Hydrogen: the essentials Hydrogen is the lightest element.

It is by far the most abundant element in the universe and makes up about about 90% of the universe by weight. Hydrogen as wat er (H2O) is absolutely essential to life and it is present in all organic compou nds. Hydrogen is the lightest gas. Hydrogen gas was used in lighter-than-air bal loons for transport but is far too dangerous because of the fire risk (Hindenbur g). It burns in air to form only water as waste product and if hydrogen could be made on sufficient scale from other than fossil fuels then there might be a pos sibility of a hydrogen economy. Note that while hydrogen is normally shown at the top of the Group 1 elements in the periodic table, the term "alkaline metal" refers to the Group 1 elements fr om lithium downwards and not hydrogen. Table: basic information about and classifications of hydrogen. Name: Hydrogen Symbol: H Atomic number: 1 Atomic weight: 1.00794 (7) [see notes g m r] Standard state: gas at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 1333-74-0 Group in periodic table: 1 Group name: (none) Period in periodic table: 1 Block in periodic table: s-block Colour: colourless Classification: Non-metallic Hydrogen: historical information Hydrogen was discovered by Henry Cavendish at 1766 in London, England. Origin of name: from the Greek words "hydro" and "genes" meaning "water" and "generator". Robert Boyle (1627-1691; English chemist and physicist) published a paper ("New experiments touching the relation betwixt flame and air") in 1671 in which he de scribed the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids which results in the evolution of gaseous hydrogen ("inflammable solution of Mars" [iron]). However it was only much later that it was recognized as an element by Henry Cav endish (1731-1810; an English chemist and physicist who also independently disco vered nitrogen) in 1766 when he collected it over mercury and described it as "i nflammable air from metals". Cavendish described accurately hydrogen's propertie s but thought erroneously that the gas originated from the metal rather than fro m the acid. Hydrogen was named by Lavoisier. Deuterium gas (2H2, often written D2), made up from deuterium, a heavy isotope o f hydrogen, was discovered in 1931 by Harold Urey, a professor of chemistry at C hicago and California (both USA). Sometime prior to the autumn of 1803, the Englishman John Dalton was able to exp lain the results of some of his studies by assuming that matter is composed of a toms and that all samples of any given compound consist of the same combination of these atoms. Dalton also noted that in series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with a given weight of the first elem ent can be reduced to small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions). Thi s was further evidence for atoms. Dalton's theory of atoms was published by Thom as Thomson in the 3rd edition of his System of Chemistry in 1807 and in a paper about strontium oxalates published in the Philosophical Transactions. Dalton pub lished these ideas himself in the following year in the New System of Chemical P hilosophy. The symbol used by Dalton for hydrogen is shown below. [See History o f Chemistry, Sir Edward Thorpe, volume 1, Watts & Co, London, 1914.]

In 1839 a British scientist Sir William Robert Grove carried out experiments on electrolysis. He used electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. He th en argued one should be able to reverse the electrolysis and so generate electri city from the reaction of oxygen with hydrogen. He enclosed platinum strips in s eparate sealed bottles, one containing hydrogen and one oxygen. When the contain ers were immersed in dilute sulphuric acid a current indeed flowed between the t wo electrodes and water was formed in the gas bottles. He linked several of thes e devices in series to increase the voltage produced in a gas battery. Later the term fuel cell was used by the chemists Ludwig Mond and Charles Langer. In 1932 Dr Francis Thomas Bacon, an engineer at Cambridge University in the UK, worked further on designs of Mond and Langer. He replaced the platinum electrode s with less expensive nickel gauze and substituted the sulphuric acid electrolyt e for alkaline potassium hydroxide (less corrosive to the electrodes). This was in essence the first alkaline fuel cell (AFC) and was called the Bacon Cell. It took Bacon another 27 years to demonstrate a machine capable of producing 5 kW o f power, enough to power a welding machine. At about the same time the first fue l cell powered vehicle was demonstrated. Much later fuel cells were by NASA in the 1960s for the Apollo space missions. F uel cells have been used for more than 100 missions in NASA spacecraft. Fuel cel ls are also used in submarines. The lifting agent for the ill fated Hindenberg ballooon was hydrogen rather than the safer helium. The image below is the scene probably in a way you have not s een it before. This is a "ray-traced" image reproduced with the permission of Jo hannes Ewers, the artist, who won first place with this image in the March/April 1999 Internet Raytracing Competition. For details of ray-tracing you can't beat the POV-Ray site. Hydrogen: physical properties Melting point: 14.01 [or -259.14 C (-434.45 F)] K Boiling point: 20.28 [or -252.87 C (-423.17 F)] K Density of solid: 88 kg m-3 Read more Hydrogen: orbital properties Ground state electron configuration: 1s1 Shell structure: 1 Term symbol: 2S1/2 Pauling electronegativity: 2.20 (Pauling units) First ionisation energy: 1312.0 kJ mol-1 Second ionisation energy: no data kJ mol-1 Read more Isolation Isolation: in the laboratory, small amounts of hydrogen gas may be made by the r eaction of calcium hydride with water. CaH2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + 2H2 This is quite efficient in the sense that 50% of the hydrogen produced comes fro m water. Another very convenient laboratory scale experiment follows Boyle's ear ly synthesis, the reaction of iron filings with dilute sulphuric acid. Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2 There are many industrial methods for the production of hydrogen and that used w

ill depend upon local factors such as the quantity required and the raw material s to hand. Two processes in use involve heating coke with steam in the water gas shift reaction or hydrocarbons such as methane with steam. CH4 + H2O (1100C) CO + 3H2 C(coke) + H2O (1000C) CO + H2 In both these cases, further hydrogen may be made by passing the CO and steam ov er hot (400C) iron oxide or cobalt oxide. CO + H2O CO2 + H2 Helium: the essentials Helium is one of the so-called noble gases. Helium gas is an unreactive, colourl ess, and odourless monoatomic gas. Helium is available in pressurised tanks. Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen. -p rti cles are doubly ionised helium atoms, He2+. Helium is used in lighter than air balloons and while heavier than hydrogen, is far safer since helium does not burn. Speaking after breathing an atmosphere ric h in helium results in a squeaky voice (don't try it!). Helium is present in the atmosphere at about 0.0005% (1 part in 200000) by volum e and is an important component within hydrocarbon gases in the USA. Its origin in these gases is traced to the decay of radioactive elements in rocks. Table: basic information about and classifications of helium. Name: Helium Symbol: He Atomic number: 2 Atomic weight: 4.002602 (2) [see notes g r] Standard state: gas at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7440-59-7 Group in periodic table: 18 Group name: Noble gas Period in periodic table: 1 Block in periodic table: p-block Colour: colourless Classification: Non-metallic Emma's first birthday balloon is filled with helium and so rises in air. Helium: historical information Helium was discovered by Sir William Ramsay and independently by N. A. Langley a nd P. T. Cleve at 1895 in London, England and Uppsala, Sweden. Origin of name: f rom the Greek word "helios" meaning "sun". A French astronomer, Pierre-Jules-Csar Janssen (1824-1907), first obtained eviden ce for the existence of helium during the solar eclipse of 1868 in India when he detected a new yellow line (587.49 nm) in the solar spectrum very close to the yellow sodium D-line. It was not possible to produce this line in the laboratory . Sir Norman Lockyer (1836-1920), an English astronomer, recognised that no know n element at that time gave this line and named the element helium for the sun. For many years helium was regarded as an element that might exist on the sun alt hough it was unknown on the Earth. Spectroscopists at the time doubted the resul ts concerning helium. However the claims initiated a search for the new element on planet earth. In 1895, Sir William Ramsay discovered helium after treating cl eveite, a uranium mineral, with mineral acids. Ramsey sent samples of the gas to Sir William Crookes and Sir Norman Lockyer who identified helium. It was discov ered independently in clevite by Cleve and Langley at about the same time. Locky er and Professor Edward Frankland suggested the name helium.

Helium: physical properties Melting point: 0.95 [or -272.2 C (-458 F)] K Boiling point: 4.22 [or -268.93 C (-452.07 F)] K Density of solid: 214 kg m-3 Read more Helium: orbital properties Ground state electron configuration: 1s2 Shell structure: 2 Term symbol: 1S0 Pauling electronegativity: no data (Pauling units) First ionisation energy: 2372.3 kJ mol-1 Second ionisation energy: 5250.5 kJ mol-1 Read more Isolation Isolation: there is very little helium on earth as nearly all present during and immediately after the earth's formation has long since been lost as it is so li ght. Just about all the helium remaining on the planet is the result of radioact ive decay. While there is some helium in the atmosphere, currently its isolation from that source by liquefaction and separation of air is not normally economic . This is bacause it is easier, and cheaper, to isolate the gas from certain nat ural gases. Concentrations of helium in natural gas in the USA are as high as 7% and other good sources include natural gas from some sources in Poland. It is i solable from these gases by liquefaction and separation of from the natural gas. This would not normally be carried out in the laboratory and helium is availabl e commercially in cylinders under pressure. Lithium: the essentials Lithium is a Group 1 (IA) element containing just a single valence electron (1s2 2s1). Group 1 elements are called "alkali metals". Lithium is a solid only about half as dense as water and lithium metal is the least dense metal. A freshly cu t chunk of lithium is silvery, but tarnishes in a minute or so in air to give a grey surface. Its chemistry is dominated by its tendency to lose an electron to form Li+. It is the first element within the second period. Lithium is mixed (alloyed) with aluminium and magnesium for light-weight alloys, and is also used in batteries, some greases, some glasses, and in medicine. Lithium does not occur as the free metal in nature because of its high reactivit y. Deposits are known all aroun the world. It is a minor component of nearly all igneous rocks and is a component of many natural brines. Table: basic information about and classifications of lithium. Name: Lithium Symbol: Li Atomic number: 3 Atomic weight: [ 6.941 (2)] [see notes g m r] Standard state: solid at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7439-93-2 Group in periodic table: 1 Group name: Alkali metal Period in periodic table: 2 Block in periodic table: s-block Colour: silvery white/grey Classification: Metallic

Cartoon by Nick D Kim (nearingzero.net, used by permission). Lithium: historical information Lithium was discovered by Johan August Arfvedson at 1817 in Stockholm, Sweden. O rigin of name: from the Greek word "lithos" meaning "stone", apparently because it was discovered from a mineral source whereas the other two common Group 1 ele ments, sodium and potassium, were discovered from plant sources.. The mineral petalite (which contains lithium) was discovered by the Brazilian sc ientist Jos Bonifcio de Andrada e Silva towards the end of the 18th century while visiting Sweden. Lithium was discovered by Johan August Arfvedson in 1817 during an analysis of petalite ore, an ore now recognised to be LiAl(Si2O5)2, taken fr om the Swedish island of Ut. Arfvedson subsequently discovered lithium in the min erals spodumene and lepidolite. C.G. Gmelin observed in 1818 that lithium salts colour flames bright red. Neither Gmelin nor Arfvedson were able to isolate the element itself from lithium salts, for example in attempted reductions by heatin g the oxide with iron or carbon. The first isolation of elemental lithium was achieved later by W.T. Brande and S ir Humphrey Davy by the electrolysis of lithium oxide. In 1855, Bunsen and Matti essen isolated larger quantities of the metal by electrolysis of lithium chlorid e. In 1923 the first commercial production of lithium metal was achieved by Metallg esellschaft AG in Germany using the electrolysis of a molten mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride, exploiting a suggestion made by Guntz in 1893. Lithium: physical properties Melting point: 453.69 [or 180.54 C (356.97 F)] K Boiling point: 1615 [or 1342 C (2448 F)] K Density of solid: 535 kg m-3 Read more Lithium: orbital properties Ground state electron configuration: [He].2s1 Shell structure: 2.1 Term symbol: 2S1/2 Pauling electronegativity: 0.98 (Pauling units) First ionisation energy: 520.2 kJ mol-1 Second ionisation energy: 7298.1 kJ mol-1 Read more Isolation Isolation: lithium would not normally be made in the laboratory as it is so read ily available commercially. All syntheses require an electrolytic step as it is so difficult to add an electron to the poorly electronegative lithium ion Li+. The ore spodumene, LiAl(SiO3)2, is the most important commercial ore containing lithium. The form is first converted into the softer form by heating to around 1 100C. This is mixed carefully with hot sulphuric acid and extracted into water to form lithium sulphate, Li2SO4, solution. The sulphate is washed with sodium car bonate, Na2CO3, to form a precipitate of the relatively insoluble lithium carbon ate, Li2CO3. Li2SO4 + Na2CO3 Na2SO4 + Li2CO3 (solid) Reaction of lithium carbonate with HCl then provides lithium chloride, LiCl. Li2CO3 + 2HCl 2LiCl + CO2 Lithium chloride has a high sive to melt it in order to l (55%) and KCl (45%) melts +H2O melting point (> 600C) meaning that it sould be expen carry out the electrolysis. However a mixture of LiC at about 430C and so much less energy and so expense

is required for the electrolysis. cathode: Li+(l) + e- Li (l) anode: Cl-(l) 1/2Cl2 (g) + eBeryllium: the essentials Beryllium is a Group 2 (IIA) element. It is a metal and has a high melting point . At ordinary temperatures, beryllium resists oxidation in air. Beryllium compou nds are very toxic. Its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formatio n of a thin layer of the oxide. Aquamarine and emerald are precious forms of the mineral beryl, [Be3Al2(SiO3)6]. Its chemistry is dominated by its tendency to lose an electron to form Be2+. As this ion is so small it is highly polarising, to the extent that its compounds a re rather covalent. Its small size means that its complexes tend to be tetrahedr al rahter than octahedral. Table: basic information about and classifications of beryllium. Name: Beryllium Symbol: Be Atomic number: 4 Atomic weight: 9.012182 (3) Standard state: solid at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7440-41-7 Group in periodic table: 2 Group name: Alkaline earth metal Period in periodic table: 2 Block in periodic table: s-block Colour: lead grey Classification: Metallic This sample is from The Elements Collection, an attractive and safely packaged c ollection of the 92 naturally occurring elements that is available for sale. Beryllium: historical information Beryllium was discovered by Nicholas Louis Vauquelin (1763-1829) at 1797 in Fran ce. Origin of name: from the Greek word "beryllos" meaning "beryl". Emeralds and beryl were both known to early Egyptians but it was not realised un til the end of the 18th century that they are the same mineral, now called beryl lium aluminium silicate: [Be3Al2(SiO3)6]. The element was recognised by M.-L. Va uquelin in 1798 in beryl and emeralds. The metal was isolated much later on in 1 828 by Friederich Whler (and independently by A.-A.B. Bussy) by the action of pot assium on BeCl2 in a platinum crucible. Beryllium: physical properties Melting point: 1560 [or 1287 C (2349 F)] K Boiling point: 2742 [or 2469 C (4476 F)] K Density of solid: 1848 kg m-3 Read more Beryllium: orbital properties Ground state electron configuration: [He].2s2 Shell structure: 2.2 Term symbol: 1S0 Pauling electronegativity: 1.57 (Pauling units) First ionisation energy: 899.5 kJ mol-1 Second ionisation energy: 1757.1 kJ mol-1 Read more

Isolation Isolation: beryllium metal is available commercially and so would never normally be made in the laboratory. Its extraction from ores is complex. The mineral ber yl, [Be3Al2(SiO3)6] is the most important source of beryllium. It is roasted wit h sodimu hexafluorosilicate, Na2SiF6, at 700C to form beryllium fluoride. This is water soluble and the beryllium may be precipitated as the hydroxide Be(OH)2 by adjustment of the pH to 12. Pure beryllium may be obtained by electrolysis of molten BeCl2 containing some N aCl. The salt is added since the molten BeCl2 conducts very poorly. Another meth od involves the reduction of beryllium fluoride with magnesium at 1300C. BeF2 + Mg MgF2 + Be Boron: the essentials Boron is a Group 13 element that has properties which are borderline between met als and non-metals (semimetallic). It is a semiconductor rather than a metallic conductor. Chemically it is closer to silicon than to aluminium, gallium, indium , and thallium. Crystalline boron is inert chemically and is resistant to attack by boiling HF o r HCl. When finely divided it is attacked slowly by hot concentrated nitric acid . Table: basic information about and classifications of boron. Name: Boron Symbol: B Atomic number: 5 Atomic weight: 10.811 (7) [see notes g m r] Standard state: solid at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7440-42-8 Group in periodic table: 13 Group name: (none) Period in periodic table: 2 Block in periodic table: p-block Colour: black Classification: Semi-metallic Image adapted with permission from Prof James Marshall's (U. North Texas, USA) W alking Tour of the elements CD. Boron: historical information Boron was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy, Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, L.J. Th& nard at 1808 in England, France. Origin of name: from the Arabic word "buraq" and the Persian word "burah" . Boron compounds have been known for thousands of years, but the element was not isolated until 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy, Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) and Louis Jaques Thenard (1777-1857). This was accomplished through the reaction of boric acid (H3BO3) with potassium. Boron: physical properties Melting point: 2349 [or 2076 C (3769 F)] K Boiling point: 4200 [or 3927 C (7101 F)] K Density of solid: 2460 kg m-3 Read more Boron: orbital properties Ground state electron configuration: [He].2s2.2p1 Shell structure: 2.3

Term symbol: 2P1/2 Pauling electronegativity: 2.04 (Pauling units) First ionisation energy: 800.6 kJ mol-1 Second ionisation energy: 2427.1 kJ mol-1 Read more Isolation Isolation: it is not normally necessary to make boron in the laboratory and it w ould normally be purchased as it is available commercially. The most common sour ces of boron are tourmaline, borax [Na2B4O5(OH)4.8H2O], and kernite [Na2B4O5(OH) 4.2H2O]. It is difficult to obtain pure. It can be made through the magnesium re duction of the oxide, B2O3. The oxide is made by melting boric acid, B(OH)3, whi ch in turn is obtained from borax. B2O3 + 3Mg 2B + 3MgO Samm amounts of high purity boron are available through the thermal decompositio n of compounds such as BBr3 with hydrogen gas using a heated tantalum wire. Resu lts are better with hot wires at tmeperatures over 1000C. Carbon: the essentials Carbon is a Group 14 element and is distributed very widely in nature. It is fou nd in abundance in the sun, stars, comets, and atmospheres of most planets. Carbon is found free in nature in three allotropic forms: amorphous, graphite, a nd diamond (further details). Graphite is one of the softest known materials whi le diamond is one of the hardest. Carbon, as microscopic diamonds, is found in s ome meteorites. Natural diamonds are found in ancient volcanic "pipes" such as f ound in South Africa. Diamonds are also recovered from the ocean floor off the C ape of Good Hope. Table: basic information about and classifications of carbon. Name: Carbon Symbol: C Atomic number: 6 Atomic weight: 12.0107 (8) [see notes g r] Standard state: solid at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7440-44-0 Group in periodic table: 14 Group name: (none) Period in periodic table: 2 Block in periodic table: p-block Colour: graphite is black, diamond is colourless Classification: Non-metallic A diamond ring. More recently, another form of carbon, buckminsterfullerene, C60, has been disco vered. This new form of carbon is the subject of great interest in research labo ratories today. Carbon is present as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and dissolved in all natur al waters. It is a component of rocks as carbonates of calcium (limestone), magn esium, and iron. The atmosphere of Mars contains 96 % CO2. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are chiefly hydrocarbons. Carbon is unique amon g the elements in the vast number of variety of compounds it can form. Organic c hemistry, a 1/112th subset of inorganic chemistry, is the study of carbon and it s compounds. While silicon might take the place of carbon in forming a host of r elated compounds, it is not possible currently to form stable compounds with ver

y long chains of silicon atoms. In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted th e isotope 12C as the basis for atomic weights. Carbon-14, 14C, an isotope with a half-life of 5730 years, is used to date such materials as wood, archeological specimens, etc. Carbon-13, 13C, is particularly useful for isotopic labelling st udies since it is not radioactive, but is a spin I = 1/2 nucleus and therefore a good NMR nucleus. Cartoon by Nick D Kim (nearingzero.net, used by permission). This sample is from The Elements Collection, an attractive and safely packaged c ollection of the 92 naturally occurring elements that is available for sale. Carbon: historical information Carbon was discovered by Known since ancient times although not recognised as an element until much later. at no data in not known. Origin of name: from the Lat in word "carbo" meaning "charcoal". Carbon as charcoal, soot and coal has been used since prehistoric times. Carbon as diamond has also been known since very ancient times. The recognition that so ot (amorphous carbon), graphite (another form of carbon) and diamond are all for ms of carbon. A fourth form, buckminsterfullerene, formula C60, whose framework is reminiscent of the seams in an Association Football ("soccer") ball, is the subject of cons iderable interest at present and was only discovered a few years ago in work inv olving Harry Kroto, a Sheffield graduate. Sometime prior to the autumn of 1803, the Englishman John Dalton was able to exp lain the results of some of his studies by assuming that matter is composed of a toms and that all samples of any given compound consist of the same combination of these atoms. Dalton also noted that in series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with a given weight of the first elem ent can be reduced to small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions). Thi s was further evidence for atoms. Dalton's theory of atoms was published by Thom as Thomson in the 3rd edition of his System of Chemistry in 1807 and in a paper about strontium oxalates published in the Philosophical Transactions. Dalton pub lished these ideas himself in the following year in the New System of Chemical P hilosophy. The symbol used by Dalton for carbon is shown below. [See History of Chemistry, Sir Edward Thorpe, volume 1, Watts & Co, London, 1914.] Carbon: physical properties Melting point: 3800 [or 3500 C (6400 F)] K Boiling point: 4300 [or 4027 C (7281 F)] K Density of solid: 2267 kg m-3 Read more Carbon: orbital properties Ground state electron configuration: [He].2s2.2p2 Shell structure: 2.4 Term symbol: 3P0 Pauling electronegativity: 2.55 (Pauling units) First ionisation energy: 1086.5 kJ mol-1 Second ionisation energy: 2352.6 kJ mol-1 Read more Isolation Isolation: carbon is available in nature as graphite and (to a much lesser exten t!) as diamond. Artificial graphite is made by the reaction of coke with silica

(SiO2). SiO2 + 3C (2500C) "SiC" Si (g) + C(graphite) Artificial diamonds are made by the application of heat and pressure (> 125 kBar ) in the presence of a catalyst such as iron, chromium or platinum. It seems tha t the metal melts on the carbon surface, the graphite dissolves in the metal fil m, and the less soluble diamond precipitates out. The introduction of nitrogen a s an impurity gives yellowish diamonds while boron impurities give bluish colour s. A new form of carbon, buckminsterfullerene with formula C60 is formed in the tre atment of graphite by lasers and is now commercially available in small quantiti es. Nitrogen: the essentials Nitrogen is a Group 15 element. Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the atmosphere by volume but the atmosphere of Mars contains less than 3% nitrogen. The element s eemed so inert that Lavoisier named it azote, meaning "without life". However, i ts compounds are vital components of foods, fertilizers, and explosives. Nitroge n gas is colourless, odourless, and generally inert. As a liquid it is also colo urless and odourless. When nitrogen is heated, it combines directly with magnesium, lithium, or calciu m. When mixed with oxygen and subjected to electric sparks, it forms nitric oxid e (NO) and then the dioxide (NO2). When heated under pressure with hydrogen in t he presence of a suitable catalyst , ammonia forms (Haber process). Nitrogen is "fixed" from the atmosphere by bacteria in the roots of certain plants such as c lover. Hence the usefulness of clover in crop rotation. Table: basic information about and classifications of nitrogen. Name: Nitrogen Symbol: N Atomic number: 7 Atomic weight: 14.0067 (2) [see notes g r] Standard state: gas at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7727-37-9 Group in periodic table: 15 Group name: Pnictogen Period in periodic table: 2 Block in periodic table: p-block Colour: colourless Classification: Non-metallic Image adapted with permission from Prof James Marshall's (U. North Texas, USA) W alking Tour of the elements CD. The result of touching nitrogen triiodide (NI3)! Nitrogen triiodide is dangerous ly percussion sensitive (only to be demonstrated by a professionally qualified c hemist following a legally satisfactory hazard asessment). Improperly done, this reaction is dangerous! Nitrogen: historical information Nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford at 1772 in Scotland. Origin of name : from the Greek words "nitron genes" meaning "nitre" and "forming" and the Lati n word "nitrum" (nitre is a common name for potassium nitrate, KNO#). It was known during the 18th century that air contains at least two gases, one o f which supports combustion and life, and the other of which does not. Nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air, but Sche ele, Cavendish, Priestley, and others at about the same time studied "burnt" or

"dephlogisticated" air, as air without oxygen was then called. Sometime prior to the autumn of 1803, the Englishman John Dalton was able to exp lain the results of some of his studies by assuming that matter is composed of a toms and that all samples of any given compound consist of the same combination of these atoms. Dalton also noted that in series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with a given weight of the first elem ent can be reduced to small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions). Thi s was further evidence for atoms. Dalton's theory of atoms was published by Thom as Thomson in the 3rd edition of his System of Chemistry in 1807 and in a paper about strontium oxalates published in the Philosophical Transactions. Dalton pub lished these ideas himself in the following year in the New System of Chemical P hilosophy. The symbol used by Dalton for nitrogen is shown below. [See History o f Chemistry, Sir Edward Thorpe, volume 1, Watts & Co, London, 1914.]

Nitrogen: physical properties Melting point: 63.05 [or -210.1 C (-346.18 F)] K Boiling point: 77.36 [or -195.79 C (-320.42 F)] K Density of solid: 1026 kg m-3 Read more Nitrogen: orbital properties Ground state electron configuration: [He].2s2.2p3 Shell structure: 2.5 Term symbol: 4S3/2 Pauling electronegativity: 3.04 (Pauling units) First ionisation energy: 1402.3 kJ mol-1 Second ionisation energy: 2856 kJ mol-1 Read more Isolation Isolation: there is never any need to make nitrogen in the laboratory as it is r eadily available commercially or through in-house air liquefaction plants. Howev er the decomposition of sodium azide is one route to N2 and decomposition is amm onium dichromate is another. Both reactions must only be carried out under contr olled conditions by a professional. NaN3 (300C) 2Na + 3N2 (NH4)2Cr2O7 N2 + Cr2O3 + 4H2O Nitrogen is made on massive scale by liquefaction of air and fractional distilla tion of the resulting liquid air to separate out oxygen and other gases. Very hi gh purity nitrogen is available by this route. Oxygen: the essentials Oxygen is a Group 16 element. While about one fifth of the atmosphere is oxygen gas, the atmosphere of Mars contains only about 0.15% oxygen. Oxygen is the thir d most abundant element found in the sun, and it plays a part in the carbon-nitr ogen cycle, one process responsible for stellar energy production. Oxygen in exc ited states is responsible for the bright red and yellow-green colours of the au rora. About two thirds of the human body, and nine tenths of water, is oxygen. T he gas is colourless, odourless, and tasteless. Liquid and solid oxygen are pale blue (see picture above) and strongly paramagnetic (contains unpaired electrons ). Table: basic information about and classifications of oxygen. Name: Oxygen

Symbol: O Atomic number: 8 Atomic weight: 15.9994 (3) [see notes g r] Standard state: gas at 298 K CAS Registry ID: 7782-44-7 Group in periodic table: 16 Group name: Chalcogen Period in periodic table: 2 Block in periodic table: p-block Colour: colourless as a gas, liquid is pale blue Classification: Non-metallic Ozone (O3) is another allotrope of oxygen. It is formed from electrical discharg es or ultraviolet light acting on O2. It is an important component of the atmosp here (in total amounting to the equivalent of a layer about 3 mm thick at ordina ry pressures and temperatures) which is vital in preventing harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth's surface. Aerosols in the atmosphere ha ve a detrimental effect on the ozone layer. Large holes in the ozone layer are f orming over the polar regions and these are increasing in size annually. Paradox ically, ozone is toxic! Undiluted ozone is bluish in colour. Liquid ozone is blu ish-black, and solid ozone is violet-black. Oxygen is very reactive and oxides of most elements are known. It is essential f or respiration of all plants and animals and for most types of combustion. Liquid oxygen. Image adapted with permission from Prof James Marshall's (U. Nort h Texas, USA) Walking Tour of the elements CD. Cartoon by Nick D Kim (nearingzero.net, used by permission). Oxygen: historical information Oxygen was discovered by Joseph Priestley, Carl Scheele at 1774 in England, Swed en. Origin of name: from the Greek words "oxy genes" meaning "acid" (sharp) and "forming" (acid former). Leonardo da Vinci suggested that air consists of at least two different gases. B efore then, air was felt to be an element in its own right. He was also aware th at one of these gases supported both flames and life. Oxygen was prepared by sev eral workers before 1772 but these workers did not recognise it as an element. J oseph Priestley is generally credited with its discovery (who made oxygen by hea ting lead or mercury oxides), but Carl Wilhelm Scheele also reported it independ ently. The behaviour of oxygen and nitrogen as components of air led to the advancement of the phlogiston theory of combustion, which influenced chemists for a century or so, and which delayed an understanding of the nature of air for many years. Sometime prior to the autumn of 1803, the Englishman John Dalton was able to exp lain the results of some of his studies by assuming that matter is composed of a toms and that all samples of any given compound consist of the same combination of these atoms. Dalton also noted that in series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with a given weight of the first elem ent can be reduced to small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions). Thi s was further evidence for atoms. Dalton's theory of atoms was published by Thom as Thomson in the 3rd edition of his System of Chemistry in 1807 and in a paper about strontium oxalates published in the Philosophical Transactions. Dalton pub lished these ideas himself in the following year in the New System of Chemical P hilosophy. The symbol used by Dalton for oxygen is shown below. [See History of Chemistry, Sir Edward Thorpe, volume 1, Watts & Co, London, 1914.]

Oxygen: physical properties Melting point: 54.8 [or -218.3 C (-360.9 F)] K Boiling point: 90.2 [or -182.9 C (-297.2 F)] K Density of solid: 1495 kg m-3 Read more Oxygen: orbital properties Ground state electron configuration: [He].2s2.2p4 Shell structure: 2.6 Term symbol: 3P2 Pauling electronegativity: 3.44 (Pauling units) First ionisation energy: 1313.9 kJ mol-1 Second ionisation energy: 3388.3 kJ mol-1 Read more Isolation Isolation: there is not normally any need ot make oxygen in the laboratory as it is readily available commercially or through in-house air liquefaction plants. However the decomposition of potassium chlorate is one route to O2 and decomposi tion of potassium permanganate is another. In addition, electrolysis of KOH usin g nickel electrodes gives clean oxygen. 2KClO3 (400C) 2KCl + 3O2 2KMnO4 (214C) K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2 Ozone (O3), the other allotrope of oxygen, is made by silent electric discharge through oxygen flowing through a cooled system. This can give up to a10% proport ion of ozone and the ozone is purified by fractional liquefaction (with care!).