1

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

M ot i on i s change i n posi t i on of an obj ect w i t h t i me. The descr i pt i on of how an obj ect moves i s
cal l ed ki nemat i cs. The st udy of f or ces and t hei r ef f ect on mot i on i s cal l ed dynami cs. The st r ai ght l i ne
mot i on or mot i on i n one di mensi on i s t he si mpl est mot i on. Thi s i s al so know n as rect i linear mot ion. We
consi der t he mot i on of poi nt obj ect s cal l ed par t i cl es. If t he di st ance moved by an obj ect i s much l ar ger
t han t he i t s si ze, i t can be t r eat ed as poi nt obj ect .
The r ect i l i near mot i on may be hor i zont al , ver t i cal or sl ant .
Test your know ledge:
1. In w hi ch of t he f ol lowi ng exampl es, t he obj ect can be consi der ed a poi nt obj ect ?
a. A cr i cket ball t hr ow n by a f i el der f r om t he boundar y t o t he wi cket -keeper .
b. A mot or -bi ke moving bet w een Ghaziabad and Chandigarh.
c. A f oot bal l ki cked by a pl ayer t owar ds anot her player 4 m away.
d. The dr i ver of a car dr iving i t i n a lar ge ci r cular pat h.
e. A cup f all ing of f edge of a t abl e.
Position, Path Length and Displacement:
As mot i on i s change i n posi t i on of an obj ect w i t h t i me, w e need t o speci f y posi t i on. For t hi s
pur pose, a r ef er ence poi nt and a set of coor di nat e axes ar e r equi r ed. Gener all y w e choose or i gi n of a
r ect angul ar coor di nat e syst em as t he r ef er ence poi nt . Thi s coor di nat e syst em has t hr ee axes- X-, Y-, and
Z- axes. These ar e mut uall y per pendi cular axes. The posi t i on of an obj ect w i t h r espect t o t hi s coor di nat e
syst em i s descr i bed by t he coor di nat es (x, y. z).
A par t i cl e is sai d t o be at r est i f al l t he t hr ee coor di nat es x, y and z r emai n unchanged as t ime
passes. If any one or mor e coor di nat es change w i t h t i me,
t he obj ect (par t i cl e) i s sai d t o be i n mot i on.
We can choose a set of axes i n a f r ame of
r ef er ence dependi ng upon t he si t uat i on gi ven. For
exampl e, t o descr i be mot i on i n one di mensi on, onl y one
axi s i s r equi r ed. It may be X-, Y- or Z- axi s. For t he
descr i pt i on of mot i on i n t w o or t hr ee di mensi ons, a set of t w o or t hr ee axes, r espect i vel y i s r equi r ed.
The descr i pt i on of mot i on depends on t he f r ame of r ef er ence chosen. For exampl e, suppose w e
ar e t r avel li ng i n a bus movi ng on a r oad. Wi t h r espect t o a f r ame of r ef er ence at t ached t o t he gr ound,
bus i s movi ng. But w i t h r espect t o a f r ame of r ef er ence at t ached t o us, t he bus i s at r est .
To describe mot ion along a st raight line, an axis ( X-, Y- or Z-axis) i s so chosen t hat it coincides
w it h t he pat h of t he part icle. The posi t i ons of t he obj ect ar e measur ed w i t h r ef er ence t o an or i gi n. The
posi t i ons of t he par t i cl e may be posi t ive or negat ive. For exampl e, on t he X-axi s, posi t i ons t o t he r i ght of
or i gi n ar e assumed t o be posi t i ve and t o t he l ef t of or i gi n, as negat i ve.

Pat h lengt h (Dist ance):
It i s equal t o t he act ual pat h t r aver sed by a par t i cl e bet w een t he i ni t i al and f i nal posi t i ons. It i s a
scal ar quant i t y. It i s al w ays posi t i ve. As show n i n f i gure 1, a par t i cl e st ar t s f r om or i gi n O (x = 0) at t = 0
and A, B and C ar e i t s posi t i ons at di f f er ent i nst ant s of t i me. If t he par t i cl e moves f r om O t o B, t he
di st ance cover ed by t he
par t i cl e i s OB = +140 m. Thi s
di st ance i s t he pat h l engt h
t r aver sed by t he par t i cl e.
Now , i f t he par t i cl e moves
back f r om B t o C. The t ot al
pat h l engt h t r aver sed by t he
par t i cl e i s OB + BC = + 140 m + (+180 m) = + 320 m. Tw o poi nt s shoul d be not ed her e:
W ha t is a f ra me of ref erence?
A coordina t e syst em a long w it h a
t ime-mea suring device (a clock) is ca lled a
fra me of reference.


2
1. Pat h l engt h (di st ance) does not depend on t he di r ect ion of mot i on of t he par t i cl e, i .e. i t i s a scalar
quant i t y, a quant i t y t hat has a magni t ude onl y and no di r ect i on.
2. Pat h l engt h i s al w ays posi t ive.

Displacement :
The di spl acement of a par t i cl e i s di f f er ence bet w een t w o posi t i ons i t occupi es. A movi ng par t i cl e
cont i nuousl y changes i t s posi t i on. A change f r om one posi t i on x
1
(i ni t i al posi t i on at poi nt A) t o anot her
posi t i on x
2
(f i nal posi t i on at poi nt B) i s cal l ed a displacement . See f i gur e 2. It i s gi ven by
A x = x
2
x
1

Di spl acement may be posi t i ve, negat i ve or zer o. If x
2
> x
1
, x i s posi t i ve; and i f x
2
< x
1
, x i s
negat i ve. It i s zer o i f x
2
= x
1
.
Di spl acement i s a vect or quant i t y as i t has bot h
magni t ude and di r ect i on. A x i s a vect or di r ect ed f r om x
1
t o x
2
. In
a st r ai ght l i ne mot i on (or r ect i l i near mot i on or one-di mensi onal
mot i on), t her e ar e onl y t w o possi ble di r ect i ons. If t he gi ven
di r ect i on of mot i on of a par t i cl e i s assumed t o be posi t i ve, t he
di r ect i on opposi t e t o i t w i l l be negat i ve. In t he f i gur e 1,
di spl acement of t he par t i cl e i n movi ng f r om O t o B i s gi ven by
A x = x
2
x
1

= (+140 m) 0 m
= +140 m
The di spl acement has a magni t ude of 140 m and i s di r ect ed al ong t he + X-axi s. If w e cal cul at e
t he di spl acement of t he par t i cl e f r om B t o A, i t i s gi ven by
A x = x
2
x
1

= (+ 80 m) 140 m
= 60 m.
The ve si gn r ef er s t o t he di r ect i on of di spl acement vect or . Thi s i s an i mpor t ant f act about t he
st r ai ght l i ne mot i on. W e don t need t o use vect or not at ion in one-dimensional mot ion. The posi t i ve
and negat i ve si gns ar e suf f i ci ent t o i ndi cat e t he di r ect i on of mot i on of a par t i cl e.
If w e st ar t f r om a par t i cul ar poi nt and t hen move east 5 met er s, our di spl acement i s 5 m east . If
w e t hen t ur n back, w i t h a di spl acement of 5 m w est , w e w oul d have t r avel l ed a t ot al dist ance (pat h
l engt h) of 10 m, but our net di spl acement i s zer o, because i ni t i al and f i nal posi t i ons ar e same.
Thus, i t i s cl ear t hat t he magnit ude of displacement
may or may not be equal t o t he pat h lengt h t raversed by an
obj ect and t he magni t ude of t he di spl acement f or a cour se of
mot i on may be zer o but t he cor r espondi ng pat h l engt h i s not
zer o.

Test your know ledge:
2. A man leaves his home in his car goes to store and then ret urns to his home aft er t ravelling 5 km in one hour. What i s
hi s di st ance and di spl acement ?
3. An at hlet e runs on a circular pat h of radius r and complet es half t he revolut ion. What is t he di splacement and t he
di st ance t ravel l ed by t he at hl et e?
4. Un d er w h a t co n d i t i o n t h e d i st a n ce co v er ed b y a p a r t i cl e i s eq u a l t o t h e ma g n i t u d e o f
di spl acement of par t i cl e?
5. Can a bo dy he sai d t o b e a t r est a s w el l a s i n mo t i on a t t he sa me t i me?
Example 1
A body moves t ow ards east by a dist ance 3 km a nd t urns t ow ards nort h a nd moves a dist a nce of 4 km.
W ha t is t he displa cement of t he body?
The numerica l rat io of ma gnit ude
of displa cement t o dist a nce is

1. The
va lue of t his ra t io is equa l t o 1 in a
uniform mot ion a long a st ra ight line
in a given direct ion.


3
Position- time gr aph:
The mot i on of a par t i cl e i n one-di mensi onal mot i on can be descr i bed by a posi t i on-t i me gr aph.
We choose an axi s (f or exampl e, X-axi s) al ong t he di rect i on of mot i on of t he par t i cl e. As t he mot i on i s
one-di mensi onal , onl y t he x-coor di nat e var i es wi t h t i me. The r esul t i ng gr aph i s x-t gr aph. The x-t gr aph
may t ake di f f er ent shapes dependi ng on t he t ype of m ot i on.
The f i gur e 3 show s posi t i on-t i me gr aphs of di f f er ent
par t i cl es A, B, C and D. The par t i cl e A has t he same posi t i on (10 m
f r om t he r ef er ence poi nt ) at al l t i mes. Hence, i t i s st at i onar y. The
par t i cl es B, C and D show di f f er ent di spl acement s of t he par t i cl e at
di f f er ent t i mes. Hence, t hese ar e al l i n mot i on. But t hey r epr esent
di f f er ent t ypes of mot i on.
In posi t i on-t i me gr aphs of par t i cl es B and C, t he angl e
bet w een t he st r ai ght l i ne and t he X-axi s (i .e., t he sl ope of t he
posi t i on-t i me l i ne) i s al w ays t he same at t hei r r espect i ve val ues
(di f f er ent but const ant ). In ot her w or ds, t hey cover equal di st ances
i n equal i nt er val s of t ime. Ther ef or e, t hey ar e sai d t o be i n unif orm
mot ion al ong a st r ai ght l i ne.
The i mport ant diff erence bet w een t he mot ions of part icles B and C is t hat t hey are moving in
opposit e direct ions. It i s cl ear f r om t he posi t i on-t i me gr aphs of par t i cl es B and C. The posi t i on of par t i cl e
B i s i ncr easi ng f r om t he r ef er ence poi nt (or or i gi n) al ong +ve X-axi s but t he posi t i on of par t i cl e C i s
decr easi ng f r om t he r ef er ence poi nt .
For par t i cl e D, t he posi t i on-t i me gr aph i ndi cat es t hat i n equal t i me-i nt er val s, t he posi t i on
changes by di f f er ent amount s. Hence, i t has variable mot ion. The di r ect i on of mot i on of par t i cl es B and
D i s same (al ong +X-axi s).
NOTE:
Ther e i s no accelerat ion in t he mot ion of part icles B and C. So, no f or ce i s r equi r ed t o make t he
par t i cl es move w i t h uni f orm vel oci t y (t o be di scussed l at er ). In such cases, i nst ant aneous vel oci t y i s
al w ays equal t o t he aver age vel oci t y. The mot ion of part icle D is acce lerat ed.

Test your know ledge:
6. What i s t he nat ur e of t he di spl acement -t i me curve of a body moving wi t h const ant veloci t y?
7. What i s t he slope of t he di splacement -t ime curve, when t he body moves w it h const ant velocit y?
8. The di spl acement of a movi ng body i s pr opor t ional t o t he squar e of t i me. Is t he body moving wi t h unif or m
veloci t y or unif or m accel er at i on?
9. What i s t he nat ur e of di splacement - t i me cur ve of a body moving wi t h uni f or m accel er at ion?

Example 2
A drunka rd w a lking in a na rrow la ne t a kes 5 st eps forw a rd a nd 3 st eps ba ckw a rd, follow ed a ga in by 5
st eps forw a rd a nd 3 st eps ba ckw a rd, a nd so on. Ea ch st ep is 1 m long a nd requires 1 s. Plot t he x-t gra ph of his
mot ion. Det ermine gra phica lly a nd ot herw ise how long t he drunka rd t a kes t o fa ll in a pit 13 m a w a y from t he
st a rt .

Aver age Velocit y and Aver age Speed:
Aver age vel oci t y measures t he r at e at w hi ch t he posi t i on of a par t i cl e changes w i t h t i me and i n
w hat di r ect i on. It i s def i ned as t he r at i o of change i n posi t i on (or di spl acement x) and t he t i me i nt er val s
(t ), i n w hi ch t he di spl acement occur s. Agai n, w e don t need t o use t he vect or not at ion in one-
dimensional mot ion. It can be speci f i ed by + ve and ve si gns. Thus, t he aver age vel oci t y i s gi ven by
u =
x
2
- x
1
t
2
-t
1
=
x
t



4
w her e x
2
and x
1
ar e t he posi t i ons of t he par t i cl e at
i nst ant s of t i me t
2
and t
1
, r espect i vel y. The bar over a symbol i s a st andar d not at i on t hat r ef er s t o an
aver age quant i t y. Hence,u i ndi cat es t he aver age vel oci t y.
The SI unit f or velocit y (bot h aver age and i nst ant aneous) i s m/ s or m s
1
. The SI unit f or speed
(bot h aver age and i nst ant aneous) i s al so m/ s or m s
1
. Thei r dimensions are [ LT
1
] .
The aver age vel oci t y i s a vect or quant it y l i ke displ acement .
The average velocit y can be posit ive or negat ive depending upon t he sign of t he displacement .
It can also be zero i f t he di spl acement i s zer o. In f igure 3, t he x-t gr aphs of t he par t i cl e A show s t hat i t i s
st at i onar y. The x-t gr aphs of t he par t i cl e B show s t hat i t i s movi ng w i t h const ant posi t i ve vel oci t y and t he
par t i cl e C i s movi ng wi t h const ant negat i ve vel oci t y. The x-t gr aphs of t he par t i cl e D show s t hat i t i s
movi ng wi t h var i abl e posi t i ve vel oci t y.
As w e know t he magni t ude of di spl acement may be di f f er ent f r om t he act ual pat h l engt h. The
t ime rat e of change of t he act ual pat h is called average speed. It i s def i ned as t he r at i o of t ot al pat h
l engt h t r avel led and t he t ot al t i me i nt er val i n w hi ch t his pat h l engt h i s cover ed. Thus,
Avera ge speed =
Tuta| path |ength
Tuta| t|me |nterua|

We cannot ascer t ai n t he di r ect i on of mot i on f r om t he aver age speed of a par t i cl e. We are
concer ned onl y w i t h t he pat h l engt h. Thus, i t i s alw ays posit ive. In one-dimensional mot ion of a par t i cl e
along a given direct ion, t he magni t ude of di spl acement i s equal t o t he t ot al pat h l engt h. In t hi s case, t he
magni t ude of aver age vel oci t y i s equal t o t he aver age speed. Thi s w i ll not be t r ue i f t he di r ect i on
changes.
For exampl e, r ef er t o f i gur e 1. If t he par t i cl e moves f r om O t o A and comes back t o O i n t he
same t i me i nt er val of 10 second each, t hen t he aver age speed i s 8 m/ s but t he aver age vel oci t y i s zer o
(as di spl acement becomes zer o).
NOTE:
1. If a par t i cl e t r avel s al ong a st r ai ght l i ne w i t h speed v
1
f or t he di st ance x
1
and t hen w i t h speed v
2

f or di st ance x
2
, t hen i t s aver age speed dur i ng t he w hol e j our ney i s gi ven by
v
av
(u) =
Tuta| path |ength
Tuta| t|me |nterua|

Or v
av
=
x
1
+ x
2
t
1
+ t
2
=
x
1
+ x
2
x
1
u
1
+
x
2
u
2
=
( x
1
+ x
2
) u
1
u
2
x
1
u
2
+ x
2
u
1

If t he t w o di st ances ar e equal , i .e., s
1
= s
2
, t hi s r el at i on get s r educed t o
v
av
=
2u
1
u
2
u
1
+ u
2

Her e, v
av
i s equal t o t he harmonic mean of v
1
and v
2
.
The above di scussi on can be ext ended t o a j our ney havi ng mor e t han t w o par t s as:
v
av
=
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ - - -
x
1
u
1
+
x
2
u
2
+
x
3
u
3
+ - - -

2. If a par t i cl e t r avel s al ong a st r ai ght l i ne w i t h speed v
1
f or t i me t
1
and t hen w i t h speed v
2
f or t i me
t
2
, t hen i t s aver age speed dur i ng t he w hol e j our ney i s gi ven by
v
av
=
Tuta| path |ength
Tuta| t|me |nterua|

Or v
av
=
x
1
+ x
2
t
1
+ t
2
=
u
1
t
1
+ u
2
t
2
t
1
+ t
2

If t he t w o t i me dur at i ons ar e equal , i .e., t
1
= t
2
, t hi s r el at i on get s r educed t o
v
av
=
u
1
+ u
2
2

Her e, v
av
i s equal t o t he arit hmet i c mean of v
1
and v
2
.
The above di scussi on can be ext ended t o a j our ney havi ng mor e t han t w o par t s as:
v
av
=
u
1
t
1
+ u
2
t
2
+ u
3
t
3
+ - - -
t
1
+ t
2
+ t
3
+ - - -



5
3. A par t i cl e havi ng zero speed cannot have non-zero velocit y because vel oci t y has bot h t he
magni t ude (speed) and di r ect i on.

Test your know ledge:
10. Is i t possible t hat t he average veloci t y of a par t i cl e i s zer o w hen i t s average speed i s not zero?
Example 3
A ca r ha s t o cover a dist a nce of 60 km. I f ha lf of t he t ot a l t ime it t ra vels w it h a speed of 80 km/ h a nd in
rest ha lf t ime, it s speed becomes 40 km/ h. W hat is t he a vera ge speed of t he ca r?

Instantaneous Velocity and Instantaneous Speed:
The aver age vel oci t y of a par t i cl e does not show how f ast i t moves at di f f er ent i nst ant s of t i me
dur i ng a gi ven i nt er val of t i me. A physi cal quant i t y t hat pr ovi des t hi s i nf or mat i on i s inst ant aneous
velocit y (or si mpl y vel oci t y) v at an i nst ant t .
The i nst ant aneous vel oci t y at a t i me t i s def i ned as t he l i mi t of t he aver age vel oci t y as t he t i me
interval t becomes i nf i ni t esi mal l y small . Thus,
v = ltm
t

x
t
=
dx
dt

w her e t he symbol ltm
t
st ands f or t aki ng
limit as t 0 (t ends t o zer o) of t he quant i t y on i t s r i ght ,
x
t
. The quant i t y
dx
dt
i s t he di f f er ent i at i on of x
w i t h r espect t o t . It i s t he r at e of change of posi t i on w i t h r espect t o t i me, at t he gi ven i nst ant .
The vel oci t y of t he par t i cl e at an i nst ant can be cal cul at ed
bot h graphically and numerically. As show n i n f i gur e 4 (gr aphi cal
met hod), by t he def i ni t i on of t he aver age vel oci t y, t he sl ope of
l i ne AB gi ves t he val ue of aver age vel oci t y over t he int er val t
1
t o
t
2
. If t he t i me i nt erval is decr eased f r om t
3
t o t
4
, t hen l i ne AB
becomes CD and i t s sl ope gi ves t he val ue of t he aver age vel oci t y
over t he i nt er val t
3
t o t
4
. As t he t i me i nt er val appr oaches zer o (t
0), t he l i ne AB becomes t angent t o t he posi t i on-t i me gr aph at
t he poi nt P and t he vel oci t y at i nst ant t i s gi ven by t he sl ope of
t he t angent at t he poi nt and t hi s i s t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y of
t he par t i cl e at t he i nst ant t . Thi s makes t he meani ng of t he
l i mi t i ng pr ocess qui t e cl ear .
The gr aphi cal met hod f or cal cul at i ng t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y of a par t i cl e i s al w ays not an
easy met hod. The i nst ant aneous vel oci t y at di f f er ent i nst ant s can be easi l y cal cul at ed i f an exact
expr essi on f or t he posi t i on of t he par t i cl e as a f unct i on of t i me i s gi ven. For t hi s pur pose, w e can
di f f er ent i at e t he gi ven expr essi on t o cal cul at e i nst ant aneous vel oci t y at di f f er ent i nst ant s as f ol l ow s:
v =
dx
dt

I nst ant aneous speed i s t he magni t ude of vel oci t y. It shoul d be not ed t hat t hough aver age speed
over a f i ni t e i nt er val of t i me i s great er or equal t o t he magni t ude of t he aver age vel oci t y, i nst ant aneous
speed at an i nst ant i s equal t o t he magni t ude of t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y at t hat i nst ant .
Test your know ledge:
11. What does t he speedomet er of a car measur e?
12. Can a body have const ant speed and st i ll have var ying velocit y?
13. Can a par t i cl e have const ant veloci t y and var yi ng speed?

Example 4


6
The posit ion of a n obj ect moving a long x-a xis is given by x = a + bt
2
w here a = 6. 0 m, b = 5. 5 m s
2
and t
is measured in seconds. W hat is it s init ia l velocit y a nd velocit y at t = 4. 0 s. W hat is t he avera ge velocit y bet w een
t = 4. 0 s a nd t = 6. 0 s?

Example 5
A ca r moves a long a st ra ight line w hose mot ion is given by x =
12t
2
4t + 6, w here x is in met res a nd t is in seconds. W ha t is it s init ia l
velocit y?
Example 6
Discuss t he mot ion of a part icle having posit ion-t ime gra ph as
show n in figure 5.

NOTE:
1. Posi t i on-t i me cur ve (or di spl acement -t i me cur ve) cannot be par al l el t o posi t i on axi s as i t means
a f i ni t e di spl acement i n no t i me. In ot her w or ds, i t
denot es an i nf i ni t e vel oci t y.
2. Di spl acement -t i me and di st ance-t i me gr aph cannot
be a cl osed cur ve i n one di mensi onal mot i on (see
f i gur e 6) as i t means t hat t he obj ect w i l l be at t w o
posi t i ons at t he same i nst ant of t i me. Al so, t he
r ever sal of t i me i s not possi bl e. Ar r ow s on t he cur ves
ar e meani ngl ess.
3. The di spl acement -t i me gr aph cannot t ake shar p t ur ns as i t gi ves t w o
di f f er ent vel oci t ies at t hat poi nt . Fi gur e 7. Al so, t he cur ve w il l not be
di f f er ent i able at such poi nt s.
4. The posi t i on-t i me gr aph (di spl acement -t i me gr aph) does not show t he
t r aj ect or y of t he par t i cl e.
5. The di st ance-t i me gr aph i s al w ays an i ncr easi ng cur ve f or a movi ng
obj ect as di st ance never decr eases w i t h t i me. Ther ef or e, t he gr aph
show n i n f i gur e 8 i s not possi bl e.
6. The inst ant aneous speed is alw ays equal t o t he magnit ude of
inst ant aneous velocit y (not al w ays t r ue f or t hei r aver age val ues)
because f or an ar bi t r ar i ly smal l i nt er val of t ime, t he magni t ude of
di spl acement i s equal t o t he l engt h of t he pat h.

Velocity- time ( v- t ) gr aph:
The f i gur e 9 show s di f f er ent vel oci t y-t i me gr aph A, B, C and D. We can dr aw t he f ol l ow i ng
concl usi ons f r om t hese cur ves:
1. The v-t gr aph i s par al l el t o t i me axi s (gr aph A). The vel oci t y i s
const ant and hence, accel er at i on = 0. Thi s l i ne on v-t gr aph i s
equi valent t o t he cur ve f or par t i cl e B on xt gr aph of f i gur e 3.
2. The gr aph i s an obl i que st r ai ght l i ne havi ng posi t ive sl ope
(gr aph B). The mot i on i n t hi s case has const ant accel er at i on
as vel oci t y i ncr eases at const ant r at e.
3. The gr aph i s an obl i que st r ai ght l i ne havi ng negat i ve sl ope
(gr aph C). The mot i on i n t hi s case has const ant r et ar dat i on as
vel oci t y decr eases at const ant r at e but st i l l movi ng i n
posi t i ve di r ect i on.


7
4. Not e t hat f or gr aph B and C, t he par t i cl es ar e movi ng i n t he same di r ect i on i n one-dimensi onal
mot i on. One i ncr easi ng (B), ot her decr easi ng (C).
5. If a gr aph l i ke C cr osses t he t ime axi s, i t s di rect i on of mot i on changes t her eaf t er . Thi s si t uat i on i s
expl ai ned by gr aph E i n f i gur e 10. Al so not e t hat t hi s v-t gr aph (E) i s cor r espondi ng t o x-t gr aph
of f i gur e 5.
6. The gr aph i s a cur ve of i ncr easi ng sl ope (gr aph D). It show s
t hat t he par t i cl e has var i abl e vel oci t y w hi ch i s i ncr easing w i t h
t i me. The mot i on i s accel er at ed and t he accel er at i on goes on
i ncr easi ng.
Example 7
Discuss t he mot ion of a part icle ha ving velocit y-t ime gra ph a s
show n in figure 11 (a lso refer t o figure 12 a ft er discussion).

NOTE:
1. In uni f or m mot i on, t he aver age and i nst ant aneous vel oci t i es ar e al w ays same at each poi nt of i t s
pat h or at each i nst ant .
2. In uni f or m mot i on, t he vel oci t y i s i ndependent of t he choi ce of t i me
i nt er val and or i gi n.
3. If t he aver age vel oci t y of a par t i cl e i s zer o i n a t i me i nt er val , t hen i t i s
possi bl e t hat t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y i s never zer o i n t hat i nt er val .
If a par t i cl e comes back t o i ni t i al posi t i on, t he aver age vel oci t y is
zer o but t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y not zer o.
4. An obj ect can have const ant speed but var i abl e vel oci t y (as i n
uni f or m ci r cul ar mot i on) but t he opposi t e i s not t r ue, i .e., const ant
vel oci t y w i t h var i abl e speed i s not possi bl e.
5. Area bet w een v-t graph and t ime-axis can give bot h t he
displacement and dist ance in t hat t ime int erval. For
di spl acement , appr opr i at e si gn has t o be t aken i nt o account . For
di st ance i s gi ven by t he t ot al ar ea bet w een v-t gr aph and t i me-axi s
w i t hout consi der i ng sign. See f i gur e 13. Di spl acement i s zer o as +
ve ar ea cancel s out ve ar ea. But di st ance i s equal t o t he sum of
ar eas of t w o t r i angl es.
6. A v-t gr aph cannot be a cl osed cur ve i n one-di mensional mot i on.
The v-t gr aph show n i n f i gur e 14 i s not possi bl e i n one-di mensi ons
as t he par t i cl e w i l l have vel oci t i es i n posi t i ve as w ell as negat i ve
di r ect i ons. Al so, ar r ow on t he cur ves i s meani ngl ess.
7. The vel oci t y-t i me gr aph cannot t ake shar p t ur ns. It means t hey
vel oci t y cannot change abr upt l y.
8. A speed-t i me graph cannot be l i ke a gr aph as show n i n f i gur e 13
because t he speed of a par t i cl e can never be negat i ve.
9. Wi t h hel p of a gi ven v-t gr aph, cor r espondi ng s-t gr aph and a-t
gr aph can be pl ot t ed.

Acceler ation:
The accel er at i on i s def i ned as t he r at e of change of vel oci t y wi t h t i me. Aver age accel er at i on
measur es t he r at e at w hi ch t he vel oci t y of a par t i cle changes w i t h t i me and i n w hat di r ect i on. It i s
def i ned as t he r at i o of change in velocity v and the time intervals t . Agai n, w e don t need t o use t he


8
vect or not at ion in one-dimensional mot ion. It can be speci f i ed by + ve and ve si gns. Thus, t he aver age
accel er at i on i s gi ven by
a =
u
2
- u
1
t
2
-t
1
=
u
t

w her e v
2
and v
1
ar e t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t i es of t he par t i cl e at i nst ant s of
t i me t
2
and t
1
, r espect i vely. The bar over a symbol is a st andar d not at i on t hat r ef er s t o an aver age
quant i t y. Hence,a i ndi cat es t he aver age accel er at i on. It i s t he aver age change of vel oci t y per uni t t i me.
The SI unit of accelerat ion is m s
2
. It s dimensions are [ LT
2
].
The sl ope of t he vel oci t y--t i me gr aph gi ves t he aver age accel er at i on i n t he gi ven t i me i nt er val.
The i nst ant aneous accel er at i on at a t i me t i s def i ned as t he l i mi t of t he aver age accel er at i on as
the time interval t becomes i nf i ni t esi mall y smal l. Thus,
a = ltm
t

u
t
=
du
dt

The slope of t he t angent t o t he velocit y-t ime graph at any inst ant t gives t he accelerat ion at
t hat inst ant . Thi s i s t he i nst ant aneous accel er at i on of t he par t i cl e at t he i nst ant t . The uni f or m
accel er at i on i s equal t o t he aver age accel er at i on over t he per i od i n w hi ch i t r emai ns uni f or m.
It i s now cl ear t hat accel er at i on i s pr oduced w henever t he vel oci t y changes. A change i n a vect or
quant i t y l i ke vel oci t y occur s w hen i t magni t ude (speed) or di r ect i on or bot h change.
Li ke vel oci t y, accelerat ion can also be posit ive, negat ive or ze ro. The cur ve D i n posi t i on-t i me
gr aphs of f i gur e 3 has posi t i ve accel er at i on. B and C have zer o accel er at i on. Fi gur e 5 show s mot i on w i t h
negat i ve accel er at i on (r et ar dat i on). Not e t hat t he posi t i on-t i me gr aph cur ves upw ar d f or posi t i ve
accel er at i on; dow nw ar d f or negat i ve accel er at i on and i t i s a st r ai ght l i ne f or zer o accel er at i on.
Si nce t he t opi c under st udy i s uni f or ml y accel er at ed mot i on, any gr aph of accel er at i on ver sus
t i me must be a st r ai ght l i ne par all el t o t he t i me axi s. Any ot her ki nd of accel er at i on- t i me gr aph i s
beyond t he scope of t hi s chapt er . In t hi s case, t he aver age accel er at i on equal s t he const ant val ue of
accel er at i on dur i ng t he gi ven i nt er val of t i me.
The vel oci t y-t i me gr aphs f or mot i ons havi ng di f f er ent t ypes of accel er at i on ar e al r eady
di scussed i n t he f i gur e 9 and f i gur e 10.
Ar ea under v- t and a- t cur ves:
The ar ea bet w een t he vel oci t y-t i me gr aph and t he t i me-axi s gives
t he di spl acement i n t he gi ven i nt er val of t i me. See f i gur e 15. It i s cl ear f r om
t he r el at i on
v =
dx
dt

Fr om t hi s r el at i on
dx = v dt
The ar ea bet w een t he accel er at i on-t i me gr aph and t he t i me-axi s
gi ves t he vel oci t y i n t he gi ven i nt er val of t i me. See f i gur e 16. It i s cl ear f r om
t he r el at i on
a =
du
dt

Fr om t hi s r el at i on
dv = a dt
Test your know ledge:
14. What i s t he nat ur e of accel er at i on -t i me gr aph when t he body moves wi t h
const ant accel er at i on?
15. What i s t he ar ea under t he vel oci t y -t i me cur ve i n t he case of a body
pr oj ect ed ver t i call y upwar ds f r om t he gr ound af t er r eachi ng t he gr ound?
16. What does t he area of accelerat ion-t ime graph represent ?


9
17. As t he body moves in a st r aight li ne, i t moves small er and small er di st ances i n equal int er val s of t i me.
What do inf er about t he mot i on?
18. If a body moves 8 m, 12 m, 16 m i n successi ve seconds, how do you descr i be i t s mot i on?
19. Can a body have zer o vel oci t y and non-zero accel er at i on? Explain wi t h exampl es.
20. A body has const ant accel er at i on. Can i t t r avel opposi t e t o t he accel er at i on, dur ing i t s mot ion? Gi ve an
exampl e.
21. If a body moves w it h unif or m vel oci t y, what i s i t s accel er at i on? What w il l be t he nat ur e of veloci t y-t i me
gr aph?
22. When w il l a body have accel er at ed mot ion?
23. Can a par t i cl e w i t h zer o accel erat ion speed up?
NOTE:
1. A par t i cl e can have accele rat ion w it hout having any velocit y. For exampl e, a par t i cl e t hr ow n
ver t i cal ly up has zer o vel oci t y at t he hi ghest poi nt but a dow nw ar d accel er at i on.
2. In one-di mensi on, a par t i cl e w i t h const ant speed must have zer o accel er at i on. It i s not t r ue i n
uni f or m ci r cul ar mot i on- a t w o-di mensi onal mot i on. We can al so say t hat i t i s possi bl e i n ci r cul ar
mot i on t hat
d
dt
= 0 (i .e. magni t ude of accel er at i on = 0) but
d
dt
| :| = 0 (i .e. r at e of change of
speed = 0).
Example 8
A t ra in pa sses a pole i n 5 se conds a nd a br idge of t he sa m e lengt h a s t he t r a i n i n 1 0 se cond. De scr i be
t he ve l oci t y a nd a cce l e r a t i on of t he t r a i n ?

Kinematic equations for unifor mly acceler ated motion:
For uni f or ml y accel er at ed mot i on, t he aver age accel er at i on equal s t he const ant (uni f or m)
accel er at i on of t he mot i on. Thus, i f u be t he i ni t i al veloci t y (at t = 0) and v t he f i nal vel oci t y af t er t i me t
of a par t i cl e movi ng w i t h const ant (uni f or m) accel er at i on a, t hen f r om t he equat i on of aver age
accel er at i on, w e get
a =
u
2
- u
1
t
2
-t
1
=
u - u
t -

Or v = u + a t
Fi gur e 17 depi ct s t hi s equat i on gr aphi cal l y.
The ar ea bet w een t he vel oci t y-t i me gr aph and t he t ime-axi s gi ves
t he di spl acement i n t he gi ven i nt er val of t i me. Ther ef or e, t he di spl acement
x of t he par t i cl e i s gi ven by:
Ar ea bet w een i nst ant s 0 and t = Ar ea of t r i angl e PQR + Ar ea of
r ect angl e OPRS
Or x =
1
2
(v u) t + ut
Put t i ng (v u) = at , w e get
x =
1
2
at
2
+ ut
Or x = ut +
1
2
a t
2

Her e, t he i ni t i al posi t i on of t he par t i cl e i s zer o (i .e. x
0
= 0).
Al so, f r om x =
1
2
(v u) t + ut , w e get
x =
+u
2
t
And f r om v = u + at , w e get
t =
-u
u

Thus,
v = u + a t
x = ut +
1
2
a t
2

v
2
= u
2
+ 2a x


10
x =
+u
2
t = [
+u
2
[
-u
u
=

2
- u
2
2u

Or v
2
= u
2
+ 2a x
We can al so get t hi s equat i on by el i mi nat i ng t f r om t he equat i ons v = u + a t and x = ut +
1
2
a t
2
.
Thus, w e get t hr ee ki nemat i c equat i ons of r ect i l i near mot i on f or const ant accel er at i on.
See t he t ext -box.
If t he i ni t i al posi t i on of t he par t i cl e i s x
0
, t he second and t hi r d equat i ons get modi f i ed as f ol l ow s
(See t he t ext -box):
Calculus M et hod:
Fr om t he def i ni t i on of accel er at i on,
a =
d
dt

Or dv = adt
Int egr at i ng wi t hi n t he l i mi t s of vel oci t y and t i me, w e get
J:

u
= o Jt
t
0
= a Jt
t
0

Or v u = at
Or v = u + a t
Fr om t he def i ni t i on of vel oci t y,
v =
dx
dt

Or dx = vdt
Int egr at i ng wi t hi n t he l i mi t s of vel oci t y and t i me, w e get
Jx
x
x
0
= : Jt
t
0
=
( u + ot) Jt
t
0

Or x x
0
= ut +
1
2
at
2

Or x = x
0
+ ut +
1
2
a t
2

Al so,
a =
du
dt
=
du
dx

dx
dt
= v
du
dx

Or vdv = a dx
Int egr at i ng wi t hi n t he l i mi t s of vel oci t y and posi t i on, w e get
: J:

u
= o Jx
x
x
0

2
- u
2
2
= a(x x
0
)
Or v
2
= u
2
+ 2a (x x
0
)
The cal cul us met hod can al so be used f or mot i on w i t h non-uni f or m accel er at i on al so.
Displacement in t he nt h second:
Let x
n
be t he di spl acement i n n seconds and x
n-1
be t he di spl acement i n t he f i r st (n-1) of t hese n
seconds. The di spl acement i n t seconds i s gi ven by
x = ut +
1
2
at
2

Ther ef or e, i n n seconds,
x
n
= un +
1
2
an
2

And t he di spl acement i n (n-1) seconds i s gi ven by
x
n1
= u(n 1) +
1
2
a(n 1)
2

Ther ef or e t he di spl acement dur i ng t he nt h second i s obt ai ned by
subt r act i ng x
n1
f r om x
n
. See f i gur e 18. Thus,
x
nt h
= x
n
x
n1

v = u + a t
x x
0
= ut +
1
2
a t
2

Or x = x
0
+ ut +
1
2
a t
2

and v
2
= u
2
+ 2a (x x
0
)


11
Or x
nt h
= u +
1
2
a (2n 1 )
Example 9
Figure 19 shows t he t ime-displa cement gra ph for a part icle in one
dimension. Dra w t he corresponding t ime-velocit y gra ph.
Example 10
A ca r moving a long a st ra ight highw a y w it h speed of 126 km h
1
is
brought t o a st op w it hin a dist a nce of 200 m. W ha t is t he ret arda t ion of t he
ca r (a ssumed uniform), a nd how long does it t a ke for t he ca r t o st op?
Example 11
The velocit y of a part icle cha nges from +3 m/ s t o +8 m/ s. I n w ha t direct ion, posit ive or nega t ive, is t he
pa rt icle moving? I s t he a ccelerat ion posit ive or negat ive? Are t he velocit y a nd a ccelerat ion in t he same direct ion
during t he t ime int erva l of t he cha nge in velocit y? Expla in.
Ver tical Motion under Gr avit y:
The val ue of accel er at i on due t o gr avi t y i s assumed t o be const ant . Ther ef or e, t he ki nemat i c
equat i ons can be appl i ed.
Dow nw ard mot ion:
The accel er at i on a w i ll be r epl aced
by g and t he equat i ons w i l l t ake t he f or m as
show n i n f i r st box.
Upw ard mot ion:
The accel er at i on a w i l l be r epl aced by g and t he equat i ons w i l l t ake t he f or m as show n
i n second box.

NOTE:
1. If a body i s dr opped f r om a hei ght h, t hen t he speed w hen i t r eaches t he gr ound i s
v = 2gh [ Put t i ng u = 0, x = h i n v
2
= u
2
+ 2gx]
2. If a body i s dr opped f r om a hei ght h, t hen t he t i me t o r each t he gr ound i s
t = _
2h
g
[ Put t i ng u = 0, x = h i n x = ut +
1
2
gt
2
]
3. If a body i s t hr ow n upw ar d w i t h vel oci t y u, t hen t he maxi mum hei ght H i s
H =
u
2
2g
[ Put t i ng v = 0, x = H i n v
2
= u
2
2gx]
4. If a body i s t hr ow n upw ar d w i t h vel oci t y u, t hen t he t i me i n w hi ch i t
r eaches t he maxi mum height i s
t =
u
g
[ Put t i ng v = 0, and a = g i n v = u gt ]
5. If a body i s dr opped f r om some height , t hen t he vel oci t y at t ai ned by
i t af t er t i me t i s gi ven by (Usi ng v = u + gt and t aking upw ard
direct ion as posit ive)
v = gt
A v-t gr aph i s a st r ai ght l i ne as show n i n f i gur e 20.
6. If a body i s dr opped f r om some hei ght , t hen t he di st ance cover ed by i t i n t i me t i s gi ven by
(Usi ng x = ut +
1
2
a t
2
and t aking upw ard direct ion as posit ive)
x =
1
2
a t
2

A x-t gr aph i s a par abol i c cur ve as show n i n f i gur e 21.
v = u + gt
x = ut +
1
2
gt
2

v
2
= u
2
+ 2gx
v = u gt
x = ut
1
2
gt
2

v
2
= u
2
2gx


12
7. If a body i s t hr ow n ver t i call y up wi t h vel oci t y u f r om a hei ght h
(or dr opped at a hei ght h f r om a bal l oon movi ng upw ar d w i t h
vel oci t y u), t hen t he t i me t aken by t he body t o r each t he
gr ound can be calculat ed in t w o w ays (Fi gur e 22).
I n t he f irst met hod, t he t ot al t i me i s cal cul at ed i n t w o
par t s- Fr om poi nt of pr oj ect i on B t o t he hi ghest poi nt C (l et i t
be t
1
) and f r om poi nt C t o t he gr ound (l et i t be t
2
). The vel oci t y
at C becomes zer o.
The t i me t
1
can be cal cul at ed usi ng equat i on v = u + at
and put t i ng v = 0, a = g and t

= t
1
. Thi s gi ves t
1
=
u
g
.
To cal cul at e t
2
(t i me t aken f r om poi nt C t o t he gr ound), w e
f i r st cal cul at e t he di st ance BC (l et i t be h ) usi ng equat i on v
2
= u
2
+
2ax and put t i ng v = 0, a = g and x

= h . Thi s gi ves h =
u
2
2g
. Now , t
2
is
t he t i me t aken by t he body t o cover h + h . It can be cal cul at ed usi ng
t he equat i on x = u t +
1
2
at
2
and put t i ng u = 0, a = g, t

= t
2
and x

= h +
h = h +
u
2
2g
. For m t hi s, t
2
=_
2gh+ u
2
g
2
.
I n t he second met hod, w e can cal cul at e t he t ot al t i me i n a
si ngle st ep. We consi der t he di spl acement of t he body bet w een t he
i ni t i al posi t i on (poi nt of pr oj ect i on B) and t he f i nal posi t i on (gr ound)
onl y. We do not have t o consi der t he pat h of t he mot i on as t he
mot i on i s under const ant accel er at i on If w e t ake t he dow nw ar d di r ect i on as posi t i ve, t hen
di spl acement x = + h and a = g but i ni t i al vel oci t y u shoul d be t aken as negat i ve as i t i s i n upw ar d
di r ect i on. Thus, f r om x = ut +
1
2
at
2
, w e get
h = ut +
1
2
gt
2

Sol vi ng t hi s equat i on, w e get t he t ot al t i me. Thi s met hod i s al so ver y usef ul i n solvi ng si mi l ar
pr obl ems i n Pr oj ect i l e M ot i on.
Example 12
A ba lloon is rising vert ica lly upw a rds w it h uniform speed of 10 m/ s. W hen it is 400 m a bove t he ground, a
st one is dropped from it . Aft er how much t ime a nd w it h w ha t velocit y w ill t he st one hit t he ground? (g = 10
m/ s
2
)
8. It shoul d be not ed t hat t he speeds of t he body at poi nt s B and D ar e
equal . Al so, t he t i me t aken t o r each f r om poi nt B t o poi nt C i s equal t o
t i me t aken t o move f r om poi nt C t o D, i f w e negl ect t he ai r r esi st ance.
9. If r et ar di ng f or ce due t o ai r r esi st ance i s consi der ed, t hen a body t akes
lesser t i me t o reach t he highest point and larger t ime t o reach t he
ground as compared t o t hat t aken in t he absence of air resi st ance. In
t he f i r st case, ef f ect i ve val ue of g i ncr eases as ai r r esi st ance act s
dow nw ar d. In t he second case, ef f ect i ve val ue of g decr eases as ai r
r esi st ance act s upw ar d.
10. A body t hr ow n upw ar d w i t h vel oci t y u i s at t he same hei ght h at t w o
i nst ant s of t i me (l et t
1
and t
2
), once w hi l e goi ng up and t hen comi ng
dow n as show n i n f i gur e 23. Under t hi s condi t i on, w e can pr ove t hat h =
1
2
gt
1
t
2
and u =
1
2
g (t
1
+
t
2
). In t hi s case, t he equat i on r el at i ng h and u i s h = ut +
1
2
gt
2
. Thi s quadr at i c equat i on has t w o
r oot s, l et t
1
and t
2
. Now f r om t he pr oper t i es of r oot s, w e can w r i t e t hat


13
t
1
+ t
2
=
b
u
=
u
1
2
g
(Compar e w i t h ax
2
+ bx + c = 0)
Thi s gi ves
u =
1
2
g (t
1
+ t
2
)
and
t
1
t
2
=
c
u
=
h
1
2
g

Thi s gi ves
h =
1
2
gt
1
t
2

It can al so be pr oved t hat t he t i me t aken t o r each t he hi ghest
poi nt i s t =
1
2
(t
1
+ t
2
)
11. If t hr ee bal l s ar e t hr ow n w i t h same speed f r om a given hei ght i n
vacuum (or i f ai r r esi st ance negl ect ed) such t hat one i s t hr ow n
ver t i cal ly dow nw ar d, t he second ver t i cal l y upw ar d and t he t hi r d
hor i zont al l y (Fi gure 24), t hen al l t he t hr ee bal l s r each t he gr ound
w i t h same speed. In t hi s case, t he bal l s need not be
i dent i cal .
Test your know ledge:
24. A man t hr ow s t wo ball s f r om t he t op of a bui lding- one ball
st r ai ght up wi t h an i ni t ial speed u and ot her bal l st raight
down w i t h t he same ini t i al speed. Whi ch bal l has lar ger
speed when i t hi t s t he ground?
25. A ball is dropped f rom t he t op of a building. Anot her ball is
t hrown horizont ally at t he same inst ant f rom t he same point .
Whi ch ball w i ll hi t t he gr ound f i r st ?
Example 13
A ba ll is t hrow n dow n vert ica lly w it h a n init ia l speed of
20. 5 m/ s from a height of 58. 8 m. (a ) W ha t w ill be it s speed j ust
before it st rikes t he ground? (b) How long w ill it t a ke for t he ba ll t o
rea ch t he ground? (c) W hat w ould be t he a nswers t o (a ) a nd (b) if
t he ba ll were t hrow n direct ly up from t he same height a nd w it h t he
sa me init ia l speed? (d) How long w ill it t a ke for t he ba ll t o rea ch
ma ximum height ?

Galileo s law of odd numbers (Dist ances covered in e qual int erval of t ime):
The di st ances cover ed by a par t i cl e, st ar t i ng f r om r est (bot h in horizont al and vert ical mot ions),
i n equal i nt er val s of t i me ar e i n t he r at i o 1: 3: 5 - - - et c.
Thi s can be pr oved as f ol l ow s:
Fi r st w e cal cul at e t he di st ances cover ed i n t i me i nt er val s t , 2t , 3t , 4t , - - -, usi ng t he equat i on x = ut +
1
2
a t
2
=
1
2
a t
2
(u = 0). Cl ear l y, t hese di st ances ar e
x
t
=
1
2
a t
2
,
x
2t
=
1
2
a (2t )
2
= 4 [
1
2
at
2
,
x
3t
=
1
2
a (3t )
2
= 9 [
1
2
at
2
,
x
4t
=
1
2
a (4t )
2
= 16 [
1
2
at
2
, and so on.
Cl earl y, t he di st ances cover ed i n t he f i r st i nt er val t , f i r st t w o 2t , f i r st t hr ee 3t , - - - et c. are in t he
rat io 1 : 4 : 9 : 16 : - - - et c.
St opping dist ance of vehicles
I f t he st opping dist ance for a
vehicle of mass m moving w it h speed
u is x, t hen for a speed nu, t he
st opping dist ance becomes n
2
x (for
t he same ret ardat ion a ). It is clear
from t he follow ing analysis.
The final speed is zero in bot h t he
cases. Using v
2
= u
2
+ 2a x in t he first
case, w e get
0 = u
2
2a x (for ret ardat ion)
Or u
2
= 2a x
I n t he second case,
0 = (nu)
2
2a x
Or n
2
u
2
= 2a x
From t he t w o equat ions, w e get
x = n
2
x


14
Now , t he di st ance cover ed i n t he f i r st i nt er val t i s gi ven by
x
1
= x
t
=
1
2
a t
2

The di st ance cover ed i n t he second i nt er val t i s gi ven by
x
2
= x
2t
x
t
= 4[
1
2
at
2

1
2
a t
2
= 3 [
1
2
at
2

The di st ance cover ed i n t he t hi r d i nt er val t i s gi ven by
x
3
= x
3t
x
2t
= 9 [
1
2
at
2
4[
1
2
at
2
= 5 [
1
2
at
2

Cl earl y, t he di st ances cover ed by a par t i cl e, st ar t i ng f r om r est , i n equal i nt er val s of t i me are in t he
rat io 1 : 3 : 5 - - - et c.
Example 14
A ca r moving at a speed of 10 m/ s is st opped over a dist a nce of 30 m a ft er bra kes a re a pplied. W ha t w ill
be t he dist a nce if it is moving at 30 m/ s?
Relative Velocity:
In compar i son t o r el at i ve vel oci t y i n t w o-dimensi ons and t hr ee-di mensi ons, t he r el at i ve vel oci t y
i n one-di mensi on i s si mpler . Consi der t w o bodi es P and Q movi ng w i t h uni f or m vel oci t i es v
P
and v
Q

par al l el t o x-axi s, bot h w i t h r ef er ence t o t he gr ound. Let t he i ni t i al posi t i ons (at t i me t = 0) of bodi es P
and Q be x
P
(0) and x
Q
(0), r espect i vel y. The i ni t i al di splacement f r om body P t o body Q i s gi ven by
x
QP
(0) = x
Q
(0) x
P
(0)
The posi t i ons of t he t w o bodi es at t i me t ar e, r espect i vel y, gi ven by
x
P
(t ) = x
P
(0) + v
P
t
x
Q
(t ) = x
Q
(0) + v
Q
t
The di spl acement f r om body P t o body Q at t i me t i s gi ven by
x
QP
(t ) = x
Q
(t ) x
P
(t )
Or x
QP
(t ) = [ x
Q
(0) x
P
(0)] + (v
Q
v
P
) t
It i s cl ear f r om t hi s equat i on t hat w i t h r espect t o t he body P (or as seen f r om body P), body Q has a
vel oci t y v
Q
v
P
because t he di spl acement f r om P t o Q changes uni f or ml y by an amount v
Q
v
P
i n each
uni t of t i me. In ot her w or ds, t he velocit y of body Q rel at ive t o body P is v
Q
v
P
.
Thus, t he vel oci t y of body Q r el at i ve t o body P i s gi ven by
v
QP
= v
Q
v
P

Al so, t he vel oci t y of body P r el at i ve t o body Q i s gi ven by
v
PQ
= v
P
v
Q

Cl earl y t hei r magni t udes ar e equal but t hei r di r ect i ons ar e opposi t e t o each ot her .
Special cases of r elative velocity:
1. Bot h t he bodies are moving w it h t he velocit y in t he same
direct ion, i. e. v
Q
= v
P
. In t hi s condi t i on,
x
QP
(t ) = x
Q
(t ) x
P
(t ) = x
Q
( 0) x
P
(0) = x
QP
(0 )
It show s t hat t he di st ance bet w een t he t w o bodi es does
not change w i t h t i me. The r el at i ve vel oci t y i s zero. The
posi t i ont i me gr aphs of t he t w o bodi es ar e st r ai ght l i nes
par al l el t o each ot her as show n i n f i gur e 25. It i s al so cl ear
f r om t he gr aph t hat t he di st ance bet w een t he t w o bodi es
r emai ns const ant at 10 m. The body P i s behi nd body Q. The
body P cannot cat ch t he body Q.
2. The velocit y of body Q is great er t han t he velocit y of body
P, i. e. v
Q
> v
P
. In t hi s condi t i on, t he di st ance bet w een t he
t w o bodi es cont i nuousl y i ncr eases w i t h t i me. The r el at i ve


15
vel oci t y i s v
QP
= v
Q
v
P
> 0. It i s posi t i ve. The posi t i ont i me
gr aphs of t he t w o bodi es ar e st r ai ght l i nes such t hat t he
gr aph of body Q has gr eat er sl ope (vel oci t y). The gr aphs ar e
show n i n f i gur e 26. The body P cannot cat ch t he body Q.
3. The velocit y of body Q is smaller t han t he velocit y of body
P, i. e. v
Q
< v
P
. In t hi s condi t i on, t he r el at i ve vel oci t y is v
QP
=
v
Q
v
P
< 0,i .e. v
Q
v
P
i s negat ive. The gr aph of body P has
gr eat er sl ope t han t hat of t he body Q. Ini t i al ly (at t = 0), t he
body P i s behi nd t he body Q. Thei r i ni t i al posi t i ons ar e 10 m
and 20 m, r espect i vel y. The body P over t akes t he body Q at
x
Q
(t ) = x
P
(t ) = 30 m. Thi s i s t he poi nt at w hi ch t hey meet .
Thi s happens at t = 15 sec. The gr aphs ar e show n i n f i gur e
27.
4. The bodies P and Q are moving in opposit e direct ions w it h
velocit ies v
P
and v
Q
. The vel oci t y of body Q r el at ive t o body P
i s gi ven by
v
QP
= v
Q
+ v
P

The vel oci t y of body P r el at i ve t o body Q i s gi ven by
v
PQ
= v
P
+ v
Q

Cl earl y t hei r magni t udes ar e equal but t hei r dir ect i ons ar e
opposi t e t o each ot her . Thei r i ni t i al posi t i ons ar e 10 m and 20
m, r espect i vel y. The body P i s movi ng al ong + x-axis (+ ve
sl ope) and t he body Q al ong x-axi s ( ve sl ope). They meet at
x
Q
(t ) = x
P
(t ) = 15 m. Thi s i s t he poi nt at w hi ch t hey meet
w hi l e movi ng i n opposi t e di r ect i ons. Thi s happens at t = 5 sec.
The gr aphs ar e show n i n t he f i gur e 28.
Example 15
A j et a irpla ne t ravelling at t he speed of 500 km/ h eject s it s
product s of combust ion at t he speed of 1500 km/ h rela t ive t o t he jet
pla ne. W hat is t he speed of t he lat t er w it h respect t o a n observer on
t he ground?
Example 16
Tw o t ra ins A a nd B of lengt h 400 m ea ch are moving on t wo
pa ra llel t ra cks w it h a uniform speed of 72 km/ h in t he same direct ion,
w it h A a hea d of B. The driver of B decides t o overt a ke A a nd
a ccelera t es by 1 m s
2
. I f a ft er 50 s, t he gua rd of B j ust brushes pa st t he
driver of A, w hat w as t he origina l dist a nce bet ween t hem?
Example 17
On a t w o-la ne roa d, ca r A is t ra velling w it h a speed of 36 km/ h. Tw o ca rs B a nd C a pproa ch ca r A in
opposit e direct ions w it h a speed of 54 km/ h ea ch. At a cert a in inst a nt , w hen
t he dist a nce AB is equa l t o AC, bot h being 1 km, B decides t o overt a ke A before
C does. W ha t minimum a ccelera t ion of ca r B is required t o a void a n a ccident ?

Examples on graphs:
Example 18
Refer t o t he figure 29 w hich shows t he posit ion-t ime gra phs for
pa rt icles P, Q, R, S a nd T. Answ er t he follow ing quest ions.
1. W hich pa rt icle/ part icles is/ a re moving w it h a const a nt velocit y?
2. W hich pa rt icle/ pa rt icles ha s/ have non-zero a ccelerat ion?


16
3. W hich pa rt icle/ pa rt icles is/ a re st a t iona ry?
4. W hich pa rt icle/ pa rt icles cha nges/ cha nge it s/ t heir direct ion?
5. W hich pa rt icle has great est speed?
6. W hich pa rt icle ha s low est non-zero speed?
7. W hich pa rt icle has t he grea t est a ccelerat ion?
Example 19
Refer t o t he figure 30 w hich shows t he velocit y-t ime gra phs for
pa rt icles P, Q, R, S a nd T. Answ er t he follow ing quest ions.
1. W hich pa rt icle/ part icles is/ a re moving w it h a const a nt velocit y?
2. W hich pa rt icle/ pa rt icles has/ ha ve non-zero
a ccelera t ion/ ret a rdat ion?
3. W hich pa rt icle/ pa rt icles is/ a re st a t iona ry?
4. W hich pa rt icle/ pa rt icles cha nges/ cha nge it s/ t heir direct ion?
5. W hich pa rt icle has great est velocit y?
6. W hich pa rt icle ha s low est non-zero a ccelera t ion?
Examples on posit ion-t ime graphs:
1. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a part icle, moving w it h a const a nt ,
posit ive velocit y. Answ er: Gr aph B of f i gur e 3.
2. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a part icle, moving w it h a const a nt ,
nega t ive velocit y. Answ er: Gr aph C of f i gur e 3.
3. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a part icle, moving in posit ive direct ion
w it h a ccelera t ion. Answ er: Gr aph D of f i gur e 3.
4. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a part icle, moving in posit ive direct ion
w it h ret arda t ion. Answ er: Gr aph OP of f i gur e 5.
5. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle, moving in nega t ive
direct ion w it h a ccelerat ion. Answ er: Gr aph PQ of f i gur e 5.
6. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle, moving in nega t ive
direct ion w it h ret a rdat ion. Answ er: Fi gur e 31.
7. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he +ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a low const a nt speed a nd t hen a high const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 32 gr aph A.
8. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a low const a nt speed a nd t hen a high const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 32 gr aph B.
9. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a part icle moving in t he +ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a high const a nt speed a nd t hen a low const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 33 gr aph A.
10. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a high const a nt speed a nd t hen a low const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 33 gr aph B.
11. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he +ve direct ion
a t low const a nt speed a nd t hen in ve direct ion at high const a nt
speed. Answ er: Fi gur e 34 gr aph A.
12. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he +ve direct ion
a t high const a nt speed a nd t hen in ve direct ion at low const a nt
speed. Answ er: Fi gur e 34 gr aph B.
13. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he ve direct ion


17
a t low const a nt speed a nd t hen in +ve direct ion at high const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 35 gr aph A.
14. Sket ch a posit ion-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he ve direct ion
a t high const a nt speed a nd t hen in +ve direct ion a t low const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 35 gr aph B.
Examples on velocit y-t ime graphs:
1. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a part icle, moving w it h a const a nt ,
posit ive velocit y. Answ er: Gr aph A of f i gur e 9 or gr aph P of
f i gur e 29.
2. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a part icle, moving wit h a const a nt ,
nega t ive velocit y. Answ er: Gr aph T of f i gur e 29.
3. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a part icle at rest . Answer: Poi nt 3 of
f i gur e 29.
4. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he +ve direct ion,
a ccelera t ing from low speed t o high speed. Answ er: Gr aph B of f i gur e
9.
5. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he +ve direct ion,
ret arding from high speed t o low speed. Answ er: Gr aph C of f i gur e
9.
6. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a part icle moving in t he ve direct ion,
a ccelera t ing from low speed t o high speed. Answ er: Gr aph A of
f i gur e 36.
7. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a part icle moving in t he ve direct ion,
ret arding from high speed t o low speed. Answ er: Gr aph B of f i gur e
36.
8. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he +ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a low const a nt speed a nd t hen a high const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 37 gr aph A.
9. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he +ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a high const a nt speed a nd t hen a low const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 37 gr aph B.
10. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a pa rt icle moving in t he ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a low const a nt speed a nd t hen a high const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 38 gr aph A.
11. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a part icle moving in t he ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a low const a nt speed a nd t hen a high const a nt speed.
Answ er: Fi gur e 38 gr aph B.
12. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a part icle moving in t he +ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a const a nt speed a nd t hen w it h a ccelerat ion. Answ er:
Fi gur e 39 gr aph A.
13. Sket ch a velocit y-t ime gra ph for a part icle moving in t he +ve direct ion-
init ia lly w it h a const a nt speed a nd t hen w it h ret ardat ion. Answ er:
Fi gur e 39 gr aph B.

Additional Problems:


18
1. A rifle bullet loses 1/ 20
t h
of it s velocit y in passing t hrough a pla nk. W ha t is t he least number of such
pla nks required just t o st op t he bullet ? Answer: 11
2. Tw o ends of a t ra in moving w it h const a nt a ccelera t ion pa ss a cert a in point w it h velocit ies v
1

a nd v
2
,
t hen w ha t is t he velocit y of it s middle point w hen it pa sses t ha t point ? Answer:
_
u
1
2
+ u
2
2
2

3. Tw o t ra ins a re moving on t he same t ra ck in t he same direct ion w it h velocit ies v
1
(running a hea d of t he
t w o) a nd v
2
such t hat v
2
> v
1
. I f a ret arda t ion a is produced in t he second t ra in, t hen w hat is t he
minimum t ime t o a void collision? Answer:
u
2
- u
1
a

4. Tw o t ra ins a re moving on t he same t ra ck in t he same direct ion w it h velocit ies v
1
(running a hea d of t he
t w o by a dist a nce d) a nd v
2
such t hat v
2
> v
1
. I f a ret a rdat ion a is produced in t he second t ra in, t hen what
is t he minimum va lue of d t o a void collision? Answer: d =
( u
2
-u
1
)
2
2a

5. A body moves from A t o B w it h a const a nt speed of 20 m/ s a nd ret urns from B t o A w it h a const a nt
speed of 40 m/ s. W ha t is t he a vera ge speed of t he body?

Answ ers- Test your know ledge:
1.
a. As t he si ze of a cr icket bal l i s much small er t han di st ance of t he boundar y f r om t he keeper , t he bal l can be
t r eat ed as a point object .
b. As t he size of a mot or -bi ke i s much smal l er t han di st ance bet w een Ghazi abad and Chandigar h, t he bi ke
can be t r eat ed as a point object .
c. As t he si ze of a f oot ball i s not negli gibl e as compar ed t o a di st ance of 4 m bet w een t w o f oot bal l pl ayer s,
t he f oot bal l cannot be t r eat ed as a poi nt obj ect .
d. The dr i ver of t he car can be consi der ed as a poi nt obj ect because hi s size i s much small er t han t he
di st ance cover ed by t he car .
e. A cup f al li ng of f t he edge of a t abl e cannot be consi der ed as a poi nt obj ect because t he size of t he cup i s
not negl igi bl e as compar ed t o t he height of t he t abl e.
2. The di st ance of t he man i s equal t o t ot al pat h l engt h w hi ch i s 5 km + 5 km = 10 km but t he di spl acement i s
zer o, because t he ini t ial and f i nal posi t i ons ar e same.
3. In hal f r evol ut i on, t he di spl acement = di amet er of t he pat h = 2r and di st ance = t he ci r cumf er ence = tr
4. Th e di st ance cov er ed b y a p ar t i cl e i s eq u al t o t h e m agn i t u d e o f di spl acement of par t icl e i n a uni f or m
mot i on al ong a st r ai ght li ne i n a given dir ect i on.
5. Yes. Rest and mot i on ar e r el at i ve t er ms. A body at r est in one f r ame of r ef er ence may be i n mot i on w it h
r espect t o anot her f r ame of r ef er ence. For example, a moving car on a r oad i s at r est wi t h r espect t o t he dr i ver
but i n mot i on wi t h r espect t o a man st anding on t he r oad.
6. A st r aight l i ne, not par al l el t o t i me axi s. A st r ai ght li ne par al lel t o t ime axi s i ndi cat es zer o vel oci t y.
7. Sl ope of di spl acement -t i me (x-t ) gr aph i s equal t o t he vel oci t y of t he body.
8. Gi ven, x t
2
means v = dx/ dt t and accel er at i on = const ant . So, t he body i s movi ng w i t h uni f or m
accel er at i on.
9. Par abol a. Al so see t he pr evi ous answ er .
10. Thi s i s possi bl e w hen t he body r et ur ns t o t he st ar t i ng poi nt .
11. Speedomet er measur es t he i nst ant aneous speed.
12. Yes, in t he case of unif or m cir cular mot ion, t he magnit ude of velocit y r emains const ant but i t s di r ect i on changes
f r om poi nt t o poi nt .
13. It i s not possi bl e as const ant vel oci t y means magni t ude (speed) and di r ect i on wi ll r emai n unchanged.
14. St r ai ght li ne par al lel t o t ime axi s (Fi g. 16)
15. Ar ea of vel oci t y-t ime gr aph = di spl acement = 0 as t he di splacement becomes zer o w hen t he body r et ur ns t o
t he gr ound.
16. Change i n vel oci t y because v u = at (= acceler at i on t i me = ar ea)
17. The mot i on of t he body i s r et ar ded.


19
18. It i s movi ng w i t h unif or m acceler at i on as di st ance t r avell ed by i t i n each successi ve second i ncr eases by a f i xed
val ue (= 4 m).
19. Yes, i t i s possibl e. At t he ext r eme posi t ion of an osci llat ing pendulum and at t he hi ghest poi nt of a body t hr ow n
ver t ically upw ar ds, t he vel oci t y i s zer o, but t he acceler at ion is not zer o.
20. Yes, a body can t r avel opposi t e t o i t s acceler at ion. A body pr oj ect ed upwar ds wi t h some init ial velocit y is subject ed
t o a downwar d acceler at ion (g).
21. Acceler at i on i s zer o. The vel oci t y-t ime gr aph wi ll be a st r ai ght li ne par al l el t o t i me-axi s.
22. A movi ng body wi l l have accel er at ed mot i on i f i t s: (a) dir ect ion of mot i on changes (b) t he magni t ude of vel oci t y
changes; and (c) bot h dir ect i on and magni t ude of vel oci t y change.
23. Thi s i s not possi bl e. If speed changes, t he vel oci t y wi ll change and hence t her e wi ll be an accel er at i on.
24. Bot h of t he bal l s wi ll hi t t he gr ound w it h t he same speed as t hei r i ni t i al ver t ical speeds and accel er at i ons ar e
same.
25. Bot h of t he bal l s w il l hi t t he gr ound at t he same t ime as t heir i ni t i al ver t ical speeds (bot h = 0) and
accel er at i ons ar e same and t hey cover t he same ver t i cal di st ance.
26.

Solut ions of examples:

Example 1
As show n i n t he Fi g. example 1, t he lengt h of AC i s equal t o t he
magni t ude of t he di spl acement vect or AC

.
So, AC = AB
2
+ BC
2
= 5 km
Angl e made by t he di spl acement vect or AC

wi t h r espect t o East i s gi ven by

t an u = BC/ AB = 4/ 3
Or u = 53
0
(Nor t h of East )
Pl ease not e t hat t he di st ance t r avel led i s = 3 km + 4m = 7 km



Example 2
Di st ance t r avell ed by dr unkar d i n 1 s = 1 m
Di st ance t r avell ed by dr unkar d i n 5 st eps
= 5 1 m = 5 m
Ti me t aken t o t r avel 5 m = 5 s
Di st ance t r avell ed i n 3 backw ar d st eps =
3 1 m = 3 m
Ti me t aken t o t r avel 3 m backw ar d = 3 s
Net di spl acement i n f ir st 8 s (5 s + 3 s) = 5
3 = 2 m
Net di spl acement i n 16 s = 2 2 = 4 m
Net di spl acement i n 32 s = 4 2 = 8 m
In t he next 5 s he wi l l t r avel 5m.
Hi s net di spl acement at t he end of t hese
5 s = 8 m + 5 m = 13 m
It means at t he end of t hese 5s, he wi l l f al l i nt o t he pi t .
So, t ot al t i me t aken t o r each t he pi t = 32 s + 5 s = 37 s.

Example 3
Let t he t ot al t ime t aken be 2t .
Di st ance t r avell ed i n t ime t i s d
1
= v
1
t = 80t
Di st ance t r avell ed i n next hal f t ime t i s d
2
= v
2
t = 40t


20
Tot al di st ance = 60 km
Or 80t + 40t = 60
Or 100t = 60
Or t = 0.60 hour
Ther ef or e, aver age speed v = t ot al di st ance/ t ot al t ime = 60/ (2 0.60)
= 60/ 1.2 = 50 km/ h

Example 4
The vel oci t y i s gi ven by
v =
dx
dt
= 0 + 2bt = 2 5.5t = 11t
Ini t i al vel oci t y, (at t = 0), v = 0 m/ s. The vel oci t y at t = 4.0 s, v = 2bt = 2 5.5 4 = 44 m/ s.
Aver age vel oci t y v
av
=
x ( at t = . x) - x ( at t = 4. x)
. 4.
=
24 - 94
2.
= 55 m/ s.

Example 5
Gi ven x = 12t
2
4t + 6
The vel oci t y i s gi ven by
v =
dx
dt
= 12 2t 4 + 0 = 24t 4
For i ni t i al vel oci t y, t = 0
Ther ef or e, t he i ni t i al vel oci t y i s v = u = 24 0 4 = 4 m/ s

Example 6
The sl ope of t he posi t i on--t ime gr aph gi ves t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y at a poi nt . It i s clear f r om t he gr aph
t hat t he sl ope i s posi t i ve bet w een poi nt s O and P but st eadi ly decr eases on t he w ay up. It means t he i nst ant aneous
vel oci t y cont i nuousl y decr eases f r om poi nt O t o point P. Thi s i s r et ar ded mot i on. The sl ope becomes zer o at t he
t op (poi nt P), i.e. t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y i s zer o at poi nt P (due t o r et ar dat i on). Fr om point P t o Q, t he sl ope
becomes mor e and mor e negat i ve. It means t he i nst ant aneous vel oci t y cont i nuousl y i ncr eases f r om poi nt P t o
poi nt Q but i n opposi t e di r ect i on (i .e. i n t he dir ect i on of r et ar dat i on).
At poi nt P, t he sl ope changes f r om + ve t o ve, i .e. t he di r ect i on of mot i on get s r ever sed. As i t i s a
par aboli c cur ve (x t
2
), t he cor r espondi ng vel oci t y-t i me gr aph (See f i gur e 10) w il l be a st r ai ght li ne (x t
2
v t ).

Example 7
The sl ope of t he vel oci t y--t ime gr aph gi ves t he inst ant aneous accel er at i on at a poi nt . It i s cl ear f r om t he
gr aph t hat t he sl ope i s posi t i ve bet w een poi nt s O and P but st eadil y decr eases on t he w ay up. It means t he
i nst ant aneous accel er at i on cont i nuousl y decr eases f r om poi nt O t o poi nt P. The vel oci t y incr eases but at a
decr easi ng r at e. Thi s i s accel er at ed mot i on up t o point P. The sl ope becomes zer o at t he poi nt P, i.e. t he
i nst ant aneous vel oci t y i s maxi mum at poi nt P.
Fr om poi nt P t o Q, t he sl ope becomes mor e and mor e negat i ve. It means t he i nst ant aneous accel er at i on
cont i nuousl y i ncr eases f r om point P t o poi nt Q but i n opposi t e dir ect i on. It means t he vel oci t y decr eases f r om
poi nt P t o Q and becomes zer o at poi nt Q.
Not e t hat at poi nt P, t he sl ope changes f r om + ve t o ve (i .e. accel er at i on t ur ns i nt o r et ar dat ion)
but t he di r ect i on of mot i on r emai ns t he same t hr oughout (poi nt O t o Q). The cor r espondi ng acceler at i on-t i me
gr aph w il l be a st r aight l i ne as show n i n f i gur e 12 i f i t i s a par abol i c cur ve (v t
2
a t ).

Example 8
The t r ai n i s movi ng wi t h unif or m vel oci t y as i t t akes doubl e t he t ime t o cr oss doubl e t he di st ance (l engt h
of t r ai n + l engt h of br i dge). Hence, i t s accel er at i on i s zer o.

Example 9
Bet w een 0 and 5 sec, t he vel oci t y i s posi t ive const ant . It s value i s gi ven by t he sl ope of t he gr aph. Ther ef or e,
v
0-5
=
10 -0
5 - 0
= 2 m/ s
Bet w een 5 and 15 sec, t he vel oci t y i s zer o (zer o sl ope).


21
Bet w een 15 and 20 sec, t he vel oci t y i s negat i ve const ant . It s val ue i s
gi ven by t he sl ope of t he gr aph. Ther ef or e,
V
15-20
=
0 -10
20 - 15
= 2 m/ s
The cor r espondi ng vel oci t y-t i me gr aph i s pl ot t ed i n f i gur e example 9.

Example 10
Ini t i al speed u = 126 km/ h = 126
1000
60 60
m/ s = 35 m/ s.
Speed at x = 200 m, v = 0
Use v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax
Or 0 = (35)
2
+ 2a 200
Or a = - 1225/ 400 = 3.06 m/ s
2

And v = u + at
Or 0 = 35 3.06t
Or t = 35/ 3.06 = 11.4 s

Example 11
Ini t i al vel oci t y u = 3 m/ s and f i nal vel oci t y v = 8 m/ s. Vel oci t y i s get t i ng mor e posi t ive as v u = 8 3 = 5 m/ s,
w hi ch i s a posi t i ve quant i t y. The par t icl e i s movi ng i n t he posi t i ve di r ect i on. Accel er at i on i s posi t i ve as t he vel oci t y
i s i ncr easing and t her ef or e, t he vel oci t y and accel er at i on ar e i n t he same dir ect i on dur i ng t he t ime i nt er val of t he
change i n vel oci t y. Thi s can al so be pr oved f r om t he f ir st equat i on of mot i on:
v = u + at
v i s gr eat er t han u onl y i f accel er at i on a i s posi t i ve t hat i s i n t he same di r ect i on as v.

Example 12
Gi ven, i ni t i al vel oci t y, u = 10 m/ s (t aken posi t i ve i n upw ar d di r ect i on)
Di spl acement h = 400 m (as t he f i nal posi t i on i s bel ow t he i ni t ial posi t i on)
Use h = ut + gt
2

Or 400 = 10t 10t
2

Or 5t
2
10t 400 = 0
Or t
2
2t 80 = 0
Sol ut i on of t hi s quadr at i c equat i on gives t = 10 s
Next use v = u + at = 10 10 10 = 90 m/ s

Example 13
(a) Gi ven, i ni t i al speed u = 20.5 m/ s (dow nw ar d), h = 58.8 m (dow nw ar d)
Usi ng t he equat i on of mot i on
v
2
= u
2
+ 2gh
We get v
2
= (20.5)
2
+ 2 x 9.8 x 58.8
Thus, v = 39.7 m/ s
(b) Usi ng t he equat i on of mot i on
v = u + gt
We get 39.7

= 20.5 + 9.8 x t
Thus, t = 1.96 s
(c) Usi ng t he equat i on of mot i on
h = ut + gt
2

We get 58.5

= 20.5t 9.8 x t
2
(Upw ar d di r ect i on i s t aken as posi t i ve)
Or 4.9 x t
2
20.5t 58.8 = 0
Sol ut i on of t hi s quadr at i c equat i on gives, t = 6.14 s
(d) At t he maxi mum hei ght (Upw ar d dir ect i on i s t aken as posi t i ve)
v = 0
u = 20.5 m/ s
a = g = 9.8 m/ s
2



22
Fr om v = u + gt , w e get
0 = 20.5 9.8 t
Or t = 2.1 sec

Example 14
Usi ng t he equat i on of mot i on
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax
Or 0 = (10)
2
+ 2a 30
Or a = 100/ 60 = 5/ 3 m/ s
2

Agai n usi ng t he same equat i on
0 = (30)
2
+ 2ax
Or x = 900/ (2 5/ 3) = 270 m

Example 15
Vel oci t y of t he j et r el at i ve t o t he gr ound V
j g
= 500 km/ h (t aken posi t i ve)
Vel oci t y of t he combust i on (gas) r el at i ve t o t he j et V
cj
= -1500 km/ h (i t i s opposi t e t o t he j et vel oci t y)
Vel oci t y of t he combust i on (gas) r el at ive t o t he gr ound V
cg
= V
cj
+ V
j g
= - 1500 + 500 = - 1000 km/ h (opposi t e t o j et
vel oci t y)

Example 16
Vel oci t y of B r el at i ve t o A. V
BA
= 72 72 = 0
Acceler at i on of B, a = 1 m/ s
2

Ti me t = 50 s
Di st ance t r avell ed by B r el at i ve t o A = V
BA
t + at
2
= 0 + 1 50 50 = 1250 m

Example 17
Speed of car A, V
A
= 36 km/ h = 36 1000 (m)/ 3600 s = 10 m/ s
Speed of car B, V
B
= speed of car C, V
C
= 54 km/ h = 54 1000 (m)/ 3600 s = 15 m/ s
Speed of B r el at i ve t o A. V
BA
(same dir ect i on) = 15 10 = 5 m/ s
Speed of C r el at i ve t o A. V
CA
(opposit e di r ect i on) = 15 + 10 = 25 m/ s
Di st ance AB = AC = d = 1 km = 1000 m
To det er mi ne t he t ime t aken by car C t o r each car A, use
d = ut + at
2
= V
CA
t + 0 = 25t
Or 1000 = 25t
Or t = 1000/ 25 = 40 s
Car B has t o cover 1000 m i n 40 s.
d = ut + at
2

Or 1000 = V
BA
t + at
2

Or 1000 = 5 40 + a 40 40
Or 1000 200 = 800a
Or a = 800/ 800 = 1 m/ s
2


Example 18
1. The par t i cles Q and R. They have const ant non- zer o sl ope. The const ant non- zer o sl ope means t he const ant
vel oci t y.
2. Onl y t he par t i cl e S has accel er at i on. To have acceler at i on t he par t i cle shoul d have a var i able vel ocit y. In ot her
w or ds, t he sl ope of t he posi t i on-t ime gr aph shoul d change f r om point t o poi nt .
3. The par t i cl es P and T ar e st at i onar y. Their posi t i on i s not changi ng wi t h t ime.
4. No par t i cl e changes it s dir ect i on. The dir ect i on changes only w hen t he vel oci t y of a par t i cl e changes f r om + ve
t o ve vel oci t y or f r om ve t o + ve vel oci t y. In ot her wor ds, t he sl ope of t he posi t i on-t i me gr aph shoul d
change i t s si gn (f r om + ve sl ope t o ve sl ope or f r om ve slope t o + ve sl ope).
5. The par t i cl e Q has gr eat est speed because of st eepest sl ope.
6. The par t i cl e R has l ow est speed because of l east sl ope.


23
7. Onl y t he par t i cl e S has accel er at i on. To have acceler at i on t he par t i cle shoul d have a var i able vel ocit y. In ot her
w or ds, t he sl ope of t he posi t i on-t ime gr aph shoul d change f r om point t o poi nt .

Example 19
1. The par t i cles P and T. They have zer o sl ope. Zer o sl ope on a v-t gr aph means zer o acceler at i on and hence, t he
const ant vel oci t y.
2. Par t icle R has non-zer o accel er at i on, par t icl e S has non-zer o r et ar dat i on and par t icl e Q has non-zer o
accel er at i on i ni t i all y. Non-zer o sl ope on a v-t gr aph show s an accel er at ed mot i on.
3. A v-t gr aph l i ne al ong t i me-axi s i ndi cat es zer o vel oci t y. But t her e i s no such l i ne. Hence, t her e i s no st at i onar y
par t icl e.
4. Par t icles R and S change t hei r dir ect i on. The di r ect i on of a par t i cl e changes w hen i t s vel oci t y changes f r om a +
ve t o ve (par t icle S) or f r om ve t o +ve (par t i cle R). Thus, t he l i ne on a v-t gr aph w il l pass f r om t he + t o t he -
r egi on of t he gr aph.
5. Par t icle P has t he gr eat est vel oci t y. It has const ant posi t ive vel oci t y and par t i cle T has const ant negat i ve
vel oci t y. Ot her par t i cl es have var i able vel oci t y but none exceeds t he vel oci t y of P.
6. Par t icle R has t he small est accel er at i on. The sl ope of t he v-t gr aph i s t he measur e of t he accel er at i on.

Solut ions of Addit ional Problems:

Problem 1
Let t he t hi ckness of each pl ank be d and ini t i al speed u.
Speed af t er cr ossi ng t he f ir st pl ank i s v = u u/ 20 = 19u/ 20
Usi ng t he equat i on of mot i on
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ad
Or (19u/ 20)
2
= u
2
+2ad
Or 2ad = 361u
2
/ 400 u
2
= 39u
2
/ 400
Tot al t hickness D cover ed by t he bul let w hen i t f inal ly st ops w i ll be gi ven by
0 = u
2
+2aD
Or 2aD = u
2

Ther ef or e, number of pl anks =

d
=
- u
2
-
- 39u
2
400
= 400/ 39 = 10.25
Ther ef or e, t he bul l et wi ll st op i n t he 11
t h
pl ank.

Problem 2
Let t he l engt h of t he t r ai n be L.
Usi ng t he equat i on of mot i on f or t he l engt h of t he t r ai n
v
2
= u
2
+ 2ax
Or :
2
2
=:
1
2
+ 2aL
Or 2aL = :
2
2
:
1
2
-- - - - - - - - (1)
When hal f t r ain passes t he gi ven poi nt , x = L/ 2 and l et t he speed be v, t hen
2aL/ 2 = v
2
:
1
2

Or aL = v
2
:
1
2
- - - - - - (2)
Fr om equat i ons (1) and (2)
2 (v
2
:
1
2
) = :
2
2
:
1
2

Or v =
_

1
2
+
2
2
2


Problem 3
Ini t i al r el at ive speed of t he f ir st t r ai n w i t h r espect t o t he second t r ai n, u = v
2
v
1

Ther e w il l be no coll i si on w hen t he f i nal r el at i ve speed becomes zer o, i.e. v = 0
Usi ng t he equat i on v = u + at , w e get
0 = (v
2
v
1
) at


24
Or t =

2
-
1
u

Thi s i s t he r equi r ed mi nimum t ime.

Problem 4
Ini t i al r el at ive speed of t he f ir st t r ai n w i t h r espect t o t he second t r ai n, u = v
2
v
1

Ther e w il l be no coll i si on w hen t he f i nal r el at i ve speed becomes zer o, i.e. v = 0
Usi ng t he equat i on v
2
= u
2
+ 2ad, w e get
0 = (v
2
v
1
)
2
2ad
Or d =
(
2
-
1
)
2
2u


Problem 5
Let d be t he dist ance bet ween A and B, t
1
be t he t ime t aken t o t r avel f r om A t o B and t
2
be t he t ime t aken t o t r avel
f r om B t o A. Hence, t
1
= d/ 20 and t
2
= d/ 40
Aver age speed =
TotaI dIstancc
TotaI tImc
=
d+d
d
20
+
d
40
=
2 20 40
40+20
= 26.7 m/ s