict resulted in most Heruls joining the Gepids, while the remainder served the empire as federates. When the Langobards (later known as Lombards) became independent of the Heruls, they lived north of the Danube ne ar the Gepids. In 528 Justinian tried to strengthen his hold on Bosporus by conv erting Hun king Grod to Christianity; but when Grod melted down their images, an gry pagan priests killed him and the Bosporus garrison, selecting a new king. So the Emperor sent enough forces to intimidate the Huns and fortify Bosporus and Cherson. In 529 Bulgarians moved through Lower Moesia and Scythia, defeating imperial for ces led by generals named Justin and Baduarius. The Bulgarians crossed the Balka ns and invaded Thrace, where they captured the Roman general Constantiolus and r ansomed him for 10,000 gold pieces from the imperial treasury. The next year Ill yricum master of soldiers Mundus stopped the Bulgarians with heavy losses, and f or three years Thrace's master of soldiers Chilbudius kept barbarians from cross ing the Danube by raiding their countries until he was defeated and killed by Sc lavenes (Slavs). The Romans had 25,000 troops at Daras; but in 530 they were met by a Persian arm y of 40,000 led by Perozes. The Roman strategy to use its cavalry succeeded, and the Persians fled. Roman arms were also victorious in Persarmenia. The next yea r Mundhir led an army again into Syria, and after fighting the Romans by the riv er near Callinicum, both sides retreated. Belisarius was recalled and replaced b y Mundus, who stopped two Persian attempts to take Martyropolis. When Kavadh die d, Khusrau (r. 531-579) succeeded him and made a peace that was ratified in 532. The Romans restored two fortresses in Persarmenia, and borders remained the sam e, though the Romans had to pay 11,000 pounds of gold to defend the Caucasian pa sses. A plot involving Kavadh's older son Zames, who had been excluded from the throne because of a damaged eye, was discovered by Khusrau, and he had Zames and all his brothers put to death. Khusrau restored the property of the aristocracy that had been taken in the Mazdakite revolution, and the state provided educati on for the nobility's children. All men were required to serve in an army of pea sant soldiers. Khusrau tolerated Christians, while Armenians leaned toward Monop hysitism, as their patriarch Narses got the doctrine of two natures condemned at a synod. By 531 John of Cappadocia had risen from a clerk to become praetorian prefect in

Constantinople. His unscrupulous methods were very successful at raising revenu es, and he became rich himself too. He also saved money by reducing state servic es such as the postal roads. This lack of public transportation resulted in quan tities of grain rotting and farmers being impoverished. In 532 an incident led t o a revolt in the capital. Justinian had ordered that crimes and disorders be pu nished impartially. When a Blue and a Green survived hanging, both factions shou ted for mercy in the Hippodrome. Their shouts "Nika" (win or conquer) soon led t o breaking open the prison to release criminals and kill officials. The building was set on fire, which spread to part of the Great Palace, the Senate-house, an d the church of St. Sophia. The next day a demonstration demanded that John of C appadocia, the city prefect Eudaemon, and the quaestor Tribonian all be replaced ; Justinian yielded to these demands by appointing Phocas, Tryphon, and Basilide s to their positions. On the day after that Belisarius rode into the capital with Goths and Heruls to suppress the revolution by killing protesters. Street fighting went on for sever al more days until on Sunday Emperor Justinian granted amnesty and promised to c omply with their demands. However, many did not trust him, and they appealed to Hypatius, who was carried to the Forum of Constantine and then was proclaimed Em peror in the Kathisma of the Hippodrome. John of Cappadocia and Belisarius advis ed Justinian to flee; but Theodora urged him to remain and fight. Justinian sent out the eunuch Narses with money to persuade people. Belisarius then ordered hi s soldiers to charge, and according to all estimates at least 30,000 people were killed. Hypatius and Pompeius were seized and executed. Eighteen senators were banished and had their property confiscated. John of Cappadocia and Tribonian we re reinstated in their offices. The church of St. Sophia was rebuilt more magnif icently than ever and was completed five years later. The peace treaty the Roman empire made with Vandal king Gaiseric in 476 was obse rved by both sides under Vandal kings Huneric (r. 477-484), Gunthamund (r. 484-4 96), and Thrasamund (r. 496-523) except when the Vandals attacked Sicily during the war between Odovacar and Theodoric. Vandal king Hilderic (r. 523-530) restor ed two hundred bishops to their churches and tolerated the previously persecuted Catholics. When Gelimer deposed Hilderic and put him in prison, Justinian deman ded that Gelimer send Hilderic to Constantinople or he would terminate the treat y. Praetorian Prefect John of Cappadocia argued against intervening; but a bisho p told the Emperor of a dream in which God said to protect the Christians in Lib ya. So the Emperor ordered Belisarius to organize a campaign that included 10,00 0 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, 600 Huns, and 400 Heruls transported on 500 ships gua rded by 92 warships. At the same time the Vandal governor of Sardinia revolted, and Gelimer sent a force of 5,000 there, while a revolt at Tripolitana gave the Romans a safe place to land in Africa. The Roman fleet landed at Caputvada in September 533, and they marched toward Ca rthage, giving out a letter that they were not breaking the treaty nor at war wi th the Vandals but only intended to overthrow the tyrant. Belisarius punished wi th impaling two drunk Massagatae who killed a man for ridiculing them, and then he explained to his men that God helps the just gain victory in war. Procopius r eported that this caused the whole army to fear doing anything unlawful. John of Cappadocia had tried to save money by not baking the bread as dry, which caused it to rot, and at least 500 men died. When Gelimer learned that the Romans had landed, he ordered his brother Ammatas at Carthage to have Hilderic and the othe r prisoners put to death. Approaching Carthage, John the Armenian's vanguard kil led Ammatas, who was out surveying. While Gelimer was mourning his brother, Beli sarius attacked, causing the disordered Vandals to flee. The next day the Roman army was welcomed into Carthage, and the imperial fleet sailed into the Lake of Tunis. Gelimer's brother Tzazo returned from Sardinia, and their joined forces marched on Carthage. Repeated Roman cavalry charges finally broke through the Vandal lin

es, and the imperial soldiers seized the treasures and women in the Vandal camp. Vandal warriors took refuge in churches, surrendered, and were sent to Constant inople. Belisarius sent detachments to take over Sardinia, Corsica, Balearic Isl ands, Septum at the Gibraltar Straits, and Caesarea on the coast of Mauretania. Gelimer took refuge on Mount Papua in Numidia, where they were blockaded for the winter by Heruls led by Pharas. In March 534 Gelimer surrendered and was taken to Constantinople. Justinian granted the regal Vandal an estate in Galatia but r efused to call him a patrician, because he was an Arian Christian. Suspected of imperial ambition, Belisarius returned to the capital in triumph. In Africa Aria n churches became Catholic; Arian believers were persecuted as heretics; Vandals were forbidden to hold office. Vandal warriors were made slaves of the Romans, who married the Vandal women. Even though it had been a century since the Vandal invasion, attempts were made to restore estates to the descendants of their pre vious owners. When Theodoric was succeeded as king of Italy by his 8-year-old grandson Athalar ic in 526, the boy's mother (Theodoric's daughter) AmalaSuntha acted as regent. She assured the Romans they would be well treated and restored the confiscated p roperties of Boethius and Symmachus to their children. AmalaSuntha had a Roman e ducation, but Gothic leaders objected to her son being given a soft upbringing, wanting him to be raised like a Gothic warrior. Athalaric was given young male c ompanions, but they led him into debauchery that ruined his health and his relat ionship with his mother. She wrote to Justinian and had a ship loaded with gold to prepare for her departure; but after the three most dangerous Gothic leaders she had sent away were murdered, she decided to stay at Ravenna. Her cousin Theo dahad, son of the Vandal queen Amalafrida, had greedily acquired most of Tuscany , because he did not like neighbors. He offered to give these estates to Justini an for money if he was made a senator and could live at Constantinople. When Athalaric died in 534, AmalaSuntha offered to make Theodahad king while she still ruled. Theodahad accepted but called together the relatives of the murder ed Goths, had others faithful to her killed, and imprisoned AmalaSuntha on an is land in Tuscany, where she was strangled in a bath before Justinian could protec t her. In the public history of Procopius the Emperor's envoy Peter told Theodah ad that his crime meant war; but in his Secret History Procopius revealed that t he Empress Theodora, jealous of a Gothic queen coming to Constantinople, bribed Peter to persuade Theodahad to get rid of AmalaSuntha. Since Theodahad refused t o abdicate, Justinian prepared for war, sending envoys to Frank kings asking for their help against the Arian Goths, while his master of soldiers in Illyricum, the loyal Gepid Mundus, defeated Goth forces and occupied Salona in 535. Belisar ius with 8,000 troops seized Catane and occupied Syracuse in Sicily. Theodahad s ent Pope Agapetus to Constantinople to ask for peace but to no avail. A large Go thic army sent to Dalmatia killed Mundus and his son Maurice, forcing the imperi al army to withdraw. Justinian appointed Count Constantian to lead the Illyrian army back into Dalmat ia and ordered Belisarius to invade Italy. At Naples the Jews supported resistan ce, because they had benefited by Theodoric's policies. After a short siege impe rial troops entered Naples through a broken aqueduct, and their Huns slaughtered many before Belisarius could stop the carnage and order the 800 captured Goths to be well treated. Goths from Rome and Campania met at Regata in November 536 a nd deposed Theodahad, acclaiming the royal Amal Witigis king. Cassiodorus wrote that Witigis was elected by the free judgment of the people, not in the royal be dchamber like Theodahad, who was then killed fleeing Rome on his way to Ravenna by his enemy Optaris, whom Witigis had sent. Witigis left a garrison of 4,000 in Rome and took some senators hostage with him to Ravenna, where he married Athal aric's sister MataSuntha against her will. Theodahad had offered the Franks Ostr ogothic territory in Gaul with 2,000 pounds of gold if they would be his allies against the Emperor, and Witigis continued the arrangement. Since Theodahad had been punished for killing AmalaSuntha, and MataSuntha had become queen, Witigis

wrote to Justinian that the cause of war was removed. However, the army of Belis arius entered Rome in December 536, as the Gothic garrison withdrew. In Africa a eunuch named Solomon had replaced Belisarius and was made praetorian prefect and master of soldiers. Each of the four provinces was threatened by na tive rebellions - Tripolitana by the Louata, Byzacena by the Frexi, Numidia by A urasian Moors, and Mauretania by the Berbers. The Moors accused the Romans of br eaking promises Belisarius had made by taking their possessions. Solomon defeate d the Moors in Byzacena and established forts there and in Numidia. In 536 imper ial soldiers mutinied, because their pay was delayed, Arians were persecuted, an d the lands of their Vandal wives were being confiscated. Solomon escaped an ass assination attempt, and the historian Procopius went to Sicily to get help from Belisarius. Stotzas led 9,000 desiring freedom from imperial rule; but they were defeated by Belisarius at Membressa. The rebels fled; but more troops revolted in Numidia, forcing Justinian to send his cousin Germanus, who estimated that tw o-thirds of the army was in rebellion. Germanus wisely declared that he was not there to punish mutiny but to rectify grievances. Those who returned to loyalty were given their arrears in pay including their period of mutiny. Stotzas attack ed Carthage in 537 but was defeated. Germanus re-established military discipline , but he was replaced by Solomon two years later. Solomon transferred suspected soldiers, expelled Vandal women from Africa, and built hundreds of forts. After the Goth siege of Salona failed, and their attempts to regain Perugia were defeated, King Witigis marched a large army to surround the army of Belisarius at Rome in March 537. This siege lasted a year and nine days and destroyed the v arious aqueducts that for centuries had supplied Rome with abundant water. The l uxurious tradition of Roman baths ended, as they went back to drawing water from the Tiber and wells. Belisarius immediately sent the women, children, and slave s not involved in garrison duty out of the city. Artisans and traders were draft ed into military service and were paid a small wage. Witigis ordered the senator s held hostage at Ravenna put to death, though a few escaped. Martin and Valeria n brought into Rome Huns and Slavs who made up most of 1600 cavalry. Imperial fo rces began making successful sorties against the Goths, who did not have their c avalry armed with bows. Belisarius sent Procopius out with a small detachment to gather troops and provisions in Campania. 3,000 Isaurians came by sea to Ostia, while John brought to Rome on the Appian Way 1800 cavalry along with 500 raised by Procopius. A strong sortie led by Belisarius routed the Gothic camp near the Flaminian Gate and allowed them into the city. Defeated in various encounters, the Goths agreed to a truce for three months, an d hostages were exchanged. Hunger caused Witigis to withdraw garrisons from Port us, Centumcellae, and Albanum, which were then taken over by imperial troops. Wh en his officer Constantine refused to return two daggers he had taken in violati on of the truce and actually threatened the life of Belisarius, the Roman genera l had him executed. Procopius criticized Belisarius for this, because he believe d he was influenced by his wife Antonina's hatred for Constantine, who had told Belisarius to kill her for her adultery. The truce was soon broken as Goths kept trying to sneak into Rome. So Belisarius sent John to attack the Picentine prov inces. John disobeyed his commander in passing by Auximum and Urbinum to seize A riminum, because it was closer to Ravenna. MataSuntha, who hated her husband, pr oposed to betray Ravenna and marry John. Word of Ariminum falling caused the Got hs to give up the siege of Rome and depart in March 538; but Belisarius attacked them as they were crossing the Milvian Bridge, killing many. John occupied Ariminum with 2,000 Isaurian cavalry. Not wanting them bottled up there, Belisarius sent Martin and Ildiger with 1,000 cavalry to replace John's f orces with infantry from the Ancona garrison. John refused to obey and was besie ged by Witigis, causing distressful hunger. From the East came a new army with 5 ,000 imperial troops led by the eunuch Narses and Illyricum master of soldiers J ustin along with 2,000 Heruls. A desperate letter from John added to the persuas

ion of his friend Narses and made Belisarius order the relief of John's forces. A large force sent by sea under Ildiger and land forces led by Belisarius and Ma rtin converged on Ariminum, forcing the Goths to flee in confusion without a bat tle or casualties. Amid rivalry with Narses, Belisarius managed to successfully besiege Urbinum, while John went off to subjugate the Aemilian province. In 539 a hungry Urbs Vetus had to surrender to Belisarius. Frank king Theudebert of Austrasia helped the Goths by bringing 10,000 Burgundia ns across the Alps to blockade Milan. Delays by imperial officers Martin, Uliari s, John, and Justin resulted in Mundilas and his garrison of 300 soldiers having to surrender in 539. Although these soldiers were honorably treated, according to Procopius, the Goths and Burgundians massacred all the men of Milan, enslaved the women, and razed the wealthiest city in Italy to the ground. The Goths now controlled the territory of Liguria. Justinian recalled Narses so there would be no doubt that Belisarius was in command. Seeing Narses leaving, the Heruls also departed and sold their slaves and animals to Uraias in Liguria for gold, promi sing not to fight the Goths. Italy was so ravaged that crops had not been plante d, and many thousands were now dying of hunger and disease. Belisarius sent Justin and Cyprian to besiege Faestulae, while he oversaw the bl ockade of Auximum. Meanwhile Theudebert led a large army to plunder northern Ita ly. Goths helped the Franks to cross the Po at Ticinum, but they were surprised to see Franks sacrificing Goth women and children. Franks also turned on the Got hs and began slaughtering them. On the road to Ravenna the Franks attacked Goths and then imperial forces too. In the harsh conditions of a war-torn country dys entery broke out among the Franks, killing about a third of them before they wen t home. After six months those starving at Faestulae surrendered and were marche d to Auximum, which then capitulated also, agreeing to divide their wealth with the Romans and promising to serve the Emperor. Belisarius wasted no time in besi eging Ravenna, and he bribed someone to set fire to the public warehouses, which destroyed the grain supply. The Franks proposed that the Goths should divide It aly with them; but Witigis could not trust the treacherous Franks and began nego tiating with Belisarius. Uraias gathered 4,000 men from northern garrisons to re inforce his uncle Witigis; but when John and Martin captured the forts with the wives and children of the Goths, the Goths deserted Uraias and went over to John . Between 532 and 539 Justinian had engineers oversee the construction of better w alls to defend towns in Syria and Mesopotamia. In 539 Ostrogoth king Witigis app ealed to the Persian Khusrau to fight their common enemy. The Armenians called o n Persia after they had killed the Roman governor Acacius for exacting too much tribute from their country; their rebellion also killed the Roman general Sittas . In 540 Khusrau stopped tribute to the Ephthalites and himself led an army that attacked Sura, killing many, enslaving the rest, and burning the city. The Roma ns blamed Khusrau for breaking the peace treaty, but he claimed they had caused the war by writing to the Huns. Seriopolis bishop Candidus promised to ransom 12 ,000 captives for 200 pounds of gold; but few prisoners survived the ordeal. The Persians demolished Beroea and besieged Antioch, which had not been taken by an enemy in three centuries. Khusrau ordered the city burned except for the cathed ral, which was merely robbed. Khusrau entered Apamea; Chalcis bought its safety with 200 pounds of gold, and the stronghold Edessa paid the same amount to spare its surrounding region. Khusrau besieged Daras but left it alone after receivin g 1,000 pounds of silver. Faced with an imminent war in Persia, Emperor Justinian agreed to divide Italy a t the Po River, giving Witigis territory to the north; the treasury at Ravenna w ould also be divided. Belisarius did not like this compromise and refused to sig n the agreement. The Goths offered to submit to Belisarius if he became Western Emperor; but he had sworn loyalty to Justinian. Belisarius got the imperial envo ys to accept all of Italy and the treasury and gave the Goths pledges on everyth

ing except becoming Emperor. He then sent his fleet to Ravenna to feed its starv ing people and marched into the city with his army in 540. He took the palace tr easury but allowed the Goths to keep their private property and prohibited plund ering. Most northern garrisons surrendered also until they learned that Belisari us had refused the purple. Witigis was held in honorable captivity; but his neph ew Uraias refused to take his place to fight for freedom. He recommended the Vis igoth Ildibad, who was proclaimed king. Belisarius took Witigis and leading Goth s with the royal treasure back to Constantinople; Justinian named Witigis patric ian and gave him an estate near Persia. Bulgarians invaded again in 540, occupying Chersonesus and terrorizing the subur bs of Constantinople. They devastated Thessaly and northern Greece, capturing te ns of thousands. Justinian responded by building or repairing about 600 forts in Thrace, Macedonia, Dardania, Epirus, and Greece. Justinian's Imperial Wars after 540 After the Persians had invaded Iberia, the Romans felt it necessary to defend La zica to keep them from the Black Sea. John Tzibus established a monopoly at the Petra fortress and raised money by oppressing the Lazi grain traders. The Lazica king Gubazes invited Khusrau to reclaim this kingdom by driving out the Romans. The Persian emperor brought his army and besieged Petra but took only the holdi ngs of the former governor Tzibus. Meanwhile Belisarius led his Gothic army into Mesopotamia and captured the fortress at Sisaurana, releasing the Christians an d sending the Zarathustrans to Constantinople. As the Goths were used to fight t he Persians, the Persian captives later fought the Goths. The Mesopotamian heat persuaded the Roman the army to retreat, though some blamed Belisarius for retur ning to punish his unfaithful wife. John of Cappadocia continued to oppress the eastern provinces until he was caught by intrigue conspiring to overthrow the Em peror in 541. He was banished to Cyzicus, but the generous Justinian allowed him to retain enough of his estate to live in luxury. Without Belisarius in the west various generals had independent authority. Most prominent was John, nephew of Vitalian, but there was also Vitalius at Venetia, Constantian at Ravenna, Justin at Florence, Conon at Naples, Cyprian at Perugia, and Bessas at Spoletium. Meanwhile the imperial logothete Alexander was making the army and others miserable by collecting back taxes while getting rich on the one-twelfth he was allowed to keep for himself. The Goths held Ticinum; King Il dibad at Verona had only about a thousand soldiers, but they defeated an attack by Vitalius and Heruls. After his queen was insulted by the wealthy wife of Urai as, Ildibad had Uraias murdered. In reaction a Gepid with a grudge against the k ing killed Ildibad at a palace banquet in 541. Rugians, who had submitted to the rule of Ostrogoth Theodoric, nominated their Eraric as king; but he tried to se ll northern Italy to Emperor Justinian and was put to death when Totila became k ing five months later. Alexander and Constantian marched with 12,000 men upon Verona while a small band led by the Armenian Artabazes entered the city; but quarrels between commanders delayed the imperial forces, and 5,000 Goths led by Totila won an astonishing v ictory near Faventia, capturing all the imperial standards. Totila marched again st Florence; but Justin was reinforced by John, Bessas, and Cyprian. However, at Mucellium a rumor that John had fallen caused the imperial troops to flee the p ursuing Goths. Totila treated his prisoners well and persuaded them to join his forces. While John retreated to Rome, Totila took towns in Umbria, razed the wal ls of Beneventum, and began collecting taxes in the provinces Lucania, Brutti, A pulia, and Calabria. Conon and a thousand Isaurians were besieged at Naples. Emperor Justinian appoin ted the civilian Maximin praetorian prefect of Italy; but he did little and was soon followed by Demetrius as master of soldiers. Totila's navy captured most of his men in the Bay of Naples, though Demetrius escaped. Ships with Demetrius se

nt from Syracuse by Maximin were caught in a storm; Demetrius and the crews not killed were captured. In 543 Conon and the garrison at Naples surrendered, and T otila wisely doled out gradually increasing amounts of food to the starving Neap olitans. Totila punished one of his guards for violating the daughter of a Calab rian, arguing that it is not possible to commit injustice and still win glory in battle. While the imperial commanders were plundering the people of Italy, Toti la wrote to the Roman Senate that men are responsible for the intentional wrongs they commit, and he believed the Roman army was being avenged for the suffering they caused the Italians. Starting in 542 bubonic plague spread from Egypt through Palestine and Syria to Asia Minor and Constantinople, where about 300,000 died in 543. The epidemic als o discouraged the military activities of the Persian and Roman empires during th ese years, though the Persians did demolish Callinicum in 542. The Persians besi eged Edessa in 544; but the mound they built failed to achieve its purpose, and Khusrau had to settle for 500 pounds of gold. The next year a five-year truce wa s made, and Justinian agreed to pay 2,000 pounds of gold. Khusrau gained a Greek physician named Tribunus and was so grateful that at his request he released 3, 000 Roman prisoners. In Africa Justinian's nephew Sergius was such a corrupt and immoral governor of Tripolitana that he provoked the Louata to fight. When Solomon offended the Moor chief Antalas, they joined forces and defeated the Romans at Cillium in 544, ki lling Solomon. Emperor Justinian sent patrician Areobindus, who had married his niece Praejecta; but he and Sergius quarreled and were defeated badly at Carthag e. Sergius was replaced by Areobindus, who was assassinated in 546 when Numidian duke Guntarith seized the palace at Carthage. Guntarith claimed to rule for a m onth until he was murdered by the Armenian Artabanes, who was appointed master o f soldiers in Africa. Artabanes wanted to marry Praejecta; but he was already ma rried, and Theodora would not permit a divorce. Justinian appointed John Troglit a, whose diplomatic and military skill enabled him to defeat the forces of Antal as in 547. Moors led by Carcasan won a victory; but his coalition of Moors was f inally defeated early the next year. John's victories were celebrated by the Afr ican poet Corippus in his Johannis. Africa was then fairly peaceful under Roman imperial rule until master of soldiers John Rogathinus ordered the elderly chief Cutsina assassinated in 563, which caused a Numidian revolt. Peace was re-estab lished by diplomatic means only after Justinian sent his nephew Marcian with an army. When Totila besieged Otranto and marched on Rome in 544, Justinian recalled Beli sarius from Persia and sent him to command in Italy. Belisarius recruited 4,000 troops in Thrace and Illyria and sent an expedition to relieve Otranto. Belisari us believed that he had been sent to correct the wrongs the other commanders had done; but in the Secret History Procopius wrote that he plundered the Italians indiscriminately, because he had received nothing from the Emperor. This caused Herodian to turn over his command and Spolitium to Totila and the Goths. Fortres ses in Aemilia were taken; but when Illyrians heard that the Huns were devastati ng their homes, they went back to their country. Bononia and Auximum fell back i nto the hands of the Goths. Totila was blockading Rome, and Tibur fell to him be cause the Isaurians quarreled with the inhabitants and betrayed it. Procopius re fused to describe the atrocity that left the inhabitants dead. In 545 Belisarius wrote to the Emperor that he needed more men and money, because the provinces c ould not supply them. Meanwhile John was in Constantinople marrying the daughter of Germanus, the Emperor's cousin. Totila's Goths were taking towns in Picenum and Tuscany; though he was unable to bribe Perugia, which remained loyal even af ter Cyprian was assassinated by Ulifus. Narses, using Heruls he had recruited fo r the Italian war, defeated invading Sclavenes. In 546 Totila returned to the siege of Rome, where Bessas commanded 3,000 troops . Pope Vigilius tried to send grain from Syracuse; but the ships were captured b

y the Goths. Hungry Rome asked for a truce; but Totila told the envoy Pelagius t hat he refused to show mercy to Sicily, because it welcomed and supplied the imp erial war nor would he allow the walls of Rome to defend imperial troops nor wou ld he give up slaves who had deserted to them. Thus negotiations failed, and Rom e was soon captured, as Bessas, the garrison, and a few senators with horses fle d. The victorious Totila sent Pelagius to Constantinople asking for the peace th at was enjoyed by Theodoric in the era of Anastasius. Justinian wrote back that the war was being conducted by Belisarius and that he should negotiate peace wit h him. As the walls of Rome were being torn down, Totila received a letter from Belisarius, asking him to spare the beautiful buildings, because only the uninte lligent destroy such civilization. Totila stopped the vandalism. Totila left Rome deserted in 547, placed a force to watch Belisarius at Portus, and marched south to regain Lucania, Apulia, and part of Calabria. When Belisari us recovered his health, he entered Rome and had the walls rebuilt without morta r; but the gates could not be rebuilt yet, because he lacked carpenters. The Got hs attacked for two days, while valorous imperial soldiers fought at the gates. Then the Goths retreated, and new gates were built, while Totila fortified Tibur . John defeated Gothic cavalry at Capua and liberated many Roman captives. Totil a marched an army of 10,000 men into Lucania; but attacking John's camp at night , only 100 were killed while 900 escaped in the dark. Justinian sent 2,000 soldi ers. Belisarius sailed to Sicily with 900 men, but their camp was surprised and also decimated by Totila's men. Totila besieged Rossano; when no help came, they surrendered. Totila pardoned all except the commander Chalazar, whom he execute d for breaking his word. At Rome the garrison had mutinied and killed their commander Conon. They sent cl ergy to Constantinople threatening to turn over Rome to the Goths unless they we re pardoned and paid their arrears; the Emperor accepted their conditions. Belis arius provisioned Rome, established discipline, and left a garrison of 3,000 und er Diogenes before he left Italy in 549. Then Perugia fell after a siege of four years. Marauding Sclavenes had just devastated Illyricum, and in 549 half split off to ravage Thrace, taking the port of Topirus. Dagistheus was sent to Lazica in 549 with 7,000 Romans to regain the fortress of Petra. Mermeroes brought Persian reinforcements, relieved the siege, and garris oned Petra with 3,000 men and provisions before withdrawing to Persarmenia. Howe ver, Dagistheus and Gubazes led an attack that killed those men and destroyed th e provisions. The next year Dagistheus defeated the invading Chorianes; but Just inian ordered Dagistheus arrested for the Petra debacle, and he was replaced by the elderly Bessas. He managed to suppress a revolt of the Abasgians, a Christia n kingdom that had profited by selling boys as eunuchs, a practice that Justinia n abolished. Bessas besieged Petra and regained the fortress in 551. The truce w ith Persia was renewed for another five years as the Romans agreed to pay 2600 p ounds of gold, though the hostilities in Lazica were not affected. Lazi king Gub azes quarreled with Roman commanders Bessas, Martin, and Rusticus, complaining t o Justinian. Bessas was recalled, but Rusticus and his brother John contrived to murder Gubazes. The Lazi people got the Emperor to nominate the younger brother of Gubazes as their new king, and senator Athanasius investigated the assassina tion. Rusticus and John were arrested, tried, and executed. Totila besieged Rome for the third time, and in January 550 the Isaurians opened the gates to the Goths. Diogenes and a few escaped. Paul and 400 cavalry held o ut and were willing to fight to the death; but Totila offered to let them go if they swore not to fight the Goths ever again, or they could fight equally with t he Goths; all joined the Goths except Paul and one other who returned to Constan tinople. Totila now realized it was better to rebuild and repopulate illustrious Rome. His peace envoy was turned away by Emperor Justinian, who replaced Belisa rius with 80-year-old Liberius and then Germanus. With a navy of 400 ships Totil a besieged Rhegium and captured Tarentum, but he could not take Messina. Germanu

s recruited barbarians in Thrace and Illyria, and his reputation from his victor y over the Antae was such that the Sclavenes stopped moving south but invaded Da lmatia instead, though they won a costly victory over imperial forces at Hadrian ople. Germanus had married the Gothic queen MataSuntha, and the hopes of many we re dashed when he died of a sudden illness in 550. Meanwhile Totila besieged Syr acuse. Justinian appointed the eunuch chamberlain Narses supreme commander; he i nsisted on sufficient forces and money to win the war. Totila made a treaty with the Franks, allowing them territory they had seized. In 551 the Goths blockaded Ancona by sea and land. John responded to an urgent l etter by gathering fifty ships, which Sunk 36 Gothic ships and rescued Ancona, a s the Goths burned their remaining eleven ships and abandoned the siege. Once mo re Totila tried to make peace with Justinian by offering to give up Sicily and D almatia and pay taxes on their tenantless estates in Italy; but the Emperor refu sed again. The tide of the war was turning as Artabanes led imperial forces in r ecovering the four Sicilian fortresses the Goths had taken. Yet Totila sent a fl eet and captured the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The Gepids led by Thorosin and the Lombards under King Audoin were about to go t o war, and both appealed to Justinian for imperial help. The Emperor sent the Lo mbards 10,000 cavalry in exchange for their help in the Italian war. The Gepids allied with the Kotrigurs, who crossed the Danube and ravaged Illyria with 12,00 0 men. Justinian countered with Utigur king Sandichl, who crossed the Don and de feated the Kotrigurs, enslaving their women and children. Then the Emperor sent Aratius to bribe the Kotrigurs, who were plundering the Balkans, to go home, pro mising to settle them in Thrace if the Utigurs had taken their land; both happen ed. Justinian broke a promise to help the Gepids against the Lombards, because t hey had helped the Sclavenes cross the Danube, and the imperial forces did not r each the Lombards, who nevertheless defeated the Gepids. A peace treaty between the Gepids, the Lombards, and the empire would last to the end of Justinian's re ign. By 552 Narses had collected 5500 Lombards, 3,000 Heruls, and others to amas s an imperial army of about 25,000. They marched to Ravenna; but Totila would no t submit without a battle. About 6,000 Goths were killed, as was Totila. To stop the Lombards from burning and raping, Narses gave them gold and had Vale rian escort them to the northern frontier. Then Valerian negotiated with the Got hs at Verona; but the Franks in the Venetian province blocked a truce. Totila's remaining army was led by the warrior Teias to Ticinum, where he was elected kin g of the Goths. Perugia surrendered, though Ulifus and his followers were killed resisting. Rome was captured again by Narses, and Portus surrendered. The despe rate Goths put to death Roman senators they could find and 300 boys from Roman f amilies they held hostage. Tarentum commander Ragnaris had surrendered and asked for fifty men to conduct him to Constantinople and then killed the fifty when P acurius would not exchange the Gothic hostages for them. Teias collected the tre asure left at Ticinum and headed for Cumae, where the Goths stored most of their money. Narses had Cumae besieged and met the army of Teias at Mons Lactarius. T here Teias was killed, and the Goths asked to be allowed to live outside the Rom an empire in peace. John persuaded Narses to accept on the promise that they not make war on the empire. In 553 two Alamanni chiefs, Leutharis and Buccelin, led an army of about 75,000 that included some Franks south into Italy. Narses was besieging Lucca, which br oke its agreement to surrender after thirty days but capitulated two months late r. Aligern, Gothic commander at besieged Cumae, finally surrendered also. The Al amanni bypassed Narses, who was at Rome, and plundered the Italian provinces as far south as Calabria; they even stole from the churches that the Franks with th em respected. Leutharis died of a plague in Venetia; but Buccelin, eager to driv e out Narses and become king of the Goths, met the imperial army at Capua in 554 . When Narses had a Herul officer executed for killing his servant, the Heruls l eft the center of the Roman lines. Yet this opening enabled the two flanks of th

e imperial army to aim their arrows at the backs of the Alamanni fighting the ot her flank, and they were slaughtered with few Roman losses. Ragnaris still led 7 ,000 Goths; but he was killed the next spring when he tried to shoot Narses afte r a negotiation. The remaining Goths surrendered and were sent to Constantinople . Imperial authority was restored in Italy south of the Po, and the north was gr adually recovered. Justinian had handed down the Pragmatic Sanction to Narses and Antiochus in 554 to apply the Imperial Code to Italy. Grants made by Athalaric, AmalaSuntha, and Theodahad were valid, but those of Totila were annulled. Property that had been forcibly taken was restored, enabling the aristocracy and the church to regain m ost of their land. Public funds were allocated for public buildings and aqueduct s in Rome, and the food dole was re-established. Provincial governors were no lo nger appointed but were elected by local land-owners and bishops. Narses adminis tered Italy as Patrician for thirteen years, though he was resented for the weal th he accumulated. In Spain after Theodoric died, the general Theudis continued to rule and became king when Theodoric's grandson Amalaric was killed in an army mutiny in 531. Aft er Theudis died in 548, Agila became king the next year; but there was a civil w ar until Athanagild defeated Agila in 554. Liberius established an imperial prov ince in Baetica in 550 that would last about seventy years. Late in 558 the Kotrigurs led by chief Zabergan crossed the frozen Danube and in vaded Thrace with little resistance and threatened the capital. However, imperia l forces rallied, and three separate bands of Kotrigurs were defeated by a reinv igorated Belisarius in Thrace, by Germanus in Macedonia, and by the Thermoplyae garrison in Thessaly. Justinian paid much gold for the captives, and the Kotrigu rs went back beyond the Danube. Then the Emperor suggested to Sandichl that the Utigurs could enrich their treasury by attacking the Kotrigurs, which they did, weakening both sides. Also in 558 Justinian began diplomatic relations with the Avars by giving their king Candich gifts. The Avars then attacked the Sabirs and the Utigurs, invaded the Kotrigurs, and by 562 had over-run central Europe as f ar as the Elbe. A new truce with Persia in 557 had included Lazica. About 560 the Persians allie d with western Turks led by Mo-Kan (r. 553-572) and destroyed Ephthalite power, partitioning its territory among the allies and making the Oxus River Persia's e astern border. It was 562 before Khusrau and Justinian signed a treaty for fifty years. The Romans agreed to pay 30,000 gold pieces annually, but Persia recogni zed Roman rule in Lazica. Other provisions indicate the nature of Roman-Persian relations. Persia agreed to keep Huns and Alans from crossing the Caucasus into Roman territory. Both sides had Saracen allies that were included in the peace. Persian-Roman trade was to occur at custom houses in prescribed places. Ambassad ors could use public posts without paying custom duties. Saracens and others wer e to trade at Daras and Nisibis and were not to smuggle by other roads. Migratio n was restricted to the return of deserters. Disputes were to be settled by a co mmittee on the frontiers in the presence of the Persian and Roman governors. Tow ns near the frontier were not to be fortified. Neighboring tribes should not be attacked nor harassed. Daras was not to have a large garrison. Treachery could b e appealed to the sovereign of the injured person. Curses were called down on th e party that should violate the treaty. Persia also agreed to tolerate Christian s and their burial practices, and they were to be free of persecution by the Mag i; but they had to refrain from proselytizing. Justinian and Roman Law In his histories of Justinian's imperial wars Procopius gave a fairly objective account from the usual perspective of the Romans, and he portrayed Belisarius as a noble and great commander. Yet in his Secret History written about 550 Belisa rius is foolishly manipulated by his wife Antonina; Justinian is castigated in a

diatribe as the worst ruler possible, and Theodora is described as a shameless whore, who became a cunningly powerful empress. Yet internal evidence does not g ive scholars adequate reasons for denying that Procopius wrote this extremely di fferent view. Certainly Justinian's imperialistic wars did cause extensive killi ng and much human misery throughout his empire and in the regions conquered; but the unrelentingly negative judgments of Procopius in every aspect of his govern ment are likely exaggerated in some outpouring of emotion though there is probab ly much truth in his criticisms. Procopius exposed the dark and private sides of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and his wife Antonina, hoping that by showing h ow their misdeeds overtook them future monarchs would be less likely to transgre ss. Procopius accused Justinian of murdering thousands of people and plundering thei r property with no provocation at all. His many changes destroyed valuable insti tutions. He not only ruined the Roman empire but took over Libya and Italy in wa rs that cost millions of lives. In refusing to prosecute Blues, gangs were allow ed to rob the upper class with impunity. People despaired because when they suff er violence from state authorities, they have little hope of finding justice. Ju stinian spent large amounts of the treasure he exploited erecting buildings alon g the sea-front that had to be protected from floods by erecting expensive walls . While Procopius argued that every purpose of Justinian was dishonest, he was a n easy mark for anyone who wanted to deceive him. He seized other people's money stealthily without hesitating. According to Procopius the Emperor squandered the people's wealth by giving it t o foreign tribes like the Huns, encouraging other chiefs to raid imperial territ ory and bringing about the enslavement of the Roman empire. Justinian was also a religious hypocrite, robbing the wealth of Arians and other heretics. Samaritan s in Palestine were also persecuted. Justinian criminalized homosexuality and ha d offenders castrated, even if it was in their past. At first he only used this law against the rival Greens or other political enemies. Forgery of wills and le tters was used to take property from leading senators such as Tatian, Demosthene s, and Hilara. The hall of justice was turned into a marketplace as judgments an d even the making of laws were sold to the highest bidders. To account for this extreme pattern of evil Procopius assumed that Justinian must be possessed by a demon if not the king of demons. He estimated that at least five million people died in the Libya war and three times as many in the drawn-out war in Italy, bec ause for so many years the Emperor would not make peace or provide the necessary troops and funds to win. In the Persian wars Procopius blamed Justinian for bei ng aggressive during truces, but he refused to spend his money to defend the emp ire against the invasions of Khusrau in which unnumbered men and women were kill ed and enslaved. Procopius had no doubt that Justinian ruled during the reign of the illiterate J ustin and that he quickly spent the surplus Anastasius had acquired. Then he app ointed officials to strip the wealthy of their estates, and the money collected was soon given to the empire's enemies on its frontiers. He established monopoli es to squeeze money out of every class. Quaestors such as the noted jurist Tribo nian or the Libyan Junilus, who knew little about law, used the office to enrich themselves. Constantine made a pile of money from the law-courts and by selling access to his friend, the Emperor. After the praetorian prefect collected great wealth from taxes, Justinian would then take everything he had with one stroke, as he did to John of Cappadocia. Provincial officials were the most corrupt men he could find so that people continually looked back at the past as not as bad as what was currently happening, so rapid was the degeneration of the empire. Af ter John was succeeded by Theodotus, he was soon replaced by a Syrian money-chan ger named Peter, who was even more avaricious. During a good harvest high prices were charged while much grain rotted. The next year had a lean harvest, and hun ger resulted in constant rioting in the capital by unpaid troops. Justinian refu sed to give the usual debt relief, and taxes for the many wars were unrelenting,

while pay for soldiers fell years behind. The poor suffered too from the monopolies, and even bread and water were hard to obtain. In Egypt Alexandrians experienced similar misery under its governor Hep haestus, as he controlled the economy to enrich himself and the Emperor. Justini an sent Liberius to replace Rhodo as governor of Alexandria after the latter tor tured Psoes to death at the instigation of Paul and Arsenius. Archdeacon Pelagiu s was sent by Pope Vigilius to investigate. Rhodo fled to Constantinople, where Justinian had him beheaded and confiscated his property. Theodora got Liberius t o execute Arsenius, who previously had been useful to her and had only accompani ed Paul; yet Paul, who was convicted of homicide, only lost his priesthood. Late r Justinian appointed Paul bishop of Alexandria. Yet four or five years after Procopius wrote The Secret History, which the Emper or apparently never saw, he published Buildings, praising Justinian for the many edifices he had constructed. He began by writing that the Emperor purified and strengthened the laws, eliminating their contradictions. Procopius flattered Jus tinian for doubling the territory of the empire and increasing its power, noting that he even allowed those caught plotting to assassinate him to keep their pro perty. He dedicated 25 churches in Constantinople, and some funds were spent for wells and hospitals to relieve pilgrims. Many bridges, hospitals, and aqueducts were constructed, and in Buildings Procopius even credited Justinian with savin g the empire with the ring of fortresses that lined the borders. The many new laws proclaimed by Justinian make it clear that at least attempts w ere made to reform abuses. Governors who took bribes were liable to exile, confi scation of property, and even corporal punishment. Subjects were exhorted to obe y the laws and pay their taxes in full because of the Emperor's acquisitions of territory. Many provinces were reorganized, as dioceses were eliminated. Wanting uniform Roman law and to break up large estates, Justinian objected to Armenian prohibitions of women inheriting property. Consuls were expected to pay such la rge amounts for public spectacles and largesses that few could afford the honor, and the state became too broke to subsidize the office. After Belisarius in 535 and John of Cappadocia in 538, Basilius in 541 became the last consul. The trad itional way of designating the Roman years for nearly a millennium now became th e number of years since the consulship of Basilius. Because of expenditures for the disasters of war, famine, plague, and earthquake s, the state could no longer pay teachers and physicians, and few people could a fford a lawyer. Public amusements were greatly decreased, and some towns could n ot afford to light their streets. Not until most of the wars were over in 552 wa s the Emperor able to cancel arrears of taxation. Yet conquests, particularly in Africa, enabled the state to increase greatly its imperial lands. Justinian fea red the large landowners, who had their own private armies and tax collectors, a nd one of his new laws blamed the abuses and crimes of the local managers of lan dlords' estates for the plundering of the state. In 542 Peter Barsymes made the manufacture of silk a state monopoly; ten years later two monks smuggled silk wo rm eggs from China, and soon orchards of mulberry trees spread in Syria, giving the empire a lucrative new industry. When the price of labor increased after the plague, the Emperor issued an edict in 544 to enforce the old prices and wages. Justinian reduced the maximum interest rate from twelve to eight percent and pr ohibited senators and aristocrats from charging more than four percent, though 1 2% could still be charged for risky sea voyages. Roman coins were still the most respected in the commercial world, and many found their way to India and China, though Persians controlled this trade through Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Justinian spent much of his time studying and discussing Christian theology, and his life was dedicated to establishing one state, one law, and one church in a revived and expanded Roman empire. He issued an edict that canons of the four ec umenical councils were valid imperial laws. All citizens must be orthodox Christ

ians, and those who strayed very far could lose their civil rights and have thei r earthly goods withheld. To serve the state one must have three witnesses decla re one's orthodoxy. Heretics were barred from the professions of law and teachin g, and a woman could lose her dowry and property. Manichaeans and relapsed heret ics could even be executed. Jews and especially Samaritans were persecuted. Afte r a revolt broke out in Samaria in 529, according to Malalas, 20,000 Samaritans were killed and 20,000 more were sold into slavery to the Saracens; this is prob ably more accurate than the report by Procopius that 100,000 died. Jews generall y retained their civil rights but could not serve the state. The intolerance of Justinian meant the final death throes of paganism as even th e Athenian schools were closed in 529. A zealous Monophysite named John of Ephes us in 542 was sent as a missionary to heathens in the eastern provinces and clai med in his Ecclesiastical History that he converted 70,000, as temples were dest royed, and 96 churches and 12 monasteries were founded. Four years later he deno unced grammarians, sophists, lawyers, and physicians, subjecting them to torture and imprisonment. Pagan books were publicly burned in Constantinople in 559. Most affected by Justinian's laws against heresy were the many Monophysite Chris tians in Egypt and the East. After Justinian gained the reconciliation with the western church in 518, Monophysite bishops were expelled from their sees. Banish ed from Antioch by the synod of Tyre, the Monophysite leader Severus found refug e in Alexandria. About ten years later the exiled prelates and monks were allowe d to return, though Severus refused to attend the conference at Constantinople i n 531. Montanists had been forbidden to assemble or baptize in 530. Empress Theo dora favored the Monophysites and got Anthimus elected patriarch at Constantinop le in 535. Pope Agapetus came from Rome and insisted that he be deposed, and he consecrated Menas in his place. Anthimus hid in Theodora's palace. This resulted in renewed persecution and torture of Monophysites led by Ephraim of Antioch. W hen Agapetus died, Theodora sent 200 pounds of gold to get Vigilius elected; but Theodahad in Rome selected Silverius. In 537 Belisarius met with both Silverius and Vigilius, banishing the former to Lydia as a monk and allowing Vigilius to be ordained bishop of Rome. Justinian replaced the Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria in 537 with Paul; but he was so violent that the Emperor had to banish him to Gaza. Monophysites in E gypt came under attack for espousing doctrines derived from Origen such as the r ejection of eternal damnation. In 546 Justinian tried to settle the theological difficulties by promulgating an edict referred to as the Three Chapters that con demned the Nestorian views of Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, and Ibas. Pope Vigilius went to Constantinople and opposed the Three Chapters in his Judicatum. This effort by the Emperor to proclaim church dogma led eventually to the Fifth Ecumenical Council at Constantinople in 553. Pope Vigilius kept changing his mi nd and was also condemned by the council, and Pelagius was imprisoned for signin g the Pope's document. Vigilius had spent seven years in Constantinople and died in Syracuse before he could get back to Rome. Pelagius changed his view and was made the next bishop of Rome in 555 by the Emperor's influence, though oppositi on in the West caused Pelagius to change his mind again. This Fifth Council sett led little but caused a temporary schism in the West since northern Italy disagr eed. Justinian made a lasting contribution to civilization by having Roman laws revis ed and clarified. The latest of three Codes had been that of Theodosius II in 43 8. Soon after Justinian became Emperor himself he appointed a commission of ten jurists led by Tribonian and Theophilus, and the Codex Justinianus was published in ten books in 529, becoming law and replacing the three older codes. Next Tri bonian supervised sixteen lawyers for three years to produce the fifty books of the Digest or Pandects in 533, arranging, reducing, and revising the works of pr evious jurists. The commission read 2,000 books by 39 authors; but the five main commentators were Gaius, Papinian, Ulpian, Paulus, and Modestinus, and a majori

ty of their opinions ruled with Papinian being authoritative if they were equall y divided. This also became valid law and rendered all other books by jurists ob solete. The next year two books were added to the Codex, giving it a total of 46 52 laws. Tribonian and law professors Theophilus from Constantinople and Dorothe us from Beirut also produced the Institutions from the commentaries of Gaius. Th is also had authority and was to be used as a text with the others for law stude nts at Constantinople, Rome, and Beirut, now the only law schools in the empire. Beirut was destroyed by an earthquake, tidal wave, and fire in 551; the law sch ool moved to Sidon but declined. Justinian's laws were completed by the 153 new laws he enacted which were called Novels. Many of these were published in spoken Greek for easy comprehension. Perhaps the most important aspect of the Corpus Juris Civilis Justiniani was the legal support it gave to monarchical authority. In the republic laws had been m ade by assemblies, magistrates, and the Senate; but during the empire the Empero r promulgated most laws by edict. This new law code simply bore the name of the Emperor. Civil laws were simplified by eliminating most of the ambiguities of fr eed slaves by classifying everyone as either citizens or slaves, though the free d still had obligations to their patrons. Slavery derived from the laws of natio ns since slaves usually originated as war captives; but it became hereditary. Ga ius noted though that one person becoming the property of another was contrary t o natural right. Justinian's new laws made it easier to free slaves and no longe r limited the number that could be manumitted. The traditional Roman power of th e father continued but was moderated by limiting his power to sell his children into slavery. Parents were liable for the exposure of a child, and the new code prohibited making an exposed child a slave. Punishments were still much more severe for the lower classes than they were for senators, knights, soldiers, veterans, decurions, and their children. Slaves, o f course, were punished even more cruelly, though in imperial Rome, as opposed t o the old republic, the lower classes could be tortured too. The privileged were never thrown to wild beasts in the arena and rarely were sent to work in the mi nes, but they were more likely to be deported or have property confiscated. In t his century mutilation became more common, indicating the middle ages were begin ning. Serfs called cultivators (coloni) composed most of the population and were still legally tied to the land. The new laws codified the increased rights of women as well as children. Dissolv ing the father's power over the child was made easier, either to make the child independent or adopted. Divorces were easy to obtain, though the influence of Ch ristianity was now making them more difficult. Divorce was by mutual consent or by one spouse repudiating the other by stating the reason to seven citizens. Con stantine had greatly reduced the allowable reasons and made adultery a capital c rime; Theodosius II abolished those restrictions but later revived some of them. Justinian added the grounds of the husband's impotence or if either person want ed to live ascetically. His law in 542 required wives and husbands who repudiate d their mates without legal grounds to be consigned to a monastery, and this con finement also replaced the death penalty for adultery. The number of grounds for divorce were reduced; but a husband could still divorce his wife for banqueting or bathing with strange men or staying out of the house or visiting circus show s or theaters without his consent. Previously only patricians had been married by religious ceremony, while others were wed by fictitious sale (coemptio) or by cohabiting for one year (usus). The se methods had put the wife under the control (manus) of her husband, but now th is became obsolete as marriage was by consent. Wives were no longer under the fa ther's power (patria potesta) or guardianship (tutela) like daughters, as guardi anship only affected those who had not yet reached puberty. Because of Paul's vi ew that the man is the head, women could be cruelly punished for deriding men. C oncubinage was allowed to gratify passion rather than for founding a family; any

children produced had no legal relation to the father. Concubinage was socially disapproved by many though, especially if the man was already married. Ulpian had summarized the maxims of law as living honestly, harming no one, and giving everyone what is due. Paulus wrote that robbery with violence was liable to quadruple damages, and Ulpian added that whoever has suffered violence and ca n prove it may proceed by a public criminal action. Violence makes robbery malic ious, but it can also be malicious without violence by dishonesty. Roman delicts allowed one to sue for damages due to negligence. Roman Empire Disintegration 565-610 After his death in 565 the expanded empire of Justinian fell apart. Justinian wa s succeeded by his nephew Justin II (r. 565-578); he banished his cousin Justin, son of Germanus, to Alexandria, where he was assassinated, and the senators Aet herius and Addaeus were executed for treason in 566. The Gepids sent gifts, and Roman forces led by Baduarius helped Kunimund win a battle over Alboin's Lombard s. Alboin turned to the Avar Khagan Baian, because the Romans had not paid their tribute. Baian agreed for one-tenth of the Lombard animals and half the spoils of the conquered Gepids. A Lombard embassy to the Emperor complaining about the Gepids secured Roman neutrality. The Gepids were driven from their territory, an d Kunimund was killed, though his grandson took the Gepid treasury to Constantin ople. Alboin took Kunimund's daughter Rosamund as his wife. The Avars besieged S irmium, while Baian sent 10,000 Kotrigur Huns across the Save to plunder Dalmati a. Tiberius urged Justin to accept the Avar terms; but he refused until Tiberius had been defeated in battle about 570. The Turks as Persia's eastern enemy sent an envoy in 568 to offer Justin II an a lliance with an alternative trade route to China. Since Justin was imposing orth odoxy on Armenia, Khusrau I sent the Surena to build a fire temple at Dovin and impose the Zarathustran faith in Persarmenia. The Armenians gained a promise fro m Justin that they would have religious toleration in the Roman empire, and they defeated 15,000 Persians and killed the Surena in 571. Now with an empty treasu ry Justin broke the treaty with Persia by refusing to pay the tribute for the no rthern forts, and he sent Julian to urge Axum's Abyssinian king Arethas to invad e Persia. Also as the patriarch John's diplomatic efforts had failed to reconcil e the Monophysites, Justin ordered heretics persecuted. Justin's cousin Marcianu s invaded Arzanene and besieged Nisibis in 573. The Roman army abandoned Nisibis when Marcianus was replaced by Acacius Archelaus. Khusrau had relieved Nisibis and now successfully besieged Dara, while Adarmaanes invaded Syria, capturing An tioch and 292,000 prisoners. These disasters pushed the mentally suffering Justi n over the edge; he stopped trade in the capital and was deemed so insane that t he Empress and Tiberius took over the government. She offered to pay 45,000 gold coins (nomismata) for peace with Persia, and Tiberius was adopted as Justin's s on and named Caesar in 574. Tiberius stopped the ecclesiastical oppression of the Monophysites and tried to support the people against the aristocratic policies of Justin by remitting taxe s for a year and relieving the ravages the Persians had inflicted on Syria. Tibe rius gained a truce with Persia for three years so he could re-organize the army ; but as Armenia was not included, Khusrau I invaded and burned Melitene, though Roman forces then chased him across the Euphrates. Justinian's forces pillaged Persia but were defeated in Armenia in 576. Tiberius appointed Maurice chief com mander, and he recruited a larger army. Justin crowned Tiberius Emperor just bef ore he died in 578. In 580 Baian's Avars begin constructing a bridge across the Save, and before he died in 582 Tiberius allowed Sirmium to surrender and pay 24 0,000 nomismata. In his final days Tiberius made Maurice Caesar and crowned him Emperor. After Maurice's commander Philippicus retreated from a Persian battle in 587, He raclius became commander in the East. Philippicus warned Maurice not to cut the

soldiers pay by a quarter; but he was replaced by Priscus, who had to flee a mut iny to Constantina. Riots there and at Edessa drove him back to the capital. Ari stobolus took gifts to the soldiers, and Germanus invaded Persia with 4,000 men, capturing 3,000. Philippicus tried to recapture Martyropolis in Armenia in 590; but he failed and was replaced by Comentiolus. In Persia the misrule of Hormizd IV (r. 579-590) caused a revolt in Khuzistan and Kerman. Hormizd turned to the Turks, but Shaweh Shah used the opportunity to march toward the Persian capital. Media's governor Vahram Chobin defeated the Turks and made them pay tribute. Va hram then invaded the Roman territory of the Caucasus, but he was eventually def eated by Romanus and recalled by Hormizd. At Ctesiphon a conspiracy assassinated Hormizd and crowned Khusrau II (r. 590-628), but his troops deserted to Vahram. Khusrau went to Circesium, asking for Roman protection in exchange for Armenia, Martyropolis, and Dara. So Maurice provided funds and troops under Narses, who defeated Vahram and restored Khusrau on his throne in 591. The Balkans had been invaded and plundered by Avars and Slavs with the latter se ttling permanently. The Persian treaty enabled Maurice to move his army west, an d they attacked the Slavs and Avars across the Danube in 592. Maurice also rever ted to religious persecution, and conflicts between the Blues and Greens tore ap art all the major cities. Comentiolus wanted to surrender the northern frontier in 600 and fled to the capital; but the next year Priscus won battles killing ma ny thousands, and in 602 some Avars deserted to Peter's imperial forces. However , orders for the army to winter beyond the Danube resulted in a mutiny led by th e centurion Phocas. In the capital Maurice could rely on the 900 Blues, but they were opposed by 1500 Greens. Germanus, believing he was suspected of treason, a rmed his followers and took refuge in the Sophia cathedral; but the Emperor's us e of force there started a riot. Maurice fled, and the Greens, mistrusting Germa nus, had Phocas crowned Emperor by the Patriarch in another church. Maurice was executed after witnessing the murder of his five sons. Comentiolus, Peter, and o ther aristocrats were also killed. Phocas (r. 602-610) recognized the Roman church as the head, and his orthodox po licy persecuted Monophysites and Jews. The Greens turned against him and were ba nned from holding offices, while the Blues terrorized the empire in civil war. P hocas failed to stop Slav and Avar invasions of the Balkans with more tribute an d withdrew the army from Thrace. Khusrau II, claiming to avenge the murder of Ma urice, regained Armenia. Narses revolted and seized Edessa for Persia; he later was induced to surrender, but Phocas broke his word and had him burned to death in the capital. The Persian army captured the Dara fortress in 605, overran Syri a, Palestine, and Phoenicia, and in 608 invaded Cappadocia, taking Caesarea and reaching the Bosporus two years later. At Antioch in 608 Monophysites gathered, fought imperial troops, and killed the orthodox patriarch. Bonosus was sent to r epress Antioch and from there went to quell riots in Jerusalem. Carthage exarch Heraclius challenged the tyranny of Phocas and negotiated with t he Senate. His son Heraclius and his chief general's son Nicetas carried out the revolution by organizing forces in the Pentapolis and Alexandria. Bonosus left Jerusalem to march against Nicetas at Alexandria; but after taking the Delta, Bo nosus had to flee through Asia to Constantinople. When Heraclius arrived with a fleet at the capital, Phocas was brought to him by his own ministers and put to death. Heraclius was crowned Emperor by Patriarch Sergius, and the standard of t he Blues was burned in the Hippodrome. The Roman empire had become a Byzantine e mpire in the East. In the West Lombard king Alboin invaded Italy with a large army that included 20 ,000 Saxons in 568, the year after Italy's governor Narses was recalled to the c apital at the request of suffering Italian tax payers who resented his immense w ealth. Alboin's forces entered Milan the next year as Archbishop Honoratus fled from the Arians to Genoa. Pope John III (561-574) went to Naples and begged Nars es to return to Rome. Narses did so and administered Rome until he died in 571 a

t the age of 95. By the next year the Lombards had established Pavia as their ca pital and had taken over most of the Italian peninsula except Ravenna, Rome, and the seaports with walls that prevented land attacks. Alboin had married Kunimun d's daughter Rosamund; but revolted by having to drink out of her father's skull , she conspired with Alboin's foster-brother Helmechis and the powerful Peredeo, and they murdered Alboin in his bed in 572. Rosamund and Helmechis took the Lom bard treasure and fled to Ravenna, where Helmechis made her take the poison she had given him. The Saxons left Italy for Gaul, but they were repulsed by the Fra nk forces led by Mummolus. A year later the Saxons managed to get through Gaul, though punished by Mummolus; but at their old home most of them were killed by i mmigrant Swabians. Duke Cleph became king of the Lombards at Ticinum (Pavia), but he was murdered i n 574. After that the Lombard bands in Italy were ruled by 35 dukes. The Lombard s divided the land, and the coloni continued to work as their serfs. During thei r first seven years in Italy the Lombards raided Gaul five times. An imperial ar my led by Justin's son-in-law Baduarius was defeated by the Lombards in 576, and Baduarius was killed. Military and civilian control of remaining imperial terri tory was given to a powerful exarch in Ravenna, and Africa was ruled by an exarc h in Carthage. Subordinate provinces remained in Rome, Naples, and Venice. Emperor Maurice sent 50,000 solidi to Austrasia's king Childebert so he would in vade the Lombards in 584. That year the Lombards elected Cleph's son Authari kin g and granted him half their lands. Authari used diplomacy and gained a truce fo r three years. In 589 Authari married Theodelinda, daughter of Bavarian king Gar ibald. That year Ravenna's new imperial exarch Romanus took back the towns Altin um, Modena, and Mantua, and the next year twenty Frank dukes crossed the Alps an d ravaged Italy as the Lombards stayed inside their fortifications; but famine a nd epidemics soon caused the Franks to make peace and go home, as Authari died i n 590. Turin duke Agilulf married Authari's widow Theodelinda and was proclaimed king by Lombards assembled at Milan in 591. He secured the northern border by m aking a treaty with the Avars. Benevento duke Arichis consolidated southern Ital y, and in 592 Spoleto duke Ariulf broke the land communication between Rome and Ravenna. The next year Pope Gregory seems to have made a treaty with Ariulf; but Exarch R omanus thought the prelate was duped and seized Perugia and several other cities . King Agilulf in reaction to this breach of faith occupied Perugia and besieged Rome until Pope Gregory arranged a treaty, agreeing to pay the Lombards 500 pou nds of gold from church funds. However, the imperial Exarch did not acknowledge it, and the war went on until Romanus died in 596. Gregory's confidant Abbot Pro bus negotiated another treaty for the next exarch Callinicus in 598 that lasted three years; then the fighting continued as the Lombards used Slavs and Avars as allies. In the armistice of 605 Exarch Smaragadus agreed to pay 12,000 solidi, and this armistice was prolonged until Agilulf died in 616. A portion of Spain had been taken back into the empire in 554, but that year Ath anagild became king of the Visigoths, established his capital at Toledo, and eng aged in a war with the imperial forces that would last thirteen years. The Visig oths also ruled part of Gaul, and his two daughters helped form alliances by mar rying two Frank kings; Brunhild married Sigibert of Austrasia, and in 567 Galswi ntha married Chilperic of Neustria. Athanagild's brothers Liuwa and Leovigild su cceeded him in 568. By the reign of Theodomir (559-570) the Suevi kingdom in nor thwest Spain had been converted to Catholicism by Martin of Braga. Leovigild inv aded the Sueves in 569, and the war went on until his brother Liuwa died in 573. Leovigild made his son Hermenegild duke of Narbonne and his son Recared duke of Toledo, as he tried to consolidate his power; but rebellious nobles caused him to quell insurgencies in Toledo and Evora with severe punishments in 574. Furthe r campaigns to control independent territories lasted another four years.

Hermenegild was sent to Seville, where he was converted from Arianism to Catholi cism by his wife Ingundis and Bishop Leander, inspiring Spanish Romans to procla im him their king. Leovigild convoked a synod of Arian bishops at Toledo in 580 to expand their faith. The next year Leovigild's forces occupied rebelling Vasco nia. Before attacking Seville in 583 Leovigild bought off the Byzantines with 30 ,000 gold coins. The siege of Seville lasted two years, and Hermenegild was fina lly killed by Duke Sigebert in Tarragona in 585 because he refused to abjure Cat holicism. By then the Suevic kingdom had fallen and was made a Visigothic provin ce. Recared was fighting the Franks in Septimania when he learned his father was dying; Leovigild repented and entrusted the spiritual care of his son Recared t o Leander. Recared returned to Spain and was elected king in 586. Recared had Si gebert executed and converted to Catholicism, making it the religion of the Visi gothic state in 589 at a Toledo council. In 603 Recared was killed in an insurre ction led by Count Witteric, who was supported by Arians; but in 610 the Catholi cs killed him, and the nobles made Gundemar king. Martin was born in Pannonia (Hungary) and migrated to the Suevic kingdom in the middle of the 6th century. He was called Martin of Braga, where he founded a mon astery, and he was ordained bishop at Dumium in 556. He attended the first counc il of Braga in 561 and supervised the second council there in 572. He died in 57 9. Martin enhanced Christian enlightenment in the region by translating Sayings of the Egyptian Fathers from Greek into Latin and adapted the moral teachings of the eastern monks and John Cassian by writing on vanity, pride, and humility. H is work "Anger" is closely based on the essay by Seneca, and his "Rules for an H onest Life" written for the accession of Suevi king Miro in 570 recommends the f our classical virtues of prudence, courage, temperance, and justice. Leander of Seville became a friend of Gregory when they were both in Constantino ple in the early 580s. His sermon on the church's triumph at the conversion of t he Goths at Toledo in 589 is preserved. In this he compared heresy to the thorns outside of paradise and to adulterous women and prostitutes, while he delighted in unity. Leander wrote The Training of Nuns for his sister Florentina. In this book he praised virginity and described how nuns should avoid the laity, shun h oly men as well as young men, serve other nuns, repay those who love them, have a sense of shame, endure a slanderer yet slander no one, not be proud but humble , eat temperately, not criticize other nuns, pray and study continuously, not sp eak to a man alone, not laugh presumptuously, be steadfast in poverty and abunda nce, not eat meat, stay in one monastery, not have personal possessions, not tak e an oath, not speak with another nun alone, and not desire to return to the wor ld. When Leander died in 600, he was succeeded as bishop of Seville by his young er brother Isidore, who would go on to become a famous scholar and educator. Frank Civil Wars and Brunhild 561-613 When Chlotar died in 561, the Frank kingdom was divided by his four sons - Chari bert at Paris, Sigibert at Metz in Austrasia, Guntram at Orleans in Burgundy, an d Chilperic at Soissons in Neustria. As the son of a different mother, Chilperic hated his three half-brothers. In 562 while Sigibert was fighting off the Avars on his eastern frontier, Chilperic attacked Rheims, beginning a civil war. Sigi bert reacted by capturing Soissons and Chilperic's son Theudebert, who was relea sed after a year on his promise not to fight his uncle. Charibert married in succession three servant girls and quarreled with priests; but he died in 567, and his kingdom was divided by his brothers, each agreeing n ot to enter Paris without the others' permission. Charibert's latest wife Theude child was ready to marry his brother Guntram; but instead Guntram took her treas ure and sent her to a nunnery at Arles. When she tried to escape to a Spanish Go th, Theudechild was beaten and locked up for the rest of her life. Guntram also had concubines, and his wife Marcatrude killed the son of one. When Marcatrude's own son died, Guntram dismissed her and married Austrechild, a servant's daught er. Guntram appointed Mummolus patrician to lead his army in fighting off invadi

ng Lombards. In 566 Sigibert married Brunhild, daughter of Visigothic king Athangild of Spain . Though Arian, she was well educated and converted to Catholicism. For her wedd ing she was praised in verse by the poet Fortunatus. Chilperic then married Brun hild's sister Galswinth; but he had already married Audovera, who had three sons and a daughter, and he was even more captivated by her maidservant Fredegund. A fter Fredegund tricked Audovera into baptizing her daughter Basina without a god mother, Chilperic sent Audovera to a nunnery and married Fredegund, who had Audo vera murdered about 580. Galswinth brought a large dowry; but she complained tha t Chilperic did not keep his promise to put away his other wives, and she begged to go home. However, Fredegund ordered Galswinth killed in her sleep. Brunhild' s resentment at her sister's death increased the enmity between Chilperic and Si gibert. Fredegund used her charms to gain an alliance with Guntram and got Chilperic to go to war with his brother Sigibert in 573. Chilperic sent his son Theudebert to invade Sigibert's western territory, and his forces captured Tours and Poitiers , burning and plundering churches and monasteries. Sigibert called in Teutonic m ercenaries and marched on Paris; but Brunhild and Paris bishop Germain successfu lly pleaded that the city be spared. Theudebert was killed, and Guntram changed sides and signed a treaty with Sigibert. Chilperic sent his son Clovis to attack Guntram's Burgundy; but he was expelled from Tours by Mummolus and escaped to B ordeaux. Many of Chilperic's suffering people turned their allegiance to Sigiber t. Bishop Germain warned Sigibert not to kill his brother, or he would die. Yet Sigibert gathered some of Chilperic's mutinous army at Vitry and prepared to bes iege his brother at Tournai; Queen Fredegund sent two young men, who assassinate d Sigibert in 575. Brunhild in Paris began ruling as the regent for her five-year-old son Childeber t; but Chilperic marched to Paris and exiled Brunhild in a convent at Rouen, tak ing her treasure. Duke Gundovald helped the boy Childebert escape to Metz, where he was crowned. King Chilperic allowed Queen Brunhild to return to Metz to plea se the Austrasian Mayor of the Palace and the nobles. She took control as regent for her son Childebert II, whom she saw well educated, and she had the Roman ro ads and buildings repaired; but the aristocracy was not happy with the increased taxation. Chilperic complained the church had become so wealthy that no one had power anym ore except the bishops, and he began taxing church lands and canceling wills tha t bequeathed property to the church. His taxing was so oppressive that many peop le chose to emigrate or rebel; in Limoges the tax collector Mark was only saved by Bishop Ferreolus, while a mob burned his records. Chilperic sent in soldiers to punish the city and enforce the taxation. Brittany also revolted and was supp ressed. Chilperic was influenced by Roman emperor Tiberius and modified the Sali c law, allowing women to inherit, and he had amphitheaters built at Soissons and Paris. Chilperic wrote poetry, which was praised by Fortunatus. Chilperic used the Jew Priscus to purchase art works and argued with him about theology. The ki ng had been godfather to several Jews, who had been forced to convert, and one o f them murdered Priscus. Relatives of Priscus killed the murderer and were not p rosecuted because of Chilperic's law that criminals were outside the law and cou ld be punished by private individuals. Chilperic sent Duke Roccolen to invade Aquitane; but he did little damage at Tou rs when Bishop Gregory refused his demands. At Poitiers the duke ate so many bab y rabbits that he died in agony. So King Chilperic sent his son Merovech with an army to attack Poitiers, but instead Merovech marched on Tours. Then he went to Rouen to visit his mother Audovera and married Brunhild, Bishop Praetextatus pe rforming the ceremony. Chilperic objected, because Merovech had married his uncl e's widow; they took sanctuary in the church of St. Martin until Chilperic promi

sed them safety. Chilperic banished Praetextatus, and a council of bishops convi cted him of conspiring against Chilperic. Gregory reported that Fredegund tried to bribe him with 200 pounds of silver to testify against Praetextatus; but the historian bishop refused. Meanwhile troops attacked Soisson, driving out Fredegund and Chilperic's son Clo vis until Chilperic returned with his army to re-take his capital. Chilperic sen t Clovis to raise an army at Tours, and they marched through Touraine and Anjou. King Guntram's commander Mummolus invaded Limoges and attacked Chilperic's comm ander Desiderius, killing 5,000 of his troops. Chilperic had Merovech's long hai r cut off as he was ordained a priest and sent to a monastery in Le Mans. Merove ch threw off the monastic garb and went to St. Martin's church in Tours, asking the historian Bishop Gregory for sanctuary. The angry Chilperic threatened to se t fire to the region; but Gregory provided hospitality. Merovech next took sanct uary at Auxerre; but Austrasian nobles prevented his reunion with Brunhild. He w as surrounded by his father's soldiers at Rheims. Merovech requested his servant Gailen kill him with his sword, and he did. Queen Fredegund ordered the loyal G ailen horribly mutilated. In 580 Fredegund's two little sons were infected by the plague; she realized her many possessions had little value if she lost her sons, and she burned the tax rolls of her cities. Chilperic also had a change of heart and remitted taxes and gave more charity to the poor for the rest of his life; but their two sons died anyway. Fredegund had Chilperic send Clovis, his son by Audovera, to Berny, hop ing he would die of the plague too. He survived; but when she heard Clovis boast ing he would rule all of Gaul, she had him imprisoned for witchcraft and murdere d. During the same plague Queen Austrechild got her husband Guntram to kill her two doctors when she died of the disease. The next year Childebert broke his treaty with Guntram and allied with Chilperic , and Mummolus fled Guntram's kingdom to Avignon. Queen Brunhild boldly stopped an attack on Duke Lupus of Champagne by his enemies Ursio and Berthefried when s he placed herself between their forces. The latter then stole property from the house of Lupus, who took refuge at the court of Guntram. Chilperic sent Desideri us to attack King Guntram; Desiderius forced Duke Ragnovald to flee and occupied Prigueux. King Chilperic tried to avoid a curse for entering Paris without permi ssion by sending in relics of saints first. In 583 Desiderius and Bladast attack ed Bourges, and 7,000 were killed in the battle. Then Guntram's army destroyed m ost of Chilperic's, and the next morning the two brothers made peace. In 584 Chilperic was assassinated by two men after a hunt; according to a later chronicler they were sent by Queen Fredegund after her husband had learned of he r lover Landeric, possibly the father of her infant Chlotar II, who now became k ing of Neustria. Fredegund went to Paris and invited King Guntram to take charge of his late brother's kingdom for her tiny baby. Guntram marched his army to Pa ris; but the Parisians refused to allow Childebert II to enter the city. Guntram claimed the territory of Charibert, because both Sigibert and Chilperic had ent ered Paris without permission and died. Childebert sent messengers demanding tha t Guntram turn over Fredegund; but he protected her. The Neustrian aristocrats s wore allegiance to Guntram and his nephew Chlotar II. Guntram kept guards around himself wherever he went, and he asked for three years to bring up his two neph ews, whom he adopted as his sons; his own two sons had died of dysentery in 577. Chlotar's mother Fredegund ruled as regent with help from Landeric, the Mayor of the Palace. After Burgundy king Guntram traveled to Paris three times for the b aptism of Chlotar to no avail, he suspected he was not the son of Chilperic. So Fredegund gathered three bishops and 300 reputable citizens to swear that he was . Chlotar II eventually became the sole heir of the Merovingian dynasty and woul d rule the Frank kingdom until 628. Unlike her rival Brunhild, Fredegund was not influenced by Roman culture, and she had more support from the aristocrats, who

were less Teutonic in Neustria. Fredegund used torture to learn about the consp iracy of Leudast, Count of Tours, and then tortured him to death. After Chilperi c died, Praetextatus regained his see; but Fredegund could not stand his critici sm and had him murdered in his cathedral at Rouen. Gundovald claimed to be a son of Chlotar I and thus the brother of Guntram; but his father had not acknowledged him and cut off his hair. Gundovald worked paint ing walls; he went to Guntram, who dismissed him as the son of a weaver or mille r. King Sigibert also had his hair shorn and imprisoned him. Gundovald escaped t o Constantinople, where he was treated as royalty at the imperial court for abou t fifteen years. Gundovald was given treasure by Emperor Maurice and gained the support of many Austrasian nobles including Duke Desiderius and the general Mumm olus, who was in exile from Guntram's Burgundy. Warriors proclaimed Gundovald ki ng in 585. Guntram raised a large army with universal conscription and marched a gainst rebelling Poitiers; the region was looted, the buildings set on fire, and the inhabitants were massacred. The troops also plundered Tours. Gundovald went to Angouleme, where he bribed the chief citizens and gained oaths of loyalty. F rom there he went to Prigueux and Toulouse with his army. Guntram summoned Childe bert II, whom he acknowledged as a grown man and his heir. At Comminges Gundoval d was deserted by Desiderius, then by Duke Bladast, and he was finally betrayed by Mummolus, Bishop Sagittarius, and Waddo. Gundovald was killed, and Guntram or dered Mummolus and Sagittarius executed. Every person in Comminges was massacred including the priests, and the whole city was burned to the ground. In this bloody year of 585 almost all of Gaul suffered famine, as Guntram also m arched his army against the Goths in Septimania. Crops and herds along the Saone and the Rhone were destroyed, as many were killed and booty was taken from chur ches. At Carcassonne they met the Visigoths; the Frank army panicked and headed for home. Goths using ambushes killed many and stole their goods. Since the crop s of Provence had been burned, about 5,000 were killed or died of hunger marchin g home. King Guntram summoned the bishops and criticized his commanders for no l onger keeping the conventions of their forefathers. He argued that plundering ho ly places and slaughtering ministers were the causes of their defeats. As Guntra m concluded his speech, a messenger reported that Leuvigild's son Recared had ca ptured the Cabaret castle and ravaged the region of Toulouse. Guntram appointed Leudegisel commander and assigned 4,000 troops to the region of Arles. Recared s ent envoys to negotiate peace; but Guntram resented the death of his niece Ingun d at Carthage. However, Childebert and his mother Brunhild promised peace to Rec ared's envoys. A conspiracy to assassinate King Childebert by Rauching, Ursio, and Berthefried was discovered early, and each was killed, Berthefried in a church. Young Childe bert had accepted 50,000 gold coins from Roman Emperor Maurice to attack the Lom bards in 584. He crossed the Alps with an army and then accepted gifts from the Lombards too; he did not respond when Maurice asked for his money back. Over the next years Childebert did occasionally attack the Lombards, and in 590 they cap tured five castles; but the wild Franks took to plundering the countryside and e nded up devastated by hunger and dysentery. An invasion by Bretons into Nantes i n 587 was thwarted by Guntram's army, and they agreed to pay a thousand gold pie ces in compensation to Guntram and Chlotar. Two years later Guntram again sent h is army to stop the Bretons ravaging Nantes and Rennes, resulting in heavy casua lties on both sides. In 588 the historian Gregory was sent from Metz to Guntram on a diplomatic mission, and he recorded the treaty that clarified the Frank kin gdoms of Guntram, Childebert, and Brunhild. Guntram sent his army to attack Sept imania again in 589; but they fell into a trap, losing 5,000 killed and 2,000 ca ptured. King Guntram became so alarmed that he closed his border to Childebert's kingdom. That year Fredegund nearly strangled her own daughter Rigunth in a che st with her own hands, blaming her for sleeping with too many men. When Childebert was told that his chamberlain Chundo had violated his hunting pr

eserve, two surrogates were killed in a trial by combat; then Chundo was execute d. Nuns led by the princesses Clotild and her cousin Basina left their monastery in protest of the Abbess and later attacked it. A commission of bishops excommu nicated the two and restored the Abbess. Fredegund's attempts to assassinate Bru nhild, Childebert II, and his son Theudebert failed. Twelve assassins were caugh t, tortured, and mutilated. In Tournai a feud between two families left only one family member. Then relations of the families began quarreling, and Queen Frede gund warned them to make peace. Finally she had the last three survivors invited to a banquet and had them beheaded. Other relations sent to King Childebert, an d Fredegund had to flee. Fredegund chose this time to invite Guntram to baptize her son Chlotar II at Paris. In 590 the well educated monk Columban with twelve companions arrived from Ireland at the court of Burgundy king Guntram, who appro ved of their building a monastery in the mountains of the Vosges at Luxeuil and two other places. Hard work in agriculture as well as literary pursuits made the m successful. Columban was much more strict than Benedict, as use of the rod for even minor offenses was frequent. Childebert took over the kingdom of Burgundy when Guntram died in 592. The noble s had Childebert poisoned in 595 so that they could rule as guardians of his inf ant sons; but Brunhild took over as regent for his sons Theudebert II in Austras ia and Theodoric II in Burgundy. The nobles persuaded Theudebert to banish his g randmother in 599, and Brunhild went to her other grandson in Burgundy. Bishops objected to the independent Columban, but he refused to attend a synod regarding his Celtic methods in 603. Columban criticized Theodoric for using concubines a nd urged him to marry. When the young king chose Ermenberta, daughter of Visigot hic king Recared, Brunhild felt her power threatened and opposed her so strenuou sly that he sent her back to Spain. Brunhild then asked Columban to baptize two of her grandchildren by Theodoric's concubines. The abbot refused, calling them "children of a brothel" and sent Theodoric a letter threatening to excommunicate him. The king reacted by putting Columban in jail, but the abbot miraculously e scaped and went home. He would not allow Theodoric to enter his monastery and pr edicted his kingdom would be destroyed with his royal family within three years. Columban and his Irish monks were expelled in 610; but the ship to Ireland ran aground, and they went through Paris to the court of Austrasia king Theudebert a t Metz. Meanwhile Neustria's king Chlotar II had been encroaching on Burgundy until the brothers Theudebert II and Theodoric II joined to push him back and take part of Neustria. In 612 Brunhild persuaded Burgundy king Theodoric to attack his broth er's kingdom of Austrasia. In a bloody battle at Zlpich the Burgundians were vict orious; Theudebert was captured and beheaded. Theodoric ruled over Burgundy, Aus trasia, and part of Neustria; but he died of dysentery the next year. Brunhild c hose Theodoric's son Sigibert as king; but the aristocrats' powerful leaders Arn ulf and Pepin offered the crown of all three kingdoms to Chlotar II, who paid of f Brunhild's generals. The great grandmother was deserted by her army. After tor turing her for three days Chlotar had Brunhild brutally trampled to death by an unbroken horse in 613. During the civil war Columban had fled to Milan, where he was received by the Ar ian Lombard king Agilulf. Later Columban also visited Chlotar II and died in 615 . By then there were forty monasteries using his rules, and within a century the re would be 94 for men and women. Columban disagreed with the prevailing attitud e that women are impure, and he founded double monasteries for both sexes and of ten counseled married women. He was not suspicious of pagan ideas and helped to foster Greek and Latin literature. Saxon Kingdoms in Britain 476-616 The Dane invader Hengest summoned a tribe of Saxons and settled them in Northumb erland while he governed Kent from Canterbury for about forty years until he die d in 488. Other Saxons as well as Angles and Jutes also invaded the island. The

Saxon chief Aelle from Germany established a southern Saxony (Sussex) in 477; th ey defeated the Britons in a costly victory at Meareredsburn in 485. Aelle and h is son Cissa led forces that massacred the British garrison Anderida in 491; but Aelle was stopped on the western side when western Saxons commanded by Cerdic a nd his son Cynric landed in 495. Cerdic called in more Saxons led by Port and hi s sons Bleda and Megla. After an initial victory in 508 by the Britons commanded by Natanleod, Cynric's Saxons triumphed, killing 5,000 Britons and Natanleod. T he short swords of the Saxons proved superior to the arrows of the Britons. Cerd ic then besieged Britons on Mount Badon; but the siege was raised in 520 by help from Arthur, prince of the Silures. Though little is known of the historical Ar thur, great legends would develop. Cerdic continued to rule Wessex until he died in 534 and was succeeded by Cynric, who ruled until 560. Aelle conquered Lancas hire and became king of Deira. Aelle's son Cissa ruled Sussex for 76 years. In the middle of the 6th century a monk named Gildas wrote a history arguing tha t British miseries were caused by past mistakes and warning that their prosperou s times could be lost if they did not mend their evil ways. Other Saxons had inv aded the east coast of the British isle in 527. Uffa became king of the East Ang les in 575, Crida of Mercia in 585, and Erkenwin of East Saxony (Essex) about th e same time. The Saxon prince Ida, claiming descent from the war god Woden, subd ued Northumberland in 547; that year he was crowned king of Bernicia and ruled f or twelve years. Saxons led by Cynric defeated Britons in 552 at Sorbiodunum, in 556 at Barbury, in 571 at Bedford, and in 577 at Deorham. Mercians led by Crida settled in the center of the island in 586. In a century and a half of violent conflict these Saxon tribes valued valor most and established a heptarchy of sev en kingdoms - Kent, Northumberland (Bernicia and Deira), East Anglia, Mercia, Es sex, Sussex, and Wessex. In Kent Hengest was succeeded by his son Aesc, who passed on a fairly peaceful k ingdom to his son Octa in 512. During his reign the East Saxons established a ki ngdom and took Essex and Middlesex from Kent. When Octa died in 534, his son Her menric became king of Kent. To smooth the transition of his power in 567 Hermenr ic associated in his rule his son Aethelbert, who the next year was defeated in battle by the ambitious Wessex king Ceawlin, grandson of Cerdic. In subjecting S ussex, Ceawlin stimulated the other princes to unite against him, and Aethelbert led the Saxon coalition and made all the other princes dependent except Northum berland. Afraid of Ceawlin's fate, Aethelbert wisely resigned Mercia to Webba, s on of Crida, its founding king. Ceawlin's sons Cuichelme and Cuthwin ruled Wesse x jointly until Cuthwin was expelled in 591, and Cuichelme died two years later. Then Ceolric ruled Sussex until 611. While his father was still alive, Aethelbert in 584 married Bertha, daughter of Paris king Charibert and a descendant of Clovis. To gain this alliance Aethelber t had to promise her religious freedom. Bertha brought a French bishop to Canter bury and practiced her religion with devotion. Augustine and forty monks came as missionaries in 597 to Aethelbert, who granted them a residence in Canterbury. They lived simply, fasting and praying, and by their examples gradually won conv erts, including the king, to be baptized. Aethelbert was the first Saxon king to enact written laws; the Christians brought the influence of Roman law, but many Saxon laws on theft, murder, and other crimes were retained. Victims and the st ate had to be compensated according to the class of the victim. Aethelbert gover ned Kent for half a century until his death in 616. In 588 King Aethelric combined his kingdom of Bernicia with Deira to form Northu mberland, and Ida's grandson Aethelfrith became king of Northumberland in 593. H e married Aelle's daughter Acca, expelled her brother Edwin from Deira, and rule d the combined kingdom of Northumberland. Aethelfrith won a victory over the Sco ts' King Aidan in 603 at Degsastan. According to the historian Bede, Britons who rejected Augustine were later punished by the army of Aethelfrith when 1200 mon ks who came to pray at the battle of Chester in 613 were killed. Aethelfrith was

defeated and killed in 616 by East Angle king Raedwald, who had given refuge to Edwin, son of Aelle. Pope Gregory's Reforms 590-604 Gregory was born about 540 into the aristocratic Anician family in Rome, and he was the great-grandson of Pope Felix (483-492). His mother Sylvia entered a conv ent and was so devoted that she was later canonized as a saint, as were Tarsilla and Aemiliana, sisters of Gregory's father Gordianus. His education at Rome did not include learning Greek, and Gregory later condemned pagan literature. Emper or Justin II appointed Gregory prefect of Rome in 572 during the Lombard invasio n. After his father died, Gregory gave up that position and converted the palace he inherited into St. Andrew's monastery; with the rest of his estate he establ ished six convents in Sicily and helped the poor. Gregory lived as an ascetic mo nk, eating raw vegetables. After seeing three impressive English youths in the R oman slave market, Gregory asked Pope Benedict I (575-579) to let him be a missi onary to convert the English; but the Romans got the Pope to call him back, and he was ordained a deacon in 578. The next year Pope Pelagius II (579-590) sent Gregory as his representative to C onstantinople, the only foreign post of the papacy at that time. There he made f riends with several prominent women and men in the palace, including the Emperor 's sister Theoctista. At this time Gregory wrote an influential commentary on th e book of Job called Magna Moralia. He apparently had little success gaining aid for Rome against the Lombards, and in 584 he returned to Rome, where he became abbot of St. Andrew's. In 590 Pelagius died in an epidemic, and Gregory was elected bishop of Rome desp ite his objections and an attempt to flee in a disguise. He did his best to serv e the people by continuing to live ascetically and helping the poor with church resources, including 3,000 nuns who fled the Lombards. He called the pope "the s ervant of God's servants." Gregory was the first monk to become pope, and he mad e monks bishops and his legates, confirmed the Rule of Benedict at a council of Rome, and guaranteed the liberty and property of convents. Although he did not f avor but only tolerated marriage, he considered it unlawful for married persons to enter monasteries without mutual consent. Gregory protested against the oppre ssive Byzantine taxes that forced some to sell their children or emigrate. Howev er, in a letter to the imperial exarch Gennadius in Africa he urged fighting war s to convert the Donatists. He also objected to an imperial edict that prohibite d soldiers from becoming monks, though he still performed his duty of transmitti ng the law. Gregory made peace with the Lombards but was over-ruled by the exarch Romanus. H e wrote to Empress Constantina complaining that Sicilians and Corsicans were bei ng oppressed by the methods used to raise imperial taxes for war. For nine years Gregory tried to get a treaty between the empire and the Lombards but failed; t hen he negotiated a truce for Rome and the surrounding regions with King Agilulf . Yet he advised Queen Brunhild to use armed force to stop pagan sacrifices. Gre gory's influence extended beyond the imperial boundaries, and in 596 he sent Aug ustine and forty monks from the St. Andrew's monastery as missionaries to Englan d. By correspondence Gregory answered Augustine's questions. To replace animal s acrifices he suggested thanking God when animals were slaughtered for food. Othe r pagan festivals could also be replaced by similarly timed Christian celebratio ns. He warned him that sin comes from suggestion by the devil, pleasure in the f lesh, and consent of the will. Yet the evils in the mind the body anticipates wi th pleasure can be rejected by the soul. Gregory objected to Constantinople patriarch John calling himself universal, bec ause his claim was based on the imperial authority of that city instead of apost olic tradition. Yet he did not place Rome above the patriarchies of Antioch and Alexandria. When Phocas became Emperor, he gained the support of Pope Gregory by

reprimanding the Constantinople's patriarch Cyriacus, who had opposed him, and after Gregory's death an edict of Phocas declared Pope Boniface III the head of the church as "universal bishop." Gregory administered church lands around Rome, in Calabria, Sardinia, Corsica, S icily, Dalmatia, and even in Gaul and Africa; by consolidating them he began wha t would become the Papal States. Gregory considered Arles bishop Virgilius his v icar in Childebert's kingdom, and he warned Virgilius and the bishops there abou t the simony that was corrupting their church. Theologically he was a moderate A ugustinian, and Gregory favored a Christian republic. He worked to make the eccl esiastical authority superior to the secular powers. Gregory improved the mass, and a new way of chanting was called Gregorian after him. He preached often, dra wing lessons in humility from the calamities of the time; he, like many, believe d the end of the world was approaching. Gregory criticized and deposed bishops for neglecting duty or committing crimes, and he often intervened in the elections of bishops in order to appoint men he knew and trusted. He strongly opposed simony and forbade clergy from exacting fe es for their services. Although intolerant of heresy, he was more liberal than m ost toward Jews. He condemned forced baptism of Jews and reprimanded bishops for depriving them of synagogues. Yet Gregory opposed Jews obtaining or possessing Christian slaves. He made some effort to stop the slave trade and freed some sla ves, although he bought and sold slaves himself. He rebuked those who mistreated slaves. However, Gregory sanctioned imprisonment of idolaters and diviners if t hey were free and even lashing and torture if they were slaves. Gregory wrote his book on pastoral care called Pastoral Rules in 591. Like Grego ry Nazianzen, he wrote this book to describe the awesome responsibilities of an office he doubted he could fill. The first book describes the characteristics of a spiritual ruler; the second advises him on his conduct; the third suggests ho w individuals should be admonished for varying behaviors and character traits; t he fourth book is an exhortation to uphold the dignity of the office in one's ac tions. Gregory believed that only those of tried virtue were capable of discipli ning and governing others. Governing the soul is the highest art. He believed th at no one does more harm than one in authority who acts badly, and he suspected anyone who sought authority. Governing others is liable to spread one's interest s and result in confusion. Those who aspired to the position were often better w hen a bishop might become a martyr rather than those who want to lord it over ot hers now. To harmonize the active and contemplative life one must reject whateve r is evil or irrelevant. In an age when few could read, preaching was very impor tant. The pastor should be a friend to the good but sternly correct the bad, tak ing a middle path between excessive strictness and over-indulgence. In describing how to admonish more than forty different kinds of people Gregory demonstrated his psychological insights into moral character. He evaluated human actions by the effect they have on one's neighbors. He argued that wealth reall y belongs to the poor who need it and that the wealthy are obligated by justice to be charitable. Those with intellectual gifts have the same obligation to shar e their knowledge, just as a physician should apply medicine. Gregory believed t hat those who do not marry should use their time to serve others instead of bein g selfish. He emphasized the importance of motivation in judging human actions. Gregory often referred to scripture, the basis of his teachings, although his al legorical interpretations might be creative. Finally he emphasized that priests should practice what they preach and be more concerned with the good that has be en left undone than with what they have already accomplished. Gregory's book on pastoral care was dedicated to the archbishop of Ravenna, and a copy was sent to Leander in Seville; it was carried to Canterbury by Augustine , and Emperor Maurice had it translated into Greek by Antioch patriarch Anastasi us. In the 9th century it was given to each bishop ordained in France, and King

Alfred paraphrased it in the Saxon language, sending copies to all English bisho ps. Gregory wrote his Dialogs in 593 in order to show that many miracles have occurr ed in Italy in recent times. The first and third books are filled with stories o f saints working various miracles through prayer, by dreams, or simply by their spiritual power. Gregory is the main speaker, and he is questioned and praised b y his deacon Peter. The second book tells the life story of Benedict and also in cludes many miracles difficult to believe today. Healings, raising the dead, pro phecy, transcendent communication, increasing oil or bread, suddenly mending bro ken pottery, and even curses causing leprosy or death are some of the many mirac ulous incidents told by Gregory and willingly believed by the admiring Peter. Ye t the stories also show that the virtue and faith of the saints are most importa nt, because those are what make the miracles happen, while vices often bring mis erable punishment. During the Vandal invasion of Italy Nola bishop Paulinus distributed all the epi scopal furniture to help prisoners and those in need. Then he offered to be sold into slavery to free a widow's son. Both went to Africa, and the son-in-law of the Vandal king bought Paulinus as a gardener. Eventually the wise gardener beca me known as a man of God, and he had to admit he was a bishop. The king offered him what he wanted and freed the captives in Africa Paulinus requested. Gregory argued that converting sinners by preaching is a greater miracle than raising th e dead, because the latter will die again; but the former are brought to eternal life. The fourth book of the Dialogs attempts to demonstrate mostly by anecdotes that souls continue to live after death. Gregory explains than many do not believe in the invisible things, because they know only the lowly visible things of earth. Yet the deaths of saints and their miraculous powers after their bodies are dea d indicate the invisible soul continues beyond its former body. Heavenly singing or music often accompanies the death of holy ones, and listening to its sound r elieves the pain of dying. The good recognize saints as well as those they knew on earth at the time of their deaths. Gregory definitely believes in the devil a nd the fires of hell for sinners, though he does suggest that some will be clean sed in the world to come if they performed good works in this life; this is one of the earliest references to the doctrine of purgatory. Peter asks some difficu lt questions near the end. He wonders whether it is just to inflict everlasting punishment for a finite fault, and he points out that a just person punishes ser vants in order to correct them. To what purpose, then, would anyone be burned in hell forever? Peter also asks how a soul can be called immortal if it dies spir itually in eternal fire. Gregory attempts to answer these questions by arguing t hey are lessons for the elect to be good; but in my view his answers to these qu estions are inadequate. Notes 1. Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy 5:6 tr. Sanderson Beck. 2. The Rule of Saint Benedict 4 ed. Timothy Fry, p. 183. 2000-2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents Empire of Augustus and Tiberius Jesus and His Apostles Roman Decadence 37-96 Rome Under Better Emperors 96-180 Roman Empire In Turmoil 180-285 Roman Power and Christian Conflict 285-395 Augustine and the Fall of Rome 395-476 Goths, Franks, and Justinian's Empire 476-610

Muhammad and the Spread of Islam Islamic Culture 750-1095 Byzantine Empire 610-1095 Franks and Anglo-Saxons 613-899 Vikings and Feudal Europe 900-1095 Beck home

Beck home Muhammad in Mecca Muhammad in Medina at War 622-628 Muhammad Triumphant 628-632 Muhammad's Qur'an Islamic Wars in the Near East 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661-750 Muhammad and the Spread of Islam Muhammad in Mecca In 570 after a Kinanah man defiled a cathedral in San'a that had been built to d raw pilgrims away from Mecca, the Abyssinian ruler of Yemen, Abrahah, attacked M ecca with an army. According to tradition the elephant at the head of that army refused to march on the holy city. That year Muhammad was born in Mecca, where h is paternal grandfather 'Abd al-Muttalib had the honored position of providing w ater from the Zamzam well for the pilgrims to the Ka'ba, founded according to tr adition by the Hebrew patriarch Abraham. Muhammad was the first child of his fat her 'Abd Allah, who died before his wife Amina had her child. 'Abd Allah left hi s son five camels, a flock of goats, and the slave-girl Baraka. Since Mecca was considered unhealthy for infants, his mother Amina took the baby out into the de sert, where he was nursed by a Bedouin named Halima for two years until he was w eaned. Thus Muhammad first learned the Arabic language of the Bani Sa'd. His fos ter brother saw two men in white put their hands into the heart of the child; co ncerned that he might be possessed by an evil spirit, Halima returned Muhammad t o his mother at Mecca. When he was six, Muhammad and the slave girl Baraka accompanied Amina on a visit to Medina; but on the return journey Muhammad's mother became ill and died. Bar aka brought the boy back to his grandfather in Mecca; but two years later 'Abd a l-Muttalib also died at the age of 80. Muhammad was then raised by his uncle Abu Talib and his wife Fatimah. Later the prophet said that Fatimah would have let her own children starve rather than him. 'Abd al-Muttalib's youngest son al 'Abb as took charge of the Zamzam well. Muhammad spent his youth mostly pasturing sheep and goats. He once went on a car avan to Bostra in Syria and was noted by the Christian hermit Bahira. In Mecca a sacrilegious war occurred after a treacherous murder. In the earlier battles Mu hammad was too young to fight, but he gathered enemy arrows and gave them to his Quraysh uncles to shoot back. In the last battle when he was about twenty, Muha mmad did shoot arrows for the Hashim clan at the enemy and was praised for his v alor. When a Sahmite refused to pay his debt to a Yemeni merchant, the Quraysh j oined the Kinanah and others in taking an oath at the Ka'ba to fight oppression for the sake of justice, and Muhammad swore with them; the Sahmite was compelled to pay the debt. Muhammad began traveling for merchants, and he wished to marry his is uncle Abu Talib informed him that she was promised to a poet of Known for being trustworthy and honest, Muhammad was asked by the Khadija to sell her merchandise in Bostra. She doubled her money, cousin; but h better means. wealthy widow and Muhammad

was well paid. Although she was 40, Khadija proposed marriage to the 25-year-old Muhammad; he accepted and gave her a dowry of twenty camels. She was the mother of all his children except Ibrahim. Their sons died in infancy, but their four daughters would become Muslims. On his wedding day Muhammad freed his slave Bara ka so that she could marry a man of Yathrib, and Khadija gave Muhammad her 15-ye ar-old slave boy Zayd. When Zayd's father and uncle came to ransom him, Muhammad offered the youth his free choice. Zayd decided to live with Muhammad, who adop ted him as his son and made him his heir. During a famine Muhammad adopted Abu T alib's son 'Ali when he was about five. When Muhammad was about 35, he was asked to mediate a dispute over which tribe should lift the sacred black meteorite wh en the Ka'ba temple was being rebuilt. The trusted sage suggested that each clan take hold of a garment and lift it together. Every year Muhammad would pray in seclusion during the month of Ramadan. When he was forty in 610, he began to have visions during his spiritual retreat. While he was in a cave, a voice told Muhammad three times to recite. His first revelat ion spoke of the most beneficent Lord, who created humans and taught them what t hey did not know. As he was walking down the mountain, the voice identifying its elf as Gabriel told Muhammad he was the messenger of God. He first told his wife Khadija, and she spoke to her cousin Waraqa, who confirmed his prophetic experi ence. Waraqa added that Muhammad would be called a liar, be ill-treated, banishe d, and made an enemy in war. According to tradition Khadija concluded Muhammad's vision must be an angel and not a Satan when she exposed herself to her husband , and Muhammad said he departed. Muhammad became distressed when he did not have any more revelations for a while; but then he was told that the Lord would give to him and reminded him that as an orphan he was given refuge; when he went ast ray, he was guided; when he was poor, he was made rich. Thus the message was rev ealed that the orphan should not be oppressed nor the beggar repelled. He should teach about the kindness of God. Muhammad was ordered to pray, and he established the manner of praying and the t imes for daily prayer. God may be magnified by proclaiming, "God is the greatest ," and the final greeting was "Peace be on you." Each revelation begins by affir ming that God is gracious and loving. After his wife, the first to accept Islam were his adopted sons 'Ali and Zayd. Islam is the name of the religion of the Mu slims, which means those who submit to God. Then the respected merchant Abu Bakr became a Muslim and began telling his trusted friends about Muhammad's teaching s. Khalid, the son of a powerful Shamsite, consulted Abu Bakr about a dream with Muhammad and secretly joined. Khalid later was beaten and imprisoned without fo od by his father, who disowned him when he escaped. Muhammad now had many revela tions, and he would share them with those present. Abu Bakr converted many peopl e, and Muhammad was told to warn his family. About forty people of the Hashim cl an were invited to a banquet; but his one suspicious uncle, Abu Lahab, dispersed them with fears of a spell. Another banquet was held the next day, and Muhammad told them what God commanded him, asking who would help him. When no one else s poke, the 13-year-old 'Ali said that he would be his helper. So Muhammad proclai med 'Ali his successor. Once when Muhammad and his companions were praying in a glen, some pagans interr upted them. In the disturbance Sa'd wounded one of the pagans with a camel's jaw bone. Since the revelations told them to be patient, the Muslims decided to refr ain from violence at that time. At first the Quraysh had tolerated the new relig ion until Muhammad began to criticize their gods and religion. Then some leading men went to the clan chief Abu Talib, asking him to restrain his nephew. When t hese men threatened to fight both of them, Abu Talib went to Muhammad and asked him not to give him a burden greater than he could bear. Muhammad swore that he would not abandon his course unless he died. His uncle tearfully promised not to forsake him. Next the influential Walid advised the pagans to accuse Muhammad o f sorcery and warn people of that. After Muhammad converted Abu Dharr of the rob bing Bani Ghifar tribe, he would give a caravan back their goods he had taken if

they would acknowledge the oneness of God and the prophecy of Muhammad. The Quraysh tried to stop Muhammad's movement by sending the intelligent Utbah, who offered him wealth, honor, kingship, or a physician if he was possessed. Muh ammad's response was that Utbah should bow down and worship God. Utbah was impre ssed by the prophet's words and advised the Quraysh not to interfere with his wo rk. They sent nobles, and again Muhammad refused their offers. They asked him to prove that he was the messenger of God by doing something that would make their life easier. Muhammad replied that he was not sent for that but to warn and bri ng good news. So the Quraysh leaders declared that they would not leave him in p eace until either he or they were destroyed. Muhammad preached that the lower li fe of gaining wealth in business or power in politics was a diverting game compa red to the life of the hereafter. When some Quraysh consulted Jewish rabbis in Y athrib, they posed three difficult questions for the prophet to answer. Muhammad promised to tell them the next day but neglected to say, "If God wills it." Fif teen days went by before the anxious Muhammad was given an uncanny revelation th at showed the Jews he had gained extraordinary knowledge not readily available. Muhammad and others also learned that he personally could not control the revela tions. The Quraysh began to persecute poor Muslims. When the slave Bilal had a large ro ck put on his chest, he repeated the word "One." Waraqa saw Bilal and said he wo uld build a shrine for him if he died; but Abu Bakr traded one of his slaves in order to set Bilal free. Abu Bakr had already freed six slaves for the sake of I slam, and he also bought and freed a slave girl who was being beaten for her bel ief. Abu Jahl aroused Meccans against the Muslims. If a man of importance became a Muslim, he reprimanded him for forsaking his religion and threatened to ruin his reputation. If the convert was a merchant, he said he would make him poor by boycotting his goods. If the person was from a lower class, Abu Jahl would beat him and incite people against him. Many clans were now persecuting the Muslims in various ways by imprisonment and other torments to make them renounce their n ew religion. Seeing these afflictions, Muhammad suggested that the Muslims would be better to lerated in Abyssinia, and 82 men with women and children migrated there. They we re welcomed by the Negus and allowed to practice their religion. Then the Qurays h sent gifts to the generals of the Negus, asking him to give them up; but he sa id he would not surrender them until he had questioned them. Abu Talib's son Ja' far explained how a trustworthy apostle of God summoned them to acknowledge God' s unity, renounce idols, speak the truth, be faithful, be kind, and refrain from crimes. After they were treated unjustly and oppressed, they decided to emigrat e to Abyssinia. Ja'far quoted a recent revelation that Jesus was a slave and mes senger of God. The Negus found their teachings similar to those of Jesus and dec lared he would never give them up but would protect them. He gave back the gifts , saying that he gave no bribe to God for his kingdom. The Muslims gained a strong advocate when Abu Jahl's nephew 'Umar joined their f aith. At first 'Umar was determined to kill Muhammad; but Nu'aym persuaded him t o go first to the converts of his own house. 'Umar fought with them and even cau sed his sister Fatimah to bleed. Then he was sorry and asked to borrow a surah f rom the Qur'an, which greatly impressed him. 'Umar and Hamza then insisted that the Muslims be allowed to pray in the Ka'ba. Now Abu Jahl and the Quraysh decide d to boycott the Hashim clan, because all of them except Abu Lahab were protecti ng Muhammad. They placed a document in the Ka'ba that no one should trade with o r marry anyone in the Hashim or Muttalib clans, since the Muttalib had refused t o abandon their Hashimite cousins. Once when Abu Jahl was interfering with the t rading of flour to Khadija's nephew Hakim, Abu l-Bakhatari clubbed Abu Jahl with a camel's jawbone even though neither he nor Hakim were Muslims. Now that Muhammad was well protected, the attacks of the Quraysh were mostly ver

bal. Abu Jahl told the apostle that if he did not stop cursing their gods, they would curse his God. So Muhammad was given a revelation not to curse those who d on't pray to God lest they curse God out of ignorance. Muhammad tried to be more amenable to the Quraysh and their gods, and word reached Abyssinia that the Qur aysh had accepted Islam. Gabriel then reprimanded his apostle for allowing Satan to interject something into his desires. God warned that some prophets allow Sa tan to cast suggestions into their longing; then God must annul what Satan sugge sted. However, when Muhammad corrected his statement about their gods, the polyt heists became more hostile to the Muslims. Some in Abyssinia heard the rumor and returned to Mecca before they learned that it was false. The boycott diminished the resources of the two clans so much in two years that many Hashimites and Mu ttalibs faced starvation, and Abu Bakr's wealth had been depleted providing need ed food and clothing. Finally Zuhayr made a speech at the Ka'ba, and the Quraysh voted to lift the punitive ban. In 619 Muhammad's wife Khadija died; she had been his closest confidant. Then hi s uncle Abu Talib became ill and died, leaving the prophet and his clan with que stionable protection, since Abu Talib was succeeded by Abu Lahab. One day Abu Ba kr and Talha were left roped together by a public highway. Abu Bakr was going to migrate to Abyssinia; but ibn ad-Dughunnah offered protection, though the Quray sh warned that Abu Bakr should not pray or recite in public. When someone threw a filthy sheep's uterus into his yard, Muhammad asked what kind of protection wa s that. Another threw dirt on his head as he walked home from the Ka'ba. So Muha mmad turned to the people of Ta'if, but they insulted him so much he had to take refuge in a private orchard. For tribal reasons neither the Akhnas nor the Suha yl would protect him. However, the Nawfal chief Mut'im offered to do so, and arm ed men escorted Muhammad back into Mecca. While visiting the family of Abu Talib's widow Fatimah, Muhammad went out at nig ht to pray at the Ka'ba. That night the prophet traveled with Gabriel to Jerusal em to pray in the temple with Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and others. He drank from a vessel of milk and rejected the wine. He was told this symbolized his right gui dance of his people. He was instructed to pray fifty times a day; but at the urg ing of Moses he got this reduced to five times. From the heavenly realms they de scended to the Rock in Jerusalem, and from there Gabriel and Muhammad returned t o Mecca. His future wife 'A'isha said, "The apostle's body remained where it was , but God removed his spirit by night."1 His description of this experience was greeted with mockery by many, though Abu Bakr supported him and was given the na me as-Siddiq, meaning "great confirmer of the truth." The next year during the pilgrimage Muhammad went to the valley of Mina, and at 'Aqaba twelve men of Yathrib, expecting a prophet because of what their neighbor ing Jews told them, pledged to Muhammad they would keep God pure of associations , not steal, not commit adultery, not kill their children, not slander their nei ghbors, and not disobey him in what is right. If they fulfilled these, they woul d gain paradise; but sins would be punished or forgiven as God pleased. When the leader Sa'd accepted the new prophet, everyone in his clan became Muslims. 73 m en and two women from Yathrib then made the pilgrimage, hoping to meet Muhammad. With this group a second pact was made at 'Aqaba in which they pledged to prote ct each other by even going to war. After this the previous pledge was only used for women, who did not have the duty to fight in battle. Muhammad now received a revelation giving permission for those who have been wronged to fight, and God would help those who were being driven out of their homes only because they bel ieved in one God. Many Muslims began migrating from Mecca to Medina. When 'Ayyash returned to Isla m after renouncing his new faith, 'Umar believed that no atonement was possible for this sin; but Muhammad received a revelation that God is all-forgiving and a ll-merciful and that everyone should repent and surrender to God before they are punished. After the prophet's protector Mut'im died, Abu Lahab did not attend t

he Quraysh meeting when Abu Jahl proposed that chosen men from every clan should murder Muhammad to spread the guilt and make revenge unlikely. Muhammad was war ned, and 'Ali slept in his bed while the prophet and Abu Bakr hid in a cave for three days, a spider's web preventing their being found. The Quraysh offered a r eward of one hundred camels for Muhammad's capture. The prophet bought a camel f rom Abu Bakr, and they rode to Medina. Muhammad arrived on September 27, 622 at the oasis of Quba, where he had the first mosque of Islam built from an old date store. In Medina Muhammad's camel led him to a house, which he bought even thou gh it was offered as a gift. 'Ali stayed behind for three days to return propert y that had been entrusted to Muhammad; then he joined the prophet in Medina. Muhammad in Medina at War 622-628 Muhammad praised God in his preaching as he urged people to take refuge in God f rom their evil actions. They should love God with all their hearts and love what God loves. God chooses and selects from everything created. The lawful must be distinguished from the unlawful. What they say they should carry out in action. They should love one another, because God is angry when God's covenant is broken . Muhammad wrote a document affirming that the Muslims of Quraysh and Tathrib ar e one community against the rebellious and those who spread injustice. A believe r should not kill a believer for the sake of an unbeliever. Jews who follow them shall be treated with equality and helped, and believers fighting for God shoul d not make a separate peace. The apostle called on believers to avenge blood she d in the way of God. Anyone convicted of killing a believer shall be subject to retaliation or blood money for the next of kin. Believers should not help wrongdoers. Any differences should be submitted to God and Muhammad. Thus the Muslims and Jews became one community, respecting each other's religions. The wronged w ere to be helped, and the Jews were expected to contribute as long as the war la sted. When the Aws and Khazraj were about to fight over differences concerned with the ir poetry, Muhammad was able to help them see their unity and embrace each other . The prophet named the Muslims of Medina Helpers and called the Quraysh Emigran ts, and he suggested that each Emigrant have a Helper brother. In his own family , however, instead of choosing someone from Medina, he made 'Ali his brother and Hamza the brother of Zayd. Instead of using a wooden clapper to call Muslims to prayer, Muhammad accepted the guidance in a dream from a Khazraj man that a man in green should call, "God is the greatest" four times and then say twice, "I t estify there is no deity but God and that Muhammad is the messenger of God. Come to prayer; come to salvation. God is the greatest. There is no deity but God." The former slave Bilal became the first to perform this call. Muhammad became concerned that some Jews and those he called hypocrites opposed him. When rabbis and Christians asked if he expected them to worship him as the Christians worship Jesus, Muhammad forbade that anyone but God should be worship ped, because no mortal, not even a prophet, should say to people, "Worship me in stead of God."2 When Jews tested him to see if he would follow their law of ston ing for adultery, Muhammad ordered a guilty couple stoned to death at the door o f his mosque. When the mosque was finished, Muhammad had two dwellings built on its eastern wall - one for his wife Sawdah and one for 'A'isha, whom he then mar ried when she was nine years old. Muhammad had been praying facing toward Jerusa lem; but in Medina the Islamic practice of facing Mecca during prayer was establ ished. The fighting permitted by Muhammad's revelation began with a raid on Waddan. The apostle sent Hamza with thirty Emigrants to the seashore, where they met 300 ri ders from Mecca led by Abu Jahl; but the peacemaker Majdi intervened and prevent ed them from fighting. Muhammad himself led raids on Buwat and al-'Ushayra. He s ent 'Abdullah ibn Jahsh, who attacked a Quraysh caravan on the last day of a sac red month; one man was killed with an arrow, and two were captured. At Medina th ey gave a fifth of the booty to the apostle; but he refused to accept it because

he had not ordered them to fight in the sacred month. Muslims in Mecca, who opp osed them, and Jews took this attack as a bad omen. Muhammad was told by a revel ation that it was serious but that keeping people from believing and driving the m out of their homes was even more serious, thus justifying it. The prophet then accepted a fifth of the spoils for the community. In 624 a large Quraysh caravan led by Abu Sufyan returning from Syria was expect ed to stop at Badr. Muhammad with 77 Emigrants and 231 Helpers went to attack it . In response the Quraysh organized an army of about a thousand men. 'Utbah trie d to persuade the Quraysh not to fight Muhammad and their relatives; but Abu Jah l taunted him with cowardice and because one of 'Utbah's sons was with their ene my. The two armies met at a cistern; Aswad went to drink from it and was killed by Hamza. 'Utbah challenged the Muslims of their tribe to a single combat and wa s joined by his brother Shaybah and his son Walid. Muhammad selected 'Ubayda, Ha mza, and 'Ali, who killed the other three, though 'Ubayda died of his wound. The n two arrows from the Quraysh killed Muslims. Muhammad promised his warriors who died fighting that they would enter Paradise, and they charged shouting, "God's victors kill." The Quraysh soon began to flee. Only 14 Muslims were killed that day, while about fifty Quraysh were slain and about as many were taken captive. The apostle ordered a search for Abu Jahl; when he was found, he was beheaded. When Bilal saw his former owner, his shouting caused others to kill the man and his son. Two of their worst enemies were also put to death by the order of Muham mad. The rest of the captives and spoils were shared equally by everyone on the expedition. In Mecca Abu Lahab became so angry at a Muslim slave, who said that angels fough t against the Quraysh, that he beat him until his sister-in-law gashed his skull with a post. Abu Lahab died after this wound became infected. Abu Sufyan still brought the rich caravan safely into the city, and the assembly of Mecca used th e profits to raise a large army. The apostle revealed that a woman Muslim could not be the wife of a pagan, and he expected a released captive to send his Musli m wife Zaynab from Mecca to Medina. Quraysh leaders stopped Zaynab from returnin g but let her go secretly after the controversy died down. 'Umayr went to the Me dina mosque to kill the apostle, who allowed him to sit down and told him his in tention, causing 'Umayr to believe in God and this messenger. Although God repro ached him for taking prisoners and spoils, Muhammad's revelation indicated that he was the first prophet to be allowed this privilege. A week after the battle at Badr Muhammad led a raid against the Sulaym, which wa s followed by raids on al-Sawiq, Najd, and Al-Firu. When a Muslim woman was insu lted by a Jewish goldsmith, a Helper killed the Jew and was then killed by Jews. His family demanded vengeance instead of asking the apostle to settle the issue . With their allies they raised an army of 700 and besieged the Bani Qaynuqa Jew s until they surrendered. The apostle granted the Jews their lives but forced th em into exile and divided the rich weapons and armor of the metalworkers. Jews i n Medina were no longer secure after Muhammad said, "Kill any Jew that falls int o your power."3 Huwayissa complained when Muhayissa killed a wealthy Jewish merc hant with whom they had business and social relations; but Muhayissa said he wou ld even kill his friend Huwayissa if the apostle ordered it. Huwayissa was so aw ed by such a religion that he became a Muslim too. The apostle's youngest daught er Fatimah was twenty when she married 'Ali. Muhammad married Hafsah, the young widowed daughter of 'Umar. At the mosque people with no means or place to live w ere allowed to stay on the bench, where food was provided for them from the apos tle's household, which consequently barely had enough to eat. In the next few months Muhammad sent out forces to stop threatened raids by the Sulaym and Ghatafan tribes. Once the prophet awoke to find a man standing over h im with a sword; but with the help of the angel Gabriel he persuaded him to beco me a Muslim. Muhammad allowed his followers to use deception during war, and the poet Ka'b, who satirized the apostle, was lured out of his fortress under false

pretenses and treacherously killed. Muhammad sent out a hundred horseman under Zayd, and they robbed a Meccan caravan of all its transport camels with much sil ver and a few captives. The apostle's uncle 'Abbas warned him that Abu Sufyan was leading an army of 3,0 00 toward Medina. Their forces included 700 warriors in mail armor and 200 caval ry led by Khalid ibn al-Walid. Although Medinans advised that they were usually more victorious when they defended their city instead of attacking, the youthful enthusiasm of his warriors and those who wanted their crops protected urged the apostle to order an attack with their 700 men on the large Quraysh army at Uhud . The Meccan Talha challenged the Muslims in single combat, and he was killed by 'Ali. Hamza then killed Talhah's brother, and another brother and his four sons were cut down by 'Ali and two others. The Muslims charged with ferocity and wer e winning, though Hamza was killed by a javelin. After Muslim archers advanced f rom their defensive position, the larger army re-grouped, charged the Muslim for ces, and pushed them back. The prophet was wounded in the mouth by a sharp stone , and then a sword blow drove two helmet rings into his cheek. A voice shouted, "Muhammad is slain!" The Quraysh, believing they had gained their objective, beg an to celebrate their victory; they had lost only 22 dead but counted 65 Muslim corpses. Afterward they learned that the prophet was alive; Abu Sufyan promised to meet him again the next year, and Muhammad accepted the engagement. After this defeat the revelations of Muhammad blamed it on the archers, who gave up their position contrary to the prophet's orders, and on those who fled while the apostle was calling on them to stay and fight. Those who ran away must have been seduced by Satan for some evil they had done. God had allowed them to be d efeated in order to test them, and now God forgave them. The bodies of Hamza and other Muslims had been mutilated, and the angry apostle said he would mutilate thirty Quraysh; but a revelation warned him not to inflict more punishment than they had suffered and suggested that enduring patiently was even better. So inst ead Muhammad forbade mutilation after every battle, especially to the face, the most godlike part of the human body. A few months later warning came of a possib le raid. So to show their continued determination to fight, the apostle sent his cousin Abu Salamah with 150 armed men to attack a Bedouin camp, and they return ed with a herd of camels and three herdsmen. The apostle sent a Khazraj man to a ssassinate a hostile Hudhayl chief. In reaction some Hudhayl men attacked six Mu slims on a teaching mission, killing four and executing the other two after they refused to renounce their religion. After Muhammad married the widow Zaynab, the chief of her tribe, Abu Bara, asked him for instructors; the apostle sent forty Muslims led by Mundhir ibn 'Amr. Ab u Bara's nephew challenged his leadership and killed the first Muslim messenger. Most of the tribe supported Abu Bara; but the nephew called in two clans of Sul aym, who massacred the entire delegation of Muslim teachers in their camp except for two men pasturing camels. These two killed two of the Bani 'Amir, who turne d out to have been loyal to Abu Bara. So the prophet paid blood-wite to their ne arest relatives, and he asked the related Bani Nadir Jews to contribute. When th e apostle learned that these Jews were plotting against him, he marched an army against their forts and cut down their palm trees, while they asked him why he d id so since he prohibited wanton destruction. He argued that it was vengeance fr om God to humble their evil-doers. The apostle allowed the Bani Nadir to leave t heir land with all their rich possessions except their arms and armor. In the first year of their marriage Zaynab died of an illness, and so the apostl e married the beautiful widow Umm Salamah, stimulating some jealousy in 'A'isha, who was now 14. Although previous revelation had limited a Muslim to four wives , which Muhammad already had (counting the two who died), after another Zaynab w as divorced from the apostle's adopted son Zayd, Muhammad said that God had marr ied her to him. Only the prophet was allowed to have more than four wives; they were called mothers of the faithful, could not marry anyone else after the proph

et, and requests made to them must be from behind a curtain. The prophet recomme nded spending the day in three equal parts in worship, work, and family. The fam ily time included sleeping and meals. Much of his praying was done at night. Muh ammad kept his appointment at Badr, traveling there with 1500 men; but Abu Sufya n did not want to fight in a dry year and did not come. In 627 the Bani Nadir Jews exiled in Khaybar went to the Quraysh to join them in their fight against Muhammad. The Jews got the Bani Asad to help and promised t he Bani Ghatafan half their date harvest at Khaybar if they would join the allia nce. The Ghatafan clans brought about 2,000 men including 300 on horses. With 4, 000 Quraysh and the other allies, the total neared 10,000 with 600 cavalry. Salm an, based on his experience in Persia, advised a trench as a defense against a c avalry attack, and so the apostle oversaw and worked with the others in building a trench around Medina. The Muslims had an army of about 3,000 and were besiege d by the larger force for nearly a month. 'Ali accepted a challenge and killed ' Amr. The apostle offered the Ghatafan chiefs half of Medina's date harvest if th ey would withdraw from the siege, but he was persuaded to change his mind by the wounded Sa'd. The Ghatafan Nu'aym came and told the apostle he had secretly become a Muslim. M uhammad asked him to draw off the enemy and gave him permission to lie, "for war is deception."4 Nu'aym told the Qurayza that their allies would abandon them to the Muslims after the battle, suggesting they ask for hostages. Then he went to the Quraysh leaders and told them that the Qurayza were planning on asking for hostages so that they could kill them and be on the Muslims' side. When the Qura ysh asked the Qurayza to fight, they said it was the Sabbath and asked for hosta ges. After a miserable wind storm Abu Sufyan led the Quraysh away because the Qu rayza had broken their word. When the Ghatafans saw the Quraysh leaving, they we nt home too. Muhammad was immediately commanded by Gabriel to march against the Qurayza, beca use they broke the treaty; within a few hours 'Ali was leading the Muslim army o f 3,000 in the hot Sun. The Qurayza were then besieged for 25 days before they s ubmitted to the prophet and opened the gates. Men were bound; women and children were gathered; arms, armor, and household goods were collected; wine and alcoho lic date juice were poured out by the abstinent Muslims. The Qurayza agreed to b e judged by Sa'd, an Aws chief, who ordered the men executed, the women and chil dren made captives, and the property divided. About 700 Qurayza men were beheade d with swords and buried in a trench. From the captive women the apostle selecte d the beautiful Rayhanah as his slave. A few months later the Muslims made two successful raids on Quraysh caravans, ca pturing about 200 families, 2,000 camels, and 5,000 sheep and goats. After the r aid on Mustaliq the apostle married the captured Juwayriya and released a hundre d families in honor of the wedding. When his young wife 'A'isha lost her necklac e and did not ride on her camel, gossip spread among the Muslims. Eventually the prophet received a revelation that she was innocent; flogging was prescribed fo r adultery and slander. In this case the three who had spread the false rumor we re given eighty lashes each. Muhammad Triumphant 628-632 After spending Ramadan in Medina fasting, the apostle dreamed he entered the Ka' ba with his head shaved. He decided to make a pilgrimage in March 628, and with his companions they bought seventy camels for sacrifice. He went unarmed, relyin g on the sacred hospitality of Mecca. The Quraysh sent Khalid with 200 horsemen to confront the Muslims; but their guide took them on a different route to Huday biyah on the border of the sacred territory. Negotiations resulted in a treaty c alling for a ten-year truce; but the Muslims could not enter Mecca until the nex t year. The apostle ordered his companions to sacrifice the camels and shave the ir heads, which they eagerly did after Muhammad was the first to do so. A revela

tion pronounced the truce a clear victory, and in the next two years the communi ty of Islam more than doubled. The apostle married Umm Habibah, a widow whose hu sband had migrated to Abyssinia and then reverted to Christianity, while she rem ained a Muslim. The apostle sent messages to Badhan, the Persian viceroy in Yeme n, to the Persian emperor Khusrau, to Emperor Heraclius by way of the Syrian gov ernor, and to the Egyptian patriarch in Alexandria. Gabriel informed the prophet that Khusrau had been killed in an uprising and that his son now ruled; the pro phet sent this information to Badhan, who accepted Islam when he discovered it w as true. The truce with Mecca enabled Muhammad to march against the powerful Khaybar Jews in the north. Khaybar leader Kinanah promised the Ghatafan half their date harv est for the year, and they agreed to send 4,000 men. This with the 10,000 Jews a rmed for Khaybar gave them a large army against 1600 invading Muslims; but the a postle attacked their forts one by one, gaining weapons from one fort recommende d by a spy they caught. The Bani Ghatafan were said to have heard a strange voic e and returned to their homes. The last stronghold of the Kinanah family at Qamu s held out for two weeks before negotiating an agreement that none would be put to death or made captive. The prophet agreed as long as they did not conceal the ir possessions. Families that did hide treasure were later made captives. The ap ostle prohibited carnal intercourse with pregnant women, eating domestic donkeys or any carnivorous animal, and selling spoils before they were duly distributed . Most of the spoils of Khaybar were equally divided among the 1400 Muslims except that 200 horseman got double; but Katiba went in five parts to God, the prophet , the prophet's wives, the diplomats to Fadak, and one-fifth to relatives, orpha ns, and the poor. Muhammad gained the slave Safiyah and set her free when she co nverted to Islam and married him. The Jews of Khaybar were permitted to work the ir lands in exchange for surrendering half their crops to the Muslims; the Jews of Fadak and Wadi l-Qura made similar terms. Fadak became the private property o f Muhammad, because it was gained without attack. A woman tried to poison the ap ostle with roast lamb; but he spit it out, though a companion died. Now the Musl ims had to protect the Jews from the Bedouins. After most of thirty Muslims were killed, the apostle had to send a force of 200. The patriarch of Alexandria responded to the apostle's letter by sending him tre asure and two slave girls. Muhammad kept Mariyah, and his frequent visits to her made his wives jealous. The Muslims based their right to take concubines on the tradition that they were descended from Abraham and his bond-maid Hagar. Muhamm ad gave in to pressure and swore he would not see Mariyah anymore; but a revelat ion defended his right and warned his wives he could divorce and replace them al l if they were not submissive. In 629 the apostle went on pilgrimage, encircling the Ka'ba seven times, sacrificing a camel, and shaving his head. Then Bilal ma de the Muslim call to prayer, proclaiming Muhammad the messenger of God. After t hree days the apostle departed when the Meccans refused to let him wed his wife' s sister Maymunah there. Later Mecca leaders 'Amr, Khalid, and 'Uthman traveled to Medina to pledge their allegiance to the apostle. After 14 peaceful messenger s of Islam were killed on the border of Syria, the apostle sent an army of 3,000 led by Zayd, Ja'far, and 'Abd Allah ibn Rawahah. At Mu'tah all three leaders we re killed, but only five other Muslims died, as Khalid took command. When 'Amr w as sent with 500 reinforcements and crossed the Syrian border, the Syrians dispe rsed. When a Bakr clan made a raid against Khuza'ah, the Bani Ka'b informed the apostl e that one or two Quraysh had fought against them. Meccans sent Abu Sufyan to th e apostle to try to strengthen or renew the truce; but Muhammad merely said the Muslims were keeping the truce. Yet he told Abu Bakr that the Quraysh had broken the pact, and they secretly prepared to march against Mecca. 700 hundred Emigra nts, 4,000 Helpers, and other tribes bringing the total army to 10,000 including

900 cavalry of the Bani Sulaym marched with the apostle without knowing their o bjective. When they camped near Mecca, Abu Sufyan came out and acknowledged the apostle as a prophet, asking for mercy on the Meccans. The apostle declared that whoever entered the house of Abu Sufyan would be safe, as would those who staye d indoors or entered the Mosque. When Abu Sufyan told the Meccans this, most sta yed inside; but 'Ikrimah, Safwan, and Suhayl gathered a small force on a mountai n. They were defeated by Khalid's troops; 'Ikrimah and Safwan fled on horses whi le Suhayl went into his house. Muhammad had ordered his men not to fight anyone except those who resisted. When the apostle entered Mecca, 'Abbas gave him a drink from the Zamzam well, and he confirmed the traditional right of the Hashim sons to give water to pilgrims; b ut he gave right over the key to another family. The idols in the temple were br oken, and the icons were defaced except for one of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus and another of Abraham. At the noon prayer the idols around the Ka'ba wer e burned, and everyone in Mecca was ordered to destroy the idols in their houses . Khalid was sent to destroy the pagan temple at nearby Nakhlah. Almost all the Meccans entered Islam except Suhayl. Safwan was given four months to decide, and Ikrimah became a Muslim upon entering a ship and returned. Muhammad ordered put to death one apostate and two girls who used to sing songs satirizing the apost le. The apostle sent out troops around Mecca as missionaries, not to fight; but Khal id conquered the Bani Jadhima and killed some of them. After the Muslims had bee n in Mecca two weeks, the Hawazin had gathered an army of 20,000 in the valley n orth of Ta'if. The apostle added 2,000 Meccans to his army of 10,000 and borrowe d a hundred coats of mail from Safwan. The Nasr Malik led the Hawazin and brough t their women, children, and cattle in the rear of their army so that his warrio rs would fight with more determination. In the battle the Bani Sulaym cavalry be gan to flee, scattering the Meccans; but Muhammad rallied his warriors, and the Muslims were victorious. Many of the Hawazin were killed, and the rest fled to t he hills; 6,000 of their women and children were captured along with 24,000 came ls and countless sheep and goats. The apostle's army besieged Thaqif with engines of war to no avail. After Muhamm ad started destroying their vineyards, he announced that slaves who joined the M uslims would be freed; twenty slaves escaped from Thaqif, telling the Muslims th e Ta'if had food for a year. After a month the holy months would begin, and so t he siege was abandoned. The Muslims went to Ji'ranah, where the Hawazin spoils w ere divided. From a fifth the apostle had to provide for the poor, set free slav es and captives, relieve debtors, and help those whose hearts needed reconciling . The apostle had waited and had not heard from the Hawazin leaders until after the division; then he asked the Muslims to return the women and children to thei r men. The Helpers criticized the apostle for giving generous grants to sixteen influential Quraysh leaders and four chiefs of other tribes, because they were a lready wealthy. When Muhammad told the Helpers that he would choose them over al l others, they wept and accepted the prophet as the best portion. The apostle su ggested that whoever killed the poet Ka'b ibn Malik would be serving God; but he relented when the poet converted and turned his verse to the worship of God. Ma riyah bore Muhammad his only child since his first wife Khadija died. In October 630 the apostle told his warriors to prepare for a campaign against t he Byzantine Syrians. With the Bedouins his army now had 30,000 with 10,000 hors es. He left 'Ali behind with his family and reassured him that he would be as Aa ron to Moses. The apostle did not find many enemies at Tabuk and made peace trea ties with Christian and Jewish communities along the east coast of the Gulf of ' Aqabah. The last pagan stronghold was the Bani Thaqif at Ta'if; but as they were now surrounded by Muslims, they sent envoys to ask the apostle to let them keep their goddess al-Lat for a time. The apostle would only let them off from destr oying the shrine themselves and insisted they offer the Muslim prayers, for no g

ood religion can exist without prayer. During this year many other tribes sent d elegations to the prophet, and agreements were made for collecting taxes for the ir protection by the emerging Islamic state. Once the prophet asked Thabit of Kh azraj, a Helper, to respond to a deputation, and he said, We are God's helpers and the assistants of His apostle and will fight men until they believe in God; he who believes in God and His apo stle has protected his life and property from us; he who disbelieves we will fight in God unceasingly, and killing him will be a small matter to us."5 The apostle sent out his officials to collect the poor tax in every district sub ject to Islam. At the next pilgrimage the apostle announced that this would be the last year th at would allow going around the Holy House naked and idolatrous pilgrims. After four months there would be war against any remaining idolaters, though treaties with the apostle would be honored until they expired. The apostle preached that they should not wrong, and they shall not be wronged. He said that God decreed t here shall be no usury, and he abolished all the usury of his uncle 'Abbas. All blood shed in the pagan period was to be left unavenged. He said that husbands h ave the right to beat their wives, but not severely, if they defile their bed or behave in an unseemly manner. Wives have the right to food and clothing with ki ndness. Wives should be treated kindly, because they are prisoners given in trus t by God. Adulterers are to be stoned. The apostle's son Ibrahim died when he wa s about two years old. The prophet was reminded that we are only passing strange rs in this world. 'Ali summed it up by saying that we should act in this world a s though we are going to live forever but for the next as though we are going to die tomorrow. Tabuk was the last battle in which Muhammad participated; but he continued to send out his forces on raids. Many of the sayings from Muhammad's informal conversations were later written do wn. He admonished his friends to feed the hungry, visit the sick, and free the c aptives who are unjustly bound. He considered anyone holding a monopoly an offen der and cursed those who kept back grain in order to sell it at a higher price. In war he warned his men not to kill women, children, nor old men who cannot fig ht. He advised judges not to make decisions when they are angry. One who control s anger is stronger than one who throws people down. The apostle once said that a virtuous woman is the most valuable thing in the world; yet he also said that no calamity can be more hurtful to a man than a woman. He believed the best wome n were content with little. Divorce was lawful; but it was disliked by God. A wi dow should not be married without consulting her, and a virgin must give her sil ent consent. The apostle said that slavery was ordained by God; but one must giv e these brothers and sisters the same food one eats oneself and the same clothes one wears; if one orders a slave to do something beyond his power, one must hel p him in doing it. Muhammad opposed paintings except those of trees and things without souls. He ad vised against speaking of the dead, because they have gone to the reward of thei r actions. He considered obedience a Muslim duty unless one is ordered to commit a sin. Al-Muttaqi also reported that Muhammad said, The nearer a man is to government, the further he is from God; the more followers he has, the more devils; the greater his wealth, the more exacting his reckoning.6 Assassination attempts on the life of the prophet failed. Abu Bakr taught new Mu slims to proclaim the unity of God, perform prayer, pay the poor-tax, fast durin g Ramadan, go on a pilgrimage, wash after impurity, and never assume authority o

ver two Muslims. The prophet advised his followers not to obey anyone who orders them to do something wrong. The apostle sometimes differentiated degrees of hol iness, and he said that the one remembering God is more excellent than the one w ho wields his sword against the infidels until it is broken and bloody. The firs t pilgrimage in which no pagans would be allowed to participate was the last pil grimage to Mecca for the apostle. From Medina came 30,000 men and women. He exho rted them to treat each other well. He had given them the book of God called the Qur'an, and the prophet now recited his last revelation to be added to that boo k, telling them not to fear the disbelievers but God, because their religion has prevailed. Other prophets began to proclaim themselves. When one wrote to the a postle as Musaylima the messenger of God, Muhammad wrote back calling him Musayl ima the Liar. After a few months the pride of Aswad ibn Ka'b of Yemen caused his own followers to assassinate him, and Asad chief Tulayha was defeated by Khalid , renounced his claim, and surrendered to Islam. As he neared death from illness the apostle sent Zayd's son Usamah with an army of 3,000 against the Arabs who had fought with the Syrians against them. In the mosque the apostle announced that a prophet is given a choice between this world and the next, and Abu Bakr realized that Muhammad had chosen the next life. The apostle affirmed Abu Bakr as his closest friend, and he ordered all the doors t o the mosque walled up except the door of Abu Bakr. The prophet was no longer af raid that they would set up other gods, but he did fear that they would seek to rival one another in worldly gains. Muhammad now had eleven wives; but he spent his last days in 'A'ishah's apartment, and he instructed Abu Bakr to lead the pr ayers. On June 8, 632 the apostle's last words before he died referred to suprem e communion with God. In the mosque Abu Bakr announced that Muhammad was dead; b ut for those who wanted to worship God, truly God is living and immortal. Some Muslims, mostly Helpers, wanted to make the Sa'idah chief Sa'd the new auth ority; but Emigrants led by 'Umar and Abu 'Ubayda pledged their allegiance to Ab u Bakr, who thanked God and asked their help if he did well and their correction if he did wrong. He promised to strengthen the rights of the weak against the s trong. He asked them to obey him as long he obeyed God and his messenger, and th ey prayed. Muhammad's Qur'an The sacred book of Islam is the Qur'an, which means The Recital. Although Muhamm ad was probably illiterate himself, this scripture is considered one of the fine st works of literature. Muhammad would recite the verses; they were memorized an d written down. The final text was completed within a generation of his death. F or the most part God is speaking to Muhammad and humanity, though occasionally t he messengers Gabriel and Muhammad speak. There are 114 chapters, placed in orde r of decreasing length, and each begins with the words "In the name of God, the gracious, the loving." The exordium at the beginning praises and worships God al one, asking for guidance on a straight and blessed path. God is recording all of everyone's deeds and will judge them. Many verses warn against the fires of hel l or give metaphorical descriptions of the paradise that will reward belief in G od and good deeds. Those who give charity and guard against evil and believe in goodness will have a smooth path to salvation; but the opposite will find afflic tion, and their riches will not help them. God warns those who do not show kindn ess to orphans or feed the poor, who greedily grab the inheritance of the weak a nd love riches in their hearts. Muhammad retold in his own way several stories from the Old and New Testaments o f the Judeo-Christian Bible, "the people of the book." These include Adam, Noah, Abraham, Lot, Joseph, Moses, David, Solomon, Elijah, Jonah, Job, Zacharias, Mar y, and Jesus, and are recounted to encourage the believers with true precepts an d admonitions. The 74th chapter warns that every soul will be pledged for what i t has earned, except for the companions on the right, who will ask the sinners w hat brought them to hell; they shall reply that they did not pray nor feed the h

ungry, and they engaged in vain disputes while denying a day of reckoning. Use o f plural probably implies that God and Gabriel are speaking together, as when th ey declare that they know everything that humans do and think, and it is all rec orded in a book. According to chapter 61 of the Qur'an God loves those who fight for His cause, a nd listeners are encouraged to fight with their wealth and persons for God and H is apostle. Those who participate in the fighting or give their wealth before th e victory will have greater honor than those who do so afterwards. This life is referred to as a sport or pastime, questing for greater riches and children; but in the life to come await woeful punishments or a vast paradise for those who g ain the pardon and grace of God. The speakers in the Qur'an claim they gave Jesu s his Gospel and put mercy and compassion in the hearts of his followers; but th ey did not enjoin monasticism, which was instituted by people seeking to please God; many of them are called wrong-doers. In chapter 47 called "Muhammad," peopl e are instructed, When you meet the unbelievers in the battlefield, strike off their heads, and, when you have laid them low, bind your captives firmly. Then grant them their freedom or take ransom from them, until War shall lay down her armor. Thus shall you do. Had God willed, He could Himself have punished them; but He has ordained it thus that He might test you, the one by the other. As for those who are slain in the cause of God, He will not allow their works to perish. He will vouchsafe them guidance and ennoble their state; He will admit them to the Paradise He has made known to them. Believers, if you help God, God will help you and make you strong. But the unbelievers shall be consigned to perdition.7 Those who disbelieve and bar others from God's path and die unbelievers shall no t be forgiven by God. Thus believers are told not to sue for peace when they hav e the upper hand, because God is on their side and will reward them. Another cha pter states that God created the heavens and the earth to reveal the truth and r eward each soul according to its deeds, and none shall be wronged. In this world lighter punishments are inflicted so that people may return to the right path; but the world to come brings supreme punishment, according to the Q ur'an. Warnings of punishments at the Day of Judgment are repeated over and over . The listener is advised to give their due to relatives, to the needy, and to w ayfarers. Those who seek to gain by usury will not be blessed by God; but charit y will be multiplied and repaid. Prayer fends off indecency and evil, and one's foremost duty is to remember God. Muslims are admonished to be courteous when ar guing with the people of the Bible (Jews and Christians). The golden mean betwee n being extravagant or niggardly is recommended. One must not kill humans, thoug h exception is made for a just cause. Adultery may double one's punishment on th e Day of Judgment. Those who repent and do good works may have their sins change d to good actions by God, who is forgiving and merciful. One must not give false testimony, and believers are advised not to lose their dignity when listening t o profane abuse. Chapter 24 called "Light," given after the 'A'isha scandal, set the penalty for adultery at 100 lashes, and believers are forbidden from marrying adulterers or idolaters. False testimony was to be punished with 80 lashes. Women are to be ch aste and cover their adornments, drawing a veil over their bosoms and finery exc ept to their husbands, close relatives, and servants. Slave-girls who choose to be chaste are not to be forced into prostitution to make money. The Authors of t he Qur'an charge no one with more than they can bear, and they state that none s

hall be wronged. Chapter 17 on "The Night Journey" to Jerusalem gives the Qur'an's version of com mandments found in the Torah. First one must serve no other gods but God. One sh ould show kindness to parents. If one is neither miserly nor prodigal, then one will not be reproached nor reduced to penury. Baby girls are not to be killed ou t of fear of poverty, because God will provide for them. Adultery is foul and in decent. If a person is slain unjustly, his heir is entitled to satisfaction. No one should interfere with the property of orphans until they are mature. Everyon e is accountable for what they promise. Give full measure and weigh on fair scal es. Do not follow what you do not understand; question the eyes, ears, and heart . Do not walk proudly on earth, for you cannot rival the mountains in stature. B e courteous in speech. God has exalted some prophets above others; David was giv en the Psalms. In chapter 60 of the Qur'an God forbids Muslims to make friends with those who h ave fought against their religion. Marriages with unbelieving women should be di ssolved. Believers are to avoid immoderate suspicion, spying, and backbiting. In chapter 48 on "Victory" Muhammad is told that those who swear fealty to him swe ar fealty to God. No soul shall bear another's burden, and all souls return to G od, who knows their inmost thoughts. Unintentional mistakes shall be forgiven bu t not deliberate errors. When humans punish, the punishment should be proportion al to the wrong that has been done to them. Yet enduring wrongs with patience is best. Be patient, and God will be patient with you. Do not grieve for the unbel ievers nor be distressed by their intrigues. God is with those who refrain from evil and do good works. In the chapter on "The Spoils" the prophet is told to ar ouse the faithful to arms; they are told that twenty determined men will conquer a hundred, and a hundred will rout a thousand unbelievers, who lack understandi ng. A woeful punishment is proclaimed for those who hoard gold and silver and do not spend it in God's cause. The longest chapter in the Qur'an is "The Cow." Believers are reminded to pray f acing Mecca, give charity to the poor, and fast (until Sunset) during the month of Ramadan. God has forbidden the eating of flesh from animals that die a natura l death, blood, and pork. One must not usurp the property of others by unjust me ans nor bribe judges. Although one should fight for God against those who fight against them, one should not attack first, because God does not like aggressors. Yet those are to be killed where they are found, because idolatry is worse than bloodshed. Unbelievers who attack should be put to the sword; but if they mend their ways, God is forgiving and merciful. The Qur'an reminds its listeners that fighting is obligatory even though they do not like it. Women deserve similar r ights as men, although men have a higher status. In the 4th chapter called "Women" listeners are told that if they cannot treat o rphan girls fairly, they may marry other women - two, three, or four. Yet if the y are afraid they cannot treat them equally, they should marry only one or slave -girls they own so as to avoid injustice. A male is to inherit twice as much as a female. Disobedient women may be admonished, sent to beds apart, and even beat . In "The Table" God suggests the penalty for a broken oath is to feed or clothe ten needy people or free one slave. Those who cannot afford these may fast for three days. Satan stirs up hatred and trouble by means of wine and gambling; bel ievers are asked to abstain from them. Those who have faith and do not taint the ir faith with wrong-doing shall find salvation. Islamic Wars in the Near East 632-661 After the Emigrants and the Helpers pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr as Muhamma d's successor (Caliph), 'Umar proposed that anyone else who presumed to take on the sovereign power should be put to death along with those who support him; the assembly passed this resolution. This and 'Umar's threat to set his house on fi re was enough to discourage 'Ali from making his claim as successor. Abu Bakr's

name means "father of the virgin," and his daughter 'A'isha was the only wife th at came to the apostle as a virgin; all the others were widows, and many probabl y were married for political reasons. Abu Bakr, like Muhammad, lived fairly asce tically without pomp. Every Friday he distributed surplus funds to the meritorio us and needy. At first many of the Arabian tribes refused to pay the required al ms to the Caliph, and the new state consisted primarily of Medina, Mecca, and Ta 'if. Some Bedouin rebels led by Malik ibn Nuwirah even marched on Medina. Abu Ba kr sent out Khalid ibn al-Walid with 4500 men and instructions to be lenient; bu t the zealous general allowed his warriors to seize herds and enslave children. The beauty of Malik's wife was given as the reason Khalid had the rebel beheaded by Derar, even though Malik professed Islam. A larger force was led by Musaylima, who claimed to be a prophet also. His force s were joined by those of Sajah, a woman who headed the Banu Tamim, when Musayli ma married her. Their ten thousand followers were defeated at Akreba by Khalid's warriors, who had 1200 Muslims killed. Musaylima also fought and was killed. Ab u Bakr dubbed Khalid "the sword of God." Since two of the six Muslims who had me morized the entire Qur'an were killed, after this battle Abu Bakr ordered Muhamm ad's former secretary Zayd ibn Thabit to collect the written and oral revelation s. Qur'an reciters were sent out to teach the Arabs Islam. After Bahrain, Uman, and Yemen had submitted, Abu Bakr sent out an appeal to all Arabs to join the Muslim army marching into Syria. He appointed Abu Sufyan gove rnor of Nadj and Hijaz. His son Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan commanded one of three armi es sent east of the Jordan; the other generals were Abu 'Ubayda and Shurahbil ib n Hasana; 'Amr ibn al-'As was sent to invade Palestine. They were told not to de stroy fruit trees or grain fields nor to kill cattle except for food. Religious people and their buildings were to be respected; but unbelievers who did not emb race Islam or pay tribute were to be killed. Yazid's army defeated and killed a force of 1200 sent by Byzantine emperor Heraclius, and spoils were sent back to Medina. Abu Bakr sent several forces to Syria commanded by Abu 'Ubayda. The outstanding general Khalid went with a force of 10,000 into Iraq. Khalid gav e the people of Hirah a choice of three options that became the standard policy of the Muslim conquerors - either accept Islam, agree to pay the jizya tribute, or fight. Then he besieged and captured the former Lakhmid capital of Hirah, imp osing an annual tribute of 70,000 pieces of gold. Khalid sent a letter to the Pe rsians warning them if they did not become Muslims or pay protection, he would c ome upon them with men who love death as much as they love life or wine. Next Kh alid's forces defeated the Persian governor at Aila, and one-fifth of the spoils was sent to the Caliph. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid to leave Muthana in charge in Iraq and to take command o f Muslim forces in Syria. Khalid with an army of 40,000 Muslims marched toward D amascus. Not knowing their numbers, Emperor Heraclius at Antioch sent 5,000 men led by Calous, who was defeated and beheaded when he refused to renounce Christi anity for Islam. Damascus was besieged, and Heraclius sent an army of 100,000 co mmanded by Emessa prefect Werdan. The bold Muslim Derar attacked them with a sma ll force and was captured. The fanatical Muslims defeated the larger Byzantine a rmy, and Derar was rescued. Thousands of fleeing Greeks were killed. Khalid lear ned of a treacherous ambush and turned the tables on Werdan, allowing Derar to b ehead him. Abu Sufyan persuaded Abu Bakr to send Quraysh warriors to reinforce K halid. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantine forces of Heraclius in southern Pa lestine at the battle of Ajnadayn. After a siege of six months the Damascans negotiated their capitulation with Abu 'Ubayda, knowing he was more conciliatory; at the same time Khalid's forces wer e storming the city. To maintain Muslim credibility Khalid agreed to honor the t erms Abu 'Ubayda granted; but after three days he pursued those who were allowed to leave with minimal weapons for self-defense and was aided in catching them b

y the traitor Jonas, who sought the woman Eudocea. When they were captured, Eudo cea committed suicide, and the Christians were killed or made prisoners. Khalid returned to Damascus and sent one-fifth of the spoils to Caliph Abu Bakr, who ha d died in 634 when Damascus was taken. Abu Bakr had nominated 'Umar as his succe ssor, and he was elected the second Caliph. 'Umar also lived frugally and abstinently, drinking only water and eating mostly dates, barley bread, sometimes even refraining from the luxury of salt. He note d that four things do not come back - spoken words, arrows shot, past actions, a nd neglected opportunity. During the decade of his reign many mosques were const ructed; prisons were also built as a police force was organized. 'Umar devised a twisted whip for minor offenses which was more feared than his sword. Drunkenne ss was punished with eighty lashes, and 'Umar did not even spare his own son, wh o died from the whipping. Instead of the long title, successor of the successor of the prophet, he took the title Commander of the Faithful. Although the prophe t Muhammad had promised protection to the Jews in Khaybar, 'Umar expelled Jews f rom Arabia to Syria. No Muslim was allowed to cultivate land outside of the Arab ian peninsula. In conquered territory Muslim men were always armed, and non-Musl ims were not allowed arms. Some were upset when 'Umar replaced the aggressive Kh alid as his top general with Abu 'Ubayda, whom he favored for his moderation and piety. The concern increased, because Abu 'Ubayda withheld the report of Abu Ba kr's death and the replacement until after Khalid had wiped out the exiles fleei ng Damascus, which 'Umar also criticized. Abu Bakr's stepson Abd-Allah volunteered to lead 500 men to an Easter fair at th e Abyla convent but found they were guarded by 5,000 horsemen. The Muslims nonet heless attacked, but one rode to Damascus for reinforcements. Khalid and Derar l ed a band and turned the battle into a Muslim victory, taking rich spoils. The h ermit, who attracted the crowd, warned Khalid of heaven's vengeance for his havi ng slaughtered Christians. The Muslim general replied that he was obeying God in killing unbelievers. Abu 'Ubaydah's Muslim forces met a Persian army led by Bahman Jaduya on the bank s of the Euphrates. 4,000 Muslims were killed, and Muthana was wounded. In the n ext battle in 635 Muthana's brother Mas'ud was killed, but the Persians fled. Af ter Muthana died of his wound, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas was named commander. Persian king Yazdgard III complained that the Muslims came to rob their land and offered to load their camels with dates and grain if they would depart. The opposing ar mies camped at Qadisyah next to a Euphrates canal. During the battle of Qadisyah in 637 about 10,000 Arab Muslims were reinforced with 6,000 warriors from Syria ; but they faced about 80,000 Persians led by Rustam, who had the canal filled i n so that he could use his elephants. The Persian army was defeated, as Rustam w as killed, and the sacred standard of Persia was captured. The Arabs also lost a third of their men but obtained spoils and the fertile Sawad of Iraq. 'Umar had a city called Basra founded where the Euphrates and Tigris flow into the Persia n Gulf. Khalid's Muslims besieged Emessa, and Abu 'Ubayda accepted their tribute for a o ne-year truce. He also tried to limit the marauding in Alhadir and Kennesrin by making similar arrangements, frustrating some of the warriors wanting to plunder . At Aleppo the chief general Abu 'Ubayda demanded double the tribute offered an d one thousand swords. The Muslims spent their profits so freely that Aleppo gov ernor Herbis was trying to get his money back by collecting ten percent; when he tried to increase this to one-fourth, his people killed him. In 636 after the t ruce Abu 'Ubayda went back to besieging Emessa, which along with other towns eve ntually surrendered. The Muslim army of 40,000 camped at Yarmuk between Palestine and Arabia. Emperor Heraclius sent Manuel with a Byzantine army reported to be 80,000. They were jo ined by 60,000 Arabs of Ghassanid chief Jabalah, who had once been a Muslim; but

he renounced his faith after a pilgrimage in which an argument led him to knock out a peasant's teeth, and he would not agree to a "tooth for a tooth." Khalid boldly attacked the Ghassanids, who retreated, though Yazid, Rafi, and Derar wer e captured. The Caliph sent ibn 'Amir with 8,000 reinforcements, and on the way they defeated 5,000 men led by the Ammon prefect. At a conference Manuel complai ned that the Muslims were invading their territories to steal their wives and pr operty, while Khalid replied that they were obstinate in not accepting the one G od Allah and his prophet Muhammad. At the battle of Yarmuk in 636 Muslims were k ept from retreating by their women, who drove their men back to the front with r eproaches and blows. 700 Muslims were said to have lost an eye from Christian ar rows. After several days of fierce fighting, the Christians fled in various dire ctions. One-fifth of the spoils were sent to the Caliph, and cavalry with pure A rabian horses received a double share. 'Ali advised Caliph 'Umar to aim for Jerusalem, and the holy city was besieged b y Abu 'Ubaydah's army although the Christian patriarch Sophronius said this offe nded God. The patriarch agreed to surrender the city if the Caliph would come in person. 'Umar left 'Ali in charge at Medina and made the journey by camel. At o ne stop a Christian objected to 'Umar's statement that God leads some into error . When the Caliph threatened to have his head cut off, the Christian kept silent . In 637 Jerusalem capitulated to 'Umar's terms that promised safe conduct to th eir persons, property, and churches; but those who did not emigrate must pay the jizya tax. They could not sell wine, bear arms, or even ride a horse with a sad dle and had to show respect to all Muslims. 'Umar appointed Yazid Abu Sufyan gov ernor in southern Syria and sent Abu 'Ubaydah's larger army into northern Syria. Aleppo was now governed by two brothers of opposite temperaments - the aggressiv e Youkinna and the monkish Johannas. Youkinna led 12,000 men against the Muslims while the merchants agreed to pay Abu 'Ubayda. After a battle Youkinna returned to Aleppo, demanded they renounce the treaty, and cut off the head of his peace ful brother. Just then Khalid's forces appeared and killed 3,000 of Youkinna's t roops. The Muslim warrior Damas led a stealthy night attack and opened the gates ; the Christians soon surrendered, and Youkinna accepted Islam. Youkinna then tr eacherously used his former reputation to help the Muslims take the cities of Az az and Antioch, where Emperor Heraclius actually put Youkinna in charge of his a rmy. Caliph 'Umar was described to the Byzantine emperor as living in a house of mud, attended by beggars and the poor, decorated by justice and equity on a thr one of abstinence and true knowledge with faith in God as his treasure, and the bravest Unitarians as his guards. Jabalah proposed they send a man to assassinat e 'Umar to no avail. Antioch's iron bridge was surrendered, and Youkinna freed D erar and the other Muslim prisoners. Heraclius fled to Constantinople, and Antio ch bought safety for 300,000 gold coins on August 21, 638. Abu 'Ubayda wrote to the Caliph that his men were marrying Greek women; but 'Uma r replied that men without wives at home could do so and purchase as many female slaves as they wished. Muslim general 'Amr ibn al-'As led a siege of Caesarea; when he sent the former slave and announcer Bilal as an envoy, he was rejected b y prince Constantine for being a black Ethiopian. Constantine would not pay trib ute or give up religious freedom, and so 'Amr said the only alternative was the sword. This time Youkinna and his men were discovered and imprisoned. Tyre troop s sallied forth to meet 2,000 Muslims led by Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan, while Youkinn a and 900 men were freed by an apostate, found weapons, and fought too. Most in Tripoli and Tyre accepted Islam, and those who did not were plundered and enslav ed. Constantine fled by ship to join his father at Constantinople, and Caesarea gave up the imperial family's wealth and paid a large ransom in 639. The conques t of Syria was followed by famine and pestilence. In addition to uncounted Syria ns 25,000 invading Muslims died including Abu 'Ubayda, Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan, and other generals. 'Umar complained that Khalid paid 30,000 silver coins to a poet praising his victories; the general was fined although it was found he had not embezzled money, and Khalid died leaving only his arms, his war-horse, and one s

lave. A Muslim army of perhaps 60,000 marched on the Persian capital called Mada'in, w hich included the cities of Ctesiphon and Seleucia on the banks of the Tigris. K ing Yazdgard left Ctesiphon before they arrived, and the forces that remained so on fled. So much treasure was obtained that after one-fifth was sent to Medina, each Muslim received 12,000 silver dirhams. Fourteen months later the garrison c ity of Kufa was founded. Sa'd built such an elaborate palace there that Caliph ' Umar sent an envoy to burn it down. Forces led by Persian general Hurmuzan were defeated at Arbuq and fled, pursued by Nu'man and his Muslims. After a siege at Shustar Hurmuzan agreed to surrender if he were sent to the Caliph. City after city fell in Khuzistan, and Fars was raided. Caliph 'Umar appointed N u'man to replace Sa'd at Kufa; but he was killed during the Muslims' "victory of victories" at Nihavand which was reported to have killed 100,000 Persians and f inally defeated the Sassanian empire in 641. The Persian aristocracy had over-ta xed the people for too long. The Arabs collected less taxes, and the Muslims cer tainly fought with more zeal for their religion. While pursuing Yazdgard, Muslim forces led by Jarir captured prosperous Hulwan peacefully; the ancient Ecbatana called Hamadan was taken; Nu'aim took Ray. Tabaristan agreed to pay an annual t ribute of 500,000 dirhams. Zarathustran temples were destroyed in Azerbaijan, an d Qazvin surrendered in 644. The capitulation terms of Jurjan, Tabaristan, Jil J ilan, and Azerbaijan also provided safe conduct in exchange for the jizya tax an d required them to provide hospitality to traveling Muslims. Many treaties threa tened severe punishments for striking or insulting a Muslim. 'Amr led the Muslim invasion of Egypt in 640, besieging Misrah (Memphis) for sev en months. Egyptian governor Muqawqis disagreed with the Greek orthodox theology anyway and agreed to pay two gold pieces for every man, not counting old men an d monks. Alexandria was besieged for fourteen months and succumbed in 642; but l eaving it without an adequate garrison, the Muslims had to conquer the metropoli s again in 645. The city was said to contain 4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 400 the aters, 12,000 vegetable gardeners, and 40,000 tributary Jews. The Muslim warrior s were prevented from pillaging and wasting the wealth so that it could be used to pay for the expenses of the war. The annual taxes imposed were estimated at 1 2,000,000 dirhams. The grain of Egypt was sent by caravan to Arabia to alleviate the famine. John the Grammarian asked for the valuable books in the library. 'A mr sent his request to Caliph 'Umar, who reasoned that the Qur'an is sufficient, because those books agreeing with it are useless and those disagreeing are pern icious; thus they should be destroyed. The precious manuscripts supplied the fue l to heat the city's baths for the next six months. Since no contemporary accoun t of the library being destroyed at this time exists, this story may have been f abricated by the Baghdad historian Abdul Latif several centuries later. Caliph 'Umar had warned against Persian luxuries, and he prohibited female capti ves, who had borne a child, from being sold as slaves. In his weekly distributio n of funds he paid more attention to need than merit, believing worldly things a re to relieve necessities while God rewards virtue in heaven. He assigned pensio ns to companions of Muhammad and to those who had served in the army. Those who served the Muslim cause in earlier campaigns received much larger amounts, and t he inequality led to significant resentment. During his reign it was reported th at 36,000 towns, castles, and strongholds fell to the Muslims. In 644 'Umar was assassinated by a Persian slave named Firuz while praying in a mosque. 'Umar's s on 'Ubayd-Allah in revenge killed the prisoner Hurmuzan and two others; but he e scaped punishment by the next Caliph. While dying 'Umar had left the election to six men including 'Ali; but 'Uthman was elected after 'Ali insisted on followin g only the Qur'an and his own judgment rather than the Qur'an and precedents of the previous caliphs. 'Uthman had been a secretary of Muhammad, and during his reign the Qur'an was ed

ited into its final form. All other versions were ordered burned, though many re citers in Kufa resisted complying for a while. 'Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud, who also h ad been a secretary to Muhammad, charged that 'Uthman's version of the Qur'an wa s falsified. 'Uthman was seventy when he took office and relied on his secretary of state Marwan ibn Hakam, who received 504,000 gold dinars from the public tre asury. 'Uthman also aroused resentment by appointing many of his Umayyad relativ es to important positions. He deposed Persia conqueror Sa'd ibn Abi-Waqqas in Ku fa with a relative, who got so drunk he was flogged and replaced by a younger re lative, who allowed ruffians to run wild and also had to be dismissed. Egypt's e xperienced conqueror 'Amr ibn al-'As was replaced by 'Uthman's foster brother Ab d-Allah ibn Sa'd. Soon Umayyads controlled the treasury, the police, the pilgrim age, the inspectors, and the army in Arabia as well as in the conquered territor ies. In 647 'Abd-Allah ibn Sa'd led an army of 40,000 west of Egypt across North Afri ca. Tripoli's prefect Gregory rejected the usual options of converting to Islam or paying tribute, choosing to fight. After a few days Gregory offered his daugh ter's hand in marriage and 100,000 gold coins to anyone who killed the Muslim co mmander. 'Abd-Allah withdrew from the combat but was reprimanded upon the arriva l of Zubayr, who suggested they offer the same daughter to anyone who killed Gre gory. Zubayr himself killed Gregory but gave up his daughter for the right to te ll his story of conquest in the mosque at Medina. Abu Sufyan's son Mu'awiya pers uaded the Caliph to let him organize a navy. Cyprus was raided in 649, and the M uslim navy won a decisive victory over the Byzantines in 655 to make Cyprus pay tribute. Many regions in Persia reverted after having submitted to Islam, and Sa'd ibn al -'As had to invade Tabaristan, and others campaigned against insurrection in Aze rbaijan. The fleeing king Yazdgard instigated the Persians in Fars, and the youn g cousin of the Caliph, 'Abd-Allah ibn 'Amir led an army in a protracted war tha t by 649 had killed a reported 40,000 or more. Then Firuzabad agreed to pay 33,0 00,000 dirhams annually. Yazdgard retreated to Kirman, and 'Abd-Allah ibn 'Amir, now governor of Basra, sent an army led by Muja Shi' to pursue him, though many perished in the snow. 'Amir then sent general Rabi' into Sistan, and he settled in its main city of Zarang for several years. 'Amir himself led expeditions int o Khurasan, taking Nishapur, Abivard, Nisa, and Sarakhs. Yazdgard was finally ki lled in 651 at Marv. Resentment throughout the Islamic empire increased after 'Uthman lost the prophe t's ring in a stream in 650. The spoils of conquest were decreasing, and many go vernment and military officials had to be paid. His request that tribute be sent to Medina caused Sawad treasurer 'Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud to resign in protest; th e respected companion of the prophet was even beaten at a Medina mosque. The ari stocratic privileges of the earlier Muslims were also resented. Abu Dharr critic ized the great wealth of the Umayyads and quoted the Qur'an statement that those who hoard gold and silver will face a fearful punishment. Although Abu Dharr ha d been a close companion of the prophet, Mu'awiya sent him to Medina for trial, and he was banished for continuing to criticize the regime. In 655 after governor Sa'd ibn al-As conferred with the Caliph at Medina, 3,000 prominent Kufans chose Abu Musa al-Ash'ari to replace him. From Egypt about 500 Muslims led by Abu Bakr's son Muhammad marched to Medina to complain. When they discovered a secret message on their return that the leaders were to be killed, they went back to Medina and demanded that 'Uthman abdicate. He denied sending t he message and refused; after rocks were thrown at him, he stayed in his house. Although 'Ali, Zubayr, and Talha sent their sons to protect the Caliph's house, the conspirators got in on June 17, 656 and killed 'Uthman with swords while he was reading the Qur'an; his wife Nailah lost three fingers trying to protect him . 'Ali waited five days before he accepted election as Caliph.

'Ali sent replacements for five major governors 'Uthman had appointed; but only 'Abd-Allah ibn Abbas was able to take office in Arabia, while that retiring gove rnor Jaali took the public treasury to Mecca. There the resentful 'A'isha persua ded Talha and Zubayr to lead 3,000 Meccans and march on Basra. That city was div ided, and 'Uthman ibn Hanif, whom 'Ali had sent to govern Kufa, commanded some f orces in Basra. Efforts to resolve the differences of the two factions resulted in their throwing dirt in each other's faces. A truce was agreed upon while depu ties were sent to Medina, and 'A'isha, Zubayr, and Talha entered Basra. 'Ali rai sed a force of 900 men and marched toward Basra. In Kufa 'Ali's son Hasan persua ded nearly 9,000 to follow him, and by the time 'Ali's army reached Basra it had about 30,000 experienced troops. In the battle of the camel 'A'isha stayed on h er camel protected by warriors as her howdah was covered with arrows. In this fi rst battle of a civil war 13,000 Muslims were slain. Zubayr and Talha were kille d, and 'A'isha was forced to retire at Medina. 'Ali moved the capital to the gro wing city of Kufa in Iraq, while 'Uthman's bloody shirt had been sent to Damascu s to arouse people in Syria. 'Ali also governed Arabia, Persia, and Egypt, but Mu'awiya ruled Syria and Pales tine. A tribal conflict between the Umayyads and 'Ali's house of Hashim now beca me an imperial struggle. In 567 their large armies met for four months at Siffin ; but both sides were reluctant to engage in full warfare against fellow Muslims , though some reported that tens of thousands were killed. When 'Ali's side seem ed to be winning, Mu'awiyah's army began holding up the Qur'an on their spears, bringing about an armistice. An arbitration by two judges was to decide; but Mu' awiyah's capable 'Amr ibn al-'As got Musa al-Ashari to agree that neither Mu'awi ya nor 'Ali should be Caliph. A third tribe of Bani Tamim believed that 'Ali was wrong in submitting to human arbitration instead of to God, and these seceders (Kharijis) organized their own forces. The Kharijis believed that those guilty o f a grave sin should be treated as unbelievers. Mu'awiya sent an army to take co ntrol of Egypt. 'Ali's governor Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was personally executed by Mu'awiya for his part in murdering 'Uthman, and 'Amr ibn al-'As became governor of Egypt again. Mu'awiya demanded that 'Ali punish the other murderers of the C aliph; but this would include 'Ali's main assistant at Kufa, Malik al-Astar, and other supporters. Dissenters opposed to the authority of 'Ali as well as that of Mu'awiya, attacke d Ctesiphon with 4,000 men. 'Ali's army slaughtered most of them at the small vi llage of Baghdad; but those who escaped spread their independent message. 'Ali n o longer had enough support to march against Syria, and in 660 Mu'awiya was proc laimed Caliph at Jerusalem. Many believe that the Kharijis conspired to assassin ate 'Ali, Mu'awiya, and 'Amr ibn al-'As at the same time. Mu'awiya was wounded b ut recovered; in Egypt the Imam officiating at the mosque in place of 'Amr ibn a l-'As was murdered by mistake; but in Kufa 'Ali died after three days from a wou nd by a poisoned sword. 'Ali nominated his oldest son Hasan, but in 661 Mu'awiya persuaded the peace-loving Hasan to retire at Medina on a generous pension. Umayyad Caliphate 661-750 Although Mu'awiya was an Umayyad and kept his relatives in place, his main goal as caliph was Muslim unity. He took measures to control revenue though he grante d local governors much autonomy. However, when 'Ali partisan Hujr ibn 'Adi in Ku fa refused allegiance to Mu'awiya's governor and threatened rebellion, Mu'awiya had him brought to Damascus and executed him for continuing to refuse. Al-Maghir a of Ta'if governed Kufa for a decade and gained Kufans' cooperation by allowing them to keep some of the revenues and by paying salaries regularly. Mu'awiya's governor in Basra, the Umayyad 'Abd Allah, reconquered Khurasan and entered Tran soxiana as far as Kabul; but disorders in Basra caused him to be replaced in 664 by Ziyad ibn Abihi of Ta'if; he promised the people access to himself and stric tly enforced the laws, including a curfew. He also sent armies to Khurasan. When al-Maghira died in 670, Ziyad became governor of Kufa too. The next year Ziyad sent 50,000 troops from Basra and Kufa to settle in the Marv oasis. He died in 6

73 and was succeeded by his son 'Ubayd Allah. In Syria Mu'awiya's armies invaded Armenia and garrisoned parts of Anatolia. His navy captured Rhodes in 672 and Crete two years later. Muslims even attacked Co nstantinople in 669 and began a four-year siege of the Byzantine capital in 674, but they were driven back by the use of Greek fire containing a secret phosphor ous compound. 'Amr's nephew Uqbah ibn Nafi led the campaigns in North Africa aga inst the Berbers about 670 until he reached the Atlantic Ocean. When Mu'awiya nominated his son Yazid as his successor, some complained that ele ction was being replaced by a hereditary monarchy. Yazid's mother was a Christia n poet, and he spent much time drinking with women and hunting. 'Ali's son Hasan had died in 669, and some suspected he was poisoned by Yazid's order. 'Ali's se cond son Husain was urged to go to Kufa; but on October 10, 680 he, the women an d children of his family, and about a hundred supporters were massacred by an ar my of 4,000 after a valiant battle at Karbala. As the grandson of the prophet Mu hammad, Husain's heroic martyrdom became a rallying point for followers of 'Ali who wanted a spiritual leader or Imam rather than a political monarch from the f amily of Abu Sufyan, who had so strongly opposed the apostle in Mecca. 'Abd-Alla h ibn-al'Zubayr had encouraged Husain to go to Kufa, and he now proclaimed himse lf Caliph and managed to replace some of the Umayyad governors from his capital at Mecca. In 683 Yazid sent 12,000 men under Muslim ibn-Uqbah, who destroyed Med ina and attacked Mecca, where the Ka'ba was burned. The siege of Mecca was lifte d when they heard that Yazid had died. Yazid was succeeded by his young son Mu'awiya II; but he died of a plague about two months later. 'Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad had to flee Basra for Syria, where he p ersuaded Marwan not to accept Zubayr; the Umayyads and the southern Yemeni tribe s that included the Kalb then overcame the Qays and Zubayrids to make Marwan Cal iph. However, this tribal feud would go on for generations. Kharijis in Arabia s et up Najdah ibn 'Amir in Najd, while Azraqi Kharijis mostly from Basra establis hed another regime in Iran. Marwan ibn-Hakam had been 'Uthman's powerful secreta ry and was head of the Umayyad house. He defeated a rebellion led by Dahlak at M arj Rahit near Damascus and extended his power into Egypt. Marwan died in 685 an d was succeeded by his son 'Abd-al-Malik. Called the Avenger, Mukhtar ibn Abi-'Ubayd supported 'Ali's sons Hasan and Husai n. Kufa governor 'Ubayd Allah had knocked out one of his eyes and put Mukhtar in prison before the Husain massacre. Mukhtar was released by Yazid, and he argued against the fanatical effort of the "penitents" led by Sulayman that failed wit h only 4,000 men. Imprisoned again, after Marwan died, Mukhtar, crying "Vengeanc e for Husain," freed members of 'Ali's family from prison and then defeated and killed 'Ubayd Allah in a bloody battle near Mosul in 686. Mukhtar led a group to be called Shi'ah, who gave non-Arab converts an equal share of Muslims' financi al advantages. Mukhtar at Kufa proclaimed 'Ali's son ibn-al-Hanafiyyah not only caliph but the Messianic mahdi. The defeated sharifs (leaders) of Kufa gathered 10,000 men and joined Zubayr's brother Mus'ab, governor in Basra, who had been f ighting the Kharijis. Together they returned to Kufa and defeated Mukhtar in 687 , killing a reported 7,000 Kufans. 'Abd al-Malik consolidated his power in Syria when the Qaysi following Zufar ibn al-Harith al Kilabi abandoned Zubayr in exchange for privileges in the Umayyad court and army. In 691 Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr was ruling in Kufa, and 'Abd-al-Mali k led an army to attack him, leaving 'Amr ibn Sa'd in charge at Damascus. Learni ng 'Amr had usurped power, the Caliph returned; but women intervened between the forces with their children to prevent violence. 'Amr laid down his arms; but 'A bd-al-Malik went back on his agreement and beheaded 'Amr, put to death his main supporters, and banished his family. Then the Caliph led the army that defeated Mus'ab at Dayr al-Jathaliq. Syrian forces led by al-Hajjaj eventually captured M ecca in 692, killing 'Abd-Allah ibn-al'Zubayr and wrecking the Ka'ba. An old Ara

b commented that he had seen the head of Husain taken by 'Ubayd Allah, whose hea d was taken by Mukhtar, whose head was taken by Mus'ab, whose head was taken by the Caliph. After these civil wars 'Abd al-Malik helped to unify the Islamic empire by issui ng Arabic coins and requiring the Arabic language in all government administrati on. Judges called qadis were appointed to settle disputes according to Islamic l aw, and the use of a more exact script assured the Qur'an would not change. This Caliph also established a postal service. Many were encouraged to convert, beca use Muslims paid less taxes. By joining the army they even got a salary, providi ng the soldiers needed for the imperial conquests. To establish a religious alte rnative to the Ka'ba of Mecca, 'Abd al-Malik had the impressive Dome of the Rock constructed in Jerusalem. The Caliph's brother 'Abd al-Aziz governed Egypt from 685 to 704, and another br other Muhammad ibn Marwan governed Jazira (692-709). The Caliph sent Zubair to q uell opposition by Berbers and Byzantines in North Africa. After their garrison at Qairawan was massacred by Berbers, he sent Hassan ibn al-Naaman in 693, and i n seven years his forces reconquered Qairawan and, aided by the Muslim navy, cap tured Carthage, which they destroyed. When Hassan went to Damascus and was made governor of Barca, 'Abd al-Aziz replaced him with Musa ibn Nusayr. Caliph 'Abd a l-Malik objected; but Musa sent so much captured treasure to him that he changed his mind and made Musa governor of Africa. Musa founded dock-yards and by 703 h ad built up the Muslim fleet at Tunis. 'Abd al-Malik in 691 had appointed his brother Bishr ibn Marwan to govern Iraq; but he was replaced by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf in 694, who took charge of both Kufa and Basra. Al-Hajjaj extended his control to the east in 697 when Khurasan and S istan became his responsibility. Soldiers from Kufa and Basra tired of long camp aigns in the east. In 699 the greatest sharif of Iraq, ibn al-Ash'ath, was sent on an expedition to Sistan, where he revolted and led his army back through Fars , defeating al-Hajjaj's forces at Tustar in 701. Ibn al-Ash'ath took control of Kufa while al-Hajjaj retreated to Basra. The Caliph offered to confirm ibn al-As h'ath's position and raise the pay of Iraqi soldiers to equal that of the Syrian s; but his soldiers would not agree, and ibn al-Ash'ath was defeated by al-Hajja j and the Syrians the same year. Ibn al-Ash'ath fled east and took refuge with t he Zabulistan prince he had originally been sent to fight; but his men dispersed , and he died. Al-Hajjaj then established a permanent garrison of Syrian troops between Kufa and Basra at Wasit, and the Iraqis were effectively subjugated. Can als were built and land was reclaimed with most of the profits going to Syria. A lthough the Muhallab family had not joined the rebellion of ibn al-Ash'ath, they were replaced in 704, because al-Hajjaj could not tolerate their independence. Al-Hajjaj sent an army commanded by Abdul Rahman all the way to Kabul, where a T urkish king refusing to pay tribute was defeated. Caliph 'Abd al-Malik died in 705 and was succeeded by his son al-Walid. He syste matized public charity in Syria by founding orphanages, schools, and hospitals; he granted pensions to the poor and aged, built roads, canals, and frontier post s, and kept an eye on prices by visiting the marketplace himself. Al-Walid estab lished the first asylums for the mentally ill and hospices for the blind. The ma ny building projects he sponsored included the Great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. This project alone was said to have cost all of Syria's revenue of seven years, plus eighteen shiploads of gold and silver from Cyprus. The Caliph was especial ly kind to women and was never seen losing his temper. Al-Walid's mother was a Q aysi, and he gave that tribe privileges; but his brother and heir Sulayman, who governed Palestine, was allied to the Yemeni tribe, as was his cousin 'Umar, the son of 'Abd al-'Aziz ibn Marwan, who had connections in Egypt and was appointed to rule the Hijaz (Arabia). In the ten-year reign of al-Walid the Islamic empire was greatly expanded. Altho

ugh his wife called Hajjaj a blood-thirsty murderer, the Caliph kept him in char ge of the east. Hajjaj sent his governor of Khurasan, Qutaybah, across the Oxus in 705 to conquer Balkh and Bukhara by 709, Khwarazm and Samarqand by 712, and F arghana by 713. The Sind was conquered in India and ruled by Muhammad ibn al-Qas im; this area would become Muslim Pakistan in the 20th century. According to the historian Masudi, the armies of al-Hajjaj in addition to those men they lost ha d killed 120,000 men and women, and 80,000 people were in prison when he died in 714. Qasim was recalled by the Caliph and executed for a charge that later was proved false. In the north the Muslims had invaded Byzantine Cilicia for a decad e since 700 and entered Galatia in 714. In the west Spain fell quickly into the hands of Muslim invaders. In 709 when Ro derick usurped the Spanish crown. According to legend repeated by Arabic and Spa nish historians, Roderick raped Florinda, the virgin daughter of Count Julian, w ho ruled Ceuta across the strait on the northwest tip of Africa. For revenge Jul ian betrayed his religion and country by assisting the Muslim general Jebel Tari q, who sent 500 Berbers the next year. In 711 Jebel Tariq landed with 7,000 men across the straits of Gibraltar named after him. The Muslims conquered Andalusia , taking Malaga, Granada, and Cordoba. Toledo was betrayed by Jews, who had been unfairly treated by the Christians, and Tariq's forces defeated Roderick's army in July. African governor Musa ibn Nusayr became jealous and crossed over with an army of 10,000 Arabs the following year and conquered Medina Sidonia, Seville , and Merida. By the end of 713 all of Spain was controlled by the Muslims, as t he Gothic rulers fled across the Pyrenees to their provinces in Gaul. The Caliph accused Musa of exceeding orders, just as Musa had reprimanded Tariq. Musa was summoned to Damascus and brought with him tremendous spoils, including 18,000 of the finest men and women captured. When Sulayman became Caliph in 715, he stayed in Palestine and ruled from his ca pital at Ramla. He removed the conquering Musa from his office and took away all his wealth. Musa's son 'Abd al-'Aziz married the late Roderick's queen Exilona, an ex-Muslim who now preferred Christianity; but he was suspected of coveting a crown and was executed along with his bride, and his two brothers in Africa wer e also killed. Sulayman opposed the policies of Hajjaj and had given refuge to t he deposed governor of Khurasan, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab; he dismissed Qutaybah fr om the same province. Sulayman's first official act was to release all those imp risoned in the east by Hajjaj. His Yemeni party believed that non-Arab converts should have the same rights and status as the Arabs. Yazid led the large Azd tri be that had migrated to Basra; he was put in charge of Iraq and Khurasan in the east, and he led the invasions of Tabaristan. Sulayman was known for his luxurio us living; he launched a costly attack on Constantinople led by 'Abd al-Malik's son Maslama with a reported 80,000 men in which the Muslim navy of 1800 ships wa s devastated by Greek fire. Sulayman died of illness on the way to a campaign ag ainst the Byzantines in 717. During his reign Muslims crossed the Pyrenees and s ettled in the Garonne valley of southern France. 'Umar was Caliph for only three years (717-720), but he was the only Umayyad cal iph singled out by Abbasid historians for his Islamic virtue. He deposed Yazid i bn al-Muhallab and appointed various people, both Yemenis and Qaysis, to govern the eastern provinces. He attempted to reduce taxes and resolve the complaints o f the malawi converts, who were taxed as if they were not Muslims. Only unbeliev ers were required the pay the jizya (poll tax). The malawi land was not sold to Muslims but was turned over to local villages, which paid the kharaj (land tax). 'Umar II tried to improve religious tolerance by restoring churches to Christia ns, synagogues to Jews, and the oasis of Fardak to the followers of 'Ali, and he abolished the despicable practice that Mu'awiya had started of cursing 'Ali aft er the Juma (community) prayers. Yet 'Umar may also have discriminated against C hristians and Jews by enacting laws such as the one prohibiting them from riding a horse. (There is confusion as to whether these were instituted by 'Umar I or 'Umar II.) The ascetic 'Umar stopped the foreign wars and conquests. To his son,

who asked for stern measures to root out evil, he replied, "That means the swor d, and there are no good reforms that can be accomplished by the sword."8 Unfortunately most of 'Umar's reforms seem to have been reversed by his successo r Yazid II (r. 720-724), who indulged himself while his Qaysi advisors governed. Yazid ibn al-Muhallab escaped from prison and raised a rebellion against Syrian rule. His jihad (holy war) was organized at Basra; they took the garrison town of Wasit and marched on Kufa. The Basra judge al-Hasan al-Basri (d. 728) spoke a gainst violent revolution even against rulers he disapproved, disagreeing with m any Qadarites, whose doctrine of human free will he shared. Al-Hasan noted the v erse in the Qur'an stating that God only sends astray evil-doers. Troops led by the skilled general Maslama ibn 'Abd al-Malik defeated the rebels and killed Yaz id in August 720. Maslama later was removed from his governorship for not sendin g surplus revenues to Damascus. His replacement 'Umar ibn Hubayra was a Qaysi an d pursued the Muhallabis and Yemeni leaders. Yazid II increased taxes and tried to reform the administration of Egypt. The Muslims' first major defeat in Europe came at Toulouse in 721. Hisham (r. 724-743) was born at Damascus in 691, and he appointed the loyal Khal id ibn 'Abd Allah al-Qasri to govern the east that included Iraq, Iran, and Khur asan. Khalid promoted agricultural development and was said to have made 20 mill ion dirhams from his lands. Maslama had similar holdings, and he was ordered to mobilize the Qaysis of Jazira to defend against an invasion by the Khazar Turks from southern Russia in 732. He was relieved by another Umayyad, Marwan ibn Muha mmad ibn Marwan, who drove the Khazars back to their capital on the Volga in 738 . Khalid sent his brother Asad with 20,000 men from Iraq in 732 against Turgesh nomads in Khurasan; but the Turgesh were not defeated until 737 when Asad organi zed a combined force of Arabs and Iranians. In France a Frank army led by Charle s Martel defeated the invading Muslims, killing Spain's governor Abdul Rahman in 732. The Arabs continued to attack French cities, seizing Avignon two years lat er and looting Lyons in 743; but the tide had turned, and the Franks gradually p ushed most of the Muslims back across the Pyrenees into Spain by 759. Berbers re belled in 740 and drove Arabs out of North Africa to Spain. After Hisham the succession was to go to Yazid II's son al-Walid, who was anothe r drinker indulging in women and the arts. When Hisham tried to get his son nomi nated, in 738 Khalid was replaced by Hajjaj protg Yusuf ibn 'Umar in Iraq and by t he Qaysi general Nar ibn Sayyar in Khurasan. Hisham was unpopular for raising ta xes and being stingy with government funds. A major revolt broke out in Kufa in 740 led by Husain's grandson Zayd ibn 'Ali, who demanded major reforms; but he w as defeated and killed when the Kufans abandoned him. Al-Walid became Caliph in 743 and was so partisan toward the Qaysi and negligent of religion that he was murdered by a Syrian uprising the following year. Yazid III promised reforms but died after five months. His brother Ibrahim was replac ed after two months when the governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan, Marwan ibn Muha mmad, was proclaimed Caliph at the Damascus mosque in December 744. He had seize d the capital by driving the Yemeni leaders out of Syria, but he established his court in the north at Harran in Jazira. Rebellions by Yemeni Kalbis were quelle d by 746. Military means were also used to put down an uprising by Kharijis in J azira, and the 'Alid movement in Kufa was crushed by general ibn Dubara in 748. The wars resulted in plague and famine in Syria. The revolt that would finally overthrow the Umayyad dynasty began in the east. B y 748 Abu Muslim had driven out Umayyad governor Nasr ibn Sayyar from the Khuras an capital at Marv and began sending armies west under the black flag of the 'Ab basids. Marwan's Qaysi army was now defeated in the Iranian plateau. Kufa was ta ken by the rebels, and in October 749 the 'Abbasids proclaimed Abu'l-'Abbas al-S affah Caliph, while Umayyad governor ibn Hubayra held out at Wasit. Ibn Huobayra was promised safe conduct; but when he surrendered, he was executed. The 'Abbas

sids defeated the last Umayyad Caliph Marwan four months later in a battle by th e river Zab near the Tigris. Marwan retreated to Syria; but finding little suppo rt there, he fled to Egypt, where he was killed when his remaining forces were d efeated in August 750. Notes 1. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah tr. A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, p. 183. 2. Ibid., p. 261. 3. Ibid., p. 369. 4. Ibid., p. 458. 5. Ibid., p. 629. 6. Quoted in Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople, V ol. 1 tr. Bernard Lewis, p. 151. 7. The Qur'an tr. N. J. Dawood, p. 121-122. 8. Payne, Robert, The History of Islam, p. 140. 2000-2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents Muhammad and the Spread of Islam Islamic Culture 750-1095 Byzantine Empire 610-1095 Franks and Anglo-Saxons 613-899 Vikings and Feudal Europe 900-1095 Crusaders, Greeks, and Muslims Islamic Culture 1095-1300 Europe's 12th-Century Development Beck home

Beck home 'Abbasid Caliphate 750-945 Umayyad Spain, Fatimid Africa Samanids, Ghaznavids, Buyids, Seljuks Nizam al-Mulk's Rules for Kings Ferdowsi's Shah-nameh Rabi'a, Muhasibi, Al-Hallaj, other Sufis Al-Razi, Al-Farabi, Miskawayh Avicenna, ibn Hazm, ibn Gabirol 1001 Nights, 'Umar Khayyam's Ruba'iyat Islamic Culture 750-1095 'Abbasid Caliphate 750-945 The 'Abbasids began by taking power from the Syrian Arabs as 'Abd Allah ibn 'Ali hunted down the Umayyad leaders. In 750 eighty nobles of the Umayyad house were invited to a banquet in Syria. All were murdered except Rahman ibn Mu'awiya, wh o escaped and made his way to Spain, where he became an independent Umayyad gove rnor in 756 with his capital at Cordoba. In the rest of the Islamic empire under the 'Abbasids many Persians gained prominent positions. The religious Shi'i, le d in Iraq by Abu-Salamah, reluctantly accepted the 'Abbasi chief as Caliph. The 'Abbasids justified their claim to the caliphate as the descendants of the proph et Muhammad's uncle al-'Abbas. The first 'Abbasid caliph's name al-Saffah means "the bloodshedder;" he did not trust Kufa and built his palace at al-Anbar north of the Euphrates, but he died in 754. His brother Abu Ja'far succeeded him, tak ing the name al-Mansur, which means "the victorious." He agreed to make his neph ew 'Isa ibn Musa his heir but later in 764 terrified him into retiring on a pens ion. Al-Mansur persuaded Abu Muslim to lead his army against the rebelling force s of 'Abd Allah, who was defeated at Nisibin in 754 and fled to Basra. Then the Caliph invited Abu Muslim to his court and had him killed by his guards; his fol

lowers in Khurasan also had to be quelled. After two Chinese prisoners revealed the secret of making paper, the first Musli m paper mill was founded at Samarkand in 751. Ibn al-Muqaffa' wrote in Basra whi le Sulayman governed there (751-757); but he was executed soon after Sulayman wa s removed. In his Risalah fi'l-sahabah (Epistle on the Companionage), ibn al-Muq affa' advised separating fiscal and military duties, because collecting the land tax (kharaj) was a corrupting occupation. He recommended religious and ethical education for officers and regular salaries. Ibn al-Muqaffa' advised the Caliph to compile the laws so that judges would not be guided merely by their own opini ons. The common people should also be educated by professional teachers. Al-Mansur (r. 754-775) sent out armies against the Byzantines that recaptured fo rts in Armenia and Cilicia and penetrated into Tabaristan. Further east Muslim t roops captured Qandahar in Afghanistan and went through the Khyber Pass into Ind ia, raiding Kashmir. According to a Chinese history of 758, Arabs and Persians s acked and burned Canton, causing this port to be closed to foreign shipping unti l 792. 'Alid revolts in Arabia and Basra were violently put down by 763. Al-Mans ur also had other religious extremists killed, including the Rawandiyah, who wor shipped him as Caliph, and he persecuted the Manichaeans. Al-Mansur kept on the capable Khalid ibn Barmak, who had been the chief advisor of his predecessor. Kh alid's father was said to have been a Buddhist priest at Balkh, and he was well educated. In 762 the Caliph began building a new capital at Baghdad near the sit es of the illustrious ancient cities of Akkad, Babylon, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon, using 100,000 laborers. To gain funds he appropriated 2,700,000 dirhams from hi s own brother Abbas that he had gained as governor of Mesopotamia, and he took n ine-tenths of the assets from the wealthy descendants of Abu Bakr at Basra. Al-M ansur centralized power by appointing judges himself and established a network o f spies; but he was fairly parsimonious and left a rich treasury to his son, who took the presumptuous name of al-Mahdi, "the guided one." When the Jewish Exilarch Solomon died in 761, the Geonim leaders, Judah the Blin d at Sora and Dudai at Pumbeditha, prevented Anan ben David from succeeding by c hoosing his younger brother Chananya. Anan rejected the Judaism of the Talmud an d wanted to return to a strict adherence to the Bible, which had recently been m ade more available to non-scholars by adding a system of vowel points. The follo wers of Anan called themselves Karaites and their adversaries Rabbanites, meanin g "partisans of authority." Anan was put in prison, but he was released by the C aliph when he claimed that he was not a rebel against Judaism but the founder of a new religion. After the time of Anan the Exilarchate was no longer hereditary ; but the presidents of the academies directed the election of the Exilarch. Al-Mahdi (r. 775-785) made Khalid's son Yahya al-Barmaki his vizier (prime minis ter), and he also appointed him to tutor his son Harun. This Caliph patronized t he arts and sciences and built Baghdad into a thriving commercial center. Ibadi Khariji leader 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Rustam founded an independent state in the cen tral Maghrib (Algeria) by 778; but al-Mahdi suppressed the Messianic movement le d by al-Muqanna (the Veiled One) in the east in 778 and had the Persian prophet Salik ibn Abdul Quddus crucified as a Zindiq (extremist) in 783. Yet he tried to mollify the 'Alids with gifts and positions at court. In 782 al-Mahdi left his son Musa as regent in Baghdad while he led his army against Constantinople. His younger son Harun gained the name al-Rashid (the upright) for advancing to Chrys opolis and forcing Empress Irene to pay an annual tribute of 90,000 dinars. Al-Mahdi died while hunting and was succeeded by his oldest son Musa in 785. Mus a imprisoned vizier Yahya ibn Khalid al-Barmaki for recommending Harun as the ne xt caliph, and he turned to military leaders to put down an 'Alid rebellion at M edina led by al-Husayn ibn 'Ali; but when he plotted against his own younger bro ther Harun, their mother apparently had Musa suffocated in 786. Harun was procla imed caliph, and he had Musa's son Ja'far arrested and Yahya al-Barmaki released

from prison. Hasan's grandson Idris ibn 'Abd Allah escaped from the Medina batt le, and in 788 he and his son Idris II founded the Idrisid dynasty in Morocco. E ast of there in 793 the people of Tunis rebelled and marched on the Ifriqiya cap ital at Qairawan, ending the government by the Hatim family. Harun sent his gene ral Harthama, who restored order but resigned as governor in 797, being replaced by Harun's foster brother Muhammad ibn Muqatil. People rebelled against his rul e, and in 800 Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab established his Aghlabid dynasty at Qairawan . Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809) ruled at the height of 'Abbasid wealth and power in Baghdad, and his court became the setting of the popular Thousand and One Night s. Government was even more centralized under the powerful viziers Yahya al-Barm aki and his son Fadl. Many governors were replaced, and Egypt was investigated t o make sure that revenues were sent to Baghdad. Ja'far al-Barmaki sent 'Umar ibn Mahran to replace the governor of Egypt, and he only accepted gifts in bags. Th en later those saying they could not pay taxes were given their bags back so tha t they could. Yahya was appointed governor of Khurasan, where he recruited 50,00 0 new men, and 20,000 of these were sent to North Africa. Strife between two tri bal groups broke out at Damascus in 792 and lasted two years. In 794 a Khariji r ebellion led by Walid ibn Tarif in Jazira prevented the collection of taxes in t hat region until the Bedouin chief Yazid ibn Mazyad al-Shaybani was able to defe at the rebellion and kill Walid. The Barmaki family was dominant for sixteen yea rs; but after al-Fadl gave Yahya ibn 'Abd Allah safe conduct from his mountain r efuge, the Caliph had the 'Alid executed. After that, Harun turned more to his m ilitary commanders such as Yazid ibn Mazyad. Harun conferred generous gifts on the celebrated musician Ibrahim al-Mawsili and the poet Abu-Nuwas. The Caliph sponsored the construction of numerous academies and universities, beginning the work of translating the great books from Greek and Sanskrit. In 791 Harun ordered all provincial governors to encourage learnin g by giving prizes in state examinations. An outstanding book on Arabic grammar was written by al-Kisa'i, and jurisprudence was advanced by discussions with his chief judge Abu-Yusuf, the most distinguished jurist after the liberal Abu-Hani fah (700-767) of Iraq. Harun asked Abu-Yusuf to write a book defining religious tax collection so that human rights could be preserved. At Medina the influentia l jurist Malik ibn Anas (d. 795) formulated a comprehensive collection of legal precedents based on the traditions of the prophet and his Medina community. Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i (d. 820) studied with Malik at Medina. While an of ficial in Yemen al-Shafi'i joined a moderate Shi'i rebellion and was imprisoned during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid. After learning from Baghdad jurists, al -Shafi'i went to Egypt to teach. In his major work, Kitab al-Umm, he tried to sh ow that the entire Muslim law (Shari'ah) could be derived from the Qur'an in ord er to eliminate the arbitrary use of personal judgment (ra'y) by using reason (' aql) and analogies (qiyas) from the accepted traditions. For the ultimate author itative principle he suggested the consensus (ijma') of the Muslim community (um mah). Whatever all the accepted Muslim scholars ('ulama) recognized became bindi ng law. Al-Shafi'i also sought to establish the credibility of the traditions (h adith) by authenticating its transmitters (isnad). As an alternative to Malik th e legal ethics of al-Shafi'i became an established system of jurisprudence (fiqh ). The four sources of this jurisprudence are the Qur'an, the traditions, consen sus, and analogy. Although the Qur'an forbade drinking wine, the Hanifi legal view allowed alcohol ic drinks made from dates, honey, or figs. Apparently Harun began to drink more in the later years of his reign. The Caliphate government took ten percent of im ported merchandise as customs dues, but most of the revenue came from the imperi al land tax and the poll tax on non-Muslims. During Harun's reign the annual gov ernment income has been estimated at 42,000,000 gold dinars, and the historian T abari stated that when Harun died, the treasury contained 900 trillion silver di

rhams, although 100,000,000 dinars is a more reasonable estimate. Harun married his cousin Zubayda, who like his mother (her aunt), had extensive estates to man age all over the empire. Zubayda used her own resources to build canals, mosques , hostelries, and monasteries; she had the pilgrims' 900-mile road from Kufa to Mecca improved. As affluence spread in Baghdad, more people wanted to borrow mon ey, which was loaned by Jews not bound by the Qur'an's injunction against usury. Harun's two regular projects were attacking the Byzantines in the north and lead ing the pilgrimage south to Mecca. In 797 the Abbasids' first prisoner exchange with the Byzantines freed 3700 captives. Although Muslims could not be made slav es, many were imported from outside the empire or were captured in war. Slaves a ctually lived rather well among Muslims who followed the ethic of making them pa rt of their families. This provided security, and religious merit was gained by freeing them. Males were often adopted as sons, and females who bore a child bec ame respected mothers in the household run by the women. Yet male slaves could b e beaten for being disobedient or idle. Besides his prominent wife Zubayda, Harun's closest companion was al-Fadl's brot her Ja'far, who was educated by the famous judge Abu-Yusuf and married Harun's f avorite sister Abbasa. So jealous was the Caliph over Ja'far's companionship tha t he forbade him from being alone with his own wife, and he was very upset when he learned that Abbasa had borne Ja'far two children. The Barmakis had their own palaces, and Ja'far's cost twenty million dirhams to build and an equal amount to furnish. In 798 when 'Abd Allah al-Ma'mun was 12, Harun made Ja'far his tutor , and together they began governing Khurasan. Yahya's elder son al-Fadl became t he mentor of al-Amin. In 802 Harun divided his empire in half between his two 16 -year-old sons, giving al-Amin Iraq and the West, while al-Ma'mun maintained Khu rasan and Persia. In Mecca that year Harun gave away a million gold dinars in ch arity. Harun had Musa al-Barmaki and Ja'far arrested. In 803 Harun had his best friend Ja'far suddenly killed, probably because he sus pected that the powerful Barmaki family was fomenting a Shi'i rebellion in Khura san. Yahya, his three other sons, and their relatives were put in prison, and th e inventory of their estates came to 36,676,000 dinars. Believing his former viz ier was still holding out, Harun had al-Fadl given 200 lashes, which nearly kill ed him. Behind these arbitrary actions may have been a dispute over the successi on. Harun favored his oldest son Muhammad, who later became al-Amin; but the Bar makis and Khurasani soldiers wanted his other son 'Abd Allah (al-Ma'mun) at leas t to rule over Khurasan as an independent province. Harun sent an enemy of the B armakis, 'Ali ibn 'Isa ibn Mahan, to govern Khurasan. In 805 a rebellion broke out in Samarkand led by Rafi ibn Layth, grandson of the ir last Umayyad governor Nasr ibn Sayyar. Harun's governor 'Ali ibn Mahan had ex ploited the resources there and had to be replaced by General Harthama ibn A'yan . Mahan's son Isa had stolen 30,000,000 dirhams before he was killed fighting Ra fi, and Mahan was found with another 80,000,000 dirhams himself. In 806 Harun wi th about 135,000 men led the largest military expedition against the Byzantine e mpire during the Abbasid era; the raids captured Heraclea and Tyana, while the M uslim navy plundered Cyprus in 805 and Rhodes in 807. Byzantine Emperor Nicephor us agreed to pay an additional 300,000 dinars tribute in exchange for a truce. W ith revolts in Syria and North Africa as well as in Khurasan, Harun became incre asingly paranoid and even suspected his two sons of plotting against him. Harun marched east from Baghdad with his army in 808. He sent 10,000 men to suppress a revolt by Khurramiya heretics in Azerbaijan; all prisoners were killed, and the ir property was sold at auction. Harthama was besieging Rafi at Samarkand; when Rafi's brother was captured and sent to Harun, the Caliph had him executed. Haru n was the only reigning 'Abbasid caliph to visit Khurasan, and he died there of illness in 809. Harun's son by his wife Zubayda became Caliph with the name al-Amin, while Harun

's son by a Persian slave named al-Ma'mun continued to govern Khurasan. Al-Ma'mu n proclaimed himself imam, the spiritual leader, and in 811 al-Amin appointed 'A li ibn 'Isa governor of Khurasan and sent him east with an army of 40,000; but t hey were defeated at Ray by a much smaller force led by al-Ma'mun's general Tahi r. Then the next year Tahir's forces were augmented by a large army commanded by Harthama ibn A'yan, who defeated Shi'i rebellions in southern Iraq. Rebellions against al-Amin also occurred in Egypt and Arabia. Tahir's army besieged Baghdad for more than a year, and al-Amin was killed. Al-Ma'mun (r. 813-833) tried to r ule from Marv in Khurasan for several years. Al-Fadl ibn Sahl's brother al-Hasan governed in Baghdad but was disliked. When al-Fadl persuaded the Caliph to impr ison Harthama, al-Hasan was temporarily driven out of Baghdad. After these rebel lions al-Ma'mun proclaimed 'Ali ibn Musa, an 'Alid descendant of Husain as his h eir in 817. That year the Caliph had his vizier al-Fadl ibn Sahl put to death, a nd his court arrived at Baghdad in 819. Syria, Palestine, and Egypt still remained outside his control. Al Ma'mun appoin ted Tahir governor of the West, then police chief at Baghdad in 820, and governo r of Khurasan in 821; though Tahir died the next year, he was succeeded by his s on Talha. The Caliph sent his brother 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir to force a reconcilia tion on northern Syria in 824, and 'Abd Allah also brought Egypt back into the C aliph's empire before returning to the capital in 827. When his brother died the next year 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir was appointed governor of Khurasan. Ifriqiya was not regained and was controlled by the Aghlabid family, though the Muslim navy dominated the Mediterranean Sea. Muslims from Spain conquered Crete in 825 and r uled it until 961, while the Aghlabids occupied all of Sicily by 831. At Baghdad al-Ma'mun established a hall of wisdom to promote science and philoso phy, sponsoring translations from Greek, Syriac, Persian, and Sanskrit. He provi ded endowments for several colleges and encouraged free discussion on theologica l and other issues. Children of both sexes were taught the Qur'an in mosque elem entary schools, but few girls had education beyond that. Aristocrats usually wer e educated by private tutors. Al Ma'mun appointed Jews, Christians, Zarathustria ns, and Sabaeans to his council in equality with Muslims. His edict of 827, decl aring the Qur'an a creation rather than the eternal word of God, challenged the fundamentalists, allowed for future change, and acknowledged free will; thus he favored the Mu'tazili. However, in his last year he may have gone too far in ord ering an inquisition to hunt down recalcitrant traditionalists. Professionals ha d to acknowledge that the Qur'an is a creation or lose their jobs. The jurist Ah mad ibn Hanbal was persecuted, and he became imam for a dissident legal school. In the north the schismatic Babak had revived the ideas of al-Muqanna and allied with the Byzantine army of Theophilus, beginning a major revolt in 816. Al Ma'm un died on a campaign against them after capturing Tarsus in 833. Al-Mu'tasim's mother had been a Turkish slave and as Caliph he fortified his rul e (833-842) by acquiring an army of Turkish slaves. Khurasan governor 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir sent him 2,000 each year as tribute. Azerbaijan governor Hatim ibn Ha rthama ibn A'yan had revolted when he learned that his father had been imprisone d and killed by al-Ma'mun; joining with Babak, they controlled most of Aberbaija n and some of Jibal by 833. Al-Mu'tasim sent Ushrusana king al-Afshin, and Babak was finally defeated in 837. Al-Afshin probably encouraged Tabaristan governor Mazyar to revolt against the Tahirids in 839 by refusing to pay the land tax, an d many peasants overthrew their village chiefs to plunder their goods. Seeing th e danger of this revolution, the Caliph helped 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir to defeat th em. Al-Mu'tasim accused al-Afshin of conspiring with this revolution, and he was tried and executed in 841. Al-Mu'tasim had built a new capital at Samarra in 83 6. Salaries that had traditionally gone to Arab Muslim families now went to Turk ish soldiers. Government was even more centralized, as even fairly independent K hurasan sent funds to Iraq. The rich merchant Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat became vizi er in 836 and held that important position also through the reign of al-Mu'tasim 's son al-Wathiq (842-847).

Al-Wathiq also tried to force his liberal views on the clergy and even had the f undamentalist Ahmad ibn Nasr Khuzai beheaded; but his successor al-Mutawakkil (r . 847-861) reasserted the orthodoxy of the Sunni majority, persecuting dissent a nd non-Muslims. The Turkish Itakh became governor of the west in 844, but the Ca liph and the Tahirids had him assassinated in 849. When Khurasan governor 'Abd A llah ibn Tahir died in 845, he was succeeded by his son Tahir, continuing that f amily's control of the east during al-Mutawakkil's reign. Three caliphal armies were sent to defeat a rebellion in Azerbaijan, and it was defeated in 849. In hi s Book of Proof al-Jahiz (d. 869) wrote that Arabs could be preserved from decli ne if they did not fall prey to the fools' sense of honor, which is to regard fo rgiving another as wrong. When the Caliph confiscated the estates of Turkish lea der Wasif to give them to al-Fath, Wasif and other Turks murdered al-Mutawakkil and al-Fath in 861. In the next nine years four different caliphs attempted to rule from Samarra, an d three of them were murdered. Utamish became the first Turkish vizier; but he w as assassinated in 863 by troops doing the bidding of his rivals Wasif and Bugha the Younger. Caspian provinces rebelled and gained their independence in 864. A vigilante leader named Ya'qub ibn Layth in 861 had seized the provincial capita l of Zaranj, and by 865 the coppersmith (saffar) had defeated kharijis and contr olled Sistan, founding the Saffarid dynasty. Two years later he invaded Taharid Khurasan; the Saffarids took Kirman and Fars, and in 870 Ya'qub's forces invaded Ghazna, Kabul, and Bamyan. Al-Muntasir (r. 861) had lasted only six months as c aliph; but the Turks chose his brother al-Mu'tazz to challenge Caliph al-Musta'i n, who had been selected by Wasif, Bugha, and the Tahirids in 865. They besieged Baghdad, forcing al-Musta'in into exile at Wasit, where he soon died. In 867 Wa sif was murdered by rivals, and the next year Bugha the Younger died in prison, while Bugha's elder son was exiled to Hamadhan. As Tahirid power declined, al-Mu 'tazz was murdered in 869. His successor al-Muqtadi, son of al-Wathiq, was soon deposed by Turkish officers led by Musa ibn Bugha, who appointed as caliph al-Mu tamid, the eldest surviving son of al-Mutawakkil. Although al-Mutamid was Caliph 870-892, the real power was gained by his brother al-Muwaffaq. A revolution of mostly African slaves called Zanj (who had worked sugar cane in wretched conditions) began in 868 led by 'Ali ibn Muhammad, who cl aimed to be a descendant of the 'Alid family. In 871 the ex-slaves aided by the Banu Tamim and the Banu Asad destroyed the large city of Basra, slaughtering a r eported quarter million inhabitants in one day. 'Ali founded a new capital calle d Mukhtara east of Basra. In 873 Musa ibn Bugha fought the Zanj for a while but had to resign as governor of the east. That year Ya'qub's forces took Nishapur, ending a half century of Taharid rule. Al-Muwaffaq and a third party of rebels f ought Ya'qub's army in 875, and Ya'qub was defeated trying to take Baghdad the n ext year. In 879 Ya'qub died and was succeeded by his brother 'Amr. That year al -Muwaffaq and his son Abu'l-'Abbas led an army of 50,000 against the Zanj; but M ukhtara was not taken until 883 when 'Ali ibn Muhammad was killed in the fightin g. Ahmad ibn Tulun, son of a Turkish slave, governed Egypt from 868 and hired a lar ge army to take over Syria and attack the Byzantines. When Tulun died in 884, al -Muwaffaq sent his son Abu'l-'Abbas to challenge Tulun's son Khumarawayh ibn Ahm ad and forced the Tulunids to pay 300,000 dinars in annual tribute to the caliph ate. Al-Muwaffaq now held the real power until he died in 891. Then his son Abu' l-'Abbas took over, and as the next caliph he took the name al-Mu'tadid. Al-Mu't adid (r. 892-902) regained territories taken by the Tulunids, increasing Egypt's tribute to 450,000 dinars per year. Al-Mu'tadid also used his armies to bring J azira back under Abbasid control by occupying Mosul in 893; but Armenia and Azer baijan remained independent. In 898 the Caliph appointed the Saffarid 'Amr ibn L ayth to replace the Samanid Isma'il ibn Ahmad in Transoxiana; but Layth was defe ated and captured, and Isma'il was acknowledged as the ruler of Khurasan.

Al-Mu'tadid died and was succeeded by his son al-Muktafi (r. 902-908), who made peace in the east with Samanids in Ray and the Saffarids in Fars. As soon as he arrived in Baghdad, the new Caliph ordered the prisoners released and the underg round dungeons demolished. The Qarmatian sect was founded by Hamdan Qarmat with an eclectic philosophy and secret initiations, and they appointed their own cali ph. Their "Lords of Purity" sent Abu Said ibn Bahram al-Tannabi to conquer Bahra yn and Zikrawayh al-Dindani with Bedouin forces that devastated Syria and even b esieged Damascus. In 903 an Abbasid army led by Muhammad ibn Sulayman was sent a gainst the Qarmatians in Syria and defeated them, although the Qarmatians contin ued to raid cities in Syria and Iraq. The Tulunid dynasty was ended in 905, and Egypt was finally subdued the following year. Increased tribute from these regio ns enabled al-Muktafi to leave a treasury of 15,000,000 dinars when he died in 9 08. Officials chose al-Muktafi's 13-year-old son Al-Muktadir as the next caliph. He was challenged by Amir al-Husayn ibn Hamdan's appointment of ibn al-Mu'tazz; but his supporters abandoned him, and he was executed after one day. Al-Muktadir's vizier al-'Abbas was also killed in the fighting, and 'Ali ibn al-Furat became t he powerful vizier of the young Caliph. His general Mu'nis not only saved his th rone but led the campaigns that regained Fars from the Saffarids in 910 and defe nded Egypt against a Fatimid invasion, though little revenue was now coming in f rom these provinces. The Caliph took to confiscating estates of deposed viziers, taking 2,300,000 dinars from ibn al-Furat. Respect for law declined, and religi ous wars between the Sunnis and Shi'ites increased. Ibn-Jarir al-Tabari wrote an extensive commentary on the Qur'an, and his comprehensive history left extraord inary details of Arab and Muslim history up to the year 913. Sajids led by Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj had taken Ray, but after several attempts the army of Mu'nis finally defeated them in Azerbaijan in 918, though the new govern or Sabuk did not send funds to Baghdad either. When Sabuk died in 922, the captu red Yusuf was released and returned to govern Azerbaijan, Ray, and other Iranian provinces. Al-Muktadir was deposed twice temporarily, and it became increasingl y difficult to raise revenues from the provinces. The Madhara'i brothers agreed to collect taxes and pay one million dinars per year to the treasury while payin g the Syrian and Egyptian armies themselves; but after 918 the threat of a Fatim id invasion diverted income from Egypt, and by the end of al-Muktadir's reign in 932 no revenue had come in from Egypt or Syria in four years. In 923 the Qarmatians began to invade Iraq from Bahrayn, and led by Abu Tahir al -Jamnabi only 1700 men were needed to sack the recovering city of Basra. In 926 vizier al-Khasibi could only offer revenues from western Iran to Azerbaijan rule r Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj to add to his Armenia and Azerbaijan if he would fight the rebels threatening the Sawad fields. General Mu'nis got help from Hamdanids in defending Baghdad in 927, but that year his Caliph began plotting against him. A lready controlling Arabia, the Qarmatians attacked Mecca in 930, smashed the bla ck stone of the Ka'ba and took the fragments to their capital at al-Ahsa. At the same time their allied Fatimids were occupying Alexandria and the Fayyum in Egy pt, and Hanbalites were rioting in Baghdad. Abbasid rule over central Iran ended in 931. After three years of struggles in the capital, Mu'nis defeated and kill ed Caliph Al-Muktadir in 932. He was succeeded by his brother al-Qahir, who had ruled briefly after an earlier deposition. His violent methods and negotiation w ith the defeated Muhammad ibn Yaqut stimulated Mu'nis to revolt; but the general 's throat was cut in 933. However, the next year the previous vizier ibn Muqla s eized al-Qahir while he was drunk and put out his eyes. In 934 Al-Muktadir's son al-Radi became caliph over a decaying and shrinking emp ire. Egypt and Syria were controlled by the ikhshid Muhammad ibn Tughj, while th e Hamdanids had Mosul and Jazira, and western Iran was in the hands of Daulamite soldiers. In 935 some fanatical Hanbalis raided people's houses in Baghdad, pou

ring out wine, breaking the instruments of singing girls, and stopping men from going with girls or boys. Badr al-Kharshani, the chief of police, prohibited the Hanbalis from congregating; but their zealous rioting continued, and Caliph alRadi had to denounce them. The Caliph appointed ibn Ra'iq commander of commander s in 936, but the next year he damaged the Nahrawan canal that watered the Sawad in order to block the invasion of Bajkam's army, affecting future productivity. The command passed from the Turk Bajkam (938-941) to the Hamdanid Nair al-Daula (942-943) and then to the Turk Tuzun (943-945). Al-Radi died in 940 and was suc ceeded as Caliph by his brother Al-Muttaqi; but he declined to flee to Egypt and was blinded and deposed by Tuzun. When Tuzun died in 945, the Buyids took power even though he had appointed a new caliph. Umayyad Spain and Fatimid Africa The last remaining Umayyad leader 'Abd al-Rahman had won over the Yemeni party a nd taken control of Muslim Spain in 756. An Abbasid expedition led by al-Ala ibn Mughith sent to Spain was defeated in 761, and the heads of its leaders were se nt to the Caliph. In 767 'Abd al-Rahman made a 20-year truce with the northern k ingdom of Asturias. An attempt by Charlemagne in 778 to take Zaragoza failed. 'A bd al-Rahman piously tolerated Christians and allowed Jews to return; but his so n Hisha I (r. 788-796) attacked and defeated Christians in Castile and Alava, th ough he was not victorious against Asturias in 791. His succeeding son al-Hakam I (r. 796-822) suppressed rising religious dissent with force, using Mameluke sl aves in his palace guard to intimidate people and to build up a permanent army. Zaragoza, Toledo, and Mrida had to be violently reconquered. Many fled Spain to M orocco or Alexandria, and refugees conquered Crete in 825. While 'Abd al-Rahman II (r. 822-852) devoted himself to learning and poetry, his wife and the Spanish renegade eunuch Nasar ruled Spain. Famines were relieved b y the distribution of wheat in 823 and again in 846. Toledo revolted in 829, and it took eight years to subdue them, and Scandinavian pirates were fought off in 844 at Gijon, La Coruna, and Seville. When the Christian priest Perfecto denoun ced the prophet Muhammad, he was executed; soon 44 others imitated his martyrdom until a Christian council condemned this behavior in 852. During the reign (852 -886) of Muhammad I rebellions broke out in Toledo and Mrida, and several Bani Qa zi lords became independent on the northern frontier. Southern cities also gaine d independence during the era of 'Abd Allah (r. 888-912). Young 'Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912-961) began ruling only over the state of Cordob a. He suppressed the rebellion in the south led by the apostate 'Umar ibn HafSun that had lasted more than thirty years. Revolts in Seville, Badajoz, and Toledo were quelled, and he defeated Christians in the north at Mentona in 918 and at Valdejunquera in 920. Pamphona, the capital of Navarre, was destroyed in 924; th is region as well as most of Spain was now forced to pay tribute. In 929 'Abd al -Rahman declared himself the caliph al-Nasir (the Conqueror). He was defeated by the combined armies of Navarre and Leon in 939; but when Leon's king Ramiro II died in 950, discord between Leon, Castile, and Navarre caused the Christian kin gs to submit. The Jew Chasdai assisted in the diplomacy and was minister of trad e and finance. 'Abd al-Rahman III spent a third of the revenues on government, d eposited a third in the treasury, and used a third for building. A fleet of 200 ships was built at Almeria. The treasury had 20,000,000 dinars, and 'Abd al-Rahm an used 10,000 workers for twenty years to build the extravagant palace of al-Za lra. Cordoba's thriving population passed 500,000, created many books with its p aper industry, and had 70 libraries and 3,000 mosques. His son and successor al-Hakam II (r. 961-976) established free schools, expande d the university at Cordoba his father had founded and increased its library to 400,000 volumes, making Spain Europe's greatest center of learning and attractin g thousands of students. Al-Hakam II attacked Castile in 963 and then negotiated truces with Christian kings, and he ended his father's war with the Fatimids in Tunisia by 973. Jews were tolerated and prospered in Spain, and their traders p

rovided the Slavonian slaves for the Caliph's bodyguard. Hisham II (r. 976-1009) was only twelve when he succeeded his father, and the government was dominated by his mother Subh and her lover Muhammad ibn Abi 'Amir. To please some religiou s leaders ibn Abi 'Amir had all the books related to philosophy in the library b urned. He won spoils in victories over Christians, was made prefect of Cordoba, and married general Galib's daughter. When he and Galib quarreled, ibn Abi' Amir seized his treasure and killed the general in battle. Calling himself al-Mansur (Victorious), he attacked Christians, sacking Zamora in 981, chasing them to Le on, burning Barcelona in 985, and razing Leon in 988. Al-Mansur died in 1002 aft er fighting in fifty campaigns, and in a chronicle a monk recorded that he was b uried in hell. The Spanish caliphate gradually broke up into independent states. Al-Mansur's po sition was taken by his son 'Abd al-Malik, who continued to fight the Christians until he died and was succeeded by his brother 'Abd al-Rahman. Turkish bodyguar ds came to dominate the Spanish caliphs too, and Hisham II was forced to abdicat e in 1009. In the south 'Ali ibn Hammad governed Andalusia (1016-1018), declared himself caliph at Cordoba, and was succeeded by relatives until 1027. That year the Umayyad caliph Hisham III came out of his harem, where he had been in retir ement for thirty years; but after four years he was defeated and imprisoned in a dungeon by nobles, who set up a council of state in 1031. Berbers from Africa established the kingdom of Granada, where Badis ruled 1038-1 073, repulsing attacks from the powerful kingdom of Seville, where the son of it s judge (qadi) proclaimed himself al-Mutadid in 1042. His son al-Mutamid was kin g of Seville 1069-1091, and he ended the republican council. Al-Mutamid formed a n alliance with Alphonso VI, king of Leon and Castile. When Alphonso did not aid him against the incursions of the Cid, al-Mutamid turned to Morocco's Murabit r uler Yusuf ibn Tashufin in 1086, and together they defeated the armies of Alphon so VI at Zalaca. Four years later Yusuf returned to Spain, took al-Mutamid priso ner, and annexed all of Muslim Spain except for Toledo and Zaragoza. Granada's k ing 'Abd Allah was also deposed by the Almoravid Yusuf in 1090. In North Africa the great grandson of Imam Husan, Idris ibn Abd 'Allah from Medi na, had founded in 788 the independent Idrisid dynasty in Morocco that would las t nearly two centuries to 974, when they were conquered by Cordoba's al-Hakam II . When Qairawan's Abbasid governor refused to submit in 800 Harun al-Rashid repl aced him with his general Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab, who controlled the region betwe en Morocco and Egypt, becoming independent and establishing the Aghlabid dynasty . During their century of rule they raided the coasts of France, Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, which they conquered in 902. During this century the Nort h Africans converted to Islam, and Catholic culture practically disappeared ther e. Descendants of the prophet's daughter Fatima and 'Ali gained Berber support and conquered the Aghlabids, taking Qairawan in 909 with 'Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi procl aiming himself caliph and the living imam the next year. The Kutama Berbers beca me the paid militia, and slaves from Africa and Europe were recruited for the ar my. Their attacks against Egypt in 914 and again 919-921 failed to capture more than Cyrenaica. The Fatimids built their capital at Mahdiyya in 920. Their Shi'i intolerance toward the orthodox Malikis provoked a revolution led by the Kharij ite Berber Abu Yazid, who took over most of Ifriqiya from 944 until they were de feated by 'Ubayd Allah's son Isma'il al-Mansur three years later. In 951 the Fat imids persuaded the Qarmatians to return the black stone to the Ka'ba. In Egypt the rich merchant Ahmad ibn Nasr spread Fatimid propaganda. After Egypt's govern or Kafur died in 968, the Fatimid general, the ex-slave Jawhar, led an army of 1 00,000 with Berber cavalry but used diplomacy to take over Egypt, which he gover ned for four years until the Fatimid caliph al-Mu'izz arrived. Jawhar built the new capital al-Qahira (Cairo), named after the planet Mars to propitiate its fea

red malevolent influence. In 974 the Qarmatians invaded Egypt; but they were def eated, and 1500 prisoners were executed at Cairo. Al-Mu'izz was succeeded by his son Nizar called al-'Aziz, who sent his large arm y to defeat Alptakin and the Qarmatians in southern Palestine in 978. His vizier ibn Killis arranged for Alptakin and his Turks to serve the Fatimids. Led by th e Turk general Baltakin, the Fatimid army eventually took Damascus, allowing its citizen governor Qassam to continue his administration under their Berber gover nor. As the Hamdanid state of Aleppo declined, Syrians began supporting the Fati mids, and the caliph al-'Aziz appointed Bakjur governor. An inadequate Nile floo d caused a famine and riots in Egypt, and the cruel Bakjur was removed in 989. A l-'Aziz was planning to invade the Byzantines when he died in 996. Al-Hakim became the next Fatimid caliph, and in 999 a ten-year truce was negotia ted by the Jerusalem patriarch with the Byzantine emperor. Al-Hakim was only 15 when he had his guardian and tutor Barjuwan murdered so that he could rule himse lf. This erratic caliph had many of his senior officials put to death, and Chris tians and Jews were persecuted. He banned alcohol along with watercress and fish without scales, playing chess, and killing dogs. At first Christian crosses wer e banned, and then Christians were required to wear large crosses. He founded th e school Dar al-'lim but later had many of the teachers he appointed murdered. H is random brutality culminated in the burning of Fustat. Despite his misrule a S unni invasion in 1006 was not supported by the local Sunnis and was defeated. Al -Hakim was ordered killed by his sister Sitt al-Mulk in 1021; but his body was n ever found, and the Druze sect believes he will come again at the end of the wor ld. While al-Zahir was caliph (r. 1021-1036), Sitt al-Mulk effectively ruled Egypt u ntil her death in 1024, and for eighteen years after 1027 the vizier Ahmad ibn ' Ali al-Jarjar'i governed a fairly peaceful empire even though his hands had been cut off by Al-Hakim. Berbers defeated the Turks in civil strife at Cairo in 102 9. The same year Al-Jarjar'i sent a force led by Anushtakin to defeat a Bedouin uprising at a battle near the Sea of Galilee. Anushtakin then governed Syria; he captured Aleppo in 1038 and died in 1041. Al-Zahir's son became the next Fatimi d caliph and sent missionaries to Iran and Transoxiana. The gold trade with Nubi a added greatly to the Fatimids' wealth, helping trade to flourish. The Fatimid empire reached its greatest expansion when the Turk general Arslan al-Basasiri d efected at Mosul in 1057 and even took Baghdad for a year; but the Seljuks drove him out of Baghdad in 1059. When the Nile flood was low, famines occurred in Egypt during the years 1023-102 5, 1054-1055 when the caliph appealed to the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monom achus for food, and 1065-1072. Turks led by Atsiz seized Jerusalem and most of P alestine in 1071 and five years later defeated the Fatimids' Berber garrison at Damascus. Civil war in Egypt broke out between the Turks and the Sudanese soldie rs, and in 1073 the Caliph appealed to Acre's governor Badr al-Jamali, who took power the next year by executing Turkish generals and Egyptian officials in Cair o. Badr died in 1094 and was succeeded as army commander by his son al-Afdal, wh o chose the next caliph, al-Musta'li. The Isma'lis supported the previous caliph 's elder son an-Nizar and were called Assassins (literally "hashish-users") by t heir adversaries for murdering their political enemies. Samanids, Ghaznavids, Buyids, and Seljuks In the East in 875 Caliph al-Mu'tamid recognized the Persian Samanid state in Tr ansoxiana rather than the Saffarids. The Samanid ruler Isma'il (r. 892-907) defe ated the Saffarids and took over Khurasan, Gurgan, Tabaristan, and Ray. He corre cted his own government's cheating by systematizing weights and measures. His so n Ahmad conquered most of Sistan by 911; but when Tabaristan and Gurgan revolted , Ahmad was assassinated by his slaves in 914. His eight-year-old son Nasr ibn A hmad relied on his prime minister Abu 'Abd-Allah al-Jaihani until 922, Abu'l-Fad

l al Bal'ami 922-938, and al-Jaihani again 938-941. Tabaristan was not reconquer ed until 940. Nasr's court sponsored Persian Muslim culture in both Arabic and P ersian. A library was assembled at the capital Bukhara, and even slaves through education could rise to positions of authority. Such Turkish officials and gener als imported more slaves and came to dominate the administration. The Samanids e xtended their power by vassal relationships. Nasr was succeeded by his son Nuh i bn Nasr in 943. Abu 'Ali was reappointed governor of Khurasan in 948, and he, in stigated by the Ziyarids of Tabaristan, attacked the Buyids; but his compromise with the Buyids in Ray caused him to be deposed. When Nuh died in 954, his son 'Abd al-Malik was dependent on the Turks, and AlpTegin was appointed governor of Khurasan. The death of 'Abd al-Malik in 961 spli t the Turks, and Alp-Tegin left Khurasan's capital Nishapur for Ghazna, where hi s independence enabled his son Sebuk-Tegin to found the Ghaznavid empire in 977. The Khurasan army dominated the Samanid empire and attacked the Buyids in 982, but it was defeated. Khurasan governor Tash was summoned to restore order in Buk hara. When his governorship was taken away, Tash called in the Buyids; but they were defeated in 987. Struggles in the capital led to Qarakhanid ruler Bughra Kh an invading and taking Bukhara in 992. Ghazna's Sebuk-Tegin was called in and de feated the rebels in Khurasan in 994; his son Mahmud was appointed governor of K hurasan. Mahmud gained power in Ghazna by defeating his brother and others, and in 999 he deposed and blinded the Samanid ruler Mansur II. The last Samanid rule r Muntasir appealed to Oghuz Turks; but after defeating the Muslim Turks, the Qa rakhanids, his army deserted him. The Qarakhanids came back to defeat Muntasir, who fled to Marv and was killed by their chief in 1005. Mahmud (r. 998-1030) expanded the militaristic Ghaznavid empire by conquering Si nd and the Punjab of India in the east, Khwarazm in the north, and Khurasan as f ar as Ray in the west. While he was in India in 1006, the Qarakhanids occupied B alkh, but he returned and defeated them in 1008. However, his campaign against ' Ali-Tegin in Transoxiana failed. Ray was sacked by Mahmud's forces in 1028, weak ening the Dailami Persians. Ghaznavids practiced an aristocratic militarism that dominated the civilian population while adhering to conservative Sunni orthodox y. The army was reported to have had as many as 54,000 cavalry and 1300 elephant s near Ghazna in 1038. Plunder from their conquests enabled them to pay their ar my with cash, while the Buyids and Seljuks resorted mostly to granting revenues from land. Mahmud wanted to be succeeded by his son Muhammad; but Muhammad was i mprisoned after a few months by Sebuk-Tegin's choice, the more capable Mas'ud. T he Seljuk Turks defeated the Ghaznavids at Dandanqan in 1040, and Mas'ud retreat ed to India, where he was killed by rebels in 1041. Muhammad came out of prison to rule again; but the Seljuks continued to fight the Ghaznavids, and their king dom was diminished to eastern Afghanistan and northern India. There Ibrahim (r. 1059-1099) was able to exploit the wealth of the Hindus to pay his mountain mili tary men. The mountain people south of the Caspian Sea called the Daulamites arose between the Samanids and the declining Abbasid caliphate to fight the Turkish general Y aqut from Baghdad who was exploiting the revenues with his private army. Three s ons of Buyeh joined Mardavij and then headed their own forces in 933 when the we althy landowner Zayd supported them in Fars; Yaqut's larger army was defeated by them the next year, enabling the Buyids to enter the Fars capital at Shiraz. Th e Caliph recognized the Buyid 'Imad al-Daula's claim to Fars, but he still gave Khuzistan to Yaqut. Mardavij was murdered in Isfahan in 935, and his officers Tu zun and Bajkam fled to Baghdad. Internal disputes there facilitated a Buyid atta ck on that capital in 945, and the last effective Abbasid caliph they replaced n amed the three Buyid brothers Mu'izz al-Daula, 'Imad al-Daula, and Rukn al-Daula . The next year the Hamdanids failed to expel the Buyids from Baghdad, and in 94 7 Mu'izz defeated the Baridis and governed in Iraq.

Rukn al-Daula had established control over central Iran, ruling from Ray and Isf ahan, while the oldest brother 'Imad ruled Fars from Shiraz. 'Imad died in 949 a nd was succeeded by 'Adud al-Daula. Rukn had to agree to pay the Samanid governo r of Khurasan tribute in 955, though this was decreased in 971. Rukn was served by the vizier Abu l-Fadl ibn al-'Amid for thirty years. When 20,000 men from Khu rasan wanted to pass through his realm to fight the Byzantines, al-'Amid advised they be permitted to go only in groups of 2,000. Rukn rejected this advice, and at Ray the Khurasanians demanded money and attacked the city, defeating Rukn al -Daula. Ibn al-'Amid died on an expedition to the Jabal aimed at pacifying the K urdish leader Hasanawayh in 974. At Baghdad conflict arose between the Daulamite infantry and the Turkish cavalry , because the infantry were paid only six dinars a month, while the cavalry rece ived forty. The Daulamites rebelled in 956; but Mu'izz favored the Turks, and th e Daulamites were dispersed to live on revenues from poor farmers and merchants in southern Iraq. The historian Miskawayh criticized Mu'izz al-Daula for allocat ing the Sawad land in grants, which caused irrigation to be neglected and revenu es to decline. He also wrote that Mu'izz's gifts to the army made the demand for greater emoluments grow uncontrollably into extortion. Mu'izz died in 967 and w as succeeded in Baghdad by his son 'Izz al-Daula Bakhtiyar, who tried to attack Mosul in 973 and was beaten so badly he had to retreat to Wasit, as Sabuktakin's Turks occupied Baghdad. Sabuktakin organized Baghdad's Sunnis into attacking th e Buyid Shi'i as heretics in a jihad. Bakhtiyar was helped by 'Adud, who took over Baghdad in 978 and ordered his cous in Bakhtiyar executed. 'Adud's army conquered northern Mesopotamia, and the Hamd anids left in Aleppo had to pay tribute. 'Adud was crowned shahanshah (king of k ings) in Baghdad and built an imperial palace, as he had sponsored much building , trade, and communications during his many years in Fars. 'Adud maintained good relations with the Caliph, favoring neither Sunni nor Shi'i, and he banned infl ammatory preaching. 'Adud tolerated the minority religions, and his vizier Nasr ibn Harun was a Christian. When Muslims plundered the homes of Mazdaeans in 979, 'Adud punished them severely. 'Adud al-Daula made his court at Shiraz a center for the cultural activities of theologians, grammarians, and poets. His library filled a palace of 360 rooms. He founded a hospital in West Baghdad that was sta ffed by 24 physicians. 'Adud used force to drive out marauding tribes and replac ed them with peaceful farmers. Bedouins, Qufs, and Balach were attacked in 970, and his army besieged the Banu Shayban, the Kurds north of Mosul, and the Asad b ands in 979. When 'Adud died in 983, he was succeeded by his brother Fakhr, whom he had sent into exile at Nishapur. Some wealthy exiles from Iraq in 987 persuaded 'Adud's s on Sharaf to attack Iraq so they could regain their estates. Baghdad had been im poverished by frequent fighting and had difficulty paying soldiers, while peacef ul Fars had larger revenues, and so the Daulamite troops mutinied and went over to Sharaf. The next year Sharaf died at Baghdad when he was only 28, and his son s were too young to rule; so the throne was passed to the last effective shahans hah, 'Adud's son Baha' al-Daula. Samsam al-Daula, partially blinded, had escaped and controlled Fars, Kirman, and Khuzistan. Samsam agreed to give Ahwaz to Baha ', but the Daulamites in Fars would not relinquish the province, and the Fars ar my took possession. The Turks of Baghdad then drove out the Daulamites with grea t slaughter. This caused the Daulamites to massacre the Turks in Fars. By 995 Fa rs had a Daulamite army, while Baha' in Baghdad was dependent on Turks. Yet when Fakhr tried to sever Baghdad from Shiraz by invading Khuzistan, Samsam and Baha' joined forces and made him withdraw. Fakhr still ruled Iran for the Bu yids and attacked the Ghaznavid Sebuk-Tegin in Khurasan but failed and died two years later in 997. Baha' was aided by the Kurd Badr ibn Hasanwaih when he invad ed Fars in 998; while Samsam was fleeing Shiraz, he was assassinated by a son of 'Izz al-Daula, who had escaped captivity. Baha' took Shiraz and subdued the opp

osition of 'Izz's sons; Baha' remained in that capital until his death in 1012. Powerful Bedouin tribes surrounded Buyid control in Baghdad, and in 1002 Daulami te leader Abu 'Ali ibn Ustadh-hurmuz entered Baghdad, punished its numerous band its, and abolished provocative religious activities. After 1007 Fakhr's Kurdish widow Sayyida entrusted the government of Isfahan to the Kurdish prince Ja'far ' Ala' al-Daula. Although the Buyids were Shi'i, the absent Baha' allowed the caliph al-Qadir (99 1-1031) to codify Sunni doctrine and rituals in a way that conflicted with Shi'i ideas. In 1003 the Caliph was able to block the appointment of an 'Alid as chie f judge. Caliph al-Qadir spoke for both Sunnis and the Shi'i Twelvers when he ch allenged Fatimid theology and genealogy in 1010. He condemned both Shi'ism and t he compromising Mu'tazilism in 1018, and in 1029 he denounced the doctrine that the Qur'an was created. Muslims now tended to be either Sunni or Shi'i. His cali phate coincided with Sunni champion Mahmud's conquest of Iran. Al-Qadir was succ eeded as caliph by his son al-Qa'im, who outlasted the Shi'i Buyids and welcomed the Sunni Seljuks before he died in 1075. The Kurds' Marwani family established a dynasty in southeastern Anatolia at Mayyafariqin, where Nasr al-Daula ruled f rom 1011 to 1061. After Baha' died in 1012, Buyid control deteriorated. In 1016 Fakhr al-Mulik was executed by his son and successor Sultan al-Daula. After sporadic warfare Sulta n died of drink at age 32 in 1021. While Abu Kalijar governed Fars, the Turks in Baghdad appointed his uncle Jalal al-Daula, who governed there 1025-1044. Jalal was so poor that in 1031 he had to dismiss his servants and free his horses bec ause he could not afford to maintain them, and Baghdad was terrorized by the ban dit al-Burjumi from 1030 to 1034 until the 'Uqaili Bedouin leader Qirwash finall y drowned him. When the Turkish general Barstoghan mutinied in 1036, Abu Kalijar marched on Baghdad but failed to occupy it. Instead the 'Uqailids and another A rab tribe reinstated Jalal. After Jalal died, Abu Kalijar tried to sustain Baghd ad with his resources from Shiraz; but when he died in 1048, the Buyids had to g ive way to the advancing Seljuks. Al-Malik al-Rahim claimed to rule from Baghdad , while Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun succeeded Abu Kalijar; but these two fought each other, and Abu Mansur turned to the Seljuk Tughril-Beg for help. In 1055 Tughril -Beg entered Baghdad and founded the Seljuk regime, and much of Fars was control led by the Kurd leader Fadluya ibn 'Ali. The Seljuks are named after a chief of the Ghuzz Turks who led his tribe down fr om the steppes of Turkistan. Seljuk's grandsons Tughril-Beg and Chaghri-Beg led the conquest of Khurasan in 1037, defeating the Ghaznavid Mas'ud in 1040. They c laimed power as Sunni Muslims, and they respected Sufi pirs. Ibn al-Muslima, act ing as the declining Abbasid caliph's vizier, invited Tughril-Beg into Baghdad i n 1055, and the next year Caliph al-Qa'im crowned Tughril-Beg king; but ibn al-M uslima's attempts to gain money for his intrigues resulted in his being killed b y Tughril-Beg's rival al-Basasiri in 1059. Al-Basasiri occupied Baghdad for fort y weeks, favoring the Fatimids; but Tughril-Beg brought the Abbasid caliph back to Baghdad, defeating and killing al-Basasiri near Kufa. Chaghri-Beg governed Khurasan and was succeeded by his son Alp-Arslan about 1060 . Tughril-Beg appointed his nephew Sulayman as his heir, and his vizier al-Kundu ri proclaimed Sulayman sultan in Ray; but they were defeated by Alp-Arslan's for ces, and al-Kunduri was put to death. The other Seljuk cousin Qutlumush of Rum w as defeated in 1063. Other contenders for power then governed provinces under th e sovereignty of Alp-Arslan (r. 1063-1072), who expanded the Seljuk empire by at tacking the Fatimids in Syria and the Byzantines in the north. In 1071 at Manzik ert the Seljuks gave the Byzantine army its worst defeat ever. Emperor Romanus I V Diogenes was captured and promised a ransom of a million gold pieces; but rais ing only 200,000, he died a captive. Alp-Arslan now ruled over 1200 princes and had an army of 200,000. Turks raided and settled the country as Armenians and Gr

eeks fled. Alp-Arslan was assassinated by a prisoner the next year and was succe eded by his son Malik-Shah (r. 1072-1092). His general Atsiz conquered Jerusalem in 1073 and Damascus in 1076; but two years later Malik-Shah's brother Tutush w as appointed governor of Syria and killed Atsiz. A Byzantine appeal to the Pope would lead to the crusades in 1095. Both Alp-Arslan and Malik-Shah were aided by the capable vizier Nizam al-Mulk, w ho was devoted to learning and sponsored more madrasahs (religious schools) and universities; he personally founded the Nizamiyyah at Baghdad in 1067. Property dedicated to such schools, mosques, hospitals or other public service called waq f could not be inherited nor seized by the government. Nizam placed his many son s and grandsons in powerful positions and collected as much as ten percent of th e revenue for his own use. He restored the barid, a central intelligence service , though the real power lay with the Turk military that crushed any rebellions. During this era a nefarious group of secret Assassins arose from the Isma'ili se ct led by the Fatimid propagandist Hasan ibn Sabah, operating from a fortress in the Elburz mountains. They were responsible for killing Nizam; when Malik-Shah attacked them in retribution, he was assassinated too about a month later. After these two were killed in 1092, the Seljuk empire broke up in a power struggle. Caliph al-Muqtadi named Berk-yaruq sultan in 1094 and died the next day. The Cal iph was succeeded by his son al-Mustazhir, but the rivalry between the Seljuks l eft him little control. Nizam al-Mulk's Rules for Kings As the paragraph above indicates, Nizam al-Mulk (1018-1092), whose name is a tit le meaning harmony of the kingdom, governed the Seljuk empire as vizier for thir ty years. His father had been a tax collector for the Ghaznavids. The renowned S ufi Shaikh, Abu Sa'id ibn Abi'l-Khair, was Nizam al-Mulk's teacher, and later th e vizier founded several hospices for the Sufis. Nizam al-Mulk became an advisor to Alp-Arslan when he was governor of Khurasan, and he may have been responsibl e for ordering the death of al-Kunduri after Alp-Arslan won the succession strug gle in 1063. Nizam al-Mulk's influence as vizier became especially important in 1072 when Malik-Shah came to the throne at the age of 18. In 1086 the king commanded Nizam al-Mulk to consider the condition of the countr y and make a digest of past and present principles and laws so that the duty of the king could be correctly discharged, and all the wrong practices could be dis continued. Within a few years Nizam al-Mulk had written the first 39 chapters of his Siyar al-Muluk (Rules for Kings), which is also known in Europe as the Siya sat-nama (The Book of Government). In 1090 Nizam al-Mulk quarreled with Sultan M alik-Shah and may even have been replaced by Taj al-Mulk, who was favored by Tar kan Khatun in her hopes to have her son Mahmud succeed to the throne instead of the elder son Berk-yaruq. Eleven additional chapters criticized current conditio ns more strongly and were probably never read by Malik-Shah, because the librari an recorded that he did not reveal the book until the troubles ended, probably i n 1105 when Muhammad became the undisputed sultan. In the prolog Nizam al-Mulk described the purpose of the book as requested by Su ltan Malik-Shah. Nizam al-Mulk began by suggesting that in every age God chooses one person endowed with virtues to rule as king. Disobedience or disregard of t he divine laws results in retribution for deeds, and in the resulting calamities innocent people may be killed until again one human being acquires power and em ploys subordinates according to merit. A good king has a pleasing appearance, is kind, has integrity, is manly, brave, and skilled in arms and arts, is merciful , keeps promises, has sound faith and worships God with devotion, prays, fasts, and respects religious authorities, honors the devout, patronizes the learned an d wise, gives to charity regularly, does good to the poor, is kind to subordinat es, and relieves the people of oppressors. Justice is the most important virtue, and Nizam al-Mulk recommended the king hol

d court on two days of the week to hear complaints personally and redress wrongs so that oppressors would curb their activities from fear of punishment. Tax col lectors should take only the amount due and with civility. Any peasant in need o f oxen or seed should be given a loan to keep him viable. Even viziers should be investigated secretly to make sure they are fulfilling their function properly. If impropriety is found in the conduct of any officials, they should be removed from office and chastised according to the crime. A story is told of the just k ing Nushirvan (Khusrau I), who complained that his doors were open to oppressors but not to the peasants. The palace doors should be more open to the givers (pe asants) than to the takers (soldiers). Judges should also be monitored, and those that are covetous and dishonest shoul d be replaced by the learned and pious. In addition to the tax collectors and ju dges, the conduct of the prefect of police and the censor should be investigated . The mystic Abu 'Ali Daqqaq asked the governor of Khurasan if he loved gold mor e than his enemy and then pointed out that he will leave gold behind him but wil l take his enemy into the next world. Then the story is told of how Sultan Mahmu d, afraid that he was not handsome, was advised by Ahmad ibn Hasan to take gold as his enemy so that men will regard him as their friend. Mahmud then became gen erous and charitable, and the whole world adored him. Nizam al-Mulk illustrated his points with numerous stories. In one an amir (comm ander) borrows 600 dinars from a man and promises to pay back 700 in one year; b ut the man is not able to get any money back for many months and finally goes to a poor tailor, who sends a servant to the amir. The tailor is successful and te lls how a previous amir took a woman by force, and so he made the call to prayer during the night so that she could return, and her husband would not divorce he r. Mu'tasim called in the tailor and asked why he made the call to prayer at the wrong time, and he told him of the amir's offense. The amir was severely punish ed, and the tailor was told to make the call to prayer at the wrong time wheneve r the sultan's attention was needed. Thus the new amir knew that he had better p ay back the money. Luqman the Wise noted that knowledge is better than wealth, because you have to take care of wealth, but knowledge takes care of you. Nizam al-Mulk believed tha t sound judgment is better for a king than having a powerful army. He quoted the Qur'an to show that God commanded even Muhammad to seek advice and counsel. Niz am recommended having different races among the troops so that they would compet e with each other to excel. He described Alp-Tegin's rise to power from a slave and page of the Samanids to a commander. He punished a page for taking hay and a chicken from a peasant without paying for it as he ordered. This made other sol diers afraid, and the peasants were safe. His justice led the citizens of Ghazna in to take Alp-Tegin as their king. Because the Samanids tried to destroy the wo rthy Alp-Tegin, they declined and were overcome by Alp-Tegin and his successor S ebuk-Tegin, who founded the Ghaznavid empire. Nizam al-Mulk believed it was the perfection of wisdom not to become angry at al l; but if one does become angry, intelligence should prevail over wrath. The wis e have said that patience is good, but it is even better during success. Knowled ge is good, but it is even better with skill. Wealth is good, but it is even bet ter with gratitude and enjoyment. Worship is good, but it is even better with un derstanding and reverence for God. Yet nothing is better than generosity, and ki ndness, and hospitality. In the second part (chapters 40-50) Nizam al-Mulk seems to write from the bitter ness of his retirement. He wrote that two appointments should not be given to on e man nor should one position be given to more than one person. He complained th at many worthy people remain unemployed when some persons are given several posi tions each. He lamented that it used to be that those hired followed the Hanafi or Shafi'i teachings and were from Khurasan or Transoxiana or a Sunni city, and

Shi'ites were refused; but now someone (probably Taj al-Mulk) wants to economize by reducing 400,000 men on the pay-roll to 70,000 in order to fill the treasury with gold. Nizam argued that a larger empire required more employees and that e ven more men would enable them to govern India too. Nizam told stories from history to show that a good era replaces a sick time whe n a just king does away with evil-doers, has right judgments, and a vizier and o fficers of virtue; every task has the proper worker; heretics are put down, and the orthodox are raised up; tyrants are repressed; soldiers as well as peasants fear the king; the uneducated and base are not given positions; the inexperience d are not promoted; advice is sought from the intelligent and mature; men are se lected for their skill, not because of their money; religion is not sold for wor ldly things; everything is ordered according to merit; thus all people have work according to their capability; all things are regulated by justice and governme nt by the grace of God. Those under the king should not be allowed to assume power. Nizam was particular ly critical of women, and his prejudice even went so far as to assume that one s hould always do the opposite of what a woman recommends. Nizam has Buzurjmihr co mplain that Khusrau gave power to his queen Shirin. He believed the Sasanians fe ll from power because they entrusted important affairs to petty and ignorant off icers and because they hated learning and learned people. Thus instead of having wise officers, Buzurjmihr said he had to deal with women and boys. Buzurjmihr B akhtgan advised the king to banish the bad qualities from himself, which he list ed as "hatred, envy, pride, anger, lust, greed, desire, spite, mendacity, avaric e, ill temper, cruelty, selfishness, hastiness, ingratitude, and frivolity."1 Th e good qualities he should exercise are "modesty, good temper, clemency, forgive ness, humility, generosity, truthfulness, patience, gratitude, mercy, knowledge, intelligence, and justice."2 Nizam al-Mulk expressed his sharpest venom against the heretics by recounting hi s version of history, showing how they have arisen and have been destroyed. He g oes back to the Mazdak revolution in the last century of the Sasanian empire. Th ey offended him not only by their sharing their property but because they believ ed in sharing their wives also. Nizam would also accuse some Shi'i heretics of p racticing the same evils, charging them with incest, for example. He described h ow the evil Qarmatis and Batinis arose and were put down in various regions. He noted that the Batinis were called by different names in different places. In Aleppo and Egypt they call them Isma'ilis; in Qum, Kashan, Tabaristan and Sabzvar they are called Seveners; in Baghdad, Transoxiana and Ghaznain they are known as Qarmatis, in Kufa as Mubarakis, in Basra as Ravandis and Burqa'is, in Rayy as Khalafis, in Gurgan as The Wearers of Red, in Syria as The Wearers of White, in the West as Sa'idis, in Lahsa and Bahrain as Jannabis, and in Isfahan as Batinis; whereas they call themselves The Didactics and other such names. But their whole purpose is only to abolish Islam, to mislead mankind and cast them into perdition.3 Nizam commended al-Mu'tasim for his three victories over the Byzantines, Babak's revolt in Azerbaijan, and the Zarathustrian Mazyar in Tabaristan. Nizam cited t he early caliph 'Umar's response to the last Sasanian king Yazdijurd Shahryar to show that the latter's empire was declining, because his court was crowded with complainers; his treasury was full of ill-gotten wealth; his army was disobedie nt. Nizam thus became a conservative voice for the Sunni tradition and ruled by an absolute monarch. Ferdowsi's Shah-nameh Ferdowsi was born about 935 at Tus in Khurasan into a land-owning family. He spe

nt 30 years writing the nearly 60,000 couplets of his epic poem on Persian monar chy entitled The Book of Kings (Shah-nameh). Based on chronicles, Ferdowsi took over and incorporated about a thousand lines that Daqiqi wrote before he was mur dered by a slave. Ferdowsi's Shah-nameh was completed about 1010. He wrote the p oem hoping that the patronage of the Sultan Mahmud would provide a dowry for his daughter; but he was so disappointed by the 20,000 dirhams he received that he gave them to a bath-man and beer-seller. Ferdowsi then wrote a satire of Mahmud, but his friend Shahreyar purchased this short poem for 100,000 dirhams. Later M ahmud granted the poet 60,000 dinars worth of indigo; but when this arrived, Fer dowsi was dead. His daughter would not accept this gift, and it was used to repa ir a rest-house near Tus. After a prolog invoking God, praising wisdom and Muhammad, acknowledging his use of Daqiqi's lines, and praising the sultan Mahmud, Ferdowsi began with the firs t king Kayumars, who establishes laws and battles demons. His son Seyamak is kil led by a demon, but Seyamak's son Hushang defeats the demons. Hushang discovers fire and founds its worship, and he teaches his people how to make bread. Hushan g's son Tahmuras is called the capturer of the demons and is succeeded by his so n Jamshid. During his reign of seven hundred years a palace is constructed, fiel ds are plowed and reaped, garments of silk are worn, and swords and armor are in vented. The Arab king Mirtas gives the milk of his animals to the poor, and his son Zahhak has ten thousand horses. Zahhak is seduced by an evil spirit Eblis, w ho invents the art of cooking. After Zahhak lets Eblis kiss his naked body, two serpents possess him and have to be fed daily on human brains. Zahhak gathers in to an army the nobility who resents Jamshid's arrogance, and he executes Jamshid . Jamshid's sisters Shahrnaz and Arnawaz are put in Zahhak's harem; but they are later released by Faridun when he overthrows Zahhak with the help of the blacks mith Kaveh. Faridun rules wisely and divides his kingdom between his three sons, giving the west to Salm, the north to Tur, and Iran to Iraj. Salm and Tur plot against Iraj , and Faridun responds that if they do not fear him, at least they should fear G od; he counsels peace. Iraj agrees with his father and would rather sacrifice hi s kingdom than go to war. Iraj renounces his throne and retires; but Tur beheads him nonetheless. Iraj's daughter gives birth to Manuchehr, who kills the two br others Salm and Tur, becoming king of Persia, which throughout its history would be fighting Greeks and Romans in the west and Turks in the north. Sam, the rule r of Sistan, pledges his loyalty to Manuchehr and has a white-haired son named Z al, who is left on a mountain but is saved by the fabulous simorg bird. Zal pers uades Manuchehr not to attack Kabul and marries the Kabul princess Rudabeh; thei r son is the strong and heroic Rostam. Manuchehr is succeeded on the Persian thr one by his son Nowzar, who misrules his people with such oppressive violence tha t they appeal to Sam. He causes Nowzar to reform; but Turan king Afrasyab, who k ills his own brother, invades and pillages Persia, killing Nowzar. Zal and Rosta m fight for Persia, and the nobles elect the just Qobad king, who makes peace. Qobad is succeeded by his son Kavus. He disregards Zal's advice, goes to war wit h Mazandaran, and is captured; in Hamavaran Qobad is imprisoned by the father of the bride he seeks, and his attempt to fly with eagles leaves him stranded in e nemy territory. From each of these three disasters Qobad is rescued by Rostam, w ho performs seven heroic labors. With the Persian king imprisoned, Afrasyab's ar my invades again; but when Kavus returns, Afrasyab has to retreat to Turan. Whil e hunting in Turan, Rostam sires a son called Sohrab, who is raised in Turan and becomes their army's champion. Sohrab challenges the great Rostam in combat, an d only when he is dying does he realize that Rostam is his father. The horrified Rostam ends the war. Persian king Kavus has a son Seyavash, who is seduced by his step-mother, Queen Sudabeh; but he declines. After she accuses him of attempted rape, he proves his innocence in an ordeal of fire. Bad dreams persuade the aggressive Afrasyab to

give up a war and make peace with the victorious Seyavash. Kavus rejects the tre aty and wants to kill the hostages; so Seyavash goes over to the Turanians and m arries Afrasyab's daughter Farangis. The indignant Rostam retires to Sistan. Sey avash is treacherously killed by Afrasyab's brother and commander, Garsivaz. Tur anian counselor Piran saves the pregnant Farangis from the cruel Afrasyab. She g ives birth to Khusrau, who escapes to Iran and becomes the next king when Kavus retires. To revenge his father Seyavash, Khusrau fights a long war against Turan with the help of the mighty Rostam. Farangis and Khusrau manage to save the lif e of Piran by persuading Giw not to kill him. Eventually Piran advises Afrasyab to escape to remote Tartary. The Persian warrior Bizhan falls in love with Afras yab's daughter Manizheh; but he is imprisoned by her father. She cares for him, and he is rescued by Rostam, who is stopped from killing Barzu, his grandson. Fi nally Afrasyab is defeated and killed, and Kavus also dies. Khusrau abdicates and retires to a religious life on a mountain-top, where he di sappears in a snowstorm. Not having a son, Khusrau had selected as king Lohrasp, who is succeeded by his son Goshtasp. The prophet Zarathustra preaches an advan ced religion that is accepted by Goshtasp and his court. (This section is the th ousand lines Ferdowsi took from Daqiqi.) Goshtasp crowns his son Esfandyar his s uccessor. Esfandyar spreads the Zarathustrian religion by invading the Rum in th e West, Arabia in the South, and Hindustan in the East; but he quarrels with his father and is put in prison. When Turan led by Arjasp attacks Persia, Goshtasp calls forth Esfandyar to fight, and he performs seven heroic deeds but kills the simorg bird that had protected Rostam. Esfandyar also defeats and kills Arjasp. Khusrau had appointed Rostam to rule Zabul, Kabul, and Nim-ruz. Goshtasp was so upset that Rostam had not helped in the campaign against Arjasp and the Turania ns that he sent his son Esfandyar to bring Rostam to him in chains. Rostam would go in loyalty but not as a prisoner. Esfandyar's traps wound Rostam and his hor se; but Rostam is healed by the Simorg bird and then kills Esfandyar. Rostam takes care of Esfandyar's son Bahman but is killed by a plot of his own b rother Shagad, and Bahman takes revenge on Rostam's family, killing Rostam's fat her Zal. Rostam's son Faramarz is also defeated and killed. Bahman marries his d aughter Homai and dies; but she bears his son Darab, who is put in a basket on t he Euphrates River. Homai rules until she discovers the adult Darab and makes hi m king. In Ferdowsi's story Darab marries the daughter of the Greek king Filqus (Philip), making Darab the father of Eskandar (Alexander). Darab is succeeded by his second son Dara. Eskandar attacks Persia, defeats Dara, and becomes king. A fter Eskandar dies, the kingdom is broken into pieces for two centuries until Ar davan unites Persia. Ardavan is killed by Ardeshir, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. The romantic adventures of the Sasanian kings are treated more than the politica l history. During the reign of Shapur Du'l Aktaf the prophet Mani comes from Chi na as a painter, miracle-worker, and religious teacher. The cruel Yazdegerd the Unjust is an example of how not to rule, but he is succeeded by his romantic son , Bahram Gut. During the reign of Kasra Anushirvan the communism of the reformer Mazdak is squelched with the aid of the king's vizier Bozorjmehr. The kings Hor mozd and his son Khusrau Parviz have to contend with the rebellion of their cham pion Bahram Chubineh. Khusrau Parviz escapes from the dungeon his father put him in and has two ministers blind and later kill Hormozd. The fading old loyalty i s represented by Chubineh's sister Gordyeh, who eventually marries Parviz. Bahra m Chubineh is defeated and finally assassinated after fleeing to the Chinese cou rt. Khusrau Parviz has a romance with Shirin, but he is eventually killed by a s lave hired by discontent nobles. The final heroism occurs when the astrologer an d soldier Rostam, son of Hormozd, predicts the defeat of Persia by the Muslims b ut fights loyally until his army is defeated, and the last Sasanian king Yazdege rd is murdered by a miller. Ferdowsi's great epic leaves out the great Achaemenian kings Cyrus and Cambyses

as well as the massive invasions of Greece led by Darius in 490 and Xerxes in 48 0, and the Greek-Persian wars of three kings named Artaxerxes. Alexander is even portrayed as the son of a Persian king. Yet the violent struggles of hereditary monarchy versus leadership by the most able are heroically described. The stark metaphor of a father killing his son or causing the death of his son as with Ro stam and Sohrab, Kavus and Seyavash, and Goshtasp and Esfandyar, makes even more vivid the lament of Herodotus that in war the fathers bury their sons. The ambi tion to rule over others by force causes numerous wars and immense human sufferi ng; yet Ferdowsi shows that the wiser kings are those who are just and can make peace. Rabi'a, Muhasibi, Al-Hallaj and other Sufis Mystics called Sufis, after their woolen robes they originally wore as a form of social protest, began as ascetics who remained aloof from the lower material li fe. The movement seems to have begun at Basra, where al-Hasan (d. 728) lamented that the good had departed. He grieved because only the reprehensible seemed to be left. Al-Hasan preached to his companions, The lower world is a house whose inmates labor for loss, and only abstention from it makes one happy in it. He who befriends it in desire and love for it will be rendered wretched by it, and his portion with God will be laid waste.4 Al-Hasan believed that piety is the essence of religion, and he outlined three g rades. First, a person should speak the truth even when excited by anger. Second , one should control one's bodily organs and refrain from what God has forbidden . Third, one should desire only those things that lead to God's pleasure. A litt le piety is better than much praying and fasting; but lust for the world and gre ed can destroy piety. The ascetics and new converts to Islam were given equality by the Caliph 'Umar II (r. 717-720) to whom al-Hasan wrote that he should bewar e of the world, because it is as deadly as a snake's venom; its hopes are lies, and its expectations false; its ease becomes harsh, and its pleasures end in pai n. The first man to be called a Sufi was Abu Hashim (d. 776) of Kufa. Sufis were so on gathering at a monastery established by a wealthy Christian at Ramlah in Syri a. Sufism also spread to Khurasan, where the influence of Buddhism was felt. Ibr ahim ibn Adham (d. 777) recommended other-worldliness, celibacy, and poverty. He believed the true saint covets nothing in this world or in the next but is devo ted only to God. He found that in adopting poverty one should not consider marri age, since one could not fulfill the needs of a wife. Adham said that when a Suf i marries, he boards a ship; but when he gets a child, his asceticism shipwrecks . The most famous woman Sufi was Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya of Basra. She was born in 713 or 717 into a very poor home. After her mother and father died, during a famine she was sold into slavery. Even when she broke her hand while fleeing and was r e-captured, she still wanted only to please God. When her owner perceived her il lumination while she was praying, he freed her so that she could pursue her spir itual path. Rabi'a remained celibate, rejecting several offers of marriage from prominent Sufis because she was essentially already married to God; she died in 801. Stories and sayings of hers were later written down by the 13th-century Suf i 'Attar in his Memorial of the Friends of God. He justified including a woman b y noting that God does not regard your forms but is more concerned with right in tention. In the unity the mystics seek there is no male or female. It was said t hat Rabi'a prayed a thousand times a day. When someone said she was fit to be an abbess, she replied, I am abbess of myself.

Whatever is within me, I do not bring out. Whatever is outside me, I do not let in. If anyone enters and leaves, it has nothing to do with me. I watch over my heart, not mud and clay.5 Rabi'a said that a servant of God is contented when one is as thankful for tribu lation as for bliss. She taught that God should be worshipped without fear of pu nishment or hope of reward but for its own sake. She said, O Lord, if I worship you out of fear of hell, burn me in hell. If I worship you in the hope of paradise, forbid it to me. And if I worship you for your own sake, do not deprive me of your eternal beauty.6 When she was asked why she carried fire and water, Rabi'a replied that she was g oing to burn paradise and douse hell-fire so that both veils might be lifted fro m the seekers, and then they will have sincere purpose. At the present time she lamented that if hope for reward and fear of punishment were taken away, no one would worship or obey. When asked why she worshipped if she had no hope for para dise, Rabi'a replied that she preferred the Neighbor to the neighbor's house. He r goal was union with God. Once when someone asked her to come outside and enjoy the flowers of spring, she invited them to come inside and contemplate their Cr eator; for her contemplation of the Creator had turned her from contemplation of the creation.

Harith Muhasibi (781-857) was a theologian of the Shafi'i school. He was concern ed about the many sects and sub-sects claiming the way to salvation. After study ing the Qur'an and the traditions of the prophet Muhammad, he concluded that des ires blind people and lead them astray from the truth. Muhasibi gained his name by turning to self-examination (muhasabah), along with self-discipline, and mora l transformation. He often conversed and answered the questions of his disciple Junayd (d. 910), who became a prominent Sufi himself. Muhasibi argued that wealt h is better for the mystic than poverty, because it is more characteristic of Go d. He found asceticism only valuable in order to purge the soul for companionshi p with God. He urged those who wish to be near God to abandon everything that al ienates them from God. His major work was The Book on the Observance of the Righ ts of God, which is on moral psychology. He described four kinds of egotism as c onceit, pride, vanity, and self-delusion. Each of these may also express as comp etitiveness, rivalry, acquisitiveness, and self-vaunting. In self-delusion one becomes blind to one's sins and over-rates one's actions, t hus decreasing the fear of doing wrong. In his Book of Counsels, Muhasibi sugges ted warding off vanity by realizing that God sets you into action by granting yo u grace. Sincere action is completely rooted in God without any praise or blame of humans. The conceited person is zealous in front of others but lazy when no o ne is watching, wanting to be praised in one's actions. In The Book on the Observance of the Rights of God Muhasibi wrote that inclinati ons come from three sources - the ego-self, the enemy Iblis (Satan), and God. Th e ego-self tends to operate from desire, while illumination by God uses reason. Holding the ego-self back from rushing into action is called patience. To see wh ere one is going, one must have eyesight, light, and look at the path. Healthy s ight is like reason; a lamp is like knowledge; watching where one is going is li ke confirmation (by the religious teachings). Muhasibi described how preparation for death can focus awareness on what is fundamentally important. One must also be wary of the enemy. Arrogance comes from pride out of fear of being lorded ov er or from love of lording it over others. Love of aggrandizement and lust for p ower look down on others and want always to be above others or put before them.

Muhasibi advised not entering into an action until one knows that God wills it. Dhu al-Nun Misri (796-859) practiced extreme asceticism and believed that tempta tions of the self were the greatest veil. He found seclusion indispensable for t he Sufi. He said that the lesser path is to avoid sin, leave the world, and cont rol passion; but the greater path is to leave everything but God and to empty on e's heart. Dhu al-Nun emphasized trust in God, and he suggested that even the el ect need to repent of their negligence. He found a certainty in intuition that w as beyond the knowledge of sense perception. He defined three kinds of religious knowledge. First is knowing the unity of God that is common to all believers; s econd is knowledge based on proof and demonstration that belongs to the wise and learned; third is knowing the attributes of God, which comes to the saints who contemplate God in their hearts. Yahya ibn Mu'adh ar-Razi (d. 871) was from Ray and expressed his message with su ch enthusiasm that he was called "the preacher." Yahya taught divine love, sayin g, "Real love does not diminish by the cruelty of the beloved, nor does it grow by His grace, but is always the same."7 He also preached forgiveness, and he bel ieved that death is beautiful, because it joins the friend with the Friend. Bayazid Bistami (d. 874) was a Persian who wandered in the deserts of Syria for thirty years living ascetically in search of God. Bayazid was the first to write about the annihilation of the self (fana), which became a cardinal doctrine of Sufism. He became controversial for exclaiming his own greatness when he came ou t of his self and experienced the oneness of the lover and the beloved in God. H e held that paradise is of no concern to the people of love, because they are lo ved through their love. He described how he passed through the unseen worlds and met angels and the souls of prophets. In 885 Ghulam Khalil accused the Sufis in Baghdad of heresy, which could bring c apital punishment. Abu'l-Husayn an-Nuri (d. 907) offered his life to save his co mpanions; but when the Caliph investigated, he found the Sufis were good Muslims and released them. Thus Nuri demonstrated his brotherly love as the genuine spi ritual poverty of preferring others to oneself. Some theologians called him a he retic, because he referred to himself as a lover of God. He described the psycho logical stages of love in his The Stations of the Hearts. He likened the heart t o a garden nourished by the rain of God's mercy. Junayd criticized Nuri's exuber ance and startling miracles. For example, to conquer his fear of lions, Nuri liv ed in the lion-infested forests along the Tigris. He was said to have died after cutting his feet on sharp reeds when he ran into a reed-bed after being enraptu red by the recitation of a verse. Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910) studied law under abu Thaur and Sufism with Muhasibi. As a theologian he advocated sobriety rather than the mystical state of intoxic ation that can lead to loss of sanity and self-control. It was for this reason t hat he refused to accept al-Hallaj as his disciple, arguing that sobriety means one's spiritual relation with God is sound, while intoxication indicates excess of longing. Junayd wore the dress of the 'ulama' scholars rather than the woolen garb of the mystics, and his prudent behavior as well as his ideas made him mor e acceptable to the theologians. His writings became so widely accepted that he was considered the master of the Sufi sect. He reprimanded the devil for not obe ying the commands of the one God, thus emphasizing that moral behavior is the ba sis of the religious life. Junayd believed that trust was neither acquisition no r non-acquisition but faith in God's promise. He described three stages of repen tance as expressing regret at the wrong done, resolving to avoid that wrong in t he future, and purifying oneself of evils and impurities. He wrote extensively o n the affirmation of unity, cautioning the reader, "Know that you are veiled fro m yourself by yourself."8 One does not attain God through oneself but through Go d.

Al-Husayn ibn Mansur al-Hallaj (858-922) was the Persian son of a wool or cotton carder. He became a disciple of Sahl ibn 'Abd Allah of Tustar but received his Sufi gown from 'Amr ibn 'Uthman Makki at Basra. He married a woman who already h ad a daughter by another Sufi, who belonged to a family that had supported the ' Alid slave rebellion of Zaidi against the 'Abbasid Caliphate; she bore al-Hallaj three sons. Al-Hallaj himself remained a Sunni and studied with Junayd for abou t six years but left him to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he spent a year p raying and meditating by the Ka'ba. Then al-Hallaj traveled through Persia to Ka shmir and India, eventually reaching the frontier of China. He returned with pap er from the Chinese on which his disciples later inscribed his sermons with gold ink. He would weep and give sermons in the marketplace. In one he explained tha t God sometimes shines forth to people and sometimes is veiled from them; God is revealed so that humans can be helped but is hidden lest they all become spellb ound. Al-Hallaj was about fifty when he announced in the mosque of al-Mansur at Baghda d to his friend, the Turkish poet Shibli, "I am the truth (or the real)." Believ ing he needed to die in God, al-Hallaj told people in that mosque that God had m ade his blood lawful to them and that they should kill him so that they will be holy fighters, and he will be a martyr. However, the only ones who were really h ostile to him were the fundamentalist Hanbalites. Al-Hallaj continued to preach that his death would be a coming to life and an awakening. He noted the miracle that he had become a father to his mother and that his daughters had become his sisters. He was ordered arrested in 908 for being involved in the Sunni plot of the Caliph ibn al-Mu'tazz, but he escaped to Susa. Some of his followers were ar rested, but al-Hallaj was not found and taken to Baghdad in chains until 911, th ough no charges were brought then. Two years later the vizier 'Ali ibn Isa tried him; but his case was suspended by the influence of ibn Suraij. Instead of bein g charged with the serious crime of heresy, he was convicted of being a charlata n and was humiliated and imprisoned. Al-Hallaj was kept a prisoner in the royal palace for eight years and was much a ppreciated by the Queen Mother. Fear of a Hanbalite revolution caused the vizier Hamid bin al-'Abbas and the Greek eunuch army commander Munis to put al-Hallaj on trial again. Al-Hallaj had written to a friend advising him to destroy his Ka 'ba, meaning sacrifice his life, and the mystic was convicted of advocating the destruction of Mecca. Al-Hallaj had also recommended that those unable to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca celebrate it at home with prayers and by giving a feast an d clothes to thirty orphans. A drunk Caliph Muqtadir signed his execution order. When his servant Ibrahim asked for a keepsake word, al-Hallaj said, "Yourself," because unless you enslave it, it will enslave you. Al-Hallaj spent half the ni ght before execution repeating the word "illusion," and then near dawn he began shouting, "The truth." He was taken to the execution ground while ecstatically d ancing and laughing. He asked God to pardon those who were punishing him. Al-Hal laj received a thousand lashes; his hand and foot were amputated, and he was han ged in a noose until morning, when he was decapitated. All booksellers were summ oned and had to swear not to sell any work by al-Hallaj. The sayings of al-Hallaj were collected together, but the only complete text is The Tasin of Before-Time and Ambiguity, which defends the position of Iblis for having refused to worship Adam on the ground that he should not worship anyone b ut God. Al-Hallaj wrote that things are known by their opposites, and so whoever does not know vice will not know virtue. He spoke to those who might not be abl e to recognize the real directly to recognize him as the trace of the real. Even though his hands and feet were cut off, and he was killed, al-Hallaj did not go back on his proclamation. Many Sufis influenced by al-Hallaj moved to Khurasan and Transoxiana, where the

Samanids were more tolerant of mystics. Abu Nasr as-Sarraj (d. 988) was from the city of Tus in Khurasan and described the Sufi way of life in his Book of Flash es. In that work he outlined seven stations of repentance, watchfulness, renunci ation, poverty, patience, trust, and acceptance. He quoted numerous Sufi teacher s as he defined each of these qualities on three different levels of experience - the novice seekers, the select, and those with mystical knowledge. Repentance is returning from what knowledge condemns to what knowledge praises. For the knowers it is turning away from everything except God. Seekers are watch ful of the uncertain things between the prohibited and the permitted; knowers ar e watchful of everything that distracts one from God. Renunciation goes beyond t he prohibited which is obligatory to what is permitted and at hand. Junayd said that in renunciation the hands are free of possessing and the hearts are free of craving. For novices poverty means not owning anything and refusing anything of fered. Junayd said that the truly poor do not ask and do not argue, while Sahl i bn 'Abdullah said that one does not ask nor refuse nor hoard. The highest realit y of poverty is described by al-Jariri as refraining from requesting what is not lest one lose what is. Junayd said that patience is bearing a burden for God's sake during the time of hardship; but the truly patient in God does not weaken o r waver in all trials. Trusting in God is sufficient, and Junayd said that the b est trust is the heart's relying on God in all its conditions. Ibn 'Ata' said th at acceptance is letting God choose for the servant, who accepts it gladly knowi ng that God knows best. Al-Kalabadhi, who died in Bukhara about 990, tried to find a balance between ort hodox Islam and Sufism. He summarized the ten principal elements of Sufism he he ard from Abu 'l-Hasan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Farisi as the following: 1) isolation of unification (believing in one God), 2) understanding of audition (listening to mystical experience), 3) good fellowship, 4) preference of preferring (preferring what another prefers), 5) yielding up of personal choice, 6) swiftness of ecstasy (clearing conscience from what would prevent experiencin g God), 7) revelation of the thoughts (examining every thought and following only what i s God's), 8) abundant journeying (seeing warnings in heaven and earth), 9) yielding up of earning (trusting God), 10) and refusal to hoard. Abu Sa'id ibn Abi Khayr (d. 1049) was the abbot of a large Sufi monastery in Khu rasan and upheld the idea of human divinization. He encouraged Sufis to dance an d feast, and he wrote poetic quatrains called ruba'iyat. He urged people to shin e like the Sun on the face of all and suggested that bringing joy to a single he art is better than many religious shrines, and enslaving one soul with kindness is better than freeing a thousand slaves. Al-Qushayri (d. 1074) was also from Kh urasan and wrote a comprehensive treatise on Sufism that combined many views. 'Abdullah Ansari (1006-1088) taught Sufis in Herat, and his lectures in Persian were recorded by his students, who for a long time did not know that he was indi gent, because he wore fine clothes while teaching. Ansari was imprisoned in iron s for five months in 1046 because of a petition by theologians. As his fame spre ad, his students provided him with gifts. Ansari was banished briefly in 1066, b ut four years later vizier Nizam al-Mulk sent him a robe of honor. In the last e ight years of his life Ansari continued to teach even though he was physically b lind. Ansari was one of the Sufis who supported the more conservative Hanbalites . He described one hundred spiritual stations in groups of ten, which are listed as follows:

1. Beginnings: awakening, repentance, appraisal, turning (to God), reflection, s elf-admonition, holding fast, escape, austerity, listening. 2. Doors: sorrow, fear, apprehension, humility, serenity, renunciation, abstaini ng, devotion, hope, aspiration. 3. Behaviors: watchfulness, heedfulness, respect, sincerity, correction, perseve rance, trust, reliance, confidence, submission. 4 and 5. Virtues: endurance, contentment, thankfulness, decency, truthfulness, p reference, character, modesty, generosity, expansion, aspiration, resolution, wi ll, seemliness, certitude, intimacy, remembrance, poverty, wealth, stage of bein g erect. 6: Valleys: excellence, knowledge, wisdom, insight, perspicacity, veneration, in spiration, soothing, appeasing, endeavor. 7. Spiritual states: love, jealousy, longing, anxiety, thirst, ecstasy, alarm, b ewilderment, lightning, taste. 8. Guardianships: glance, instant, purity, delight, secret, breath, exile, subme rsion, absence, establishment. 9. Realities: unveiling, contemplation, observation, life, grasping, stretching, intoxication, lucidity, association, dissociation. 10. Fulfillments: knowing, annihilation, subsisting, realization, covering, find ing, casting aside, isolating, concentration, and unification. Al-Razi, Al-Farabi, and Miskawayh Although Christians, Syriacs, and physicians had spread Greek philosophy into Is lamic culture, al-Kindi (c. 801-c. 873) was the first major Muslim philosopher t o be influenced by Greek thought. Most of his many treatises are lost, but he de fined the philosopher's goal in theoretical knowledge as gaining the truth and i n practical knowledge as behaving in accordance with truth. Al-Kindi found harmo ny between religion and philosophy. He wrote that the purpose of every useful sc ience is to get away from anything harmful by taking care against it and in acqu iring what the prophets have proclaimed, which is the unity of God and the pract ice of virtues acceptable to God while avoiding the contrary vices. Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865-925) was born at Ray and injured his eyes pra cticing alchemy. Al-Razi then studied to become a doctor and directed the hospit al at Ray; he directed a hospital at Baghdad during the reign of Muktafi (902-90 8) but returned to Ray, where he gathered many students in circles. If all the c ircles failed to answer a question about science, then al-Razi answered it. He a ssisted students needing stipends and treated the poor for free. He wrote an inf luential medical text. Much of what is known about al-Razi comes from writings t hat opposed him. He admired Plato and believed that Aristotle had corrupted phil osophy. Al-Razi held that the five eternals are God, soul, matter, space, and ti me. God has perfect wisdom and is pure intelligence. Life flows from souls attac hing themselves to matter. Souls remain in this unreal world until they are awak ened by philosophy to the real world. He described matter as the creation of the Creator in absolute space and eternal time. Al-Razi emphasized reason as God's greatest gift to humans. He did not believe t hat religion and philosophy could be reconciled, and he considered prophecy and revelation unnecessary because reason is sufficient. Al-Razi opposed authority a nd considered all people equal; differences are only caused by development and e ducation. He found that prophets contradict each other. People become attached t o religion because they imitate tradition, are influenced by clergy serving the state, and their imaginations succumb to ceremonies and rituals. Al-Razi showed the contradictions between Judaism, Manichaeism, Christianity, and Islam. He den ied that the Qur'an was miraculous and believed a better book could be written. Al-Razi preferred scientific books to all sacred books, because they are more us eful to people. Prophets even do much harm by causing religions to war against e ach other. In ethics al-Razi believed that a philosopher should follow a moderate life betw

een excessive asceticism and too much indulgence in pleasures. He himself lived so, not serving a monarch; he was a doctor and counselor and quite generous and tolerant of others. Al-Razi used Plato's psychology of the rational, pugnacious, and appetitive aspects of the soul, and he believed that people should control their passions. In order to know one's own defects he suggested appealing to a r easonable friend or neighbor. He was influenced by Galen's treatise "How Good Pe ople Benefit from Their Enemies." Al-Razi described pleasure as a return to natu re. He criticized vanity as preventing one from learning more or doing better. A nger is a natural emotion for self-defense, but in excess it does much harm. He considered lying a bad habit; but when it's purpose was good, he praised it. Too much worry is harmful. Desire brings pain and harm, and drunkenness leads to ca lamity. Al-Razi felt that no more wealth should be acquired than was needed and spent, except for a small emergency fund. Ambition that leads to dangers should be renounced. Like Socrates, he argued that death is not to be feared, because i t is either another life in a better world or nothing.

Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi (870-950) was born of Turkish descent in Transoxiana ; he studied in Khurasan and at Baghdad, and one of his teachers was the Syriac Christian Yuhanna ibn Haylan. Al-Farabi gave philosophical support to the revolu tionary Isma'ili movement of his era. He went to the court of Sayf al-Daula at A leppo in 942 but continued to wear his Sufi garb. Al-Farabi was honored by the p resence of this Amir and his entourage at his funeral in Damascus. Unlike al-Raz i, al-Farabi believed that human natures are different, and so he recommended es oteric teachings for the elite, who should govern social and political hierarchi es. He also combined religion with philosophy and suggested that the best philos opher king should also be a religious prophet. He found that every revealed reli gion is based on revelation and inspiration; a prophet is endowed with a special gift from God to express the divine will. Al-Farabi believed that miracles vali date prophecy but that they do not contradict natural laws. The prophet has a sp iritual power by associating with what al-Farabi called the active intelligence. Happiness is found by using this highest part of the intelligence to commune wi th the celestial world. What emanates from the active intelligence to the passiv e intellect is revelation. Those governed by this are happy. Al-Farabi wrote numerous philosophical works and applied his ethical theories to political philosophy. His views were much influenced by the writings of Plato. Society depends on mutual cooperation; but he went beyond the city-state to the nation or world-state, and he believed that a religious state founded by a proph et was more enlightened than a pagan or purely philosophical state, which he cal led ignorant. His three grades of souls are celestial (angels), rational animals (humans), and irrational animals. He suggested that happiness depends on combin ing the four virtues that are speculative, theoretical, moral, and practical. Th e speculative virtue enables humans to receive knowledge that they cannot reach by their own efforts, while theoretical knowledge can be gained by logic. The pr actical side of the rational faculty decides moral issues and is skilled in arts and crafts. The appetitive faculty inclines humans to desire or avoid and expre sses emotions such as affection, hatred, fear, and anger. Al-Farabi's imaginativ e faculty combines these impressions to perceive what is useful and harmful, ple asant and unpleasant. The faculty of sense perception uses the five senses witho ut distinguishing good from evil. When one does not use the rational faculty to obtain true happiness, the appetites and imagination pursue pleasures. The latte r al-Farabi called voluntary evil. Al-Farabi believed that these natural dispositions require a teacher to prepare people for the highest perfection. Teaching creates the speculative virtue in in dividuals and nations, while upbringing develops the moral virtues and scientifi c arts. The higher method of teaching is by certain demonstration, and the lower is by persuasion. Practical arts need to become habits, and al-Farabi even reco

mmended the use of force against disobedient and revolutionary citizens if they do not behave voluntarily or by persuasion. The first chief excels in virtue and enables the state to achieve the highest happiness. This chief or Imam of the i deal state should have the following twelve characteristics: sound health, intel ligence, good memory, prudence, eloquence, devotion to learning, dislike of sens ual pleasures, love of truth, magnanimity, indifference to wealth, devotion to j ustice, and courage. The second chief who succeeds the first should be philosoph ical, learned in the laws and customs, expert at deriving principles, far-sighte d, persuasive, and skilled in warfare. Laws may be changed to fit new conditions ; but generally one should govern by the written laws received by past chiefs. When citizens do not direct their activities to true happiness, there are bad re sults, making the souls sick. The function of the governor is to manage affairs so that people can eliminate the evils and acquire the goods. In the virtuous st ate everyone knows the higher principles and acts on them. When the state is not virtuous, it can be either ignorant, immoral, or erring. Al-Farabi described si x kinds of ignorant states. The indispensable state is governed by one who enabl es the people to acquire their indispensable necessities. The vile state concent rates on acquiring wealth. The base state is preoccupied with sensual pleasures. The timocratic state seeks honors. When this becomes too extreme, it results in the despotic state that is dominated by a tyrant. In the democratic state freed om is the greatest value, and the people rule so as to maximize their variety of expression. Authority is only given to those who favor the people or give them money. A virtuous person who tries to direct them toward happiness is either neg lected or may be deposed or killed. The immoral states are like ignorant states, but they hold differing beliefs. Those in erring states are given imitations an d thus hold false beliefs.

Saadia ben Joseph (882-942) was born in Egypt but moved to Palestine when he was about 23. He has been called the founder of scientific Judaism. Saadia compiled a Hebrew-Arabic dictionary, and he translated the Bible into Arabic. He moved t o Babylon and refuted the ideas of the Karaites, who did not accept the teaching s of the rabbis. Saadia defended the traditional Jewish calendar. In 928 he was appointed the Gaon of Sora, where he used philosophy to systematize the Talmud. When he refused to sign a decree of Exilarch David ben Zacchai regarding a large inheritance, Saadia was removed from his position. Saadia proposed Josiah Hassa n as a new prince of the captivity; but the resulting conflict in 933 caused the Caliph to depose Saadia and banish the rival Exilarch Hassan to Khurasan. Saadi a lived in retirement at Baghdad writing. His major philosophical work, The Book of Doctrines and Beliefs had one part on divine unity and another on divine jus tice. He agreed with the Mu'tazilites in believing in human freedom as the basis for moral responsibility. Saadia explained the good reasons for the laws agains t killing, stealing, adultery, false testimony, and other trespasses, and he dis tinguished these from the religious laws and traditions that he considered ratio nally neutral. Saadia was reconciled with David and restored to his office in 937. Three years later David died, and Saadia helped his son Judah be appointed Exilarch; but he died and left his 12-year-old son with Saadia. Because of his age a relative fil led the office, but he was executed for having disparaged Muhammad. The next Exi larch was the last, as he was assassinated by fanatical Muslims while riding in his carriage even though the Caliph tried to prevent his murder. The Sora school was closed about 948 after seven hundred years, but copies of the Talmud were s ent to Spain. The school at Pumbeditha went on for another century until the las t Gaon Chiskiya was imprisoned and then executed in 1040. Chiskiya's two sons es caped to Spain. Yahya ibn 'Adi (893-974) was a Jacobite Christian. Influenced by al-Farabi, ibn

'Adi studied Pythagorean metaphysics. He believed that the Greeks were superior in wisdom and in propagating the arts and sciences but that this inequality betw een peoples could be eliminated by education. The unity of humanity implies the imperative to love all people. Those seeking perfection are friends to all and c ompassionate. The divine power is in every rational soul, which is what makes pe ople human. Ultimately all people are a single entity in many individual souls. When humans restrain their irascible soul and are guided by the rational soul, t hen all people become friends. One should love the virtuous for their virtue and feel compassion for the base. Even the king is only a king so long as he loves and pities his subjects. Abu 'Ali 'Isa ibn Zur'a (943-1008) was also a Christian and studied with ibn 'Ad i. He translated Aristotle and other Greek works from Syriac versions. Ibn Zur'a asserted that the blameworthy ethical qualities are anger, mendacity, ignorance , injustice, and vileness; but Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani argued that anger and l ying are suitable in some circumstances. Al-Hasan ibn Suwar ibn al-Khammar was a Christian physician, who also made translations and wrote philosophical treatis es. Ibn Suwar recommended a balance between the contemplative life and civic vir tue; the true philosopher loves the real essence of all things and is not tempte d by material concerns, being temperate and generous. Although Abu 'Ali ibn al-Samh (d. 1027) was also in ibn 'Adi's school, he believ ed that natural dispositions were strong and free will weak. The Melchite Christ ian physician Nazif al-Rumi believed that the three pleasures of eating, drinkin g, and sex become tedious, but the pleasures of perfume, clothing, and music do not. The family of 'Isa ibn 'Ali (d. 946) had converted from Christianity to Isl am. Inclining toward Sufism, 'Isa ibn 'Ali believed that dispensing with somethi ng is better than acquiring it, that a rough life in company with the intelligen t is better than an easy life with fools, that one should spare no effort in imp roving one's soul, and that since deceit is used to catch birds, fish, and beast s, one can also use it to guide and purify humans. The poet Abu l-Hasan al-Badih i was also associated with the school of Yahya ibn 'Adi, and ibn al-Nadim (d. 99 0) compiled an encyclopedic catalog of literature available at Baghdad for that circle. Another prominent circle of philosophers was led by Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani, w ho died at Baghdad about 985 after teaching there for fifty years. His group com mented on a saying of Alexander, each agreeing in different ways that while a fa ther is a cause of life, one's teacher is a cause of improving one's life. Like the Neo-Platonists, the Sijistani circle considered philosophy a way of life and the path to happiness and perfection, and the teacher is the guide to their goa l. When 'Adud al-Daula died in 983, those in Sijistani's circle agreed that he h ad succumbed to the world's deceit and questioned what he had accomplished with his wealth, slaves, retainers, and armies just as sages had commented upon the d eath of the "great" Alexander. They also discussed the usefulness and validity o f astrology, and Sijistani concluded that it may be pursued to advantage only by those with the needed intellectual and moral virtues. The Sincere Brothers were led by Abu Sulayman al-Maqdisi, who wrote their philos ophy in fifty letters. Souls are saved from the defilement of matter by a celest ial ascent that is preceded by three levels. First, the rational faculty masters the urban arts at age fifteen. Second, the ruling faculty learns to govern brot hers with generosity and compassion at age thirty. Third, the legal faculty help s kings exercise command and control with kindness and moderation at age forty. The brothers assembled in sincere friendship for sanctity, purity, and good coun sel. They believed the religious law had been contaminated by error and folly an d that it must be purified by philosophy. Perfection could be achieved by combin ing Greek philosophy with Islamic religious law. The sick require the religious law, while the healthy need philosophy. Virtue is acquired by philosophy and lea ds to the divine life. The religious virtues based on authority and opinion are

corporeal and temporal, aiding in recovery from illness; but virtues based on de monstrative proof are certain, spiritual, and eternal, preserving health. The school of Abu 'Abdallah al-Basri was criticized for teaching the skeptical d octrine that various proofs are equivalent. Another circle was led by Abu 'Abdal lah ibn Sa'dan, who was vizier for 'Adud al-Daula's son Samsam for the first yea r of his rule to 984. He tried to calm the rivalry between 'Adud's successors an d recommended the lessons of the ascetics to discoursing philosophers. When ibn Sa'dan tried to appoint his father to office, his rival ibn Yusuf was able to re place ibn Sa'dan and get him executed during a revolt led by Asfar.

The historian and ethical philosopher Abu 'Ali ibn Miskawayh (c. 936-1030) studi ed the histories of al-Tabari with abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Kamil al-Qadi and philosop hy with the Aristotelian commentator ibn al-Khammar. For seven years Miskawayh s erved as librarian for abu al-Fadl ibn al-'Amid, and he probably served Buyid pr inces such as 'Adud al-Daula. Miskawayh shared the same theory of evolution as t he Brothers of Purity with the four stages of mineral, plant, animal, and human, culminating with the prophet imbibing the celestial soul within. Miskawayh also adopted Plato's psychology and the traditional virtues of wisdom, courage, temp erance, and justice, and he elucidated Aristotle's ethical doctrine of the mean. He recommended humanistic education as the way to salvation, perfection, and ha ppiness. A youth should be trained in law to carry out duties until it is a habi t. Then ethical studies establish the habits firmly as virtues in the soul by pr oofs. However, education by obscene poetry can result in the false values of lyi ng and immorality. Miskawayh criticized asceticism and withdrawal from society as unjust, because t hey want services without rendering any themselves. He noted that ascetics sever themselves from moral virtues. He believed that people are social and need to l earn mutual cooperation with others to perfect humanity. Humans need others in o rder to survive, and they naturally desire friendship. Those who serve others mu ch may demand much, but those who serve little can ask for little. Human affairs need to be ordered by government, which removes misfortunes. Humans should love each other and contribute to each other's perfection like different organs in a single body. Miskawayh rejected the idea that happiness only comes after death; he believed we must search for happiness in this world and in the world to come . Miskawayh found that human love for God is too high to be attained by mortals; b ut the student's love for the teacher is even more important than a son's love f or his parents because teachers educate souls and guide them to happiness. Frien dship he considered most sacred, and he noted that even a king needs friends to give him information and carry out his orders. One should please one's friends w ithout hypocrisy or flattery. Miskawayh disagreed with Aristotle that love is an extension of self-love, for he found that one must limit self-love in order to love another. He contrasted the pleasure of animal love with the virtue or goodn ess of spiritual love. Love is the best sovereign; but when it fails, justice mu st be brought about by fear and force. Miskawayh recommended spiritual medicine for diseases of the soul such as anger, vanity, contentiousness, treason, coward ice, vainglory, fear, and sadness. Some of his remedies are similar to those of al-Razi. Miskawayh also wrote a history of the world. He believed that history i s a mirror of society in each era, and the historian must be careful not to mix facts with fiction. Facts should be interpreted according to human interests tha t show creative hopes and aspirations. History is like a living organism that is guided by nations' ideals, and it even affects the future. Avicenna, ibn Hazm, and ibn Gabirol Abu 'Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina (980-1037), known in Christian Europe as Avicenna, w

as the son of the Bukhara governor. Avicenna was taught literature and had memor ized the Qur'an by the age of ten. He studied Islamic law with the Hanafi jurist Isma'il al-Zahid and philosophy with al-Natili. Avicenna also studied medicine, and by the time he was sixteen he was leading legal and medical discussions. He read Aristotle's Metaphysics forty times but admitted that he did not really un derstand it until he bought al-Farabi's book On the Objects of Metaphysics. When Nuh ibn Mansur became seriously ill, Avicenna was consulted; upon the Amir's re covery the young physician joined the Samanid staff and now had access to its li brary. At this time he wrote a commentary on the philosophical legacy called Sum and Substance and a book on ethics entitled Innocence and Guilt. In the latter he defended the naturalistic theodicy that enables good and truth to win over ev il and falsehood. He argued in favor of the popular belief in retribution and re compense, which operate through nature, human action, and seemingly by chance; b ut in reality they descend ultimately from God. When his father died, Avicenna was given a government position and became indepe ndent; but he was compelled to leave Bukhara after the last Samanid 'Abd al-Mali k ibn Nuh was deposed in 999. Avicenna moved to Gurganj and stayed there until 1 012. Avicenna was summoned to the court of Mahmud; but faced with the Ghaznavid' s cruel policies of conquest, persecution for deviating from orthodoxy, high tax es, and military conscription, the philosopher fled south. He was given refuge b y Qabus after curing a member of his family; but Qabus was imprisoned and died i n 1013. In Jurjan Avicenna began writing his great medical Canon. With his loyal disciple Juzjani, he traveled to the court of al-Saiyida and her son Majd al-Da ula at Ray, which also soon fell to the Ghaznavids. After Shams al-Daula recaptu red Ray in 1015, Avicenna medically treated the prince and joined his court. Mut ineers demanded the life of Avicenna but were mollified when Shams al-Daula bani shed him for forty days. The philosopher-physician was reinstated after treating the prince's colic. Avicenna was at Hamadhan until 1023; there he was vizier twice and completed his Canon. In the second part he suggested seven rules for scientific experimentati on in order to isolate causes and quantify effects. His pharmacopoeia included 7 60 drugs. When Shams al-Daula died, Avicenna negotiated with Isfahan monarch 'Al a' al-Daula and was imprisoned by Shams' son Taj al-Mulk for four months in a ca stle, where he wrote his Hidayah (Book of Guidance). Avicenna, his brother Mahmu d, Juzjani, and two slaves managed to escape disguised as Sufis to Isfahan. Avic enna recognized Sufi experiences as a valid subject for philosophical study. In 1029 Mahmud captured nearby Ray and destroyed the library in the Buyid palace. T he following January Avicenna was forced to flee Isfahan as his baggage was plun dered. Avicenna never married; but some blame his frequent sexual intercourse wi th slaves as a contributing factor in his fatal illness of 1037. Avicenna wrote at least a hundred books, and his medical book al-Qanan (Canon) became the stand ard text in Europe until the 17th century. His major philosophical work is calle d al-Shifa (The Healing) and discusses comprehensively logic, physics, mathemati cs, and metaphysics. In his Book of Hints and Pointers Avicenna asked the reader to reflect that abse nt any sensory experience one could still realize one's existence. Thus he posit ed that the conscious subject or soul is independent of the body. He also noted that mathematical and other theoretical knowledge transcend the temporal. Since the soul does not depend on the body for its existence, it is not necessarily de stroyed with the body. Avicenna agreed with al-Farabi that the active intelligen ce knows in the same way as God knows, though not as completely. The soul is wha t receives the reward since it survives the body's perishing and is unmolested b y passing time. In a mystical treatise On Love Avicenna went beyond the language of conjunction to the Sufi idea of unity. He wrote that every being loves the a bsolute good with innate love and that the absolute good manifests itself to all who love it, though their receptivity may vary. Avicenna argued that the soul c an cure another body without instruments, and he cited evidence from hypnosis an

d suggestion. These demonstrate that what are called miracles can occur. Avicenna explained how prophets bringing revelation can impel people to good act ions by more than intellectual insight and inspiration. Thus the prophet should be the law-giver, and some can understand the laws by philosophical methods. How ever, those who are unable to understand philosophical truth behind the law have to accept revelation of the law as literal truth. Avicenna's social and politic al philosophy are discussed in relation to prophecy. Humans are a species that n eeds to be complemented by others of the same species since an isolated individu al has difficulty fulfilling basic needs. Thus humans require partnerships and r eciprocal transactions, which in turn demand law and justice. The creation of th e laws may come from a prophet, who lays down laws by God's permission. The firs t principle is to teach people they have a single omnipotent Creator who knows a ll and that the commands of God must be obeyed. Those who do obey will obtain an afterlife of bliss, but the disobedient will be miserable. Avicenna warned that not everyone can understand the more complex philosophical knowledge of God and that if those unable to do so try, they fall into dissension with multiplying d oubts and complaints. To ensure the preservation of the laws the prophet should teach people to pray s o that they will be reminded of God and the afterlife. Avicenna also stated his belief that worldly interests could be enhanced by holy war (jihad) and the pilg rimage, though the noblest act of worship is prayer. He argued that happiness in the hereafter is achieved by the soul's detaching itself by piety from what is acquired by the bodily dispositions. This purification is achieved by ethical st ates and moral habits of character that turn the soul away from the body and its senses and toward the memory of its true essence. Avicenna suggested that the legislator divide the state into administrators, art isans, and guardians with a leader for each group. The common fund comes from du ties on acquired and natural profits, such as agricultural fruits. Property may also be taken from those who resist the law, and Avicenna includes war booty in this category. These funds are required to meet the needs of the guardians (sold iers) who do no productive work and of the sick and aged unable to work. Avicenn a condemned gambling as unproductive, usury as seeking excessive profit, and for nication and sodomy as detrimental to the sacredness of marriage. What is most c onducive to the general good is love, which is achieved through friendship and l ong association. He considered women less rational but needing protection from s eparation. Thus judges and the law should decide about divorces in order to prot ect the woman from mistreatment. Avicenna observed that sexual relations of wome n are considered shameful while those of men only arouse jealousy. Thus he appro ved of the veiling of women and their seclusion from men. Men should be the brea d-earners, but women share in the proper upbringing of children. He argued that the man's work is compensated by his exclusive use of the woman's genitalia. The prophet's successor may be designated by the legislator or by the consensus of the elders. Avicenna recommended the decree that if someone secedes or claims the caliphate by power or because of wealth, it is the duty of every citizen to fight and kill him. Those who do not do so disobey God, and only belief in the prophet is more important to God than killing such a usurper. Avicenna suggested that those who oppose the laws should be called upon to accept the truth; if th ey resist, they should be destroyed by war. Their property and women should be a dministered according to the constitution of a virtuous state. He justified this slavery because some people must be forced to serve others. Those not capable o f acquiring virtue he argued are already slaves by nature. Thus the legislator m ust impose prohibitions, penalties, and punishments for disobeying the divine la w. Avicenna taught the traditional moderation of the cardinal virtues in tempera nce and courage. Excessive indulgence harms human interests, and a deficiency of courage harms the state. Wisdom guides practical action, and the sum of wisdom, courage, and temperance is justice.

Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi (994-1064) was born at Cordoba into a wealthy family that h ad recently converted from Christianity to Islam. His family fled the Berber inv asion. His mother, brother, sister-in-law, and father had all died by the time h e was 18, and ibn Hazm himself suffered from heart palpitations and an enlarged spleen. The family's property had been lost during a civil war at Cordoba in 100 9, but ibn Hazm became vizier to the caliph at Valencia and was vizier at Cordob a under Caliph al-Mustazir in 1023. However, the continuing civil war destroyed the Umayyad caliphate, as Spain broke up into petty states. He spent three years studying jurisprudence in order to answer criticism he received from eminent ju rists. He was imprisoned several times for his politics and eventually retired t o write. According to his son he wrote 400 books, though fewer than forty surviv ed. His critical writings were often unpopular, and some of his books were burne d in public. Ibn Hazm wrote about romantic love in The Ring of the Dove, and his greatest wor k was an encyclopedic study of comparative religion. He rejected the current not ion that women are more susceptible to corruption. Ibn Hazm defended the rights of women and slaves and argued that everyone should have a free education. In po litics he rejected the Shi'ite ideas that the imam (leader) should be chosen by heredity and that he is infallible. Ibn Hazm believed that the ruler must be jus t, but he ranked the scholar who teaches the people as deserving an even higher place in the hereafter. Near the end of his life ibn Hazm wrote A Philosophy of Character and Conduct. I n considering that life is a continual process of reducing anxiety, ibn Hazm dis covered a method for arriving at what all people seek. He described it eloquentl y as follows: I discovered that this method consists in nothing else but directing one's self towards a Supreme Goodness by means of good works conducive to immortal life. For, as I investigated, I observed that all things tended to elude me, and I reached the conclusion that the only permanent reality possible consists in good works useful for another, immortal life. Every other hope that I desired to see realized was followed by melancholy, sometimes because what was ardently desired escaped me, sometimes because I decided to abandon it. It seemed to me that nothing escaped these dangers but good works, directed by a Supreme Goodness. These alone were always followed by pleasure in the present and in the future; in the present because I was freed from numerous anxieties which disturbed my tranquillity, and, moreover, friends and enemies concurred in commending me; in the future bec ause these works promised immortality.9 This virtuous work is free of defects and the most effective way to stop anxiety . Ibn Hazm observed that those who worked for this end were joyful and free of c ares, even when they underwent unpleasant tests, because of the hope that the en d of their life would bring what they sought. He compared the spiritual life to sensual pleasures. The pleasure which in the exercise of the prudent man in and the devout man the intelligent man experiences his reason, the learned man in his study, his discreet deliberation, in his ascetic combat

is greater than the delight which is felt by the glutton in his eating, the toper in his drinking, the lecher in his incontinence, the trader in his painful bargaining, the gamester in his merriment, and the leader in the exercise of his authority. The proof of this lies in the fact that intelligent, learned, prudent, and devout men also experience those other delights which I have just enumerated in the same way as one who lives only to wallow in them, but they tend to abandon and separate themselves from them, preferring instead the quest for permanent release from anxiety through good and virtuous works.10 Ibn Hazm advised his readers to listen to the Creator more than to what other pe ople say. He believed that those who think they are safe from all criticism are out of their minds. Those who study deeply and discipline the soul not to rest u ntil it finds the truth are more glad to receive criticism than praise, because praise can lead to pride, while criticism may result in correction. Even unjust criticism can help a person to learn how to control oneself with patience. He pu t those seeking eternity on the side of the angels, those striving for evil on t he side of the demons, those striving for fame and victory on the side of the ti gers, and those seeking pleasures on the side of the beasts. Those who seek only money are too base to be compared even to beasts but resemble collected slime. The person with a strong intellect with extensive knowledge, who does good deeds , should rejoice, because only the angels and best people are superior. Ibn Hazm encapsulated the whole of virtue in the saying of the prophet Muhammad on the golden rule - "Do as you would be done by."11 From the prophet's forbiddi ng of all anger ibn Hazm inferred that the soul should turn away from greed and lust while upholding justice. He considered the person misguided who would barte r an eternal future for a passing moment. The person who harms is bad, and anyon e returning evil for evil is just as bad. Anyone refraining from returning evil is their master and the most virtuous. Ibn Hazm warned against gaining a reputat ion for being devious. The person who knows one's own faults better than others know them is blessed. Security, health, and wealth are only appreciated by those who lack them; but the value of a sound judgment and virtue is known only to th ose who share them. The wise are not deluded by a friendship that began when one was in power. He recommended trusting the pious. Too much wealth causes greed, and ibn Hazm defined the supreme objective of gene rosity as giving away the entire surplus of one's possessions to charity. He def ined courage as fighting in defense of religion, women, ill-treated neighbors, t he oppressed who seek protection, for a lost fortune, when honor has been attack ed, and for other rights. Ibn Hazm defined continence as turning away all one's organs of sense from forbidden objects. He defined justice as giving spontaneous ly what is due and knowing how to take what is right. Nobility is to allow other s their rights willingly. "One hour of neglect can undo a year of pious effort." 12 During civil war the blossom does not set fruit. He considered it a virtue of self-discipline to confess faults so that others may learn from them. Then ibn Hazm described how he worked to overcome his faults of self-satisfaction, sarcas m, pride, trembling, love of fame, disliking women, and bearing grudges. He beli eved that the best gift from God is justice and the love of justice and truth. H e observed that anyone who cares about your friendship is willing to criticize y ou, while those who make light of faults show they do not care. Ibn Hazm warned against giving advice, interceding, or giving gifts only on the condition that they be accepted; one should not insist. He considered the highes t aim of friendship to have all things in common without constraint and preferri ng one's friend to all others. He characterized love as longing for the loved on e, fearing separation, and hoping that one's love will be reciprocated. He belie ved that jealousy is a virtuous feeling made of courage and justice, and he clai

med that a jealous person never committed adultery. He described the five stages of love as making friends, admiration, close friendship such that one misses th e other terribly, the obsession of amorous affection, and finally passion. For i bn Hazm the four roots of virtue are justice, intelligence, courage, and generos ity, and their contrary vices are unfairness, ignorance, cowardice, and greed. H e considered honesty part of justice, and temperance part of generosity. He note d that the good do have a hard time in this world, but they find rest in their c almness that others worrying about the vanities of this world do not know. The wise see their own faults and fight against them in order to overcome them. The fool ignores them, or even worse, takes them for good qualities. One should avoid speaking of the faults of others except when counseling someone face to fa ce. One should also be careful not to praise people to their face lest one be ta ken for a vile flatterer. Ibn Hazm warned against being proud of intelligence, g ood works, knowledge, and courage, because there are always others who are super ior in these good qualities; being proud of wealth, beauty, praise, ancestry, an d physical strength is ridiculous because they have no lasting value. If your pr ide causes you to boast, you are doubly guilty, because it shows that your intel ligence was unable to control your pride. He reminded us that it is harder to ta me oneself than it is to tame a wild beast, and it is also more difficult to gua rd against other humans than it is against wild animals. Ibn Hazm believed that to the well-born honor is more important than gold. The well-born should use gol d to protect one's body, one's body to protect one's soul, one's soul to protect one's honor, one's honor to protect one's religion, and one's religion should n ot be sacrificed for anything. A person wishing to be fair should put oneself in the adversary's position in order to see the unfairness of one's own behavior.

Solomon ibn Gabirol was born at Malaga in Spain about 1022 and was educated at Z aragoza. By the age of 16 he was already well known for writing poetry. He was p rotected by the king's advisor Yekutiel ibn Hasan until Hasan was imprisoned and executed in 1039. Ibn Gabirol was called a Greek for his Neo-Platonic philosoph y, and his two ethical works, Choice of Pearls and The Improvement of the Moral Qualities, were written when he was quite young. He became a court poet with the prominent Jewish statesman Samuel ha-Nagid in Granada. Samuel's son Joseph (103 1-1066) became the Jewish leader (Nagid) when he was 24, but he was killed when Muslims massacred 1500 Jewish families in Granada on one day. This was the first major persecution of Jews in Islamic Spain, and the Jews in Granada were compel led to sell their property and go into exile. Yet Abu Fadl Chasdai, the son of a poet as famous as ibn Gabirol, was made vizier in that same year of 1066 by the king of Zaragoza. Ibn Gabirol's major work on metaphysics was called The Founta in of Life, but it only survived in Latin translation with the author's name app earing as Avicebron or Avencebrol; only in 1846 was it realized that this book, which influenced Christian scholasticism, was by ibn Gabirol. His poem The Royal Crown humbly calls upon the grace of God. He may have died as early as 1051, th ough other authorities say ibn Gabirol died about 1070. Ibn Gabirol's Choice of Pearls is a collection of aphorisms, some of which were collected from ancient Greek philosophers. He passed on the advice about the fou r mental types - the wise know and are aware that they know, and one can learn f rom them; those who know but are unaware that they know need reminding; those ig norant who are aware that they are ignorant can be taught; those who are ignoran t but pretend that they know are fools and should be avoided. He noted that king s may be judges on earth, but the wise judge the kings. If one cannot control on e's temper, how much less can one control others. Those who seek more than they need hinder themselves from enjoying what they have. A person's best companion i s the intellect, and the worst enemy is desire. In The Improvement of the Moral Qualities ibn Gabirol commented on various moral

qualities. He found that intelligence and modesty go together in people. Those who hate people are hated by them, and this may destroy one, as one suffers inju ry from hostile people. Wrath is reprehensible except when it is used to correct or because of indignation for transgressions. Generosity in moderation is comme ndable but not when it lapses into prodigality, squandering substance on pleasur es and lust. Valor perseveres in the right and overcomes desires. It is better t o die in the best way than to live in an evil way. Another influential ethical work was written by Bahya Ben Joseph ibn Pakuda in t he second half of the 11th century. Bahya was a rabbinical judge in Zaragoza. He believed that one must go beyond the duties of the body required by religious t raditions, and so he wrote Duties of the Heart, describing them in ten sections called gates. Bahya tried to spiritualize ethics by appealing to conscience as m ore important than ritualized laws. He himself became a self-denying ascetic. Ba hya explained that people are blind for three reasons. First, they are too absor bed in secular affairs and pleasures. Second, they grow up surrounded with such abundance they take for granted that they do not appreciate the wisdom and bount y of God. Third, people do not seem to realize that the various mishaps that occ ur in the world are valuable trials in order to learn discipline. Bahya describe d the many blessings of life and perceived in them the miraculous design of a di vine creator. He argued that altruism is really in everyone's self-interest, for the beneficiary is under obligation to serve the benefactor. 1001 Nights and 'Umar Khayyam's Ruba'iyat The famous Arabian tales called The Thousand and One Nights derive from a Persia n collection of a Thousand Legends (Hazar Afsana) that was translated into Arabi c about 850, though new stories were being added to replace others all the way u p to at least the 15th century. Many stories are set in Baghdad at the peak of i ts wealth and splendor under Caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809); later stories are often set in Cairo. The prolog suggests that people can look back at the for tunes of predecessors to be admonished about folly. The Persian original contained the framework story of King Shahzaman, who caught his wife in bed with a black slave and killed them. While his brother King Shah ryar was hunting, Shahzaman also found his brother's wife embracing an African i n a slave orgy. Shahryar had his wife's head cut off and ordered his vizier to b ring him a virgin girl every night; these he ravished each night and in the morn ing had them executed until the vizier could no longer find girls for his king. The vizier's daughter Shahrazad was very well read and volunteered to be ransom for the other daughters. After King Shahryar ravished the virginity of Shahrazad , she sent for her younger sister Dunyazad, who asked her to tell the king stori es to pass the night pleasantly. At dawn Shahrazad discreetly stopped speaking, and the king, wanting to hear the end of the story, postponed her execution. Eve ry night Shahrazad would tell stories and stop when she saw morning approaching, and the king would ask her to complete her story the next night. Finally after a thousand and one nights, Shahrazad had born three children. Both kings Shahrya r and Shazaman decided to put aside their resentment of women's treachery, and S hahzaman married Dunyazad. The stories marvelously describe urban Islamic culture, and magical genies and I frits make any fantasy come true. Few stories relate to war and the military, wh ile many are frankly erotic. In the "Tale of the Second Sheikh" he tells his Ifr itah wife not to kill his brothers because they know that the wicked person suff ers punishment enough. In "The Fisherman and the Genie" King Yunan kills his phy sician Rayyan, because he fears the physician may kill him; but the vizier expla ins to the Ifrit that God would have preserved Yunan if he had preserved the phy sician. The Ifrit asks the vizier to return good for evil by pardoning his wrong . Tales within tales lead eventually to a fisherman becoming the richest man in the country. A brother and sister who committed incest were punished by being bu rned in a fire, and their punishment in the next world is expected to be even wo

rse. A Christian broker tells how he had his hand cut off for stealing. "The Tale of King Umar Al-Numan and His Two Remarkable Sons, Sharkan and Du Al-M akan" concerns battles with the Byzantine empire and shows the Christian warrior s in a negative light epitomized by the wicked old Mother-of-Calamity. In this s tory a section on the art of conduct mentions four human ways of government, com merce, husbandry, and craftsmanship. One must beware that pity weakens governmen t but also that lack of pity stirs revolt. The road away from the house of moder ation leads to the town of foolishness. One should be just, especially to slaves . Girls give wise discourses to King Umar. A qadi to judge justly should look at both sides and make no difference between rich and poor. His duty is to reconci le people if possible to maintain peace. When in doubt, he should reserve judgme nt. Justice is the first human duty. It is better for the unjust to turn toward justice even than for a just person to remain so. Humans judge only appearances, but God will judge what is hidden. A judge should not try to exact confession b y torture or starvation. The three things that make a judge useless are respecti ng place, loving praise, and fearing to lose one's position. A second girl says, There are three things which are possible only under three conditions: you may not know if a man be really good until you have seen him in his anger; you may not know if a man be brave until you have seen him in battle; you may not know if a man be a friend until you have come to him in necessity. A tyrant will pay for his injustice, in spite of the flattering words of his courtiers; the oppressed will escape per dition, in spite of all injustice. Deal with people according to their deeds and not according to their words. Yet deeds are not worth the intentions which inspire them; therefore each man shall be judged according to his intentions and not according to his deeds. The heart is the noblest member of the body. A wise man said that the worst of men is he who allows an evil desire to take root in his heart, for he shall lose his manhood.13 When King Shahryar asks Shahrazad for a tale to fortify their moral precepts, sh e tells him of a girl named Sympathy, who was known for her learning as well as her beauty. She advises that a holy war should only be undertaken for defensive purposes when Islam is in danger, and it should never be offensive. To give is t o enrich oneself. Sympathy's wisdom includes the following duties of religion: The branches of Islam are twenty: strict observance of the Book's teaching, conformation with the traditions and oral instructions of the Prophet, the avoidance of injustice, eating permitted food, never to eat unpermitted food, to punish evil doers that vice may not increase owing to the exaggerated clemency of the virtuous, repentance, profound study of religion, to do good to enemies, to be modest, to succor the servants of Allah, to avoid all innovation and change, to show courage in adversity and strength in time of trial, to pardon when one is strong, to be patient in misfortune, to know Allah, to know His Prophet (upon whom be prayer and peace!), to resist the suggestions of the Evil One, to fight against the passions and wicked instincts of the soul, to be wholly vowed in confidence and submission to the service of Allah.14

Faith abides in the heart, the head, the tongue, and in the members. The strengt h of the heart is joy; strength of the head is in knowing the truth; strength in the tongue is in sincerity; strength of the members is in submission. In introd ucing moral anecdotes from a perfumed garden Shahrazad warns the king that to gr oss and narrow minds they might seem licentious; but to the pure and clean all t hings are pure and clean, and it is not shameful to speak of things which lie be low the waist. A story about Buhlul the jester in the court of Harun al-Rashid is perhaps one o f the earliest references to the medieval court jesters or fools. When the Calip h asks Buhlul to make a list of all the fools in Baghdad, he suggests that it wo uld be easier to make a list of all the wise men and then conclude that all the others are fools. The second-to-last tale attempts to explain why al-Rashid had his body-guard Masrur execute their best friend, Vizier Jafar of the Barmakid fa mily. The rest of that family that numbered nearly a thousand were thrown into d ungeons, and their goods were confiscated. The Caliph feared that Yahya al-Barma ki and his sons had taken away the management of the government from him. Also t hey had previously practiced the Magian cult, and during the expedition to Khura san, they had used their power to prevent the destruction of Magian temples and monuments. Jafar had agreed to marry Harun's sister Abbasah but never see her ex cept in his presence. Al-Rashid became so jealous when he learned that she bore a child that he had his own sister and the baby buried alive. The tales of the Arabian nights were translated into French in 1704 and since th en have provided immense entertainment to western culture that still continues i n adventure movies based on the voyages of Sindbad and stories of Aladdin's lamp . Analysis of his horoscope has indicated that 'Umar Khayyam was born May 18, 1048 , and modern investigation has put his death in 1131. He was educated at Khurasa n's capital Nishapur and at Balkh. He was most noted in his life as an astronome r, mathematician, and philosopher. He wrote his influential treatise on algebra at Samarkand. In 1074 he was summoned by Seljuk sultan Malik-Shah and his famous vizier Nizam al-Mulk to construct an observatory and revise the calendar; the n ew era was inaugurated on March 16, 1079. His patron allowed 'Umar Khayyam leisu re for writing. After Nizam al-Mulk died in 1092, 'Umar Khayyam went on pilgrima ge. He made an enemy of Sanjar when he predicted the child would die of an ailme nt. Sanjar governed Khurasan from 1117 and was Sultan 1137-1157. It was reported that 'Umar Khayyam died while reading Avicenna's chapter on the one and the man y, praying to God that he had only his knowledge to recommend himself. Ruba'iyat means quatrains, and hundreds of these attributed to 'Umar Khayyam wer e collected after his death. English renderings were made famous by the Victoria n poet Edward Fitzgerald. Unlike traditional Islamic belief and Sufi mysticism, these writings question the existence of God and the immortality of the soul. Th e poet recommended the sensual pleasures of the present rather than asceticism o r study. Yet he once wrote, "If the heart could grasp the meaning of life, in de ath it would know the mystery of God."15 His ethics was not in the least transce ndental as this quatrain indicates: The good and evil that are in man's heart. The joy and sorrow that are our fortune and destiny, Do not impute them to the wheel of heaven because, in the light of reason, The wheel is a thousand times more helpless than you.16 Although 'Umar Khayyam in his quatrains often recommended drinking wine, which i s forbidden by the Qur'an, he nevertheless advised doing so wisely. If you drink wine, do it with men of sense, Or drink with a tulip-cheeked paragon of girlhood;

Don't overdo it, or make it your constant refrain, or give the show away; Drink in moderation, occasionally, and in private.17 'Umar Khayyam found responsibility in each person. It is we who are the source of happiness, the mine of our own sorrow, The repository of justice and foundation of iniquity; We who are cast down and exalted, perfect and defective, At once the rusted mirror and Jamshid's all-seeing cup.18 'Umar Khayyam disliked religious hypocrisy and suggested that if all are not sav ed, then none will be. Drinking wine and consorting with good fellows Is better than practicing the ascetic's hypocrisy; If the lover and drunkard are to be among the damned Then no one will see the face of heaven.19 Notes 1. Nizam al-Mulk, The Book of Government tr. Hubert Drake, p. 187. 2. Ibid., p. 187. 3. Ibid., p. 231. 4. Quoted in Islam ed. John Alden Williams, p. 138. 5. 'Attar, Tadhikrat al- 'Awliyal' tr. Paul Losensky in Early Islamic Mysticism, p. 163. 6. Ibid., p. 169. 7. Abu Nu'aym al-Isfahani Hilyat ul-auliya'. Vol. 10, p. 58 quoted in Schimmel, Annemarie, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, p. 51. 8. Abu l-Qasim al-Junayd, Some Points on Tawhid in Early Islamic Mysticism, p. 2 55. 9. Ibn Hazm, A Philosophy of Character and Conduct tr. James Kritzeck in Antholo gy of Islamic Literature, p. 133. 10. Ibid., p. 134. 11. Ibn Hazm, Morality and Behavior tr. Muhammad Abu Laylah in In Pursuit of Vir tue 26, p. 127. 12. Ibid., 93, p. 140. 13. The Thousand Nights and One Night tr. J. D. Mardrus and Powys Mathers, Volum e 1, p. 429. 14. Ibid., Volume 2, p. 153. 15. Rub'iyat of Omar Khayyam 5 tr. Peter Avery and John Heath-Stubbs, p. 48. 16. Ibid., 34, p. 54. 17. Ibid., 202, p. 97. 18. Ibid., 211, p. 99. 19. Ibid., 222, p. 101. 2000-2003 by Sanderson Beck Contents Muhammad and the Spread of Islam Islamic Culture 750-1095 Byzantine Empire 610-1095 Franks and Anglo-Saxons 613-899 Vikings and Feudal Europe 900-1095 Crusaders, Greeks, and Muslims Islamic Culture 1095-1300 Europe's 12th-Century Development Beck home