Noise in Communication Systems

Introduction
Noise is the static you hear in the speaker when you tune any AM
or FM receiver to any position between stations. It is also the
snow or confetti that is visible on a TV screen.
NOISE
3
Any unwanted form of electrical energy, usually
random or aperiodic in character, which tends to
interfere with the proper and easy reception and
reproduction of transmitted signals.
Introduction
Noise is a general term which is used to describe an unwanted
signal which affects a wanted signal.
Noise is a random signal that exists in a communication
system.
Random signal cannot be represented with a simple equation.
Introduction
The noise level in a system is proportional to:
temperature and bandwidth,
the amount of current flowing in a component,
the gain of the circuit,
the resistance of the circuit.
5
DISTORTION and
INTERFERENCE
6
Any waveform
perturbation or
deviation caused
by the imperfect
response of the
system to the
desired signal
Contamination by
extraneous or external
signals from human
sources, other
transmitters, power
lines, machinery,
switching circuits, and
related sources
DISTORTION INTERFERENCE
Man-made noise and natural
resources
External noise comes from
sources over which we have
little or no control
Industrial sources such as
motors, generators, and
manufactured equipment
Atmospheric sources / static
electricity such as speaker
when there is no signal
present
Sources of noise
Noise
Internal Noise External Noise
Due to random movement of
electrons in electronic circuit.
Electronic components in a
receiver such as resistors,
diodes, and transistors are
major sources of internal
noise
Thermal noise/Johnson
noise
Shot noise
RESULTS OF NOISE
8
hiss - loudspeakers
snow or confetti TV CRT
bit error digital transmission
GENERAL CATEGORIES
of NOISE
9
CORRELATED
NOISE
unwanted electrical
energy that is present
as a direct result of a
signal, such as
harmonic and
intermodulation
distortion.
noise present
regardless of
whether there is a
signal or none.
UNCORRELATED
NOISE
CORRELATED NOISE
10
unwanted multiples of
a single frequency
created when
amplified in non-
linear device
% THD = V
higher
/V
fundamental
HARMONIC
DISTORTION
unwanted cross-
product (sum and
difference)
frequencies created
when two or more
signals are amplified
in a non-linear
device.
INTERMODULATION
DISTORTION
11
UNCORRELATED
NOISE
noise created outside the
receiver and allowed to
enter the circuit
noise created within the
receiver or the device.
EXTERNAL
INTERNAL
Noise Effect
The effects of noise are as follow:
Degrade system performance for both analog and digital
systems.
The receiver cannot understand the original signal.
The receiver cannot function as it should be.
Reduce the efficiency of communication system.
Types of Noise
The are several types of noise, among them are:
1. Thermal Noise/White Noise
2. Shot Noise
3. Noise Temperature
4. Quantization Noise
Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise /white
noise)
Thermal noise is the result of the random motion of charged
particles (usually electrons) in a conducting medium such as a
resistor.
This type of noise is generated by all resistances (e.g. a resistor,
semiconductor, the resistance of a resonant circuit, i.e. the real part
of the impedance, cable etc).
Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise /white noise)
16
When the temperature increases the movement of free
electrons will increases and causes current flows
through the conductor.
Movement of the
electrons will form
kinetic energy in the
conductor related to
the temperature of the
conductor.
Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Contd)
Thermal noise is often referred to as white noise because it has a
uniform spectral density across the EM frequency spectrum.
(analogous to the color white which consists of all the color
spectrum)
Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Contd)
Experimental results (by Johnson) and theoretical studies (by
Nyquist) give the mean square noise voltage as
18
) ( 4
2
2
_
volt TBR k V =
Where k = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 x 10
-23
Joules per K
T = absolute temperature (Kelvin)
B = bandwidth noise measured in (Hz)
R = resistance (ohms)
In 1928, J. B. Johnson have proven that noise power
generated is proportional to the temperature and the BW.
Noise power can be modeled using voltage equivalent
circuit (Thevenin equivalent circuit) or current equivalent
circuit (Norton equivalent circuit)
Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Contd)
In dB, it is defined as:
P
dBm
= 10log(KTB/0.001)
Analysis of Noise In Communication
Systems
Thermal noise may be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown
below
) ( 4
2
____
2
volt TBR k V =
n
V kTBR = =
(mean square value , power) then V
RMS
i.e. V
n
is the RMS noise voltage.
Resistors in Series
Resistors in Series
2
2
___
2
1
___
____
2
n n
n
V V V + =
1 1
____
2
1
4 R B T k V
n
=
2 2
____
2
2
4 R B T k V
n
=
) ( 4
2 2 1 1
____
2
R T R T B k V
n
+ =
) ( 4
2 1
____
2
R R B kT V
n
+ =
Assume that R
1
at temperature T
1
and R
2
at temperature T
2,
then
The resistor in series at same temperature behave as a single
resistor
Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems
Resistance in Parallel
Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems
Resistance in Parallel
2 1
2
1 1
R R
R
V V
n o
+
=
2 1
1
2 2
R R
R
V V
n o
+
=
( )
| |
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
=
+ =
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2 2 1 1 2 1
2 1
2 1
2 2
2
1 1 1
2
2
2
2 1
2
2
___
2
1
___
____
2
4
) ( 4
4
R R
R R
kTB
R R
R T R T R R kB
R R
R R
R T R R T R
R R
kB
V V V
o o
n
Example 1
Given a 50 resistor at a temperature of 290 K, 3 kHz
bandwidth. Find V
rms
value of noise:
from Kelvin to Kelvin
Celsius [C] = [K] 273.15 [K] = [C] + 273.15
Fahrenheit [F] = [K]
9

5
459.67 [K] = ([F] + 459.67)
5

9
nV
- . V
TBR k V
n
49
50 3000 290 23 10 38 1 4
4
____
2
=
=
=
Example 2
One operational amplifier with a frequency range of (18-20) MHz has
input resistance 10 kO. Calculate noise voltage at the input if the
amplifier operate at ambient temperature of 27
0
C.
26
V
. V
kTBR V
-
n
n
18
10 10 2 ) 27 273 ( 10 38 1 4
4
4 6 23
2
=
+ =
=
Remember to convert the
temperature to Kelvin
EXAMPLE 3
A receiver has a noise power bandwidth of 10 kHz. A resistor that
matches the receiver input impedance is connected across its
antenna terminals. Determine the Noise Power if the resistor has
temperature of 27
o
C.
SOLUTION :
1. Use Noise Power formula
2. P = (1.38 x 10
-23
J/K)(273
o
+ 27
o
K)(10000 Hz)
= 4.14 x 10
-17
W.
3. in dBm,
P(dBm) = 10log[(4.14 x 10
-17
W) / 0.001] = -133.8
P = KTB
Shot Noise
Shot noise is a type of electronic noise that occurs when there are
finite number of particles that carry energy, such as electrons in an
electronic circuit or photons in an optical device
Shot noise was originally used to describe noise due to random
fluctuations in electron emission from cathodes in vacuum tubes
(called shot noise by analogy with lead shot).
Shot noise also occurs in semiconductors due to the release of
charge carriers.
Shot noise is found to have a uniform spectral density as for
thermal noise (White noise)
29
INTERNAL NOISE
Random variations in the arrival of
electrons (or holes) at the output
electrode of an amplifying device
SHOT NOISE
When amplified, it is supposed to
sound as though a shower of lead
shot were falling on a metal sheet.
i
n
=(2ei
p
B)
30
INTERNAL NOISE
SHOT NOISE
i
n
= shot noise rms current
e = electric charge, 1.6 x 10
-19
C
I
p
= DC current
B = bandwidth
i
n
=(2ei
p
B)
How to determine noise level in
communication system?
Noise effect can be determined by measuring:
- Signal to Noise Ratio, SNR for analog system
- Noise Factor, F
- Noise Temperature, T
e
.
- probability of error or bit error rate, BER for digital system
To determine the quality of received signal at the receiver or
an antenna, SNR
i
is used.
SNR
o
is always less than SNR
i
, due to the facts that the
existence of noise in the receiver itself. In the receiver usually
constitute a process of filtering, demodulation and
amplification.
31
Signal to Noise Ratio
33
) ( ,
) ( ,
watts Pn Power Noise
watts Ps Power Signal
N
S
=
The signal to noise ratio is given by
The signal to noise in dB is expressed by
dBm dBm dB
N S
N
S
=
|
.
|

\
|
for S and N measured in mW.
dB
N
S
N
S
10
log 10 =
Example :
For an amplifier with an output signal power of 10 W and an
output noise power of 0.01 w, determine the signal to noise
power ratio
34
Signal to Noise Ratio
Solution :
To express in dB;
1000
01 . 0
10
= = =
Pn
Ps
N
S
dB
N
S
N
S
dB
30
01 . 0
10
log 10 log 10
10
= =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
Signal to noise power ratio can be expressed in terms of
voltages and resistances.
35
Signal to Noise Ratio
Where;
Rin = input resistance (ohms)
Rout = output resistance (ohms)
Vs = signal voltage (volts)
Vn = noise voltage (volts)
)
/
/
log( 10 ) (
2
2
out n
in s
R V
R V
dB
N
S
=
If the input and
output resistances
of the amplifier,
receiver or
network being
evaluated are
equal
Example :
For an amplifier with an output signal voltage of 4V,
an output noise voltage of 0.005 V, and an input and
output resistance of 50 ohm, determine the signal to
noise power ratio.
Solution :
36
Signal to Noise Ratio
dB
V
V
N
S
n
s
dB
06 . 58
005 . 0
4
log 20 log 20
10
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
37
Noise Factor- Noise Figure
Noise factor, F =
( )
( )
OUT
IN
N
S
N
S
F equals to 1 for noiseless and in general F > 1.
lower the value of F, the better the network.
Consider the network shown below,
38
Noise Factor- Noise Figure (Contd)
Noise figure (NF) is the Noise factor converted to dB
Noise Figure (NF) dB = 10 log
10
(F)
NF = SNR
in
SNR
out
If every variable is a dB Noise figure;
Example :
The signal to noise ratio at the input to a communication
receiver is 40 dB. If the receiver has a noise figure of 12 dB,
calculate the output signal to noise ratio
39
Noise Factor- Noise Figure (Contd)
Solution :
NF = SNR
in
SNR
out
SNR
out
= SNR
in
NF
= 40 -12
= 28 dB
Noise Temperature
40
Noise temperature (Te) is expressed as :
Where;
Te = equivalent noise temperature (Kelvin)
T = environmental temperature (reference value of 290 K)
F = Noise factor
Te = T(F-1)
Equivalent noise temperature T
e
is not the physical temperature
of the amplifier, but rather a theoretical construct that is an
equivalent temperature that produces that amount of noise
power
Cascaded Network
41
A receiver systems usually consists of a number of passive or active
elements connected in series. A typical receiver block diagram is
shown below, with example
In order to determine the (S/N) at the input, the overall receiver noise
figure or noise temperature must be determined. In order to do this all
the noise must be referred to the same point in the receiver, for
example to A, the feeder input or B, the input to the first amplifier.
Cascaded Network
42
Total noise factor is the accumulation of the individual noise factors.
Friiss formula is used to calculate the total noise factor of several
cascade amplifiers.
F1
F2
F3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 3 2 1
4
2 1
3
1
2
1
..........
1
. ..........
1 1 1

+ +

+ =
n
n
sys
G G G
F
G G G
F
G G
F
G
F
F F
Where;
Fn = Noise factor (dB)
Gn = Power gain , amplifier n
System Noise Figure
43
Assume that a system comprises the elements shown below,
Assume that these are now cascaded and connected to an aerial at the input, with
ae IN
N N =
from the aerial.
Now, ( )
3 3 3 e IN OUT
N N G N + =
( ) ( )
IN IN
N F N G 1
3 3 3
+ =
Since
( ) ( ) ( )
IN IN e IN IN
N F N G N N G N 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 3
+ = + =
similarly
( ) ( )
IN ae IN
N F N G N 1
1 1 2
+ =
System Noise Figure (Contd)
( ) | | ( ) | | ( )
IN IN IN ae OUT
N F G N F G N F G N G G G N 1 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 3
+ + + =
The overall system Noise Factor is
ae
OUT
IN
OUT
sys
N G G G
N
GN
N
F
3 2 1
= =
( )
( ) ( )
ae
IN
ae
IN
ae
IN
N
N
G G
F
N
N
G
F
N
N
F
2 1
3
1
2
1
1 1
1 1

+

+ + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 3 2 1
4
2 1
3
1
2
1
..........
1
. ..........
1 1 1

+ +

+ =
n
n
sys
G G G
F
G G G
F
G G
F
G
F
F F
The equation is called FRIIS Formula.
System Noise Temperature
45
46
Example Cascade
Three amplifiers, ABC was connected in series. Noise figure and power
gain of the amplifiers are given below:
Amplifier A : G
A
= 20 dB F
A
= 3 dB
Amplifier B : G
B
= 10 dB F
B
= 5 dB
Amplifier C : G
C
= 5 dB F
C
= 10 dB
An input signal of 50 dB higher than noise level was fed at the input of the
network. Calculate:
(a) Total noise factor
(b) SNR at the output
47
03 . 2
10 9 0216 . 0 99 . 1
1000
1 10
100
1 16 . 3
99 . 1
10 100
1 10
100
1 10
10
1 1
3
10 / 5
10 3
2 1
3
1
2
1
=
+ + =

+ =

+ =

+ =

G G
F
G
F
F F
(b) SNR
INPUT
= 50 dB
Solution:
utput SNR
input SNR
F
0
=
F
dB
= SNR
input
(dB) SNR
output
(dB)
SNR OUTPUT = 50 dB 3.05 dB = 46.95 dB
A B
C
Amplifier A : G
A
= 20 dB F
A
= 3 dB
Amplifier B : G
B
= 10 dB F
B
= 5 dB
Amplifier C : G
C
= 5 dB F
C
= 10 dB
(a) N.F. dB = 10 log
10
2.03 = 3.05 dB
Summary
48
Thermal Noise
Signal - to Noise
Noise Factor
Noise Figure
) ( 4
2
2
_
volt TBR k V =
) ( ,
) ( ,
watts Pn Power Noise
watts Ps Power Signal
N
S
=
( )
( )
OUT
IN
N
S
N
S
Noise Figure (NF) dB = 10 log10 (F)
Summary
Noise Temperature
Cascaded Networks
49
Te = T(F-1)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 3 2 1
4
2 1
3
1
2
1
..........
1
. ..........
1 1 1

+ +

+ =
n
n
sys
G G G
F
G G G
F
G G
F
G
F
F F
Problem
A 300 resistor is connected across the 300
antenna input of a TV receiver. The bandwidth
of the receiver is 6 MHz and the temperature
20 C. Find the noise power and the noise
voltage to the receiver input.
50
Problem
A diode noise generator is required to produce
10V of noise in a receiver with an input
resistive impedance of 75 and a noise power
bandwidth of 200 KHz. What is the current
through the diode?
51
Problem
Given two resistors in series at two different
temperatures:
R1 = 100 ; T1 = 300 K
R2 = 200 ; T2 = 400 K
Find the total noise voltage.
52