CR-42

1
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OPTIMIZATION STUDY OF HIGH POWER STATIC INVERTERS AND CONVERTERS

by Artbar B. Larsen and James E. Murrdy

i1
I

Prepared under Contract No. NAS 3-2785 by

THOMPSON R A M 0 WOOLUKiUGb, INK.

Cleveland, Ohio
,for

N A T I O N A L AERONAUTICS A N D SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D. C.

MAY 1964

OPTIMIZATION STUDY OF HIGH POWER STATIC INVERTERS AND CONVERTERS By Authur B. Larsen and J a m e s E. Murray

This report was reproduced photographically from copy supplied by the contractor.

Prepared under Contract No. NAS 3-2785 by THOMPSON RAM0 WOOLDMDGE, INC. Cleveland, Ohio

for
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION F o r sale by the Office of Technical Services, Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20230 -- Price $2.75

TABLEOFCONTENTS Page 1 2 5 14 14 14 19 24 23
41
52

SUMMARY INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY O F THE NASA INVERTER OPTIMIZATION STUDY DESCRIPTION O F INVERTER T Y P E S

I.
1. 1 11 1. IV. V.

INTRODUCTION SERIES INVERTERS P A R A L L E L INVERTERS VOLTAGE REGULATION HARMONIC REDUCTION

APPENDIX I

Analysis of the Series Inverter

APPENDIX I1 Figures

Analysis of the P a r a l l e l Inverter

70
1os 105 105 ! 12 121 123 125 133 137 143

St ud y of 3 2 0 0 rJ Inv e r t e r C onf ig u r a t i on

I.

11. 111. IV. Figures

P o w e r Switching Device 1. P o w e r T r a n s i s t o r s 2. Silicon Controlled R e c t i f i e r s 3. Gate Controlled Switches P a r a l l e l i n g Techniques Voltage Regulation Conclusions

BIBLIOGRAPHY

iii

LIST O F TABLES

Page
Table 1 C o m p a r i s o n of I n v e r t e r C i r c u i t s
40

Table

1 1

Static I n v e r t e r P o w e r Switch Rating C h a r t

135 136

Table 1 - 2 Voltage Regulation Techniques

iv

LIST O F FIGURES Page

Fi u r e 1 4 F i g u r e 1-A
Figure I-B F i g u r e 1-G Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figilre Figure

S c h e m a t i c & W a v e f o r m s f o r Simple S e r i e s I n v e r t e r 70 71 Equivalent C i r c u i t of F i g u r e 1 at T i m e of Gating on SCR through 1-F G r a p h i c a l Solution f o r Allowable Loading 71 of Simple Series I n v e r t e r Series I n v e r t e r Modified by Load Switch C i r c u i t and Waveforms B i d i r e c t i o n a l Series I n v e r t e r Parallel I n v e r t e r Equivalent C i r c u i t of F i g u r e 3 f o r S1 being c l o s e d W a v e f o r m s f o r S t a r t i n g of F i g u r e 3 with n o l o a d Parallel I n v e r t e r with Reactive Diodes Par alle 1 I n v e r t e r Waveform 6 Series Switching Regulator W a v e f o r m s f o r 5C M o r g a n Chopper C i r c u i t W a v e f o r m s f o r F i g u r e 5E Bedford S t e p - u p C i r c u i t W a v e f o r m s f o r C i r c u i t of 5-G I l l u s t r a t i o n of R e s u l t s of Lack of " Z e r o Clamping" Q u a s i - S q u a r e Wave I n v e r t e r s Double S q u a r e Wave Quasi-Square I n v e r t e r Bridge Circuit T h r e e P h a s e Bridge Inverter Stepped Output W a v e f o r m s Static T a p Changing C i r c u i t Techniques f o r Realization of Static Switches f o r -4-C u s e P u l s e Width Modulation Waveform and its F u n d a m e n t a l Component P u l s e Width Modulation I n v e r t e r -Block D i a g r a m (Cyclo-converter) Modified P u l s e Width Modulation W a v e f o r m with Reduced H a r m o n i c Content, Along with I t s F u n d a m e n t a l Component P a s s i v e B a n d p a s s F i l t e r Block D i a g r a m Active Filter Block D i a g r a m 72 73 74 75 75 76 77 78 78 79 79 80 80 81 82 a3 84 85 86 87 87

2 3 3-A 3-B 4 5 5-C 5-D 5-E 5-F 5-G 5-H 5-K 6 7 8 9 10 10A 10B

F i g u r e 11 F i g u r e 12 Figure 13

88
88 89

F i g u r e 14 Figure 15

90

90

LIST O F FIGURE (continued)

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

1-1 Bidirectional S e r i e s I n v e r t e r 1-2 Equivalent Ckt. of 1-1 SCR 1 C u r r e n t P a t h s 1-3 SCR 2 C u r r e n t P a t h s 1-4 1-5 C u r r e n t s with Unsplit Load C a p a c i t o r 1-6 and 1-7 Commutation of S e r i e s I n v e r t e r 1-8 S e r i e s I n v e r t e r O p e r a t i o n Modes 11-1 Pal aiiel I n v e r t e r C i r c u i t 11-2 Equivalent Ckt. of 11-1 Equivalent Ckt. of 11-2 11-3 11-4 C a p a c i t o r C h a r g e Cycle: v c a E / k 11-5 C a p a c i t o r C h a r g e Cycle: vc = 2 E / k 11-6 C i r c u i t I m m e d i a t e l y Before Commutation 11-7 C i r c u i t I m m e d i a t e l y After Commutation 11-8 Capacitor Charging C u r r e n t s I m m e d i a t e l y After Commutation of SCR 1 ( t u r n - o n of SCR 2 ) 11-9A C i r c u i t a t Instant of Turning on of SCR 1 11-9B Equivalent Ckt, of F i g u r e 11-9A 11-10 Starting and Steady State W a v e f o r m s M c M u r r a y Bedford I n v e r t e r R e s i s t i v e Load (with tuned filter) 11-11 M c M u r r a y - B e d f o r d I n v e r t e r Waveforms-Inductive Loading Dynamic H y s t e r e s i s Loops -Output XFMR C o r e 11- 12 11- 13B High F r e q u e n c y Starting Waveforms P o w e r Section Block D i a g r a m 1-1 Three Phase Pulse Modulation I n v e r t e r 1-2 S c h e m a t i c of T r a n s i s t o r i z e d S q u a r e Wave I n v e r t e r SCR C u r r e n t due t o Commutation; M c M u r r a y 1-3 Bedford C i r c u i t Modified Parallel I n v e r t e r 1-4 1-5 Commutating SCR C u r r e n t ; M c M u r r a y I n v e r t e r C i r c u i t with P a r a l l e l i n g on Primary Side I-7A 1-7B C i r c u i t f o r P a r a l l e l i n g on Secondary Side 1-8 Output Modulator Z e r o - C l a m p Technique 1-9 H a r m o n i c Reduction & L o a d s h a r i n g Waveforms 1-10 T h r e e P h a s e Load Sharing Block D i a g r a m I n v e r t e r with S u p p r e s s e d T h i r d H a r m o n i c 1-11 3 0 Quasi-Square Wave Set 1-12 3 0 3 2 0 0 a I n v e r t e r Block D i a g r a m

Page 91 91

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93 94 95 96 96 96 97 97 98 98 99
100

100
101 102 103 104 137 137 138 138 138 139 139 140

140
140 141 142

vi

Summary

T h i s is the first q u a r t e r l y r e p o r t of the Optimization Study of high p o w e r s t a t i c i n v e r t e r s f o r s p a c e applications.

Work on the study began August 1, 1963.

T h i s r e p o r t c o v e r s the t i m e f r o m August 1 , 1963 t o O c t o b e r 31, 1963.

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n outlines the g o a l s of the study and the g e n e r a l p r o g r a m plan. T h e r e s u l t s of t h e first p h a s e of study which i n v o l v e s d e t e r m i n i n g s p e c i f i c

p r o g r a m g o a l s a r e included a s the s e c t i o n titled !'Methodology of the NASA I n v e r t e r Optimization Study, T h e s e c o n d phase of the study which is only
11

p a r t i a l l y c o m p l e t e , is c o v e r e d i n s e c t i o n s on and "Hi-power 3200 c p s I n v e r t e r Concept.

D e s c r i p t i o n s of I n v e r t e r T y p e s "

4W l d 4 '

INTRODUCTION

For space use, e l e c t r i c a l power is utilized i n the launch vehicle to p r o v i d e

guidance and c o n t r o l power s o that the r e q u i r e d velocity and d i r e c t i o n a l accuracy can be obtained. In s a t e l l i t e applications e l e c t r i c power m a y be

required f o r attitude control, navigation, guidance, communication and life support. G e n e r a l l y t h i s e l e c t r i c power is d e r i v e d f r o m s t a t i c s o u r c e s of Static i n v e r t e r s and c o n v e r t e r s m u s t be used t o condition Optimum

direct current.

the DC power into f o r m s which a r e acceptable f o r the final loads.

utilization of t h e s e solid s t a t e d e v i c e s for space applications r e q u i r e s detailed considerations of the application. T h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s include the p e r f o r

mance r e q u i r e m e n t s of the load, the regulation of the DC s o u r c e , the m e t h o d of inversion, the e n v i r o n m e n t with i t s t h e r m a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , weight r e s t r i c tions, and the components themselves. Any method which a t t e m p t s t o

optimize an i n v e r t e r f o r space m u s t be p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with t h r e e f i g u r e s of merit. The f i r s t is efficiency b e c a u s e of t h e l i m i t e d amount of power

which i s s t o r e d o r g e n e r a t e d and b e c a u s e r e d u c e d i n t e r n a l l o s s e s will r e d u c e internal t e m p e r a t u r e s . The second f i g u r e of m-erit is the power to weight ratio.

T h i s is obviously i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e of the t h r u s t l i m i t a t i o n s of the launch vehicle. The l a s t but c e r t a i n l y not l e a s t i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e of m e r i t is the

reliability of the i n v e r t e r .

High p e r f o r m a n c e s t a t i c i n v e r t e r s and c o n v e r t e r s utilize nondissipative switching of high power s e m i c o n d u c t o r s t o achieve high efficiency and high

pdwer to weight r a t i o s .

However, f o r s p a c e applications w h e r e it is u s u a l l y

i m p o s s i b l e to c a r r y s p a r e u3its o r to p e r f o r m routine m a i n t e n a n c e , the a s p e c t of i n h e r e n t r e l i a b i l i t y m u s t be weighed against the P e r f o r m a n c e g o a l s , efficiency and weight to achieve the optimum mix. It is the p u r p o s e of t h i s

study t o e x a m i n e t h e s e v a r i o m a s p e c t s of the s p a c e power conditioning p r o b l e m i n a n effort t o d e t e r m i n e the m o s t feasible techniques to fulfill the p r e s e n t a n d p r o j e c t e d r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r high power s p a c e s t a t i c i n v e r s i o n equipment.

T h e power r a n g e to be e x a m i n e d c o v e r s the range of 100 watts to 1 0 , 0 0 0 w a t t s , with f r e q u e n c i e s f r o m 400 to 3200 cps. Within t h e s e r a n g e s t h e r e a r e m a n y F u r t h e r m o r e , as

p o s s i b l e techniques which could conceivably be utilized,

new a n d i m p r o v e d s e m i c o n d u c t o r switching e l e m e n t s b e c o m e available t h e p o s s i b l e n u m b e r of techniques b e c o m e s even l a r g e r . However the p e r f o r m a n c e

g o a l s of a p a r t i c u l a r application w i l l r e s t r i c t the p o s s i b l e choices of i n v e r sion technique. T h e first p h a s e of the study, t h e r e f o r e , is a n effort to d e t e r -

m i n e with NASA a r e a s o n a b l e s e t of p e r f o r m a n c e specifications for t h r e e o r m o r e p r o j e c t e d applications. T h e s e p e r f o r m a n c e s p e c s a r e t o be consistent

with the r e l i a b l e operation of a n i n v e r t e r which used advanced techniques t o surpass minimum space requirements.

Having e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s e p e r f o r m a n c e s p e c s , the second p h a s e of the study will be d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a selection of?,the m o s t f e a s i b l e a p p r o a c h for e a c h p r o j e c t e d application. In t h i s p h a s e the p r i m a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n will be a

selection of the power s t a g e of the i n v e r t e r .

T h i s selection involves a study

of various techniques such as synchronous switching, high f r e q u e n c y p u l s e widthmodulation, etc. Irrtegral with t h i s s e l e c t i o n of switching technique will

be a choice of the switching e l e m e n t such a s t r a n s i s t o r s , SCR's,gate controlled switches, s a t u r a b l e c o r e s o r hybrid combinations of the same.

T h e t h i r d p h a s e of the study will be a combined analytical a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l effort aimed at optimizing t h e components and c i r c u i t r y f o r e a c h s e l e c t e d approach.

T h e fourth p h a s e will involve a r e - e v a l u a t i o n of the selected a p p r o a c h e s i n light of the r e s u l t s of the analytical and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . T h e r e s u l t of

t h i s re-evaluation will be to m a k e those mcdifications n e c e s s a r y f o r b e s t program results.

T h e final p h a s e of the study will c o n s i s t of c o m p l e t e a n a l y t i c a l evaluation of the finally s e l e c t e d a p p r o a c h e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r reliability, f i g u r e s of m e r i t and to i l l u s t r a t e the t r a d e o f f s which e x i s t between the v a r i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e parameters.

T h e r e s u l t s of the first p h a s e of t h i s p r o g r a m , the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e p e r -

f o r m a n c e specifications, a r e given i n the next s e c t i o n , (Methodology of the

N A S A I n v e r t e r Optimization Study. )
7

METHODOLOGY O F THE NASA INVERTER OPTIMIZATION STUDY INTRODUCTION T h e p u r p o s e of the o v e r a l l study is t o d e t e r m i n e the b e s t configuration of solid s t a t e i n v e r t e r s f o r s p a c e applications. T o achieve t h i s p u r p o s e the c i r c u i t r y

a n d the components, e s p e c i a l l y the switching e l e m e n t s , will be analyzed. However, the v a r i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e p a r a m e t e r s of the i n v e r t e r a n d t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s with the components a n d the c i r c u i t r y r e q u i r e s that c e r t a i n ground r u l e s be established. T h e s e ground r u l e s will e s t a b l i s h the method of e v a l c -

ating the components and techniques s o that the r a n g e of choice c a n be n a r rowed t o a handful of s e l e c t e d approaches.

C a t e g o r i z a t i o n of I n v e r t e r Quantities

T h e quantities of p r i m a r y c o n c e r n i n t h i s study a r e l i s t e d below i n t h r e e g r oup s

.
Nominal DescriDtion of the Inverter

GROUP I

a)
b)

F u l l load v o l t - a m p e r e s (va) i n a specified power f a c t o r range. Frequency N u m b e r of p h a s e s

c)
d)

DC input voltage

GROUP I1

P e r f o r m a n c e Specifications -

a ) Harmonic distortion
b) V a r i a t i o n of D C inbut voltage a r o u n d nominal c ) High frequency t r a n s i e n t s on DC input d ) Output voltage
e ) Output voltage regulation, s t e a d y state and t r a n s i e n t

f ) Output p h a s e s e p a r a t i o n

g ) Output s h o r t c i r c u i t p r o t e c t i o n h) O v e r l o a d capability
i ) Unbalanced load capability

j ) Output frequency regulation

Param GROUP I11 ---e t e r s t o be Optimized

a ) Weight
b ) Efficiency
c ) Reliability

T h i s list, while not all inclusive, d o e s contain the quantities which a r e of p r i m a r y c o n c e r n to the e l e c t r i c a l d e s i g n of a n i n v e r t e r . into three s e p a r a t e groups. T h e y have b e e n split

T h e s e p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s w e r e s e l e c t e d i n conjunc-

tion with the p r o p o s e d ground r u l e s which a r e d i s c u s s e d below.

fR - O U N D RULES G r o u p I determines. the nominal r e q u i r e m e n t s of the i n v e r t e r . F o r t h i s study

i t is p r o p o s e d that t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s be limited t o the following r a n g e s f o r t h r e e i n v e r t e r types:

_ I

GROUP I Watt r a n g e

TYPE A

T-YPE B
500 t o 2000 1 . 0 t o . 7 lag power f a c t o r
40 0

TYPE C
2000 to 10,000 1.0 t o 7 l a g power f a c t o r

100 t o 500 a t 1.0 t o . 7 lag power f a c t o r

40 0

Frequency N u m b e r of P h a s e s Range of D C Input Voltage

3200 3

3 15 t o 100

15 to 100

15 t o 100

T h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e s e c h o i c e s a r e l i s t e d below:

I ) Splitting the , 10 Kw t o lOKw r a n g e into t h r e e p a r t s allows the study

t o focus on the choice of b e s t technique f o r e a c h range.

T h e u s e of

a s p e c i f i c i n v e r t e r technique, such a s synchronous switching f o r

i n s t a n c e , should be applicable throughout the s e l e c t e d range. The

choice of components used i n any i n v e r t e r type would of c o u r s e be s e l e c t e d to m a t c h the specific power under consideration.

2 ) T h e low end of the frequency band, 400 c p s , w a s s e l e c t e d a s the m o s t

a p p r o p r i a t e frequency f o r the low and mid-power r a n g e i n v e r t e r s ; 3 2 0 0 c p s , the top of the r a n g e , was s e l e c t e d f o r the high power i n v e r t e r .

T h e i n t e r m e d i a t e frequency, 2000 c p s , would undoubtedly u s e the same g e n e r a l technique a s the 3200 c p s i n v e r t e r .

3)

The r a n g e of 15 t o 100 volts w a s s e l e c l a d as t h e p r o b a b l e l i m i t s of D C voltage s o u r c e s t h a t would become s t a n d a r d i n the future. The selected
-20700)

i n v e r t e r techniques will be capable of accepting a nominal (+-lOoJ,

voltage within t h e s e DC l i m i t s without a change i n the g e n e r a l configuration.

A s in the c a s e of t h e power l e v e l r a n g e s , the choice of

s p e c i f i c components would be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the D C voltage l e v e l under consideration.

I n v e r t e r s which o p e r a t e f r o m DC s o u r c e s of one volt c o n s i d e r e d t o be outside the m a i n scope of t h i s study.

a n d under a r e Studies indicate

that t h i s type of i n v e r t e r is not e s p e c i a l l y suited f o r s p a c e applications b e c a u s e of i t s low power t o weight r a t i o , I n v e r t e r s which o p e r a t e f r o m

high s o u r c e s of DC voltage ( 1 0 0 0 V DC and higher) a r e a l s o outside the scope of t h i s study. However, b e c a u s e of the low c u r r e n t s involved,

t h i s type of i n v e r t e r o f f e r s a potentially high power t o weight r a t i o

i f suitable switching techniques c a n be achieved.

T h e Group I1 p e r f o r m a n c e specifications, which will hold equally f o r the t h r e e i n v e r t e r types, a r e l i s t e d below.

Harmonic Distrotion:

Not t o e x c e e d 570on t o t a l d i s t o r tion with a n y s i r g le h a r m o n i c not to exceed 270

DC Input Voltage Variation: High F r e q u e n c y T r t n s i e n t s on DC:

+l07Of -2070

i20070 of nominal f o r 10 m i c r o seconds o r l e s s

110208 VAC

Output Voltage : Output Voltage Regulation:

*270 f o r s t e a d y s t a t e , upper l i m i t
of t r a n s i e n t s during load switching to bs 50% of n o r m a l envelope with r e c o v e r y t o s t e a d y s t a t e i n 2ci cycles

Output P h a s e Separation: Short Circuit :

120 3 2 d e g r e e s

Automatic r e c o v e r y t o n o r m a l operation when s h o r t is r e m o v e d

Overload:

20070 f o r 5 see-onds.wiih &4% r e g u lation

Up t o 1/3 the total m a x i m u m VA between highest and lowest p h a s e s

Unbalanced Load:

One additional a r e a which is difficult t o t r e a t a s a n e x a c t specification but i s n e v e r t h e l e s s i m p o r t a n t i s the effect of the source. switching techniques t o condition the r a w DC power. Solid s t a t e i n v e r t e r s u s e T h i s r a p i d switching

c a u s e s t h e D C input c u r r e n t t o contain AC components a t m u l t i p l e s of the switching frequency. T h e s e AC components c a n c a u s e t r a n s m i s s i o n line disWhile t h e s e d i s t u r b a n c e s a r e

t u r b a n c e s a s well a s d i s t u r b the s o u r c e itself.

e s s e n t i a l l y a detailed application p r o b l e m , i t is d e s i r a b l e t a know a p p r o x i m a t e l y the time p r o f i l e of the input c u r r e n t

SO

a s t o a s c e r t a i n t h e probabl-e

magnitude of the p r o b l e m .

F o r e a c h of the t h r e e i n v e r t e r c l a s s e s , the study

will include the DC input c u r r e n t profile under the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the s o u r c e h a s negligible i n t e r n a l a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n line impedance.

In the m a i n body of t h i s study the effect of varying t h e s e G r o u p I1 specifications around t h e i r nominal points will be analyzed..

If any of t h e s e s p e c s a p p e a r t o

cause a n undesirable change i n the G r o u p I I I p a r a r n e t e r s , they wiil be r e analyzed t o show what c a n be done t o m a i n t a i n the best, o v e r a l l operation.

Group 111, (weight, efficiency and r e l i a b i l i t y ) , r e p r e s e n t s those p a r a m e t e r s which m u s t be optimized f o r any specific m i s s i o n . It will be t h e p r i m a r y

purpose of the study t o s e l e c t the methods and components which will allow
a Group I11 p a r a m e t e r o r p a r a m e t e r s t o be optimized f o r the given i n v e r t e r

types,

T h e s e G r o u p I11 p a r a m e t e r s a r e usually i n t e r - r e l a t e d in s u c h a way F o r instance,

that optimizing one of t h e m will g e n e r a l l y d e g r a d e the o t h e r s .

a n e x t r e m e l y lightweight i n v e r t e r might be designed by reducing the d e s i g n m a r g i n s on wound i r o n components. l o s s in t h e s e components. However, t h i s would r e s u l t i n m o r e heat

T h i s additional heat l o s s would r e d u c e the

efficiency and push t h e semiconductor components c l o s e r t o t h e i r m a x i m u m operating t e m p e r a t u r e s t h e r e b y reducing reliability. a l s o i n t e r a c t with the G r o u p I1 specifications. T h e G r o u p I11 p a r a m e t e r s

F o r instance, the lightweight These

i n v e r t e r d e s c r i b e d above might a l s o s a c r i f i c e h a r m o n i c distortion.

i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s between G r o u p I1 a n d G r o u p I11 as well as the i n t e r a c t i o n s of the Group I11 p a r a m e t e r s with e a c h o t h e r will be analyzed i n the l a t e r p h a s e

10

of t h i s study. Both efficiency and weight a r e p a r a m e t e r s that a r e e a s i l y m e a s u r e d . F o r this

study the efficiency of a n i n v e r t e r will be defined a s t o t a l A C power output

( a s m e a s u r e d a t the load t e r m i n a l s ) divided by D C power input.

Total A C

power output would include the power supplied by any h a r m o n i c s r e m a i n i n g i n the f i l t e r e d output. t r i c a l components only. T h e weight will be defined a s the weight of the elecIt will not include the weight of such things a s The

heat s i n k s , outside case and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t s , c o n n e c t o r s , etc.

weight of t h e s e additional i t e m s is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the type of heat sinking that is available a n d the shock and vibration levels t o be encountered. While

it is beyond t h e scope of t h i s s t u d y t o d e t e r m i n e the packaging configuration and hence t o t a l weight, a r e a s o n a b l e engineering e s t i m a t e is that the weight of the e l e c t r i c a l components will c o m p r i s e 50% t o 70% of the t o t a l weight i n a n a e r o s p a c e type i n v e r t e r . T h e r e l i a b i l i t y of any i n v e r t e r is obviously very important. However, the

n u m b e r a t t a c h e d t o the concept of reliability is a quantitative e x p r e s s i o n of t h e effect of s u c h f a c t o r s as the n u m b e r of components used to p e r f o r m a c e r t a i n function; the t e m p e r a t u r e , voltage and c u r r e n t s t r e s s on t h e s e c o m ponents; the i n t r i n s i c reliability and f a i l u r e m o d e s of the componets t h e m s e l v e s ; and t h e n u m b e r of redundant c i r c u i t s o r components that are used; and the r e q u i r e d life of the m i s s i o n . f r o m a theoretical analysis. Most of the above information c a n be obtained

However, the a c t u a l s t r e s s l e v e l s m u s t b e

m e a s u r e d on b r e a d b o a r d s etc., before a number c a n be a s s i g n e d t o the

11

actual c i r c u i t reliability.

M o r e o v e r the t e m p e r a t u r e s of the c o m p o n e r t s ,

especially the s e m i c o n d u c t o r s , a r e a function of the packaging a n d cooling of the f i n a l unit. T h e s e f a c t o r s combine t o m a k e any d i s c u s s i o n of absolute

reliability s t r i c t l y a n a c a d e m i c d i s c u s s i o n i f the stress l e v e l s existing i n the final package a r e unknown. During the initial p h a s e s of t h i s study the voltage

a n d c u r r e n t s t r e s s l e v e l s c a n only be approximated by a n a l y s i s and judgrneii: b a s e d on the behavior of similar c i r c u i t s . It will be t h i s a n a l y s i s a n d judg-

m e n t together with the r e l a t i v e n u m b e r of p a r t s i n the v a r i o u s c i r c u i t s which will guide the selection of the techniques to be studied intensively. In the

l a t e r phases of the study a n absolute reliability a n a l y s i s will be p e r f o r m e d . T h i s analysis w i l l be b a s e d on voltage a n d c u r r e n t stress l e v e l s m e a s u r e d f r o m available breadboards. The t e m p e r a t u r e of the components, e s p e c i a l l y ,'he

semiconductors, will be a s s u m e d to r e m a i n within a specified band.

effect of radiation on the reliability of a n i n v e r t e r i s beyond the scope or t h i s study. However, i n selecting the components, radiation of Van Allen Belt

intensity will be a s s u m e d .

SUMMARY
_ _ I _

T h e proposed ground r u l e s c a t e g o r i z e the v a r i o u s e l e c t r i c a l quantities of the i n v e r t e r into t h r e e g r o u p s : 1 ) Nominal D e s c r i p t i o n : 2) P e r f o r m a n c e SpecifiT h i s study will c o v e r

cations and 3) Those P a r a m e t e r s t o be Optimized. t h r e e nominal i n v e r t e r s

a low power 400 c p s type, a m i d - p a w e r 400 c p s

T h e technique s e l e c t e d f o r e a c h of t h e s e

type and high power 3200 c p s type.

12

types will be applicable o v e r a b a n d of power and input voltage variation. p e r f o r m a n c e specifications f o r the t h r e e types will be identical.

The

It will

be the p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of the study t o select and a n a l y z e the techniques that will optimize the weight, efficiency a n d reliability, a n d simultaneously m e e t the p e r f o r m a n c e specifications f o r e a c h of the t h r e e types,
A second pur?ose

will be t o study the interdependence of t h e specifications and t h e optimization p a r a m e t e r s of the t h r e e types so ;hat possible t r a d e o f f s c a n be anaiyzed. F o r t h e s e p u r p o s e s , a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of the operation, l i m i t a t i o n s , and advantages of the p r e s e n t l y known i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s is given i n the next section, ( D e s c r i p t i o n of I n v e r t e r Types. ) In addition, a d e t a i l e d m a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s
is p e r f o r m e d on two m a i n types of i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s used with silicon controlled

r e c t i f i e r s ( S C R ' s ) namely, the bidirectional s e r i e s i n v e r t e r a n d the M c M u r r a y Bedford circuit. T h e s e a n a l y s e s a r e included not only t o v e r i f y the r e s u l t s

given in the g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e i n v e r t e r t y p e s and t o indicate the techniques used i n obtaining t h e m but a l s o , by p r e s e n t i n g i n g r e a t d e t a i l the operation of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c i r c u i t s , allow the r e a d e r t o fully understand the complex sequence of operations which occur i n SCR i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s .

13

DESCRIPTION O F INVERTER T Y P E S I INTRODUCTION Solid s t a t e i n v e r t e r s a r e designed a l m o s t exclusively a r o u n d two types of switching e l e m e n t s : silicon controlled r e c t i f i e r s [ S C R ' s ) and t r a n s i s t o r s .

The difference between t h e s e , of c o u r s e , is the l a c k of ability t o t u r n off the SCR a t the g a t e ; a n e x t e r n a l m e a n s m u s t be provided t o r e d u c e the c u r r e n t i n the SCR t o zero. using SCR's. P r o v i s i o n m u s t be m a d e f o r t h i s i n all c i r c u i t s

In s o m e c i r c u i t s , t h i s turn-off is a n i n h e r e n t p a r t of the

circuit; i n o t h e r s i t is inherent f o r s o m e load r a n g e s , while i n s t i l l o t h e r s extra components m u s t be added t o provide t h i s t u r n off.

Series type i n -

v e r t e r c i r c u i t s (which a r e used a l m o s t exclusively with S C R ' s ) a r e of the f i r s t two types.

Parallel i n v e r t e r s (which a r e used with both S C R ' s a n d

t r a n s i s t o r s ) g e n e r a l l y belong t o the l a s t c l a s s . follow. SERIES INVERTERS

A.

E x a m p l e s of t h e s e g r o u p s

Unidirectional S e r i e s I n v e r t e r

A simple s e r i e s i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t with i t s w a v e f o r m s is shown i n F i g u r e 1.

Here, the SCR is gated on with a pulse. charging C.

The c u r r e n t builds up through L,

When C is c h a r g e d up t o the value E, the c u r r e n t i n L is a t

A s L attempts to maintain

i t s m a x i m u m a n d the voltage a c r o s s L is zero.

the c u r r e n t i n the c i r c u i t , the voltage a c r o s s i t r e v e r s e s , charging C t o a value g r e a t e r than E. T h u s by the t i m e the c u r r e n t i n L g o e s t o z e r o ,

C has been c h a r g e d up t o a value c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r than

14

E, ( 2 E i n the no-load c a s e ) and the S C R is back biased a n d t u r n s off.

now d i s c h a r g e s exponentially through R , thus being readied f o r the next pulse. T h i s c i r c u i t o p e r a t e s only f o r values of R above a c e r t a i n m i n i m u m T h e follow-

value, a s obtained f r o m the following m a t h e m a t i c a l analysis.

ing d i s c u s s i o n a p p l i e s t o the equivalent c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 1 a s shown i n F i g u r e 1-A. T h e i n i t i a l voltage on the c a p a c i t o r is zero, and the closing of switch S
1

a t t = o c o r r e s p o n d s t o the gating on of the S C R i n the c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 1. T h e equations governing the o p e r a t i o n of t h i s c i r c u i t are:

R e a r r a n g i n g t e r m s , t h i s equation f o r v can be put into the s t a n d a r d f o r m :

with initial conditions

1 -c.,=
f

T h e solution f o r t h i s i f

(27 > 1
LC

(the o v e r d a m p e d c a s e ) is

15

where

It c a n be shown that, under t h e s e conditions that V > O f o r all finite t and that d v / d t 7 0 f o r all finite t. T h u s i,

C *+Gv dt

>

0 f o r all finite t.

T h e r e f o r e , the SCR i s always c a r r y i n g c u r r e n t (i,) and thus is a l w a y s forward b i a s e d and n e v e r s h u t s off under t h e s e conditions. c u r r e n t , d i s c u s s e d i n Appendix I, is neglected h e r e . 1 (Holding

Far[a2<

LC

1 , the

solution f o r v is o s c i l l a t o r y , and given by v

E e 2c&Lwt--GFc
2Cd

- 6-t

-Gt
acLL.wt

where w

The r e q u i s i t e condition for t u r n off of the SCR i s t h a t i occur for - i l

= i 2 o r -C d v / d t

0.

T h i s will

vG.

( T h e fact that i

must remain zero

for a finite i n t e r v a l ( a s explained i n Appendix I) will be neglected for simplicity.) T h e t i m e a t which i 3

o is the solution of the equation:

where

16

Since the initial conditions fulfill t h e s e conditions, t t h i s equation.

G.

o i s a t r i v a l solution t o

Whether o r not another solution e x i s t s depends on the value of

F i g u r e s 1B through 1E show plots of the two s i d e s of t h i s equation f o r

v a r i o u s v a l u e s of G.

In F i g u r e l B , which is a plot f o r

lG&

-F< < L G p
2 c
LJ
I

the fact that t h e r e is no solution i n t h i s region is obvious when one c o n s i d e r s that :

1.

Both c u r v e s s t a r t f r o m the same point. being a solution.)

( T h i s is a r e s u l t o f t

2.

T h e m i n i m u m slope of the exponential c u r v e is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e maxi m u m slope of the sinusoid, in the range under consideration,

F r o m the d i a g r a m ( F i g u r e 1B) it i s obvious that i f the two c u r v e s i n t e r s e c t , it will have t o be i n t h e positive r e g i o n of the f i r s t half s i n e wave. However, i n

t h i s region, the m a x i m u m slope of the sinusoidal c u r v e o c c u r s a t t - o and is given by:

dC
T h e slope of the exponential is and has i t s m i n i m u m at the origin where it equals

ZC

2C

Since

Gz G2 f JC 3c i;

- >.

f o r all finite positive L, the proof of statement 2 is established.

F i g u r e 1C shows the two halves of the equation f o r C the value of G f o r which

T h i s is

/=

. For slightly s m a l l e r v a l u e s of G than

17

t h i s , a solution still d o e s not o c c u r , ( a s shown i n F i g u r e 1-D),

but f o r s t i l l s m a l l e r v a l u e s , a solution is finally r e a c h e d ( F i g u r e 1-E).

T h i s is not a p r a c t i c a l solution; however, b e c a u s e i t d o e s not tak.e into

account the t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r the SCR t o t u r n off.

F r o m the complexity

of even the simplified solution,which involves a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l equation,

it should be obvious that the solution to the r e a l i s t i c p r o b l e m is r a t h e r tedious.

Still smaller values of G r e s u l t i n p r a c t i c a l solutions ( 1 F ) . the c u r v e s i n t e r s e c t (i. e. ig

Note that once

0) the equivalent c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 1A no

longer holds; thus if the c u r v e h a s two i n t e r s e c t i o n s , the second one i a of no significance (the t 0 i n t e r s e c t i o n is not counted.)

Consideration of t h e s e r e s u l t s will indicate that the waveform d r a w i n g s of Figure 1 a r e f o r the c a s e of a v e r y high r e s i s t a n c e load: only a s G 4 . O
(or R - 0 )

does the capacitor voltage approacii 2E.

B.

Unidirectional Series I n v e r t e r With Load SwitcL

It i s possible, through additional components, t o disconnect R f r o m the

circuit during the charging p e r i o d of C , thus allowing operation with a n y value of load, T h i s s c h e m e , shown i n Figtire 1G7 i s v e r y s i m p l e , but the
j

output waveform(wt..ich

s the expor:enrial -lis,:harge

3;

a c a p a c i t o r through

a resistor) is dependent on load a n d of unidireztiolial polaritv.

C.

Bidirectional S e r i e s I n v e r t e r

Improvements on t h i s c i r c u i t a r e showil In F i g u r e 2. A detailed a n d m a t h e matical d e s c r i p t i o n of the o p e r a t i o n of t h i s i n v e r t e r i s given in Appendix I. In t h i s c i r c u i t R L carries c u r r e n t i n both d i r e c t i o n s a s the c a p a c i t o r s a r e

18

a l t e r n a t e l y c h a r g e d and d i s c h a r g e d by SCRl a n d SCR2.

A s shown i n

Appendix I, equations I-2c and 1-9, the load a n d g a t e d r i v e p u l s e f r e q u e n c y m u s t m e e t c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s i n t e r m s of L & C in o r d e r f o r t h i s c i r c u i t to o p e r a t e ; no-load o r light load operation with t h i s c i r c u i t is not possible. If d r i v e n a t the p r o p e r frequency ( r e f e r to F i g u r e 1-8 and equation I-4), t h i s i n v e r t e r p r o v i d e s v e r y n e a r l y a sine-wave output f o r a constant load.

11 1

P A R A L L E L INVERTERS A. Simple Parallel I n v e r t e r T h e b a s i c p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t i s shown i n Figure 3. H e r e the switching

e l e m e n t s a r e shown as switches, s i n c e both t r a n s i s t o r s and SCR's a r e used i n t h i s circuit. F o r u s e with SCR's the components shown dotted

m u s t be included t o p r o v i d e f o r p r o p e r commutation of the SCR's.

T h e t r a n s i s t o r i z e d c i r c u i t p u t s out a square wave voltage into a r e s i s t i v e load; the output voltage of the SCR i n v e r t e r , b e c a u s e of the r e s o n a n t effects of L and C is a complex function of the values of L, C, the operating f r e q u e n c y ] and the load. F o r the graphical p r e s e n t a t i o n of the r e s u l t s of

a s t e a d y s t a t e a n a l y s i s of t h i s type of i n v e r t e r , the r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d to
the l i t e r a t u r e IIParallel I n v e r t e r with Resistive Load, I n v e r t e r with Inductive Load,
11

and "Parallel

r e f e r e n c e d i n the Bibliography.

Unfortunately, t h e s e p a p e r s d o not investigate the operation of the i n v e r t e r under unloaded o r switched conditions. It c a n be shown a s follows t h a t

t h i s i n v e r t e r will not o p e r a t e under no load conditions.

19

Consider any one half cycle of i n v e r t e r operation.

of F i g u r e 3, under no load conditions,
as shown in F i g u r e 3A.

T h e equivalent c i r c u i t

a s s u m i n g S about to be c l o s e d is

If we a s s u m e that the S C R ' s a r e a l t e r n a t e l y gated

on a t a frequency W o lower than the r e s o n a n t frequency of the cornniutating components

= I- - -

YfLC

G)b

then, a t the t i m e of the closing of When S i s closed, the following

S, t h e r e is no c u r r e n t i n the circuit.

differential equation a p p l i e s t o t h i s c i r c u i t :

The solution, however, i s only valid f o r i = 0, s i n c e S only conducts in 7 one direction. Thus, t h i s solution is valid only f o r 0 5 t i 2 T J x

During t h i s t i m e , the capacitor voltage changes f r o m < t o

T h u s , in e a c h half cycle, the equivalent c a p a c i t o r ( 4 C ) voltage i n c r e a s e s by 2Ejor the voltage on the a c t u a l c a p a c i t o r Cc i n c r e a s e s by 2 ( 2 E ) :4E.

Therefore, e i t h e r the output t r a n s f o r m e r will soon s a t u r a t e f r o m the overvoltage o r one of the S C R ' s will conduct, i n e i t h e r c a s e r e s u l t i n g i n a double f i r e o r latch-up condition w h e r e both S C R ' s a r e conducting s i m u l taneously. T h i s i s indicated in t h e w a v e f o r m drawing of F i g u r e 3B, w h e r e

20

the voltages a r e shown building up f r o m the s t a r t i n g condition of

< =&.

F o r v e r y light loads, a similar situation o c c u r s a t s t a r t , e x c e p t a n e q u i l i b r i u m condition may eventually be r e a c h e d i f the voltage r a t i n g s of all the components a r e high enough.
T o handle inductive loads, the c o m -

mutation capacitance Cc m u s t be l a r g e enough t o a b s o r b the r e f l e c t e d load c u r r e n t f o r t h a t p a r t of the cycle during which the load is r e t u r n i n g e n e r g y t o the i n v e r t e r (i. e. the load voltage and c u r r e n t a r e of opposite s i g n ) without having the c a p a c i t o r voltage r i s e t o a d e s t r u c t i v e l y high value. T h i s is a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e previously cited i n "Parallel I n v e r t e r with Inductive Load.

F o r a n i n v e r t e r which m u s t o p e r a t e over a wide r a n g e of (lagging) power f a c t o r s , t h i s c a n r e s u l t i n a considerable e x c e s s of commutation capacity a t n o r m a l o r light loads, giving r i s e t o a condition similar t o the no load
case d e s c r i b e d ,

Thus, t h i s type of i n v e r t e r is not suited f o r g e n e r a l

p u r p o s e applications w h e r e the load is of v a r i a b l e magnitude a n d power factor. T h i s i n v e r t e r , like all SCR p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r s a l s o will not o p e r A detailed d i s c u s s i o n of

a t e i f the load i m p e d a n c e b e c o m e s too small.

the r e a s o n s f o r t h i s limitation in the case of t h e M c M u r r a y

Bedford

c i r c u i t is found i n Appendix 11; the s a m e r e a s o n i n g c a n be applied t o t h i s configuration. Depending on the values of L, C, load, and operating f r e -

quency, a n SCR which h a s been conducting m a y e i t h e r be t u r n e d off by the a t t e m p t of the c u r r e n t i n it t o r e v e r s e its d i r e c t i o n , o r b y the action

21

of the commutating c a p a c i t o r in pulling the anode voltage of one SCR negative when the other SCR is f i r s t t u r n e d on. B. The M c M u r r a y - Bedford P a r a l l e l I n v e r t e r Improved operation of t h i s c i r c u i t c a n be r e a l i z e d by the addition of s o called " r e a c t i v e 1 ' diodes t o provide a path f o r r e a c t i v e c u r r e n t s which f o r m e r l y went into the commutating c a p a c i t o r ( f o r the SCR circuit). allows operation f o r all load power f a c t o r s . This

T h e r e a c t i v e diodes a l s o

s e r v e t o l i m i t the voltages under no-load conditions, (the c a p a c i t o r voltage i s held t o 2E) so t h a t operation under no-load is now possible. The

new c i r c u i t is shown i n F i g u r e 4, again, the additional p a r t s r e q u i r e d f o r an SCR i n v e r t e r o v e r a t r a n s i s t o r i n v e r t e r a r e shown.

A detailed analysis

of the operation of the SCR p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r with r e a c t i v e diode ( t h e

1 McMurray-Bedfor d c i r c u i t ) i s given in Appendix 1 .

W a v e f o r m s of the

SCR i n v e r t e r a t s t a r t u p and steady s t a t e a r e given i n F i g u r e s 10 a n d l l .

Cc.

I S : hosen

according t o equation 11-15 t o provide the d e s i r e d m i n i m u m

/

:.---n-off-time ( e . g. 2 0

,+ L

s e c ) f o r the S C R ' s under the w o r s t condition of

commutating the m a x i m u m c u r r e n t a t the m i n i m u m capacitor voltage.

L

i s g e n e r a l l y chosen t o r e s o n a t e with C

a t a frequency with half p e r i o d

approximately twice the turn-off-time.

T h i s is only a guide a n d Lc m a y

be v a r i e d a s d e s i r e d , keeping in m i n d the following e f f e c t s :

F o r a constant C
1.

C'

s o u r c e voltage, and c u r r e n t t o be c.ommutated:

A s L i s d e c r e a s e d , the available turn-off-time is d e c r e a s e d ,

22

b e c a u s e the commutating capacitor can be d i s c h a r g e d m o r e rapidly. Refer t o equation 11-29.

2. A s L is d e c r e a s e d , the peak charging c u r r e n t t o the c a p a c i t o r is i n c r e a s e d (equation 11-2) although the average value (which d e t e r r n i n e s the e n e r g y d e l i v e r e d t o t h e c a p a c i t o r ) r e m a i n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y constant; thus, the r m s value of the c u r r e n t i s i n c r e a s e d , r e s u l t i n g i n i n c r e a s e d
i2

R l o s s e s in the choke and output t r a n s f o r m e r .

3. A s L is i n c r e a s e d , the c i r c u i t is m o r e affected by suddenly changing loads.

A sudden i n c r e a s e in load c u r r e n t s r e s u l t s in a voltage develop-

ed a c r o s s L in such a d i r e c t i o n as to cause the commutating c a p a c i t o r Cc to p a r t i a l l y d i s c h a r g e into the load, c a u s e c i r c u i t f a i l u r e upon load switching. Be c a u s e of the action of the r e a c t i v e diodes in providing a path f o r r e a c t i v e c u r r e n t s and limiting the capacitor voltage under light loading, t h i s c i r c u i t will o p e r a t e and s t a r t under a wide range of load m a g n i t u d e s and power f a c t o r s ; however, should the load b e c o m e too heavy, resulting in e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t s a t t h e t i m e of commutation, then according to equation 11-15, the c i r c u i t provided t u r n - o f f time is d e c r e a s e d arid the i n v e r t e r malfunctions. C. Gate-Controlled Switch P a r a l l e l I n v e r t e r Idealized w a v e f o r m s f o r a t r a n s i s t o r i z e d o r gate controlled switch (GCS) p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r operating w i t h a r e s i s t i v e load a r e shown in F i g u r e 5. typical GCS c i r c u i t i s shown in F i g u r e 1-6.
.4

If L is too l a r g e t h i s effect c a n

(Inductive loading w i l l be consid-

e r e d l a t e r . ) T h e s e a r e m u c h l e s s complex than those of the SCR

23

i n v e r t e r as shown in F i g u r e 11-10 b e c a u s e of the a b s e n c e of the commutating choke and c a p a c i t o r f r o m the c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 5.

IV

VOLTAGE REGULATION

The output voltage of all the i n v e r t e r s mentioned previously w a s a d i r e c t function of the d. c. input voltage and could be v a r i e d by changing this voltage. R a t h e r efficient d. c. voltage r e g u l a t o r s a r e now available;

these could be i n t e r p o s e d between the s o u r c e and the i n v e r t e r a n a c c n trolled b y the difference between the a.
C.

output a n d a r e f e r e n c e to p r o -

vide c l o s e d loop c o n t r o l of i n v e r t e r output voltage.

A.

S e r i e s P r o p o r t i o n a l D. C. Regulator

The simplest type of d. c. r e g u l a t o r (and the lightest, i f heat sink r e q u i r e ments a r e not c o n s i d e r e d ) is the s e r i e s r e g u l a t o r , shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in f i g u r e 5A and equivalently i n F i g u r e 5B.

For a load c u r r e n t I, the power input t o the r e g u l a t o r (neglecting the power r e q u i r e d by the low l e v e l control a n d sensing c i r c u i t s ) is VI, and the power

24

output of t h e r e g u l a t o r is V I.
0

Thus, the m a x i m u m efficiency is

2 =- Po Pi

VI V voltage should be as c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e to the input.

VOI Vo -- = -

Thus, f o r g r e a t e s t efficiency, t h e output However, t h e r e g c l a t e d

output c a n n e v e r b e g r e a t e r than t h e l e a s t value of t h e input; t h e r e f o r e , f o r a n y but small v a r i a t i o n s i n voltage, t h i s r e g u l a t o r b e c o m e s r a t h e r inefficient. F u r t h e r m o r e , the power lost i n t h e r e g u l a t o r (V-Vo) I,is all
7

d i s s i p a t e d in the series c o n t r o l e l e m e n t which m u s t then be adequately h e a t sinked.

B.

S e r i e s Switching D. C. Regulator

One of the f i r s t switching type d. c. regulator c i r c u i t s used t h e s a m e s e r i e s t r a n s i s t o r as the s i m p l e series regulator, but t u r n e d it full on o r full off depending on how the output voltage compared with a r e f e r e n c e .
A

s i m p l e LC filter smoothed out the l a r g e voltage v a r i a t i o n s c a u s e d by t h i s switching, and a flyback diode w a s added to p r o v i d e a path f o r the choke c u r r e n t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d s when t h e s e r i e s switch w a s off. The resulting

c i r c u i t is shown i n F i g u r e 5C, and the waveforms i n s u c h a c i r c u i t i n F i g u r e 5D. The l o s s e s i n t h i s c i r c u i t a r e less t h a n t h o s e of F i g u r e 5A,

f o r m o s t cases a n d c a n be analyzed a s follows:

A s s u m i n g a switching p e r i o d of 7 a n d a choke l a r g e enough s o the c u r r e n t

is a p p r o x i m a t e l y constant, the "ont1 t i m e t 1 is a p p r o x i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o

t h e p e r i o d and the input and output voltages by t h e equation: Therefore f o r a load c u r r e n t I

0

$, = Tz:t,
t l

t h e l o s s e s i n t h e c i r c u i t will be

25

1.

A21y,

in the s e r i e s choke in the s e r i e s switch in the flyback diode

where V

i s the f o r w a r d d r o p a c r o s s the flyback diode,

VS is the f o r -

w a r d d r o p a c r o s s the s e r i e s

switching e l e m e n t and RL is the r e s i s -

tance of the f i l t e r choke.

It c a n be s e e n that t h e s e l o s s e s a r e independent T h i s is s t r i c t l y t r u e only f o r the c a s e

of the input and output voltages. where Vs

VD ; o t h e r w i s e the l o s s e s will v a r y slightly a s the r a t i o

of input to output voltage changes,because the t i m e r a t i o s t l / f and

T--

r-t,

will v a r y a s t h i s r a t i o changes.

Thus, t h i s c i r c u i t i s suitable

in applications w h e r e the input and output voltage of the r e g u l a t o r m a y differ by l a r g e amounts. Because of the choke, i t i s heavier ( f o r a given

c u r r e n t ) than the c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 5 A , but this difference c a n be minimized by p e r f o r m i n g the switching a t a s high a frequency a s p o s s i b l e (consistent with t r a n s i s t o r switching l o s s e s ) t o r e d u c e the choke size. Since t h i s i s a switching type r e g u l a t o r , i t is a l s o p o s s i b l e to u s e S C R ' s or G C S ' s in place of the t r a n s i s t o r . With S C R ' s the c i r c u i t s b e c o m e m o r e

complex, again because of the n e c e s s i t y of having s o m e method f o r turning the SCR off.
A typical c i r c u i t (the Morgan Chopper) a n d i t s

waveforms a r e shown i n F i g u r e s 5E and 5 F . T h e o p e r a t i o n of t h i s c i r c u i t is d i s c u s s e d in the l i t e r a t u r e , 6 Both the t r a n s i s t o r a n d SCR s e r i e s type switching r e g u l a t o r s provide a n output voltage which c a n be no g r e a t e r than the input.

26

C.

Shunt Switching D. C. Regulator (Bedford Step-up C i r c u i t )

T h e newly developed Bedford c i r c u i t shown i n F i g u r e 5 r e m o v e s t h i s G r e s t r i c t i o n by providing a n output not l e s s t h a n the input voltage.

It o p e r -

a t e s i n t h e following m a n n e r ; ( r e f e r to F i g u r e 5G and the w a v e f o r m drawing 5H). When S is t u r n e d on, c u r r e n t f r o m the s o u r c e builds up i n L ( a n d S . When S i s opened, t h i s c u r r e n t flows through D into C, ) charging it. T h e c u r r e n t i n L then decays ( b e c a u s e the output voltage is

g r e a t e r t h a n input) until the switch (shown as a t r a n s i s t o r i n 5H)t u r n s on again. While t h e switch is c l o s e d a n d c u r r e n t i s building up i n L, t h e With a n input of V. v o l t s
1

load c u r r e n t is supplied e n t i r e l y by capacitor C. a n d I, a m p s , a n d a n output of V

1

volts (Vo )Vi) a n d I

a m p s (Io< Ii) the

a v e r a g e c u r r e n t carried by the switching e l e m e n t is I c u r r e n t c a r r i e d by the diode is I

0

.
L

- Io,

a n d the a v e r a g e

A s s u m i n g a n inductor r e s i s t a n c e of R

diode d r o p of V

and switching

e l e m e n t d r o p of Vs, the l o s s e s i n t h i s circuit a r e then

1 fib ;

,-1

$-

(I;-.&)g + r,l/p *
inverter.

Again, t h i s is independent of the input and out-

put voltage t o the same d e g r e e a s the l o s s e s of the s e r i e s switching

F i g u r e 5-H shows the w a v e f o r m s in the Bedford c i r c u i t for a step-up r a t i o of 2 : l .

D.

Inverter

- R e c t i f i e r D. C.

Regulators

O t h e r c i r c u i t s f o r d. c . regulation involve changing the d. c. t o s q u a r e wave a. c. with a s i m p l e p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r , and then operating on t h i s

27

a. c. with v a r i o u s types of m o d u l a t o r s and r e c t i f i e r s .

Though m o r e

complex than the p r e v i o u s techniques d e s c r i b e d , t h i s method is of advantage w h e r e the r a w d. c. input i s not n e a r a value that c a n be r e a d i l y used by the load; any d e s i r e d amount of step-up o r s t e p down in voltage can be obtained with t h i s technique by s i m p l y varying the t u r n s - r a t i o of the i n v e r t e r t r a n s f o r m e r . Since t h i s i n c o r p o r a t e s i n v e r t e r s t a g e s , which

w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l l a t e r , a n d f u r t h e r m o r e could not be

advantageously used t o provide a m o r e optimum d. c. voltage l e v e l t o d r i v e a n i n v e r t e r ( s i n c e i t itself is a n i n v e r t e r and would have t o w o r k at the l e a s t optimum voltage), t h i s method will not be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r .

E.

Buck Boost D. C. Regulators

A modification of the above technique is the u s e of a s q u a r e wave i n v e r t e r -

modulator - r e c t i f i e r to provide only the d i f f e r e n c e voltage between the r a w d. c. input and d e s i r e d d. c. output. I t s output i s then connected in s e r i e s T h e advantage of t h i s

with the d. c. input t o provide the regulated output,

s y s t e m i s that the i n v e r t e r - m o d u l a t o r is r e q u i r e d t o p a s s only the e r r o r power i n s t e a d of the total d. c. load. T h e output r e c t i f i e r s s t i l l p a s s the The

f u l l load c u r r e n t however, s o the l o s s e s h e r e a r e not d e c r e a s e d .

c i r c u i t r y used i n t h i s technique is shown i n F i g u r e 5-J.

T h i s c i r c u i t c a n be

designed to s u b t r a c t f r o m as well as add to the r a w d. c. input voltage; i f this is done, the m a x i m u m e r r o r power r e q u i r e d is r e d u c e d by a f a c t o r of two, since the m a x i m u m output voltage of the r e g u l a t o r c a n be halved when its output c a n a s s u m e e i t h e r polarity.

28

F.

1.

Q u a s i - S q u a r e Wave Regulation Techniques Q u a s i - S q u a r e Wave P o w e r Stage

Another method f o r voltage regulation involves i n c r e a s i n

th

o m 1 xity

of the b a s i c i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t t o provide f o r changing the output waveform

of the i n v e r t e r a s required.

One of the s i m p l e s t outputs r e s u l t i n g f r o m

t h i s is c a l l e d a q u a s i - s q u a r e wave a n d is i l l u s t r a t e d below.

H a r m o n i c a n a l y s i s of the r e s u l t a n t wave (shown below) i n d i c a t e s the v a r i ation of the fundamental component of this wave with the dwell angle
L

0.

I
Hence, by changing

0,the

p e a k amplitude of the fundamental component of

the above wave c a n be v a r i e d between

<! I T

ando.

29

With t r a n s i s t o r s and a r e s i s t i v e load t h i s c a n be e a s i l y a c c o m p l i s h e d by only turning t h e m on when a n output is d e s i r e d , i n s t e a d of always having one on. T h i s is indicated i n the waveform d r a w i n g s of F i g u r e 5. When

using S C R ' s the p r o b l e m is m o r e complex, s i n c e i n all the c i r c u i t s f o r p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r s d i s c u s s e d s o f a r , the only way one SCR i s is t o t u r n the o t h e r one on. t u r n e d off

Hence, i n SCR i n v e r t e r s , additional c i r c u i t r y

is r e q u i r e d to produce the output w a v e f o r m s of F i g u r e 5B.

2.

Z e r o Clamping

Another p r o b l e m which usually a r i s e s i n the q u a s i - s q u a r e wave i n v e r t e r is that of providing a low impedance path f o r a n y s e c o n d a r y c u r r e n t flowing during those t i m e s when the output voltage is zero. T h i s will o c c u r when

the load ( a s s e e n by the power s t a g e ) is inductive and i s due to the effect of t h i s inductance i n maintaining a c u r r e n t flow a f t e r the driving voltage
has been removed.

T h e inductance m a y be c a u s e d by a n inductive e x t e r -

nal load, o r in the c a s e of i n v e r t e r s with filters, will be t h e i n d u c t a n c e of the filter. If a low impedance path is not provided f o r t h i s c u r r e n t by

some m e a n s , the voltage a c r o s s the switches will r i s e i n a n a t t e m p t to maintain the c u r r e n t urtil the r e a c t i v e diodes s t a r t to conduct. F o r re-

actixe diodes connected as shown in F i g u r e 4, t h i s o c c u r s when the t o t a l t r a n s f o r m e r p r i m a r y voltage is 2E.

(If t h e r e a r e no r e a c t i v e diodes or

other c i r c u i t e l e m e n t s t o l i m i t the voltage, i t will continue t o r i s e until it b r e a k s over one of the switching e l e m e n t s , p e r h z p s d e s t r u c t i v e l y . ) The

result is that the output w a v e f o r m d e p a r t s f r o m the q u a s i - s q u a r e wave ( i n

a fashion dependent on the magnitude and p h a s e of cbe load) r e s u l t i n g

30

in i n c r e a s e d d i s t o r t i o n and p h a s e shift.

An e x a m p l e of t h i s is shown in

F i g u r e 5K f o r a r e s i s t i v e load with a n d without a tuned filter:

'

T h e f i r s t column of w a v e f o r m s shows the w a v e f o r m s obtained with a

p u r e r e s i s t i v e load and no f i l t e r between the i n v e r t e r output and the load. T h e w a v e f o r m s obtained a r e what one would have expected: quasi-square waves. T h e second column shows what happens when the e x t e r n a l load

is s t i l l p u r e r e s i s t i v e but now a resonant s e r i e s t u r n e d f i l t e r h a s been

connected between the i n v e r t e r output and load.

T h e load c u r r e n t b e c o m e s

a p p r o x i m a t e l y sinusoidal but the voltage at the s e c o n d a r y of the output t r a n s f o r m e r is no longer a q u a s i - s q u a r e wave but a m o r e complex wave with l o w e r fundamental component a n d higher h a r m o n i c content than the one f o r t h e purely r e s i s t i v e load with no filter. Hence, any given f i l t e r

will leave a higher h a r m o n i c content i n the output with t h i s input than with the q u a s i - s q u a r e input.

F o r the c a s e shown

of the r e s i s t i v e load with f i l t e r , even through the

output waveform is d i s t o r t e d , the fundamental component of t h i s voltage s t i l l h a s the same p h a s e relationship with the switch driving s i g n a l s a s d o e s the output f o r the p u r e l y r e s i s t i v e load. However, should the

e x t e r n a l load be inductive,then the phase of the fundamental component of the output voltage will shift due to the fact that, during the "off" ( o r dwell) t i m e , the change i n the p o l a r i t y of the output o c c u r s not a t the midpoint of t h e dwell p e r i o d but a t the t i m e t h e output c u r r e n t c r o s s e s through

31

zero.

Thus, the i n v e r t e r output voltage during the dwell t i m e will be

non- s y m m e t r i c a l , r e s u l t i n g i n a p h a s e shift.

The p r o b l e m of providing a path f o r t r a n s f o r m e d s e c o n d a r y c u r r e n t when neither of the power switches is o n c a n be solved by a c i r c u i t such a s shown i n F i g u r e 6. H e r e S is c l o s e d whenever both S a n d S a r e open. 3 1 2

Any s e c o n d a r y c u r r e n t i n NS is then t r a n s f o r m e d t o the winding N i t flows through S with no a p p r e c i a b l e voltage drop. 3 other voltage d r o p s around the S
3

sc

where

Since t h e r e a r e no

sc

loop, t h e voltage a c r o s s N

sc

r e m a i n s low, thus keeping the voltage N Since c u r r e n t m a y flow through N sc

low during the dwell period.

in either direction, S 3

, when c l o s e d ,

must be capable of c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n t i n e i t h e r direction.

3.

P h a s e Shifted S q u a r e Waves

A q u a s i - s q u a r e wave c a n a l s o be g e n e r a t e d by adding the outputs of two

. square wave i n v e r t e r s of v a r i a b l e p h a s e difference, as shown i n F i g u r e 7

T h i s method avoids the n e c e s s i t y of using a n a u x i l i a r y switch t o m a i n t a i n l o w impedance during the z e r o voltage p e r i o d s , s i n c e the i n t e r n a l i m p e d -

ance of the s q u a r e wave i n v e r t e r is a l w a y s low.

However, it d o e s not

make a s full u s e of the t r a n s f o r m e r a s the single s t a g e g e n e r a t i n g a q u a s i - s q u a r e wave, s i n c e in g e n e r a l a t l e a s t p a r t of the t i m e the outputs of the two s t a g e s will be bucking one a n o t h e r , t h u s r e q u i r i n g a t o t a l t r a n s f o r m e r capacity g r e a t e r than the load rating. B e c a u s e , f o r p a r t of e a c h

cycle ( u n l e s s the two i n v e r t e r s t a g e s a r e e x a c t l y i n p h a s e ) one i n v e r t e r

32

will be feeding e n e r g y back into the other one, both i n v e r t e r s m u s t be equipped with r e a c t i v e diodes.
4.

Bridge Circuits

B e t t e r t r a n s f o r m e r utilization and lower switching e l e m e n t voltages ( f o r

a given supply voltage) c a n be obtained b y using t h e b r i d g e c i r c u i i ef

F i g u r e 8.

In t h i s c i r c u i t , two switching e l e m e n t s a r e always closcC at In t h i s fashion the t r a n s f o r m e r is e i t h e r connected

the same time.

a c r o s s the d. c. supply o r has a s h o r t placed a c r o s s i t s p r i m a r y to provide a low impedance, z e r o voltage output condition, a s d i s c u s s e d earlier. With the bridge, the t r a n s f o r m e r h a s a s i n g l e p r i m a r y winding,

all of which is used all the t i m e , t o produce e i t h e r p o l a r i t y of output o r to

be s h o r t e d to p r o d u c e the z e r o voltage, zero i m p e d a n c e conditions.

De-

pending on the t i m e s the switching elements a r e t u r n e d on, t h i s c i r c u i t c a n p r o d u c e q u a s i - s q u a r e waves o r square waves, a s d e s i r e d .

Th? o r d e r

of closing the switches in o r d e r t o obtain a z e r o - c l a m p e d q u a s i - s q u a r e wave output is shown i n F i g u r e 8.

To produce s q u a r e waves, S1 a n d S4
2

a r e c l o s e d and opened together, a s a r e S and S

3'

In e i t h e r c a s e r e a c t i v e

d i o d e s , a s a l s o shown on F i g u r e 8, a r e n e c e s s a r y .

HARMONIC REDUCTION
In g e n e r a l , the h a r m o n i c d i s t o r t i o n of the unfiltered output of t h e s e switching c i r c u i t s is too high f o r m a n y applications. Two obvious s o l u -

tions a r e t o e i t h e r filter the output to remove the ur-desired harn.2nics o r

33

to u s e c i r c u i t s which produce l e s s h a r m o n i c s .

T h e optimum d e s i g n is

usually a combination of t h e s e two, s i n c e it is not too difficult t o cons t r u c t a n i n v e r t e r that s u p p r e s s e s the lower h a r m o n i c s in the switching stages, and the higher o n e s a r e r e a d i l y attenuated by s i m p l e f i l t e r s .
A.

Single Step W a v e f o r m s (Quasi-Square Wave)

The s i m p l e q u a s i - s q u a r e wave, with @ =30" h a s no t h i r d h a r m o n i c ; t h r e e such waves e a c h d i s p l a c e d by 120", c a n be g e n e r a t e d i n a s i m p l e 3 p h a s e bridge c i r c u i t as shown i n F i g u r e 9. T h i s c a n provide a good s t a r t f o r a

three p h a s e i n v e r t e r ; however, holding 0 a t 3 0" ( o r any o t h e r fixed v a l u e ) means giving up the voltage regulation capability of the q u a s i - s q u a r e wave. Thus, s o m e additional m e a n s i s r e q u i r e d f o r voltage regulation i n situations where @ i s held fixed f o r h a r m o n i c reduction p u r p o s e s . B. Multi-Stepped Outputs (Synchronous Switching)

Another method f o r reducing the d i s t o r t i o n produced by the switching s t a g e i s to u s e a m o r e complicated switching a r r a n g e m e n t which i s capable of providing i n t e r m e d i a t e values of Lutput. Figure 10. Such a c i r c u i t is shown i n

H e r e the switches ( e i t h e r t r a n s i s t o r s o r S C R ' s m a y be u s e d )

a r e c l o s e d in the p r o p e r sequence t o provide the stepped w a v e f o r m a l s o shown in F i g u r e 10. In t h i s s c h e m e , the s w i t c h e s f a r t h e s t f r o m the Pro;riding f o r r e a c t i v e

center t a p provide the lowest output voltage, etc.

c u r r e n t i n a s c h e m e s u c h a s t h i s c a n be a p r o b l e m u n l e s s c e r t a i n s w i t c h e s can be m a d e bi-directional. It is a l s o p o s s i b l e t o p r o d u c e s u c h a wave-

f o r m by adding a n u m b e r of s q u a r e w a v e s of p r o p e r p h a s e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n

34

a technique which is a n e x t e n s i o n of that shown i n F i g u r e 7. T h e s e m o r e

advanced switching techniques b e c o m e m o r e advantageous in m u l t i p h a s e
t

i n v e r t e r s b e c a u s e s e v e r a l gating signals will be c o m m o n t o two p h a s e s ; the c o n t r o l s e c t i o n f o r a t h r e e - p h a s e multistepped i n v e r t e r c a n be not a p p r e c i a b l y m o r e complex than that f o r a single p h a s e unit. Voltage r e g u -

lation i n t h e s e m o r e complex techniques m a y be obtained by a d. c. input r e g u l a t o r , by varying the width of s o m e s t e p i n the waveform, o r by adding t o g e t h e r two s u c h w a v e f o r m s with a v a r i a b l e p h a s e difference. C. Constant Voltage T r a n s f o r m e r Techniques

A combination of voltage regulation and harmonic s u p p r e s s i o n c a n be

obtained through the u s e of s p e c i a l f e r r o r e s o n a n t t r a n s f o r m e r s designed f o r t h i s p u r p o s e (e.g. the Sola t r a n s f o r m e r ) . T h e s e , however, have

f a i r l y high no-load l o s s e s and a n output voltage somewhat s e n s i t i v e t o load power factor. They afford a v e r y simple and r e l i a b l e m e a n s of

voltage regulation and h a r m o n i c s u p p r e s s i o n and a l s o p r o v i d e s h o r t c i r c u i t protection. When s t a r t i n g unloaded o r operating under switched

l o a d s , t h e y s o m e t i m e s d r a w l a r g e spikes of magnetizing c u r r e n t ; s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n of a n SCR i n v e r t e r power s t a g e under t h e s e conditions r e q u i r e d a l a r g e c o m m u t a t i o n capacity when. c o m p a r e d t o n o r m a l demands. D. Static T a p Changing One techniqueof voltage regulation which c a n be useful under c e r t a i n conditions is s t a t i c tap changing.
A s shown in the d i a g r a m of F i g u r e 1 0 A ,

t h i s u s e s s e m i c o n d u c t o r s acting a s switches SI, SL

. ...

t o connect one of

35

s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e t a p s on the output t r a n s f o r m e r t o the load.

Two

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e techniques f o r utilizing S C R ' s and t r a n s i s t o r s i n a. c. ( b i d i r e c t i o n a l ) s t a t i c switches a r e shown in F i g u r e 10B. Which t a p is

selected will depend on the load and input voltage t o the t r a n s f o r m e r ,

T h i s technique h a s the advantage that i t allows voltage regulation of a

complex multi-stepped waveform without introducing d i s t o r t i o n o r p h a s e shift a s would be the c a s e with a conventional on-off output modulator. This would be e s p e c i a l l y useful in a situation w h e r e the input voltage
w a s v e r y low s o that a n additional semiconductor i n s e r i e s with the input

side ( a s would be the c a s e with a conventional d. c. input r e g u l a t o r ) would result in e x c e s s i v e l o s s e s , but w h e r e the output voltage of the switching stage t r a n s f o r m e r was high enough s o t h a t the d r o p in the s t a t i c tap changing switching e l e m e n t s would r e p r e s e n t a negligible f r a c t i o n of the output power. The disadvantage is the l a r g e n u m b e r of t a p s , a n d hence

semiconductors r e q u i r e d when e i t h e r che d. c. input voltage t o the power switching s t a g e v a r i e s o v e r a wide r a n g e ( c o m p a r e d to the p e r m i s s i b l e variation i n output) o r the output voltage t o l e r a n c e is s o s t r i n g e n t that variations i n output due t o changes i n load r e q u i r e a l a r g e n u m b e r of taps. E. High F r e q u e n c y Techniques

SCR's could a l s o be used t o modulate a high frequency s q u a r e wave t o

obtain a pulse-width modulated output like that of F i g u r e 11.
A block

d i a g r a m of such a s y s t e m , known a s a c y c l o - c o n v e r t e r , is shown i n Figure 12. O t h e r techniques f o r low o r d e r h a r m o n i c r e d u c t i o n a r e the

36

v a r i o u s t y p e s of p u l s e modulation.

The switched output and fundamental T h e s e waveforms

component of s u c h a c i r c u i t is shown in F i g u r e 11.

would be g e n e r a t e d by c i r c u i t s similar to t h o s e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d f o r s q u a r e w a v e s ; the only d i f f e r e n c e being that the c i r c u i t is switched s e v e r a l times i n e a c h cycle. In t h e s e c i r c u i t s ; switching l o s s e s b e c o m e m u c h

m o r e significant, and components designed e s p e c i a l l y f o r high frequency u s e b e c o m e a necessity. F i g u r e 1 3 c o r r e s p o n d s t o a high f r e q u e n c y

v e r s i o n of the q u a s i - s q u a r e wave a n d can be g e n e r a t e d by c i r c u i t s similar t o t h o s e used f o r t h e usual q u a s i - s q u a r e waves. T h e advantage of the wave-

f o r m of F i g u r e 1 3 o v e r that of F i g u r e 11 is a f u r t h e r reduction i n the amount of filtering r e q u i r e d . At t h e s e high f r e q u e n c i e s , i t would a l s o be

r e a s o n a b l e t o u s e a m a g n e t i c a m p l i f i e r operating on a high f r e q u e n c y s q u a r e wave t o g e n e r a t e t h e s e waveforms.

T h e advantages of t h e s e high frequency techniques lie i n the s i z e a n d weight r e d u c t i o n s p o s s i b l e both f r o m high f r e q u e n c y o p e r a t i o n a n d f r o m the f a c t t h a t the h a r m o n i c s p r e s e n t i n the unfiltered output a r e of a v e r y high f r e q u e n c y c o r q a r e d t o the fundzmental, simplifying filtering. m a i n disadvantage is t h e i n c r e a s e d switching l o s s . The

T h e r e is alsa p r e s e n t -

ly a r a t h e r limited s e l e c t i o n of semiconductors i n t h e high-power highf r e q u e n c y field.

It m i g h t a l s o be mentioned t h a t unlike i n v e r t e r s of t h e

q u a s i - s q u a r e wave+ b r u t e f o r c e bandpass filter d e s i g n , which a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o sine-wave outputs, p u l s e width modulation i n v e r t e r s , which c a n efficiently u s e i o w - p a s s f i l t e r s , a r e capable of providing any desired

37

waveforms with highest frequency h a r m o n i c below the cut-off of the p a r t i c u l a r f i l t e r used.

F.

Passive Filters

F i l t e r s used f o r the outputs of the s i m p l e r i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s g e n e r a l l y consist of a s e r i e s e l e m e n t (which i s g e n e r a l l y series r e s o n a n t a t the fundamental frequency) and a shunt path (which is capacitive at high frequencies and m a y be t u r n e d to p a r a l l e l r e s o n a n c e a t the fundamental frequency). The series section may a l s o have impedance p o l e s at t h o s e T h e shunt s e c t i o n m a y l i k e The basic filter

frequencies of g r e a t e s t h a r m o n i c magnitude.

w i s e have impedance z e r o e s a t a p p r o p r i a t e h a r m o n i c s .

concept i s shown in F i g u r e 14.

In g e n e r a l , i t is d e s i r a b l e t o have the

s e r i e s e l e m e n t provide a low impedance path f o r the fundamental and a high impedance to h a r m o n i c s . T h i s f i r s t allows the fundamental c u r r e n t

to p a s s without voltage d r o p f r o m the i n v e r t e r switching s t a g e t o the load, while the high h a r m o n i c impedance p r e v e n t s h a r m o n i c c u r r e n t s f r o m flowing in the switching s t a g e s , thus reducing dissipation. S i m i l a r l y , the

shunt path ideally p r e s e n t s a n open c i r c u i t t o the fundamental and a nearly s h o r t c i r c u i t t o h a r m o n i c c u r r e n t s . ( T h e s e h a r m o n i c c u r r e n t s may

be the small amount that g e t through the s e r i e s f i l t e r section, along with any d u e to load non-linearily.)
A s mentioned previously, p u l s e width

modulation f i l t e r s c a n be of the low p a s s type s i n c e the p u l s e width modulation waveform is e s s e n t i a l l y f r e e of t h e l o w e r o r d e r h a r m o n i c s .

38

One p r o p o s e d method f o r h a r m o n i c reduction i n polyphase s y s t e m s involves the u s e of a d i s t r i b u t e d t r a n s f o r m e r to couple the switching s t a g e t o the load. T h i s c a n b e s t be d e s c r i b e d a s a wound r o t o r induction m o t o r

with locked r o t o r a n d having f r a c t i o n a l pitch windings and skew selected t o e l i m i n a t e d specified harmonics. G. Active F i l t e r s Another method of h a r m o n i c reduction i s the use of a c t i v e filtering. This

involves using a n e r r o r a m p l i f i e r to make up the difference between t h e switching s t a g e output and the d e s i r e d sine wave output as provided by a s i n e wave r e f e r e n c e s o u r c e . i n F i g u r e 15. Table 1 c o m p a r e s the v a r i o u s types of SCR i n v e r t e r s with r e s p e c t t o s e v e r a l p a r a m e t e r s such as weight, efficiency, etc. b a s e d on 400 c p s i n v e r t e r s with a t the 1 Kw level. These ratings are
A block d i a g r a m of such a s y s t e m is shown

570total

h a r m o n i c d i s t o r t i o n and operating

T h i s table shows that, i n g e n e r a l , f o r fixed load o p e r a -

tion, the s e r i e s i n v e r t e r is s u p e r i o r , but f o r l a r g e load v a r i a t i o n s , t h e M c M u r r a y c i r c u i t i s favored.

Not yet complete stirdies comparing the M c M u r r a y i n v e r t e r with t r a n s i s t o r i z e d power switching s t a g e s indicate t h a t the l o s s e s i n a silicon t r a n s i s t o r i z e d power s t a g e would be approximately equal t o those in the M c M u r r a y i n v e r t e r , with the l o s s e s of a g e r m a n i u m i n v e r t e r about 2 1 3 t h o s e of a silicon unit. T h e weights go in the same o r d e r , with the

M c M u r r a y unit being the heaviest, the silicon i n v e r t e r next and the l i g h t e u being the g e r m a n i u m , 39

a"

40

APPENDIX I

- Analysis

of the S e r i e s I n v e r t e r

A s indicated in the introduction of t h i s r e p o r t , t h e s e a n a l y s e s (Appendices I

and 1 ) s e r v e t h r e e p u r p o s e s : 1
1.

F a m i l i a r i z a t i o n of the r e a d e r with the often-glos s e d - o v e r f i n e r d e t a i l s of i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t operation.

2.

Indication of the techniques used in i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t analysis. Verification of r e s u l t s s t a t e d but not p r o v e d i n the e a r l i e r p a r t of the report.

3.

T h i s appendix contains a n a n a l y s i s of the full-wave series i n v e r t e r d i s c u s s e d i n t h e body of the r e p o r t . T h e c i r c u i t selected (See F i g u r e 1-1) w a s c h o s e n

a s a simple r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of an i m p o r t a n t family of s e r i e s i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s .

The c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 2 is shown again h e r e f o r convenience ( F i g u r e 1-2).

The

load is shown, ilere a s a n a c t u a l r e s i s t a n c e ; in actuality, it would probably be the input i m p e d a n c e of s o m e t r a n s f o r m e r coupled load. ( T h e use of a

t r a n s f o r m e r is possible h e r e b e c a u s e of the a. c. n a t u r e of the output of t h i s type of i n v e r t e r . )

1

T o s t a r t , a s s u m e that the supply voltage,

E, h a s been applied but neither

SCR h a s been gated on yet.

B e c a u s e of the voltage dividing effect of the

c a p a c i t o r s C, the voltage a t point @ ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o the ground p o i n m w i l l be E/2. Since n e i t h e r SCR is on, point @ w i l l also a s s u m e t h i s potential, by

v i r t u e of its connection t o point @ t h r o u g h R.

4 1

Now SCR 1 is gated on. switch S1 on F i g u r e 1-2.

This operation can be r e p r e s e i t e d by the closing of The c a p a c i t o r i n F i g u r e 1-2 h a s a value of 2C and is T h i s is a valid r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
1
1

connected to the ground s i d e of the supply.

the original c i r c u i t f o r purposes of computation of the c u r r e n t in R, L, and S

i f the a s s u m p t i o n is m a d e t h a t the supply s o u r c e E h a s z e r o i n t e r n a l i m p e d -

a n c e ; s i n c e , on a n a. c. b a s i s , the two c a p a c i t o r s C a r e effectively connected in p a r a l l e l by the ( z e r o a. c. i m p e d a n c e of t h e ) d. c. s o u r c e .

42

T h e equation f o r the c u r r e n t i tion:

of F i g u r e 1-2 is given by the d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a -

t.
0

where t

= o when SCR

1 i s gated on.

This is subject t o the i n i t i a l voltage con-

dition of the capacitor.

F o r g e n e r a l i t y , a s s u m e t h i s h a s the value Vo. (In we have V

0

t h i s s p e c i a l c a s e of the first half cycle,

E / 2 , w h e r e E i s the

supply voltage. ) The voltage d r o p a c r o s s the SCR h a s been neglected h e r e ; a s i m p l e and f a i r l y a c c u r a t e way to take t h i s into account is t o c o n s i d e r i t a s a fixed voltage d r o p of about 1.2 volts.

T h e solution t o t h i s equation is then given by

for
t

AJ F j

0'I

(1-24)

(I-&)
rt

43

F o r the f i r s t two of t h e s e solutions, w h e r e R ? F , f o r all finite t

dL

it c a n be s e e n t h a t i

>0

7 0.

T h i s m e a n s that once SCR 1 h a s been gated on i t would, 1 a l w a y s flow-

with an ideal SCR, continue t o s t a y on b e c a u s e of the c u r r e n t i ing in it.

In p r a c t i c e , the SCR would eventually t u r n off when the c u r r e n t i l (Note: T h e holding c u r r e n t of a n

dropped below the holding c u r r e n t of the SCR.

SCR is that value of f o r w a r d c u r r e n t below which the SCR will r e v e r t t o its

non-conducting stage. It is typically a r o u n d 20 m i l l i a m p e r e s f o r p r e s e n t d a y

medium and high c u r r e n t S C R ' s and v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y with t e m p e r a t u r e a n d between S C R ' s making operation i n the r e g i o n R

>

unsuitable f o r i n -

v e r t e r s , where the long w a i t s r e q u i r e d i n s u c h a c i r c u i t would n e c e s s i t a t e i m p r a c t i c a l l y low duty cycles. )

However, the solution f o r R

i s o s c i l l a t o r y , with a f r e q u e n c y of

T h e oscillatory condition m e a n s that the SCR will definitely be t u r n e d off by the circuit a s the c u r r e n t a t t e m p t s t o r e v e r s e its direction. Starting with a n

initial voltage on the c a p a c i t o r s of E / 2 , t h e n the c u r r e n t of the first half cycle a s obtained f r o m the p r e v i o u s g e n e r a l equations b e c o m e s

44

T h i s c u r r e n t flowing into the capacitor 2C of F i g u r e 1-2 r e s u l t s i n a final voltage of:

t
0

Evaluating t h i s f o r the g e n e r a l c a s e w h e r e the initial c a p a c i t o r voltage is V, r e s u l t s in a final capacitor voltage (using the e x p r e s s i o n f o r c u r r e n t i n the o s c i l l a t o r y c a s e ) of:

F o r a n initial voltage of E / 2 , one obtains a final voltage of

( I - 7)

at the end of the f i r s t half cycle which indicates a back b i a s on the SCR of a n
amount

E -e

2 4

(I- 8)

T h u s f o r n a t u r a l commutation, ( w h e r e the c u r r e n t i n the c i r c u i t goes t o z e r o of its own a c c o r d , ) R should be l e s s than

, o h m s a n d the m i n i m u m t i m e @

between the p u l s e s applied t o the a l t e r n a t e S C R ' s i s given by

w h e r e tto is the t u r n - o f f - t i m e of SCR1.

(Note: T u r n - o f f - t i m e is defined as

t h e time i n t e r v a l r e q u i r e d f o r t h e gate to regain c o n t r o l of the unit a f t e r f o r w a r d conduction h a s ceased).

45

O n the next half cycle, the c a p a c i t o r s C, now c h a r g e d up t o a value somewhat g r e a t e r than E, will be d i s c h a r g e d by SCR 2 i n a m a n n e r similar t o the charging by SCR 1 ( e x c e p t the c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n is r e v e r s e d and the i n i t i a l condition different) with the r e s u l t that the potential of point A will not end up

at i t s t

o value.

Since the c i r c u i t o p e r a t e s i n a s y m m e t r i c a l fashion, i n the

steady state, the capacitor will end up being c h a r g e d by SCR 1 t o a voltage j u s t a s m u c h above E as it is d i s c h a r g e d by SCR 2 t o a value below ground. Assuming that i n the s t e a d y s t a t e the capacitor voltage p r i o r t o turning on SCR 1 h a s the value V will be E -v
0

ss

, then,

after it h a s been c h a r g e d by SCR 1, its voltage

88

- V ss .

T h e change i n voltage is then E - V

which equals v final

which f r o m equation 1-6 i s :

= g+ (g-v.s)C

- . 2*b

- l/ss

P-zdS

(I- 10)

T h e value f o r V s s obtained by equating t h e s e two e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e change i n capacitor voltage is:

E
(I- 11)

T h e "steady state" load c u r r e n t is then

L
L.=

X 1 -*

t
I

* i
46

(I- 12)

w h e r e T is the p e r i o d of the applied d r i v i n g signal (which c a n be applied s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o both S C R ' s s i n c e the one which conducted l a s t will be back b i a s e d and hence not a f f e c t e d by a gating signal).

T h e c u r r e n t a f t e r SCR 2 i s g a t e d on a t T is given by

-F

1
alr

where t

o is s t i l l the t i m e of i n i t i a l application of the d r i v i n g p u l s e to SCR 1.

T h u s , e a c h c y c l e r e q u i r e s a m i n i m u m t i m e of u *.Lft, h e r e tto is the t u r n ) w off t i m e of the SCR's. In g e n e r a l , the c i r c u i t is not designed f o r the turn-off

t i m e of e a c h SCR, but r a t h e r t o the m a x i m u m v a l u e that will o c c u r i n any S C R ' s u s e d i n the circuit. T h i s value is around 20/usec f o r s e l e c t e d high

p o w e r S C R ' s and c a n r u n a s low a s 2-3/usec for s e l e c t e d l o w e r power SCR's. ( S e l e c t i o n has g e n e r a l l y been found n e c e s s a r y due t o t h e f a c t that s o m e SCR's have t u r n - o f f - t i m e s s o high a s t o r e q u i r e i m y r a c t i c a l l y high v a l u e s of commIrtating components.) T h i s s e r v i c e is available f r o m SCR v e n d o r s .

The l o a d c u r r e n t i divides equally a t t h e c a p a c i t o r s , 1 / 2 of i t flowing i n e a c h

capacitor. T h i s r e s u l t s i n c u r r e n t s throaghout the c i r c u i t a s shown i n

F i g u r e 1-3 ( f o r SCR 1 on) and F i g u r e 1-4 ( f o r SCR 2 on).

47

It can be s e e n that c u r r e n t i s d r a w n f r o m the supply on both half c y c l e s , a n d t h a t t h i s c u r r e n t is equal t o only 1 / 2 the load c u r r e n t . T h i s is the r e a s o n f o r

connecting the load c a p a c i t o r a s shown i n F i g u r e 1-1 i n s t e a d of the method shown i n F i g u r e 1-5. Analysis of the c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 1-5 will show t h a t i t

p o s s e s s e s the same equivalent c i r c u i t a s far a s the load r e s i s t a n c e is c o n c e r n ed, namely that of F i g u r e 1-2.

Hence, the solution f o r the c u r r e n t i of

F i g u r e 1-5 will be the same a s that obtained p r e v i o u s l y f o r F i g u r e 1-1. However, F i g u r e 1-5 will pull a c u r r e n t p u l s e i 1 f r o m the supply when SCR 1

is gated on and will not affect the supply a t all when SCR 2 is t u r n e d on; the

d i s c h a r g e path ( i 2 ) o e s not include the d. c. supply, d

Thus, t h i s l a t t e r s c h e m e

( F i g u r e 1-5) puts m o r e ripple on the supply to a c c o m p l i s h the same j o b a s t h e scheme of F i g u r e 1-1 and hence is not a s desirable.

It can be o b s e r v e d f r o m t h e s e equations the effect of the load r e s i s t a n c e on whether o r not the c i r c u i t will o p e r a t e ( e q I-2a,

I -2b, I-2c) and, i f i t d o e s ,

This

i t s natural r e s o n a n t frequency (eq. 1 - 3 ) and output voltage (eq. 1-1 I ) .

indicates one l a r g e disadvantage of the s e r i e s type i n v e r t e r s ; t h e i r dependence on the load. T h i s , of c o u r s e , would not be a p r o b l e m with a fixed load s i n c e

t h e circuit p a r a m e t e r s c a n be selected t o allow o p e r a t i o n with a n y p r e d e t e r mined load.

T h e d i s c u s s i o n s o far h a s been developed o n t h e basis that SCR 2 is not gated on until SCR 1 h a s ceased t o conduct a n d h a s been back-biased f o r a p e r i o d at l e a s t as long as its turn-off-time. T h e situation when t h i s condition is not

48

m e t ; (i.e. when SCR 2 i s t u r n e d on before SCR 1 h a s c e a s e d conduction) w i l l now be investigated.

T h e c i r c u i t ( F i g u r e 1-1) is a s s u m e d t o be operating in a s t e a d y s t a t e mode w h e r e the potential of p o i n t B v a r i e d f r o m Vss to E-V,,. In the p r e v i o u s

discussion,the value f o r V s s was d e r i v e d for the c a s e of n a t u r a l commutation (eq. 1-1 1) and it could be s e e n that t h e value w a s a l w a y s negative. For this

d i s c u s s i o n t h i s value cannot be used b e c a u s e the conditions under which it w a s d e r i v e d no longer hold. simple argument. equal to E / 2 . However, a l i m i t on the value c a n be obtained by a
5s

Suppose the steady s t a t e value f o r V

was greater or

Since, by the s y m m e t r y of the c i r c u i t the m a x i m u m and m i n i -

m u m of the potential a t point @ m u s t be equidistant f r o m the value E / 2 , and s i n c e the m a x i m u m ( w h i c h r e s u l t s f r o m SCR 1 being gated on) m u s t be g r e a t e r than the m i n i m u m ( V s s , which r e s u l t s f r o m SCR 2 being t u r n e d on) Vss m u s t be l e s s than E / 2 .

R e f e r r i n g a g a i n to F i g u r e 1-1 and a s s u m i n g the two halves of the c e n t e r tapped inductor t o be perfectly coupled, then with SCR 1 on, the voltage at E ( t h e anode of SCR 2) m u s t be equal Ve

2 L&. a

Substituting the value for

i (eq. I-2c), into t h i s equation f o r Ve r e s u l t s in

Since V s s

<
,

E / 2 , V e I s negative at t

0 ; however,

at s o m e t i m e before

,= r T
u)

V e w i l l go positive.

If a p u l s e i s applied t o SCR 2 before its anode

49

is positive, nothing will occur.

If the g a t e is maintained i n the on condition,

then when the anode a t t e m p t s t o go positive, (which will o c c u r when the c e n t e r t a p of the choke r e a c h e s E / 2 ) i t will be held t o ground potential by SCR 2, a n d t h e c u r r e n t i n the inductor will continue t o r i s e a t a rate of E / 2 L a m p s / s e c . T h i s will k e e p both S C R ' s on, c r e a t i n g a fault condition. T h e r e f o r e , having

t h e gate of SCR 2 on a s the anode of SCR 2 g o e s positive will r e s u l t i n a c i r c u i t malfunction.

However, let us now a s s u m e that SCR 2 is off until point A j u s t e x c e e d s a 2otential of E / 2 f iR by a n amount

4. F i g u r e 1-6 shows the potentials a n d

Immediately

c u r r e n t s i n the c i r c u i t a t this t i m e ( b e f o r e SCR 2 is t u r n e d on).

a f t e r SCR 2 is t u r n e d on,the voltages a n d c u r r e n t s a r e a s shown in F i g u r e 1-7. T h e s e a r e obtained f r o m the previous v a l u e s using the f a c t s that:

a)
b)

the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously. T h e c u r r e n t i n the inductor cannot change instantaneously, although i t m a y t r a n s f e r f r o m one winding t o another.

Thus, by turning SCR 2 oa, SCR 1 h a s been back-biased.

Hence SCR 1 h a s

b e e n commutated without waiting f o r the n o r m a l time of a half cycle a t the c i r c u i t r e s o n a n t frequency W . ( F o r simplicity, the f a c t that t h i s back-bias

m u s t be maintained f o r a p e r i o d a t l e a s t e q u a l t o the turn-off t i m e of SCR 1 h a s been neglected. )

W e have t h u s shown t h a t under c e r t a i n conditions one SCR m a y be t u r n e d on

50

APPENDIX I1

Analysis of the Parallel I n v e r t e r

T h i s appendix contains a n a n a l y s i s of the M c M u r r a y c i r c u i t shown i n F i g u r e 11-1.

- Bedford p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r

A s w a s done f o r t h e s e r i e s i n v e r t e r i n

Appendix I, a n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s a r e obtained f o r the voltages a n d c u r r e n t s i n different p a r t s of the circuit. T h e effect of load on c i r c u i t operation is

indicated, a s w e l l as the action of the r e a c t i v e diodes. T h i s a n a l y s i s is carried out f o r t h e c i r c u i t of F i g u r e of 11-1, a g a i n using S C R ' s s i n c e the m e c h a n i s m of commutation in t h i s c i r c u i t is different f r o m t h a t of the
series i n v e r t e r .

F u r t h e r m o r e , since the p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r h a s a s q u a r e wave

output (unlike the n e a r l y sinusoidal output p o s s i b l e with the s e r i e s i n v e r t e r ) a

filter i s g e n e r a l l y n e c e s s a r y .

Since this modifies the o p e r a t i o n of the i n v e r t e r The

somewhat, t h e a n a l y s i s w a s p e r f o r m e d f o r the i n v e r t e r with a filter.

f i l t e r w i l l be a s s u m e d ideal i n the sense t h a t i t p r e s e n t s a n infinite i m p e d a n c e t o all h a r m o n i c s of the i n v e r t e r output but p a s s e s t h e fundamental without l o s s o r p h a s e shift. T h e g e n e r a l i z e d load impedance is:

A1:l:l ideal t r a n s f o r m e r is a s s u m e d , with t a p s a t a f r a c t i o n K of e a c h of the p r i m a r y windings as shown. both S C R ' s off. Again, at t = o the c a p a c i t o r is uncharged a n d

When SCR 1 is turned on, t h e equivalent c i r c u i t b e c o m e s t h a t This

of F i g u r e 11-2, which c a n be f u r t h e r simplified t o that of F i g u r e 11-3.

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m F i g u r e 11-2 t o F i g u r e 11-3 r e q u i r e s the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the t r a n s f o r m e r of F i g u r e 11-2 is ideal a n d t h u s t r a n s f o r m s the c a p a c i t o r C

52

b e f o r e the other has been n a t u r a l l y commutated off without causing a c i r c u i t malfunction. T h i s f a c t could be useful i n operating a s e r i e s i n v e r t e r a t its

m a x i m u m natural frequency with a slightly v a r y i n g load; i t s a y s t h a t e v e n though a load change might r e s u l t in a somewhat lower n a t u r a l frequency t h a n the i n v e r t e r d r i v e s o u r c e p r o v i d e s , o p e r a t i o n is still possible. T h e load

c u r r e n t a n d SCR anode voltage f o r the t h r e e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e driving frequency and n a t u r a l r e s o n a n t frequency a r e shown i n F i g u r e 1-8.
Over

According t o the l i t e r a t u r e , it is a l s o p o s s i b l e t o o p e r a t e in t h e

damped r e g i o n s ( equation I-Za, I-2b) i n t h i s m o d e ; t h i s w a s not i n v e s t i -

gated a t t h i s time.

51

2 by the s q u a r e of its t u r n s r a t i o f r o m the C of F i g u r e 11-2 to t h e 2 C

F i g u r e 11-3.

4C of

B e c a u s e t h e f i l t e r allows only fundamental c u r r e n t to flow, t h e

high f r e q u e n c y of the initial charging c u r r e n t i r e s u l t s in its being effectively decoupled f r o m the load during t h i s firs t switching i n t e r v a l .

The equation f o r the c u r r e n t i n t h i s c i r c u i t ( F i g u r e 11-3 is)

i

(11-1)

53

subject t o the intital conditions

F o r a g e n e r a l solution, i t has been a s s u m e d that a n i n i t i a l voltage of V o is p r e s e n t o n the c a p a c i t o r of F i g u r e 11-2 ( o r a n initial voltage of V0/2 on the capacitor of F i g u r e 11-3). In the specific c a s e of the f i r s t half cycle, V o will

be set equal t o z e r o i n the g e n e r a l solution. T h i s has the solution

(11-2

T h i s equation i s valid only when i 1

2 0 ( b e c a u s e the

SCR c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d by

a closed switch only i n the r e g i o n w h e r e i t is c a r r y i n g f o r w a r d c u r r e n t ) which

holds for

During the p e r i o d when SCR 1 is conducting, the c a p a c i t o r 4C will be c h a r g e d up by the c u r r e n t i t o a value

ZT

+(t) ( w h e r e V c
OC

i s the voltage a c r o s s the a c t u a l

capacitor C ) which is given by the equation:

before, for the s p e c i a l case of the f i r s t half cycle, we will s e t Vo

=o.

Because of the p r e s e n c e of the r e a c t i v e diodes ( D I and D 2 ) the voltage a c r o s s the capacitor cannot r i s e t o m o r e then 2 E / K , s i n c e i f i t did, i t would r e q u i r e

54

t h a t one of the diodes would be f o r w a r d biased.

Thus, what happens is that

t h e c u r r e n t i 1 flows into the capacitor until the c a p a c i t o r voltage e q u a l s 2E/K; the c u r r e n t t h e n flows i n the r e a c t i v e diodes. T h i s is shown on the waveform

drawing of F i g u r e 11-10 which shows the startup and s t e a d y s t a t e o p e r a t i o n of t h i s i n v e r t e r with a r e s i s t i v e load.

Substituting the known value for the c u r r e n t k q 11-2)into the g e n e r a l equation 11-3 f o r the c a p a c i t o r voltage r e s u l t s in a n explicit e x p r e s s i o n f o r

< oz

(11-4)

Equating

% ( t ) with the m a x i m u m value of Vc/2, n a m e l y E / K ; one obtains the

equation f o r t h e t i m e

5 when the m a x i m u m voltage is r e a c h e d :

(11-5)

Therefore

3 = 2
Since,

55

When t r e a c h e s t h i s value, the c u r r e n t i n the i n d u c t o r is:

(11-8)

T h e c u r r e n t s in the c i r c u i t i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e the c a p a c i t o r C r e a c h e s its m a x i m u m voltage of 2 E / K a r e shown i n F i g u r e 11-4. T h e c u r r e n t s i m m e d i a t e -

l y a f t e r a r e shown i n F i g u r e 11-5.

The c u r r e n t i i s now f o r c e d a r o u n d the 2

SCR 1 -D1 loap by the inductor L; the c u r r e n t i3 flows i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n

t h e NI r e l a t i o n s h i p i n the output t r a n s f o r m e r . T h e voltage a c r o s s t h e f r a c t i o n

of the t r a n s f o r m e r between D and the b a t t e r y is E; t h e r e f o r e the v o l t a g e a c r o s s 1 that r

e t

c the t r a n s f o r m e r winding between D l and SCR 1 i s given by C

1

E
vo.

Assuming the diodes and S C R ' s have no i n t e r n a l d r o p s , t h i s the only one opposing the change of c u r r e n t i n L, and t h i s c u r r e n t

t h u s d e c r e a s e s a t a r a t e of

(1-K)

amp/sec.

(11-9)

T h e time r e q u i r e d f o r the c u r r e n t t o d i e t o z e r o is t h u s given by

E (14
am
I .

bk

-4

I =

/E#

s e c o n d s CI-10)

r e n t i d u r i n g t h i s i n t e r v a l is given by: 2

56

w h e r e t = o is the t i m e of initial gating on of SCR 1. decay in

( T h i s is j u s t a l i n e a r

s e c o n d s f r o m t h e initial value of the c u r r e n t a s given by

equation XI-8)

The c u r r e n t i 3 which m u s t flow to m a i n t a i n the NI r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e output t r a n s f o r m e r is given by (11- 12)

and the i n t e g r a l

G
(11-13)

r e p r e s e n t s the e x c e s s e n e r g y s t o r e d i n t h e inductor being r e t u r n e d to the b a t t e r y . T h e s e c u r r e n t s are a l s o shown i n t h e waveform

drawing of F i g u r e II-10.

F r o m t h e s e equations can be s e e n t h e reasons f o r having K

(i. e . , t h e d i o d e s D

< 1; i f K

1,

and D2 w e r e connected to t h e e n d s of t h e t r a n s f o r m e r

w h e r e SCR 1 and SCR 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y a r e ) the c u r r e n t i would continue to 2 c i r c u l a t e in t h e L, SCR 1, D1 loop indefinitely.

(Of c o u r s e , the r e s i s t a n c e

in t h e s e e l e m e n t s would tend to damp the c u r r e n t s , but all the e x c e s s e n e r g y s t o r e d in the inductance L would be dissipated in the c i r c u i t e l e m e n t s i n s t e a d of being r e t u r n e d to the battery.)

T h e s m a l l e r K is made, t h e faster the energy s t o r e d i n t h e choke is r e t u r n e d to the battery. However, a s K i s m a d e s m a l l e r , t h e higher the voltage a c r o s s
57

t h e t r a n s f o r m e r m u s t r i s e i n o r d e r f o r the r e a c t i v e d i o d e s t o become effective, a n d the higher the i n t e r n a l impedance of the i n v e r t e r d u r i n g r e a c t i v e c u r r e n t periods becomes.

A p r a c t i c a l m i n i m u m value f o r K i s 0. 8 .

A t the end of t h i s p e r i o d of r e t u r n i n g e n e r g y t o the b a t t e r y (during which the

capacitor voltage h a s been maintained a t 2 E / K volts, ) the commutating capacitor d i s c h a r g e s into the load until its voltage d r o p s t o 2E volts.

If the load c u r r e n t a t t h i s time i s 11, then the c a p a c i t o r c u r r e n t is

5 ( the 2

t r a n s f o r m e r has a 1 : l : l t u r n s r a t i o ) and i t s voltage then changes a t a rate of (I1 - 14)

T h e change i n voltage is r e q u i r e d is

volts; thus the t i m e

AV

- .&F($-/) --

/cE($

-I)

seconds (11-15)
4

When t h i s d i s c h a r g e h a s been completed, the load c u r r e n t is again c a r r i e d by SCR 1. F o r a r e s i s t i v e load, nothing f u r t h e r happens until SCR 2 is gated on.

When SCR 2 i s t u r n e d on, then the cycle a s s t a r t e d with F i g u r e 11-2 is r e p e a t e d , only now SCR 1 m u s t be t u r n e d off a n d the initial voltage on the c a p a c i t o r is -2E. Equations 11-1 through 11-15 c a n t h u s be used t o d e s c r i b e the action t h a t

o c c u r s i n the steady state, i f

is s e t e q u a l t o -2E.

A complete c y c l e of

operation i s shown i n F i g u r e 11-10.

T h i s d i a g r a m is f o r the c a s e of a p u r e

r e s i s t i v e load with the output f r e q u e n c y of the i n v e r t e r low enough s o t h a t it c a n be a s s u m e d that the r e f l e c t e d load c u r r e n t is c o n s t a n t ( a n d z e r o ) during 58

t h e switching interval.

T h e t i m e s c a l e on t h i s d i a g r a m is not constant; the switching i n t e r v a l s a r e expanded t o show i n d e t a i l the w a v e f o r m s a t c o m m u t a t i o n while the later p e r i o d of operation is shown m o r e t o scale. Values of c u r r e n t a n d voltage a r e indi-

c a t e d a n d are obtained f r o m f o r m u l a s developed previously.

A t higher

f r e q u e n c i e s w h e r e t h e expanded portion of the w a v e f o r m ( t h e switching i n t e r v a l ) b e c o m e s a n i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t i o n of the total cycle, e x a c t a n a l y s i s b e c o m e s m o r e difficult, however, for m o s t regions of i n t e r e s t , the c u r r e n t due to switching and the load m a y be s u p e r i m p o s e d , b e c a u s e the SCR f o r w a r d d r o p is substantially independent of c u r r e n t . When load c u r r e n t is n o n - z e r o during the commutation p e r i o d , ( a s will o c c u r f o r r e a c t i v e l o a d s ) the c i r c u i t operation becomes m o r e involved but c a n be analyzed as follows: Since it h a s been a s s u m e d that the filter p a s s e s only fundamental c u r r e n t , the load c u r r e n t can be w r i t t e n
11-16

where W

is the fundamental (output) angular frequency of the i n v e r t e r (and

filter) a n d 8 , is the angle of the combined load and f i l t e r i m p e d a n c e a s s e e n

by the power stage.

Under the a s s u m p t i o n that the c o m m u t a t i o n t i m e is s m a l l

c o m p a r e d t o the p e r i o d of t h e fundamental frequency, t h e load c u r r e n t during the c o m m u t a t i o n i n t e r v a l is a p p r o x i m a t e l y constant. T h i s value m a y be any-

w h e r e between -A a n d f A depending on the phase angle of t h e load i m p e d a n c e

a s s e e n by the i n v e r t e r output t r a n s f o r m e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , with the operating

59

frequency m u c h less than the n a t u r a l r e s o n a n t f r e q u e n c y of L and C (which will be on the o r d e r of 20 KC), t h e voltage developed a c r o s s the inductor L by the changing c u r r e n t at the fundamental f r e q u e n c y is negligible. Under

t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s the voltages a n d c u r r e n t s d u r i n g the commutation p e r i o d will be examined.

Immediately p r i o r t o the turning on of SCR 2 , the voltages and c u r r e n t s i n the circuit a r e as shown i n F i g u r e 11-6. ( F o r t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , a n inductive load

h a s been a s s u m e d , so at the t i m e of commutation of SCR 1, t h e r e is a c u r r e n t flowing i n it f r o m the load).

SCR 1 (about t o be c o m m u t a t e d ) is c a r r y i n g i4

the ( 1 : l ) t r a n s f o r m e d load c u r r e n t i

L '
(11- 17)

A t the instant a f t e r SCR 2 is t u r n e d on, the voltages a n d c u r r e n t s a r e as shown

i n F i g u r e 11-7.

Since the filter m a i n t a i n s the load c u r r e n t constant a t I

0

a t the t i m e of switch0, m u s t c a r r y

ing, the t r a n s f o r m e r , i n o r d e r t o maintain the r e l a t i o n Z N 1

a p r i m a r y c u r r e n t of Io as shown.

Since the c u r r e n t m u s t a l s o be maintained

5 is the only one

i n the commutating choke, the c u r r e n t path shown f o r i

possible. (Any c u r r e n t i n the now unused half of the p r i m a r y which would be i n the p r o p e r d i r e c t i o n t o m a i n t a i n the t r a n s f o r m e r NI r e l a t i o n s h i p would have t o flow i n the r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n through SCR 2; t h i s is not allowed.) will be r e v e r s e biased until the c a p a c i t o r voltage r e a c h e s zero.

SCR 1

If t h i s w e r e

60

t h e only c u r r e n t flowing, the c a p a c i t o r would r e a c h z e r o volts a t

(11-18)

However, t h e r e will a l s o be a c u r r e n t flow into the c a p a c i t o r a s SCR 2 a t t e m p t s t o c h a r g e i t up t o 2 E through the t r a n s f o r m e r . tions f o r this a c t i o n are shown i n F i g u r e 11-8. The c u r r e n t d i r e c -

A n e x a c t solution f o r t h e a v a i l a b l e turn-off-time ( u n d e r the a s s u m p t i o n that the l o a d c u r r e n t d o e s not change during the commutation i n t e r v a l ) c a n be obtained a s follows. on.
0

F i g u r e 11-SA r e p r e s e n t s the c i r c u i t as SCR 1 i s t u r n e d

H e r e I is the r e f l e c t e d load c u r r e n t ( a s s u m e d constant, as shown) and i

is the c a p a c i t o r charging c u r r e n t .

Under the a s s u m p t i o n that t h e t r a n s f o r m e r is i d e a l and that the load c u r r e n t r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t d u r i n g commutation, t h e equivalent c i r c u i t of F i g u r e 11-9A b e c o m e s as shown i n F i g u r e . 11-9B.

T h e e q u a t i o n s for t h i s c i r c u i t are

, t

Eliminating V C / t h e r e r e s u l t s 2,

(11-20)
0
I
I

D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g this and r e a r r a n g i n g t e r m s yields:

(11-21)

61

Subject t o the initial conditions !

4
E-+
4T h i s has the solution: T h e total c u r r e n t into the c a p a c i t o r is then i + 21, o r

(11-22)

( I1 - 2 4 )

T h e voltage on the equivalent c a p a c i t o r 4 C will then rise f r o m v 0 / 2 ( w h e r e v

0

will actually be a negative n u m b e r ) through 0 t o w a r d s its final value E / K . However, once the c a p a c i t o r voltage p a s s e s through the z e r o point, t h e SCR being commutated ( i n t h i s case SCR 1 ) is a g a i n f o r w a r d biased, ending the available turn-off-period. T h e c h a r g e t h a t m u s t be added t o the c a p a c i t o r t o

accomplish t h i s voltage change is

(1 - 2 5 1 )

Equating t h e s e two values o f d q (and p e r f o r m i n g the integration) there r e s u l t s

Combining the s i n e s and c o s i n e s t r i g o n o m e t r i c a l l y

r e s u l t s i n t h e equation:

62

which h a s the solution:

F o r the c a s e of a v e r y l a r g e c u r r e n t t o commutate, t h i s e x p r e s s i o n r e d u c e s to (using the approximations

--)BYB,

L-'S 2 e
which a g r e e s

for

very

small and a s s u m i n g that

-dE)
(11-30)

r,G
&

-CF

--e- 2 z,m r,

with t h i s l i m i t i n g c a s e value obtained f r o m other r e a s o n i n g (equation 11-18). T h e voltage a c r o s s the c a p a c i t o r is then (for an initial voltage of -2E) ;

C l e a r l y , the value of v

at a n y t i m e t will v a r y a s I v a r i e s , so, as a l i m i t i n g
0

c a s e , the situation w h e r e Io is v e r y l a r g e w i l l be investigated. t h e equation f o r v

C

F o r this c a s e

c a n be w r i t t e n approximately ( u s i n g t h e s m a l l a n g l e

trigonometric relations

AB

28 4

-*

e/f o r 8 v e r y small
(11-32

and

, the t i m e at which
3

<

'=

y
(11-33)

is given by

63

When t r e a c h e s this value, t h e load c u r r e n t , which p r e v i o u s l y went into the

I
I

c a p a c i t o r , now flows into the r e a c t i v e diode.

B e c a u s e the c a p a c i t o r w a s

charged up so rapidly, the amount of e x t r a c u r r e n t built up i n the c o m m u t a t i n g inductor is neglibible.

T h e c u r r e n t trapped in the commutating choke ( t h e s u m of the load and c a p a c i t o r charging c u r r e n t s at t h e i n s t a n t when the capacitor voltage r e a c h e s E / K , although i n t h i s c a s e the capacitor charging c u r r e n t h a s been taken a s negligible c o m p a r e d to the load c u r r e n t ) then d e c r e a s e s at the r a t e of

L,

() 9

a m p s / s e c until it r e a c h e s zero.

F o r a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s , t h e a c t u a l final c u r r e n t i n the inductor should be used

a s the s t a r t i n g point of t h i s l i n e a r decay.

F r o m equation IIt23 and

F i g u r e II-9AJ it can be s e e n that the c u r r e n t in the inductor at any time t for which these equations a r e valid (which is the t i m e f r o m the s t a r t of commutation until t h e r e a c t i v e diodes s t a r t to conduct ) is given by

and the l a r g e s t value of t f o r which t h i s is valid is given by the solution of equation 11-26 for the c a s e w h e r e bQ= 4 The reactive load c u r r e n t continues t o flow through diode D resulting in a back b i a s of t r a n s f o r m e r windings.

c 1%- /z]
1

however,

volts on SCR 1 through the action of the

T h i s r e a c t i v e c u r r e n t is in a d i r e c t i o n s o as t o

charge the battery>indicating that) i n t h i s portion of the cycle, r e a c t i v e e n e r g y s t o r e d in t h e load during a previous c y c l e is being r e t u r n e d to the d. c. supply. Sometime before the half-cycle is half o v e r , the load c u r r e n t m u s t r e v e r s e its

64

d i r e c t i o n , a n d e n e r g y once a g a i n flows f r o m t h e b a t t e r y t o t h e load v i a c u r r e n t t h r o u g h SCR 1 and the commutating choke. When the half c y c l e is

o v e r , SCR 2 is t u r n e d on and t h e p r o c e s s r e p e a t s , but with the load c u r r e n t r e v e r s e d and SCR 1 and D1 changing p l a c e s with SCR 2 and D2. T h i s is shown

on the w a v e f o r m drawing of F i g u r e 11-11 which, like the p r e v i o u s one f o r a r e s i s t i v e l o a d ( F i g u r e 11-10) h a s the f i r s t portion of t h e c y c l e expanded t o show t h e c o m m u t a t i o n p r o c e s s i n detail.

F r o m p r e v i o u s equations (11-18, 11-29, 11-30) it c a n be s e e n that for t h e p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r t h e r e is a m a x i m u m load c u r r e n t that c a n b e c o m m u t a t e d ; exceeding t h i s value will r e s u l t i n inadequate turn-off time.

F o r t h i s r e a s o n , the s i m p l e p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r will not o p e r a t e with a s h o r t c i r c u i t o r under any o t h e r condition which would r e s u l t i n a n e x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t flow a t the t i m e of commutation. E x c e s s i v e c u r r e n t not d u e to the l o a d c a n

o c c u r on s t a r t i n g a p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r if the r e s i d u a l f l u x l e v e l s i n the output t r a n s f o r m e r a r e not c o n s i d e r e d . (dashed line) (solid line) F o r example , f i g u r e 11- 12A shows

a t y p i c a l h y s t e r e s i s loop f o r a t o r o i d a l c o r e , and a B-H c u r v e on which it would be d e s i r a b l e t o o p e r a t e ,

However,

f r o m the point of view of making m a x i m u m use of the c o r e m a t e r i a l .

b e c a u s e the i n i t i a l flux l e v e l i n the t r a n s f o r m e r could be a n y w h e r e between -B

r

and + B

where B

is the r e s i d u a l flux r e s u l t i n g f r o m the m a x i m u m flux

l e v e l at which the t r a n s f o r m e r is o p e r a t e d , the f i r s t half c y c l e of applied voltage could e a s i l y r e s u l t i n s a t u r a t i n g the c o r e Should t h e r e s u l t i n g

65

excessive magnetizing c u r r e n t e x c e e d t h e m a x i m u m c o m m u t a t i b l e load c u r r e n t , t h e c i r c u i t would malfunction. have a v e r y high r a t i o of B Also, b e c a u s e t o r o i d a l t r a n s f o r m e r s

to B

~ and ~ e c a ~ s e of, t h e i r high p e r m e a b i l i t y b u

tend to d r i f t t o w a r d s one end of t h e h y s t e r e s i s loop under any slight unbalance in the d r i v e , even in a c o r e designed f o r o p e r a t i o n at a low f l u x density i t is possible t o end up at a f l u x l e v e l v e r y n e a r to the Bmax of t h e c o r e m a t e r i a l . T h i s is shown in F i g u r e 11-12B, w h e r e the d a s h e d line again r e p r e s e n t s t h e B-H c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the m a t e r i a l and t h e solid line the d e s i r e d (and expected) h y s t e r e s i s loop. T h e dotted line indicates t h e loop t h a t would be obtained in

the steady s t a t e w i t h a slight unbalance in the d r i v e to t h e t r a n s f o r m e r , as could occur due t o d i f f e r e n c e s in the voltage d r o p s a c r o s s the switching elements. If a n i n v e r t e r w e r e shut off while operating i n t h i s mode, and the

next time it w a s s t a r t e d , the f i r s t cycle w a s of s u c h a p o l a r i t y so as to further i n c r e a s e the magnitude of t h i s flux, the c o r e would be d r i v e n far into saturation a n d the resulting e x c e s s i v e magnetizing c u r r e n t would c a u s e failure. Thus, unless s p e c i a l p r e c a u t i o n s a r e taken t o e l i m i n a t e t h e s e p r o b l e m s , toroidal ( g a p l e s s ) t r a n s f o r m e r s should not be used f o r SCR i n v e r t e r output t r a n s f o r m e r s . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n and one solution t o t h i s p r o b l e m , the IO r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d to the l i t e r a t u r e . ( A s long as the t r a n s i s t o r s c a n handle the m o m e n t a r y high p e a k dissipation, i n v e r t e r s using t r a n s i s t o r s as the switching element will not be h a r m e d by this o c c u r r a n c e . ) T h e SCR's t h e m s e l v e s would not be damaged e i t h e r , but would fail t o be c o m m u t a t e d , r e s u l t i n g i n s y s t e m failure. When using o r d i n a r y t r a n s f o r m e r c o r e s , the air gap i n h e r e n t i n the

construction of t h e s e units r e s u l t s i n a r e s i d u a l flux of a p p r o x i m a t e l y zero. If a

66

t r a n s f o r m e r with gap is then so designed that the m a x i m u m o p e r a t i n g f l u x d e n s i t y is less than 1 / 2 of t h e s a t u r a t i o n flux d e n s i t y , t h e n the a p p l i c a t i o n of

a full half c y c l e of voltage at the s t a r t will not r e s u l t i n s a t u r a t i o n .

However,

it is not a v e r y e f f i c i e n t u s e of the c o r e m a t e r i a l s to o p e r a t e t h e m a t only 1 / 2

of t h e i r m a x i m u m f l u x levels. T h i s starting p r o b l e m c a n ba o v e r c o m e by

making the f i r s t half c y c l e of only 1 / 2 t h e duration as a n o r m a l half cycle. S t a r t i n g under t h e s e conditions is shown i n the B-H loop of F i g u r e 11-12C. F i g u r e 11- 13A shows the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the output voltage a n d c o r e flux l e v e l f o r t h i s s t a r t i n g technique.

If w e a s s u m e that B

= 0, t h i s will r e s u l t i n

t h e c o r e being i n the p r o p e r d y n a m i c h y s t e r e s i s loop f r o m the s t a r t , and the t r a n s f o r m e r c a n be d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e n e a r the s a t u r a t i o n flux l e v e l of the c o r e material. Another v a r i a t i o n of this half c y c l e start i d e a is t o u s e a high

f r e q u e n c y s t a r t i n g technique, w h e r e the i n v e r t e r is s t a r t e d out at l e a s t twice t h e n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g f r e q u e n c y and t h e frequency g r a d u a l l y l o w e r e d t o t h e o p e r a t i n g frequency. T h i s r e s u l t s i n a B-H loop which " s p i r a l s " out t o t h e

s t e a d y state condition; a g a i n avoiding s a t u r a t i o n while o p e r a t i n g the t r a n s f o r m e r a t n e a r maximum flux l e v e l s i n s t e a d y state operation. T h e B-H loop f o r t h i s

condition is shown i n F i g u r e 11-12D; the relationship between the f l u x and output voltage f o r t h i s s t a r t i n g m o d e is shown in F i g u r e 11-13B.

D u r i n g the c o m m u t a t i o n p e r i o d , two p a r a m e t e r s of the SCR being c o m m u t a t e d a r e of p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e : the turn-off-time and the d v / d t rating. t u r n - o f f - t i m e h a s been a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d . The

The d v / d t r a t i n g is s i m p l y the

67

m a x i m u m rate a t which the anode voltage of the SCR c a n be i n c r e a s e d without causing the device t o switch into its conducting state. T h i s turning on of the

SCR due t o rapidly r i s i n g anode voltage is actually due t o the d i s p l a c e m e n t c u r r e n t s i n the g a t e r e g i o n i n d u c e d by the i n t e r n a l anode of the SCR.

gate capacitance

F o r the s i m p l e p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t , the value of d v / d t is g i v e n

approximately by d v / d t = i c / C w h e r e ic is the c u r r e n t into the commutating c a p a c i t o r , and is given by

(11- 35)

( T h i s is one-half the c u r r e n t into the equivalent c a p a c i t o r of F i g u r e 11- 11)

T h e dv/dt on the commutated SCR i s t h u s given by (11-36)

f o r values o f t such that the c a p a c i t o r voltage is less than 2 E / K . values of t, the v a l u e s of d v / d t a r e less s e v e r e than this.

F o r other

Besides this s o u r c e

of dv/dt, the shock excitation of v a r i o u s s t r a y c i r c u i t inductances and c a p a c i t a n c e s which o c c u r at commutation m a y give rise to v e r y high f r e q u e n c y oscillations which yield high dv/dt's. T h e s e oscillations c a n be effectively This

damped by putting a series RC s t u b s c r o s s the SCR (anode t o cathode).

s t u b w i l l only be effective f o r the shock induced d v / d t ' s d e s c r i b e d ; it will have no value i n reducing the I / C component of the d v / d t ; i f t h i s is too l a r g e i t m u s t
be reduced by a m a j o r p a r a m e t e r change. (i. e. i n c r e a s i n g C).

In g e n e r a l ,

however, S C R ' s a r e available which have dv/dt r a t i n g s sufficiently high t h a t they a r e not a limiting f a c t o r i n the application of the SCR. 68

An i m p o r t a n t rating of the SCR j u s t being turned on at t h i s t i m e which m u s t be o b s e r v e d is i t s d i / d t rating. When a n SCR i s first t u r n e d on, t h e c u r r e n t Thus, if

it c a r r i e s is localized i n a s m a l l a r e a where it w a s first t u r n e d on.

the i n i t i a l c u r r e n t allowed by the c i r c u i t is too high, the c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s i n t h a t portion of the SCR j u s t t u r n e d on can cause degrading o r d e s t r u c t i v e l o c a l heating. Methods used t o m i n i m i z e this p r o b l e m a r e : This

1.

To t u r n on as m u c h of the SCR a s possible as soon as possible.

m e a n s t h e use of f a s t r i s i n g g a t e signals with a p e a k power capability approaching t h a t of the allowable gate dissipation.

2.

T o l i m i t t h e anode c u r r e n t of t h e SCR during the t u r n on t o a s low a value as possible.

S o m e c i r c u i t s , f o r e x a m p l e t h e s e r i e s i n v e r t e r , have small initial c u r r e n t s ( s e e equation 2c, Appendix I ) while o t h e r s , like the p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r , r e q u i r e the SCR t o c a r r y a substantial i n i t i a l c u r r e n t ( I ).
0

In t h i s c a s e , the i n i t i a l

c u r r e n t is l i m i t e d to a low value f o r the f i r s t few m i c r o s e c o n d s by putting a small s a t u r a t i n g r e a c t o r i n s e r i e s with each anode lead.

69

+E

sc g

e,

%
70

71

E
SCR 1

1 \
i

72

73

74

75

76

f-

 1 -

80

U
U
4

1
81

I
I

1
I I

I I

I
I

I
I

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I
5 6 ,9

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I

r
1
I I

1
I I

87

88

89

90

T
91

1 ,

&

92

E -

c 1

93

94

SdR

P 6

I'

i
1

I,
&
Q)
& I

A
'

I I

+
-24

99

100

STARTING AND STEADY STATE WAVEFORMS McMURRAY-BEDFORD INVERTER RESISTIVE LOAD (WITH TUNED FILTER)

FIGURE 11-10 101

McMURRAY-BEDFORD INVERTER WAVEFORMS INDUCTIVE LOADING

t'O

0
FIGURE 11-11
102

143

c
0

- 7

I
B

# -+

Study of 3 2 0 0 U n v e r t e r Configuration With t h i s background of the t y p e s of c i r c u i t s available, along with t h e i r significant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , such as output voltage w a v e f o r m s , allowable l o a d s , and output v a r i a t i o n with load etc., a study can be m a d e of the p o s s i b l e a p p r o a c h e s t o any of the i n v e r t e r g r o u p s described i n t h e Methodology section. T h e p r o b l e m of the 3 2 0 0 d l O K w i n v e r t e r w a s considered f i r s t as it a p p e a r e d t o be the m o s t difficult and no technique a p p e a r e d t o offer a c l e a r advantage. The

a p p o a c h e s c o n s i d e r e d (cataloged according to the b a s i c power switching device) were:

1 .

P o w e r t r a n s i s t o r s ( G e r m a n i u m a n d Silicon) Silicon controlled r e c t i f i e r s (SCR) G a t e controlled switches (GCS)

2. 3.

The merits and disadvantages of techniques utilizing t h e s e devices will now be d i s c u s sed. I P o w e r Switching D e v i c e s
1.

Power Transistors

T h e g e r m a n i u m t r a n s i s t o r h a s t h e lowest f o r w a r d voltage d r o p of all the d e v i c e s l i s t e d (as low as 0.45 v @65A for 65 a m p devices of suitable voltage rating). T h e d r i v e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e m o d e r a t e , being l e s s than those The

of s i l i c o n t r a n s i s t o r s but g r e a t e r than those of SCR's o r GCS's.

s p e e d of t h e d e v i c e s at t h e higher c u r r e n t r a t i n g s (50A) is adequate t o allow o p e r a t i o n in t h e switching mode a t 3200 c y c l e s without e x c e s s i v e switching l o s s e s : ( t h e switching l o s s e s a r e no m o r e than t h r e e t i m e s the

105

f o r w a r d conduction 10s ses. ) However, t r a n s i s t o r s s u i t a b l e f o r o p e r a t i o n with the p u l s e modulation techniques (with t h e i r m i n i m u m s q u a r e wave operating f r e q u e n c y r e q u i r e m e n t of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 x the f u n d a m e n t a l frequency) a r e a v a i l a b l e only i n silicon. T h e allowable junction t e m p e r a -

t u r e s of g e r m a n i u m power d e v i c e s g e n e r a l l y a r e 110OC.

Considerations i n t h e u s e of s i l i c o n t r a n s i s t o r s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y the s a m e as t h o s e of g e r m a n i u m t r a n s i s t o r s with the d i f f e r e n c e s that with silicon:

1.

T h e m a x i m u m junction t e m p e r a t u r e s are 175-200C, allowing higher a m b i e n t s a n d / o r d e v i c e dissipation.

2.

T h e f o r w a r d l o s s e s are about double and the d r i v e l o s s e s f o u r times t h o s e of g e r m a n i u m units.

3.

Available switching s p e e d s a r e about twice as f a s t as t h o s e obtainable with g e r m a n i u m ( i n c o m p a r a b l e s i z e s ) with e x t r e m e l y fast switching

( = 0.p s e c ) being obtainable i n the lower r a n g e s .

(10A)

T o handle t h e 10 Kw load, t h e n u m b e r of t r a n s i s t o r s of e i t h e r type that would be r e q u i r e d c a n be d e t e r m i n e d by a few s i m p l e calculations.

F o r the f i r s t e x a m p l e , a s y s t e m which utilizes a p u l s e modulation technique with a c o m m o n s q u a r e wave i n v e r t e r w a s c o n s i d e r e d .

A block d i a g r a m of

the power s e c t i o n of s u c h a s y s t e m is shown i n F i g u r e 1 1

106

Since the peak collector c u r r e n t i s generally the limitation in the application of t r a n s i s t o r s to switching-type i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s , and specifications r e q u i r e the device t o handle 20070 of r a t e d c u r r e n t , the maximum a v e r a g e power output of the above s y s t e m i s 2 x 10 = 20 Kw. Assuming a n o v e r a l l efficiency of 90%

(at full load) and allowing for a m i n i m u m battery voltage on a nominal 28 volt

107

s y s t e m of 2 2 . 4 volts, the input c u r r e n t will t h e n b e

20

103

( . 9 ) (22.4)

= 1000 a m p .

(If the s a m e i n v e r t e r i s u s e d t o supply t h e a. c. power f o r all t h r e e m o d u l a t o r s ,

a s it i s i n t h i s c a s e , the i n s t a n t a n e o u s p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r the t h r e e

individual p h a s e s will tend t o c a n c e l one a n o t h e r ; i n t h e c a s e of a b a l a n c e d load, t h i s cancellation will be exact. ) A t l O A / t r a n s i s t o r , t h i s will r e q u i r e a n absolute m i n i m u m of 100 t r a n s i s t o r s i n p a r a l l e l f o r e a c h switch i n t h e i n v e r t e r circuit. S i n c e a m i n i m u m of 2 s w i t c h e s is r e q u i r e d ( a t y p i c a l c i r c u i t is

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 1-2) a t o t a l of at l e a s t 200 t r a n s i s t o r s would b e needed for the s q u a r e m v e i n v e r t e r s e c t i o n of s u c h a s c h e m e . T h i s is

using high s p e e d t r a n s i s t o r s with a m a x i m u m c o l l e c t o r c u r r e n t of 10A each.

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , this a p p e a r s t o be u n r e a s o n a b l y l a r g e f r o m a r e l i a b i l i t y point of view. Using the l a r g e r but s l o w e r 50A t r a n s i s t o r , t h e n u m b e r could

be cut to 40 total, but the switching d i s s i p a t i o n of 130 w a t t s / t r a n s i s t o r (at 15, 000 c p s , 20070 load) would be out of bounds; the switching s t a g e efficiency a t 100% load would be only 7870. However, s o m e technique which allowed t h e switching to be p e r f o r m e d when the c o l l e c t o r c u r r e n t w a s at o r n e a r z e r o m i g h t r e d u c e t h i s l o s s to a n a c c e p t a b l e value, T h i s p u l s e modulation i n v e r t e r

would r e q u i r e additional s e m i c o n d u c t o r s i n t h e m o d u l a t o r s (although t h i s m i g h t be p e r f o r m e d with m a g n e t i c c i r c u i t r y ) ; t h e s e would p r o b a b l y be S C R ' s o r

G C S ' s due to the v o l t a g e s involved a n d t h e a.
C.

operation.

Another a p p r o a c h would be t o p e r f o r m t h e i n v e r s i o n at 3200 c p s , t h u s r e d u c i n g the switching l o s s e s o v e r the p u l s e m o d u l a t i o n s c h e m e s . ( T h i s would m e a n

108

using a n i n v e r t e r of t h e q u a s i - s q u a r e wave or s t e p p e d wave types.)

If the

i n v e r s i o n w e r e handled by t h r e e s e p a r a t e i n v e r t e r s , one f o r e a c h output phase, the a v e r a g e c u r r e n t handled by e a c h i n v e r t e r s e c t i o n would have a m a x i m u m of 1 0 0 0 / 3 = 333 amp. T h i s is calculated on the basis of a 20070 load, m i n i m u m

b a t t e r y voltage ( w o r s t case) and a n efficiency of 9070. Thus, the p e a k c u r r e n t i n e a c h p h a s e input could rise t o 333- 7T

520 amp.

T h e r e f o r e , e a c h side of

e a c h p h a s e switch would need a i n i n i m u m of 520/50 2 11 t r a n s i s t o r s , f o r a ' t o t a l of 66 t r a n s i s t o r s f o r a 3 0, s y s t e m . The switching l o s s e s i n t h i s e x a m p l e

would be less than 1 / 5 of t h o s e calculated for the p r e v i o u s c i r c u i t b e c a u s e

1.

T h e switching is done at a lower frequency ( 1 / 5 that of the p u l s e modulation s y s t e m ) and switching losses are d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o f r e q u e n c y f o r the r a n g e s considered.

2.

In n o r m a l operation, the switching does not o c c u r at the t i m e s of m a x i m u m c o l l e c t o r c u r r e n t , as i t does i n the p u l s e modulation scheme. (Switching l o s s e s a r e d i r e c t l y proportional to t h e collector c u r r e n t at the t i m e of swltching.)

F i g u r i n g l o s s e s f o r the w o r s t c a s e (200% load, switching o c c u r r i n g at p e a k c o l l e c t o r c u r r e n t ) the following r e s u l t s are obtained with a Bendix 2N2358 g e x m a n i u m 50A high s p e e d switching t r a n s i s t o r :

Switching l o s s e s (Ic = 50A, tr+tf = 1 6 p s e c ) R e v e r s e 10s ses

25.6 w a t t s 1 watt

109

Forward losses Drive l o s s e s Total

11.2 w a t t s 3. 7 w a t t s 41. 5 w a t t s

W i t h a t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e of 0.5'C/watt

and a m a x i m u m junction t e m p e r a t u r e

of 110'G, t h e t r a n s i s t o r mounting b a s e m u s t b e held to 89'C o r below.

T h i s is a t r a n s i e n t condition lasting f o r only 5 s e c ; the m a x i m u m s t e a d y state dissipation is less t h a n 1 / 2 of t h e amount c a l c u l a t e d ; t h e m a x i m u m mounting b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e under s t e a d y - s t a t e conditions will be at least 100 ' C.

F o r the s a m e w o r s t c a s e e x a m p l e a s c a l c u l a t e d f o r the g e r m a n i u m t r a n s i s t o r s , the l o s s e s i n a silicon t r a n s i s t o r a r e :

Switching l o s s e s (at IC Reverse l o s s e s Forward losses

50A)

13 watts 1 watt 31 w a t t s ( c a l c u l a t e d f o r Silicon T r a n s i s t o r C o r p #2107) 15 w a t t s Total

Drive l o s s e s

60 w a t t s

With a t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e of 0.5'C/watt, allowed with t h i s unit

t h e m a x i m u m junction t e m p e r a t u r e T h i s is c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r

200

-.

5 (60)

170.C.

t h a n the 89.C p e r m i t t e d by t h e g e r m a n i u m d e v i c e s .

Both these c a l c u l a t i o n s have b e e n p e r f o r m e d f o r the w o r s t c a s e ; at only 100%

110

load, t h e switching l o s s e s would b e

about

1 / 2 t h o s e c a l c u l a t e d above, and (Since a s a t u r a t e d

t h e f o r w a r d l o s s e s would be r e d u c e d by a factor of four.

t r a n s i s t o r a p p r o x i m a t e s a fixed r e s i s t a n c e , the f o r w a r d l o s s e s v a r y as t h e s q u a r e of the c u r r e n t ) . T h u s , the full load l o s s e s f o r t h e g e r m a n i u m t r a n -

s i s t o r s would be less t h a n 20. 3 watts and the silicon l o s s would be l e s s than

30. 5 watts.

E v e n at t h e s e r a t e s , the switching efficiency of the silicon t r a n s i s t o r power s t a g e alone will be only 10,000 10,000+66 (30.5)

= 83%. T h i s value would

i m p r o v e with b e t t e r t r a n s i s t o r s (i. e. f a s t e r , lower l e a k a g e , lower s a t u r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e , h i g h e r gain) a n d / o r c i r c u i t changes. Possible circuit changes

include techniques f o r optimizing the switching p a t t e r n , r e d u c i n g the c u r r e n t a n d / o r voltage at the time of switching, o r reducing t h e effective switch r e s i s t a n c e by connecting additional units in parallel. D r i v e l o s s e s c a n be

r e d u c e d by providing a d r i v e p r o p o r t i o n a l to the i n s t a n t a n e o u s c o l l e c t o r c u r r e n t r a t h e r t h a n a s q u a r e wave d r i v e adequate for the l a r g e s t c o l l e c t o r c u r r e n t (though a t t h e e x p e n s e of i n c r e a s e d complexity). B e c a u s e of the l a r g e n u m b e r s

of units which m a y be o p e r a t e d i n p a r a i i e l , t h e s e c i r c u i t s offer possibilities f o r i n c r e a s i n g r e l i a b i l i t y through redundancy without significantly i n c r e a s i n g t h e c i r c u i t complexity. O n t h e o t h e r hand, b e c a u s e of t h e l a r g e n u m b e r of

e l e m e n t s , s o m e f o r m of redundancy will probably be n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e reliability.

111

Any of the v a r i o u s p a r a l l e l switching c i r c u i t s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r could be used with these t r a n s i s t o r s ; however, the bridge c i r c u i t s would not be d e s i r a b l e at the 28 volt l e v e l c o n s i d e r e d h e r e b e c a u s e they would r e q u i r e twice as m a n y t r a n s i s t o r s (and have about twice the s e m i c o n d u c t o r l o s s e s ) a s the p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r with center-tapped t r a n s f o r m e r .

A s the input voltage i n c r e a s e s , the

number of t r a n s i s t o r s r e q u i r e d in p a r a l l e l t o handle the input c u r r e n t d e c r e a s e s ; thus higher input voltages a r e advantageous, However, a s the input voltage

goes too high, the bridge c i r c u i t s would become n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e of the voltage limitations of available t r a n s i s t o r s . ( O t h e r conditions r e m a i n i n g

equal, the t r a n s i s t o r s i n a bridge a r e subject t o only one-half t h e voltage

as those i n a c e n t e r -tapped t r a n s f o r m e r a r r a n g e m e n t . )

2.

Silicon Controlled R e c t i f i e r s

SCR's have the advantage of being able to handle v e r y l a r g e c u r r e n t s ,

both on continuous and pulse b a s e s . They a r e available in r a t i n g s up t o

400A r m s , 250 A a v e r a g e , with peak c u r r e n t capabilities in the thousands

of a m p e r e s .
volts). They a r e a l s o available in high voltage r a t i n g s (up t o 1300 than t h a t of silicon

T h e i r f o r w a r d voltage d r o p is slightly higher

t r a n s i s t o r s and tends to r e m a i n constant as the c u r r e n t is i n c r e a s e d . ( T r a n s i s t o r d r o p ( s a t u r a t e d ) is a l m o s t a l i n e a r function of c u r r e n t and can be r e p r e s e n t e d as a r e s i s t a n c e . ) However, the fact that S C R ' s m u s t be

commutated off by a n e x t e r n a l s o u r c e adds c i r c u i t complexity and, in p a r t i c u l a r , r e s u l t s i n additional l o s s e s .

112

T h e amount of the commutation l o s s e s as c o i n p a r e d t o the (reflected) load c u r r e n t l o s s i n a n i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s e r v e s as a good indication as t o t h e suitability of the c i r c u i t f o r t h e intended operation. These losses can

be computed f o r the f i r s t c i r c u i t under c o n s i d e r a t i o n ( t h e M c M u r r a y -

Bedford c i r c u i t ) as follows : T h e first p r o b l e m is t o d e t e r m i n e t h e value of t h e commutating c a p a c i t o r s i n c e it d e t e r m i n e s t h e m a x i m u m c u r r e n t that c a n be c o m m u t a t e d as w e l l

as m a n y of the c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s , a n d except f o r the s e l e c t i o n of the basic

c i r c u i t itself, is t h e initial s t e p i n i n v e r t e r design.

A s s u m e the m a x i m u m c u r r e n t to be commutated is Io a m p e r e s .

(This

will c o r r e s p o n d to a 20070 load a t a power f a c t o r which p l a c e s the p e a k of the l o a d c u r r e n t p u l s e at the t i m e when c o m m u t a t i o n o c c u r s . ) L e t the m i n i m u m supply voltage be E. Then, t h e c a p a c i t a n c e r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e

a t u r n - o f f - t i m e of t
obtain: obtain:

is obtained by a r e a r r a n g e m e n t of equation 11-30 t o

C = -I O f O
zE

T h e next p r o b l e m is to e v a l u a t e the c u r r e n t s i n the c i r c u i t ( a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e SCR). F o r the M c M u r r a y

Bedford c i r c u i t , m u c h of t h i s

a n a l y s i s had a l r e a d y been done i n Appendix 11, and r e f e r e n c e will be made t o that. F o r negligible c u r r e n t a t the t i m e of c o m m u t a t i o n (which could

o c c u r at 100% r e s i s t i v e l o a d with a tuned

filter, w h e r e the s i n u s o i d a l

l o a d c u r r e n t would b e i n p h a s e with the i n v e r t e r switching s t a g e output, and hence be going through z e r o at the i n s t a n t of commutation) the SCR

113

c u r r e n t is given by equation 11-2, which f o r t h e s t e a d y s t a t e c a s e w h e r e

v = -2E, h a s the value

0

T h i s , of c o u r s e , is subject to the r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d in the d e r i v a t i o n

of equation 11-2; i n p a r t i c u l a r , it a p p l i e s only f o r is given by equation 11-6.

OseS

where

If K, the r e a c t i v e tap f r a c t i o n ( r e f e r t o F i g u r e

11-1 and t h e d i s c u s s i o n on page 5 7 ) i s s e t at 0.8, then the t i m e r e q u i r e d

f o r t h e c u r r e n t t r a p p e d i n the commutating choke t o r e a c h z e r o is given

by equation 11-10. With
Vo

= -2E,k = 0.8 and using the a p p r o x i m a t i o n

time (

, this
seconds.

i n equation 11-10) equals 1

T h e c u r r e n t waveform in the SCR (and commutating choke) The time

due t o t h e c o m m u t a t i o n c i r c u i t is then as shown i n F i g u r e 1-3.

at which the w a v e f o r m changes f r o m a sinusoid to a l i n e a r l y d e c r e a s i n g

r a m p is given by equation 11-6 as

The a v e r a g e value of t h i s c u r r e n t p u l s e ( a v e r a g e d over a half cycle of the operating frequency) c a n be e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d as d e s c r i b e d below. (Average

c u r r e n t s are u s e d in t h e s e calculations b e c a u s e the voltage d r o p a c r o s s the SCR is f a i r l y constant with c u r r e n t , thus making the a v e r a g e c u r r e n t

a better indicator of SCR l o s s e s than r m s c u r r e n t ,

T h e s a m e is t r u e f o r

diode l o s s e s . ) Approximating the e x a c t c u r r e n t w a v e f o r m (shown in

114

F i g u r e 1 - 3 as a solid line) with a triangular c u r r e n t waveshape (shown dotted i n F i g u r e 1 - 3 ) of height equal to the a c t u a l c u r r e n t m a x i m u m and b a s e e q u a l t o the t o t a l time r e q u i r e d for the p u l s e , the a v e r a g e c u r r e n t . i n one SCR (during the half cycle t h a t i t is conducting) due t o c o m m u t a -

where

is the p e r i o d of the fundamental f r e q u e n c y of o p e r a t i o n of

Substituting the values of p e a k c u r r e n t (equation 1-2)pulse into t h i s

the i n v e r t e r .

length (equation 1-3) a n d fundamental frequency fo equation, t h e r e r e s u l t s :

Substituting the value of C f r o m equation 1 - 1 into equation 1 - 4 and r e a l i z i n g that, i f I

0

is t h e p e a k c u r r e n t during the 20070 o v e r l a a d condition,

the a v e r a g e c u r r e n t during the conduction p e r i o d f o r e a c h SCR a t the

10070 l o a d condition will be

Then, t h e r a t i o of the a v e r a g e SCR c u r r e n t due t o all c a u s e s

bavg

(comm) j- I

avg

(load)] t o the a v e r a g e c u r r e n t due t o the (reflected) is Iavg ( c o m m )

load c u r r e n t only

kavg
1

+ Iavg (load)
0-7)

77*6 fo

[-; -+

t.]

Io
n-

122 fo t o + 1

115

F o r the c a s e of the 3200 cycle i n v e r t e r , and using a 2 O p s e c turn-off3 time, t h i s r a t i o b e c o m e s 1 C 122 ( 3 . 2 x 10 ) ( 2 x

= 8.8

Thus, with total SCR l o s s e s 8.8 t i m e s the l o s s e s due t o the r e f l e c t e d load c u r r e n t only, the M c M u r r a y -Bedford i n v e r t e r is not suitable f o r efficient operation at t h i s high a frequency.

( L e s s than 1 / 8 of the t o t a l

switching device l o s s a r i s e s f r o m providing power t o the load.)

A m o r e efficient (and complex) p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r ( t h e M c M u r r a y c i r c u i t )

i s shown i n F i g u r e 1-4.

H e r e , the four additional S C R ' s Q3, 4, 5, a n d 6

are used t o achieve commutation without turning on the o t h e r power switching SCR. T h i s allows q u a s i - Qq u a r e wave operation. However, the

main p u r p o s e of t h i s c i r c u i t is the reduction of commutating l o s s e s brought about by the fact that the commutating e n e r g y m e r e l y m o v e s back and f o r t h through the tuned c i r c u i t t o a c h i e v e commutation i n s t e a d of being l a r g e l y d i s s i p a t e d and l a t e r r e s u p p l i e d f r o m the d. c. s o u r c e e a c h half cycle. With t h i s i m p r o v e m e n t , the commutating l o s s e s i n the S C R ' s

are considerably r e d u c e d f r o m t h o s e of the M c M u r r a y

Bedford c i r c u i t .

The operation of t h i s c i r c u i t c a n be analyzed a s follows: A s s u m e SCR 1 ( F i g u r e 1-4) is on a n d SCR 4 and SCR 5 have been simultaneously g a t e d on s o that Cc h a s a c q u i r e d a c h a r g e s u c h t h a t the positive side of Cc is the one connected t o Lc. Then, when i t is t i m e t o t u r n off SCR 1, SCR 3
,
L

and SCR 6 a r e simultaneously g a t e d on, and C

d i s c h a r g e s through L

SCR 3, SCR 6, the load and, when t h e d i s c h a r g e c u r r e n t h a s bailt up t o a 116

high enough value, through D

1

causing a r e v e r s e bias of about 1 volt t o With proper choice of components, t h i s

a p p e a r on the anode of SCR 1.

r e v e r s e bias c a n be maintained f o r the r e q u i r e d turn-off-time.

A p o r t i o n of the c u r r e n t waveform produced by the turning on of SCR 3

and 6 i s shown i n F i g u r e 1-5. H e r e again, Io is the m a x i m u m c u r r e n t
0

which the c i r c u i t is designed t o commutate a n d t provided turn-off-time.

is t h e m i n i m u m c i r c u i t

With Lc and C c h o s e n t o r e s o n a t e a t a
C

frequency with p e r i o d 4 to, and provide a p e a k c u r r e n t of

@ Io,

the

c u r r e n t taken by the r e s o n a n t c i r c u i t will be g r e a t e r than Io f o r a p e r i o d of to. T h i s r e s o n a n t c u r r e n t , which flows through SCR 3 and SCR 6 , h a s

a n a v e r a g e value (when a v e r a g e d o v e r 1 / 2 p e r i o d of the fundamental

w h e r e , again.f

0 -

I - r,

Since c u r r e n t flows through two

SCRs,the r a t i o of total l o s s e s t o l o s s e s d u e t o f o r w a r d c u r r e n t e q u a l s

0-9)
F o r a 3 2 0 0 i~ v e r t e r with m i n i m u m turn-off-time of 2 0 p s e c , t h i s v a l u e n b e c o m e s 2.45. T h i s r e s u l t s i n the 10070 load SCR l o s s e s f o r t h i s i n v e r t e r

c i r c u i t being equal t o those of a (silicon) t r a n s i s t o r i z e d i n v e r t e r and hence about 1 1 / 2 times those of a . g e r m a n i u m t r a n s i s t o r i n v e r t e r . 117

However, the SCR c i r c u i t s a l s o have additional l o s s e s due t o the commutating c u r r e n t s flowing in the commutating choke and c a p a c i t o r , reactive diodes, and output t r a n s f o r m e r p r i m a r y . The McMurray circuit

i s a l s o s u p e r i o r t o the M c M u r r a y - B e d f o r d i n v e r t e r in these r e s p e c t s , and

t h u s has m u c h i m p r o v e d c o m m u t a t i o n l o s s e s o v e r the M c M u r r a y - B e d f o r d

circuit.

T h i s l o s s i s not obtained without penalty, however.

The number

of SCR's p e r power s t a g e has i n c r e a s e d f r o m 2 t o 6 a n d the d r i v e c i r cuitry r e q u i r e d h a s i n c r e a s e d in complexity, (On the o t h e r hand, t h i s

circuit does allow n o n - z e r o c l a m p e d q u a s i - s q u a r e wave operation. See page 30 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of z e r o clamping.) Also, i n the M c M u r r a y -

Bedford c i r c u i t , a c u r r e n t t o c o m m u t a t e g r e a t e r than the d e s i g n m a x i m u m (Io) s i m p l y d e c r e a s e s t h e available t u r n off t i m e by a p r o p o r t i o n a l amount. F o r example, if t

0

is available with a c u r r e n t of Io, then

available turn-off-time with 1 e 1.5 Io,

is the 1.5 W i t h t h e s a f e t y m a r g i n in the

turn-off-time provided, ( I t i s anticipated that 1 2 p s e c t u r n - o f f - t i m e S C R ' s would be used, f o r e x a m p l e , in a c i r c u i t designed t o provide a m i n i m u m

of 2 0 ~ s e c ). t h e c i r c u i t would still o p e r a t e under t h i s condition.

However,

in the M c M u r r a y c i r c u i t (designed f o r to seconds at a c u r r e n t of I o ) since

5f0 ) ~ S T ,

(where

\Tr&

is the absolute m a x i m u m of the

c u r r e n t pulse taken by the c o m m u t a t o r c i r c u i t ) t h e r e would be absolutely no turn-off t i m e proyided by the c i r c u i t a n d c i r c u i t f a i l u r e would be certain.

118

The s e r i e s type i n v e r t e r p o s s e s s e s the advantage of not r e q u i r i n g additional c o m m u t a t i o n d e v i c e s ; for the p r o p e r load r a n g e , it is s e l f commutating. T h i s "proper" load r e q u i r e m e n t (which r e s t r i c t s the load

r e s i s t a n c e t o below a c e r t a i n value) can be c i r c u m v e n t e d by putting an a p p r o p r i a t e c a p a c i t o r a c r o s s the load terminals. T h i s a l l ows operation

at no load.

However, the input frequency will still change considerably

under t h e s e conditions, r e q u i r i n g that the output of the i n v e r t e r be f i l t e r e d i n the s a m e f a s h i o n as the p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r s . T h e c u r r e n t through the

shunt c a p a c i t o r (which m a y be considerable if the shunt capacitor is a l s o r e q u i r e d t o tune out a possible inductive component of the load) r e s u l t s i n increased losses. In addition, clamping s c h e m e s which o p e r a t e i n a

fashion s i m i l a r t o the r e a c t i v e diodes of the p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r a r e needed t o s u p p r e s s e x c e s s i v e voltages which would o t h e r w i s e o c c u r at no load o r s h o r t c i r c u i t operation. 3

Reports

indicate a n efficiency of only about 70% c a n be expected f o r

s e r i e s i n v e r t e r s which m u s t o p e r a t e over a 3:l load r a n g e ; o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e v e n m o r e difficult than that, operation t o no-load being required. Also, the s e r i e s i n v e r t e r suffers f r o m the s a m e reliability

d r a w b a c k that o c c u r s with all SCR i n v e r t e r s

-- one u n s u p p r e s s e d noise

p u l s e f r o m any s o u r c e can c a u s e a m i s f i r e and shut down the i n v e r t e r , unless s o m e redundant m e t h o d s a r e used t o allow shutdown of a stage o r the i n v e r t e r is automatically r e s t a r t e d . In e i t h e r c a s e , the e x t r a c i r c u i t r y

119

r e q u i r e d t o account f o r the misfire is added components which i n c r e a s e s weight a n d d e c r e a s e s reliability. Also, the higher l o s s e s i n S C R ' s a s

c o m p a r e d t o g e r m a n i u m t r a n s i s t o r s a n d the r e c e n t i n c r e a s e s i n m a x i m u m operating junction t e m p e r a t u r e s of g e r m a n i u m t r a n s i s t o r s ( t o 1 10'C, c o m p a r e d t o the 125.C allowable f o r S C R ' s ) r e s u l t i n the two devices requiring about the same mounting base t e m p e r a t u r e . Thus, f r o m a

as

t h e r m a l point of view, S C R ' s p o s s e s s l i t t l e advantage o v e r g e r m a n i u m t r a n s i s t o r s , and a r e less efficient. Although the n u m b e r of t r a n s i s t o r s

r e q u i r e d f o r the power switching s t a g e of the 10 KW unit is f a i r l y l a r g e , because of the fact that they are e s s e n t i a l l y connected in p a r a l l e l , redundant techniques will be f a i r l y e a s y t o apply. Also, the 10 KW is

at the high power end of the anticipated s i z e s ; the lower power units of the same type ( t h e r a n g e extends down t o only 2 KW) will r e q u i r e f e w e r t r a n s i s t o r s ( the n u m b e r i n the switching s t a g e s is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e maximum power output d e s i r e d ) .

F r o m a weight point of view, the additional weight r e q u i r e d by the m a n y t r a n s i s t o r s o v e r a few S C R ' s would be expected t o be made up by the elimination of the commutating c a p a c i t o r s and chokes, as well as the reduction i n the s i z e s of the output t r a n s f o r m e r s a n d heat s i n k s made possible by the i n c r e a s e d efficiency of the t r a n s i s t o r i z e d d e v i c e s a n d absence of the high p e a k c u r r e n t s a s s o c i a t e d with SCR commutation.

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T h e " p a p e r t ' r e l i a b i l i t y of the SCR circuits with t h e i r smaller p a r t s count c a n be made up by e a s i l y applied redundancy techniques t o the switching stage transistors. Safety m a r g i n s on t r a n s i s t o r voltages c a n g e n e r a l l y

be introduced without any weight o r efficiency p e n a l t i e s ; i n c r e a s i n g t h e turn-off-time m a r g i n i n a n SCR i n v e r t e r m e a n s i n c r e a s i n g t h e s i z e ( a n d weight of t h e commutating c a p a c i t o r and t h e r e by i n c r e a s i n g the l o s s e s i n the c i r c u i t components r e s p o n s i b l e for charging i t up.

3.

G a t e Controlled Switches

T h e g a t e c o n t r o l l e d switch is similar t o the SCR except t h a t i t c a n a l s o

be t u r n e d off a t the gate.

T h e s e a r e p r e s e n t l y available only i n low

c u r r e n t r a n g e s ( 6 A ) with s o m e improvement expected i n the n e a r future.

121

Since they a p p e a r t o be restricted t o c u r r e n t r a n g e s below t h o s e of

5 I t r a n s i s t o r s and have a higher f o r w a r d d r o p ( 2 v @ A ) they d o not a p p e a r

advantageous f o r t h i s i n v e r t e r .

However, t h e i r combination of high

voltage r a t i n g s a n d i m p r o v e d t u r n off ( o v e r S C R ' s ) would f a v o r t h e m i n i n v e r t e r s operating at higher voltages w h e r e c u r r e n t s are l o w e r ( f o r a given power r a t i n g ) a n d t r a n s i s t o r s unavailable.

A typical c i r c u i t employing the g a t e controlled switch is shown i n F i g u r e

1-6.

It is v e r y similar t o the SCR c i r c u i t s described earlier ( F i g u r e

with the exception t h a t the commutating choke has b e e n e l i m i n a t e d and t h e commutating capacitance h a s b e e n split, made smaller, a n d connected f r o m gate (of one GCS) t o anode (of the other GCS).
A r e s i s t o r is a l s o

i n s e r t e d in series with i t t o limit the p e a k r e v e r s e g a t e c u r r e n t t o a safe value. flop. T h e operation of t h i s c i r c u i t is a k i n t o that of a conventional flipA positive p u l s e coming i n t o t h e g a t e s t u r n s on one GCS and l e a v e s

the o t h e r on.

T h e sudden d r o p i n anode voltage of the f i r s t GCS i s The

coupled through R a n d C t o the g a t e of the other GCS, turning i t off.

next positive p u l s e r e v e r s e s t h e p r o c e s s , turning on GCS 1 and turning off

GCS 2.

T h e output of t h i s c i r c u i t is a s q u a r e wave.

Like the SCR, the GCS h a s a turn-off-time which v a r i e s with load and t e m p e r a t u r e and during which, f o r the GCS, its g a t e m u s t be held negative.
A l s o , as with SCR c i r c u i t s . GCS i n v e r t e r s c a n mis-fire, ending up with

both power switches on and the c i r c u i t inoperative.

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1 1

B r a l l e l i n g Techniques

I I
I

T h e s e i n i t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s would appear t o f a v o r t h e t r a n s i s t o r c i r c u i t s b e c a u s e of weight, efficiency and reliability. However, the p a r a l l e l i n g

p r o b l e m i n t r a n s i s t o r c i r c u i t s m u s t be examined c l o s e l y t o s e e i f it d o e s not p r e s e n t o t h e r p r o b l e m s .

123

Paralleling techniques will now be investigated.

One method i s t o i n s e r t balancing r e s i s t o r s in s e r i e s with one o r m o r e leads of e a c h t r a n s i s t o r . Unfortunately, the m o r e effective t h i s method

i s t o be, the l a r g e r the r e s i s t o r s m u s t be, a n d the g r e a t e r the power wasted. The u s e of balancing r e a c t o r s , though a n efficient solution to the

problem f o r the c a s e of d i o d e s , m u s t be c a r e f u l l y analyzed f o r t r a n s i s t o r s because s o m e of the s i m p l e r c i r c u i t s c a n r e s u l t i n a voltage t r a n s i e n t s of

4E ( w h e r e E is the b a t t e r y voltage) a p p e a r i n g a c r o s s the t r a n s i s t o r s f o r

a s h o r t t i m e due t o the d i f f e r e n c e in the switching s p e e d of the t r a n s i s t o r s

A n a l t e r n a t i v e t o the u s e of balancing r e s i s t o r s o r r e a c t o r s to achieve

c u r r e n t balancing when paralleling t r a n s i s t o r s ( o r S C R ' s ) is t o b r e a k up t h e output t r a n s f o r m e r into N s m a l l e r units ( e a c h with l / N t h the

secondary voltage rating of the original t r a n s f o r m e r ) and connect the s e c o n d a r i e s of t h e s e units in s e r i e s to obtain the originally d e s i r e d oatpiit. This technique is shown in the d i a g r a m s of F i g u r e 1 - 7 A and 1 -7B. Since

the s a m e load c u r r e n t flows i n all of the s e c o n d a r i e s , the r e f l e c t e d load c u r r e n t s c a r r i e d by all the t r a n s i s t o r s which a r e ccnducting a t any given time a r e equal. T h i s balancing i s obtained at the e x p e n s e of splitting up

one l a r g e t r a n s f o r m e r into N smaller ones of the same t o t a l r a t i n g , a p r o cedure that r e s u l t s i n a n o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e i n weight and l o s s e s in the output t r a n s f o r m e r s . However, the p r i m a r i e s now need not be excited i n all
\

p a r a l l e l ; e a c h s t a g e c a n be t u r n e d on a t a slightly d i f f e r e n t t i m e t o pracluce

124

a stepped output o r synchronous switching waveform.

Thus, the

additional weight and l o s s e s reqilired by the individual t r a n s f o r m e r s c a n be p a r t i a l l y offset by lower f i l t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s due t o the r e d u c e d h a r m o n i c content of the output of the switching s t a g e s , ( a n d the a b s e n c e of any additional components which would be o t h e r w i s e r e q u i r e d f o r balancing.

Which technique i s b e t t e r will have t o be decided on the b a s i s of f u r t h e r s t u d i e s c o m p a r i n g the weights and l o s s e s of the output t r a n s f o r m e r ( s ) , balancing r e a c t o r s ( i f used) and f i l t e r s of the two s y s t e m s and c o n s i d e r i n g the complexity of the d r i v e c i r c u i t r y and ease of applying redundant
t e c hnique s f o r reliability i m p r overne nt

.
Basically, t h e r e

I11 Voltage Regulation

Methods of voltage regulation w i l l be considered next.

a r e t h r e e m a i n techniques for regulating the output voltage of a n i n v e r t e r

a g a i n s t v a r i a t i o n s i n load a n d / o r input voltage.

These are:

1.

Regulating t h e d. c. input voltage to the i n v e r t e r stage.

A l l techniques

studied s o far f o r t h i s p u r p o s e have r e q u i r e d a t l e a s t one s e m i conductor in s e r i e s with the m a i n load c u r r e n t path. This p l a c e s a n

upper l i m i t on the efficiency of such r e g u l a t o r s , and c a n r e s u l t in r e l a t i v e l y high l o s s e s when operating on low voltage s y s t e m s . number The

of s e m i c o n d u c t o r s is a l s o i n c r e a s e d ; the r e g u l a t o r would

r e q u i r e a t l e a s t half a s many semiconductors (of the s a m e type) a s the t o t a l n u m b e r in the power switching stages. T h e advantages of

125

d. c. regulation is that i t p r o v i d e s a n a l m o s t constant d. c. input

t o the power switching s t a g e s , thus allowing t h e m t o be optimized

f o r only one input level.

Input regulation a l s o allows the u s e of c o m -

plex w a v e f o r m s f o r h a r m o n i c reduction without d i s t o r t i o n p r o b l e m s c a u s e d by deviations f r o m the i d e a l w a v e f o r m brought about by t h e n e c e s s i t y to v a r y s o m e p a r a m e t e r of the g e n e r a t e d waveform t o obtain voltage regulation. T h e filtering and i n v e r t e r logic a r e a l s o s i m p l i

fied i f voltage regulation is p e r f o r m e d on the input d. c. , s i n c e the optimum s p a c i n g between s t e p s of a m u l t i - s t e p p e d wave c a n be m a i n tained independently of the input voltage and load v a r i a t i o n s .

In view of the l a r g e c u r r e n t s r e q u i r e d , a n d the r e l a t i v e l y low voltage available f o r the 28 volt unit, i t w a s felt t h a t t h e d. c. r e g u l a t i o n techniques w e r e not suitable f o r this application.

2.

Varying the f o r m of the i n v e r t e r output waveform i n the switching c i r c u i t to v a r y the fundamental component of the switched output waveform, The q u a s i - s q u a r e wave is a good e x a m p l e of t h i s t e c h -

nique, although m o r e c o m p l e x w a v e f o r m s a r e p o s s i b l e a n d may be desirable. Methods f o r voltage regulation by varying the p h a s e

between two g e n e r a t e d w a v e f o r m s t o yield a v a r i a b l e v e c t o r s u m a r e the m o s t efficient f r o m a semiconductor standpoint but r e q u i r e a l a r g e r output t r a n s f o r m e r capability than needed with o t h e r techniques.

126

T h i s efficiency stems f r o m the f a c t that at the lowest input voltage a n d heaviest load, w h e r e the input c u r r e n t is g r e a t e s t , all the s e m i c o n d u c t o r s a r e o p e r a t e d i n phase a n d all contribute t o the output p o w e r at all t i m e s . At higher input voltages, w h e r e the c u r r e n t

d e m a n d s a r e less, and the outputs of t h e s e p a r a t e power s w i t c h e s no l o n g e r i n p h a s e , at s o m e p o r t i o n s of the cycle, one power switching s t a g e will be supplying power t o another stage, which is r e t u r n i n g t h a t power t o t h e i r c o m m o n s o u r c e via r e a c t i v e diodes. This circu-

l a t e d e n e r g y undergoes l o s s because it m u s t p a s s through one t r a n s i s t o r , one diode, a n d two t r a n s f o r m e r s i n its roundtrip. T h u s , at

higher input voltages, at l e a s t p a r t of t h e t i m e , l o s s e s o c c u r i n the s e m i c o n d u c t o r s which do not r e s u l t i n a n y e n e r g y being t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e load. A l s o s i n c e the load voltage is l e s s than t h e a l g e b r a i c s u m

of t h e indibidual t r a n s f o r m e r voltages ( b e c a u s e the load is a v e c t o r s u m , a n d except f o r the low voltage high c u r r e n t operating point, the individual outputs a r e not in p h a s e ) a l a r g e r t r a n s f o r m e r capability t h a n the load rating is r e q u i r e d with t h i s technique. (At 3200 c y c l e s ,

t h i s would not c a u s e as s e v e r e a weight penalty a s a t l o w e r f r e quencies. ) T h e p r o b l e m of wasted t r a n s f o r m e r capability c a n be solved by g e n e r a t i n g a q u a s i - s q u a r e wave d i r e c t l y with the switching e l e m e n t s , r a t h e r than with p h a s e shift techniques. This does r e q u i r e

m o r e c o m p l e x c o n t r o l c i r c u i t r y and additional s e m i c o n d u c t o r s than the p h a s e shift technique. switches The extra semiconductors a r e used as
127

t o s h o r t the output t r a n s f o r m e r p r i m a r y d u r i n g the p e r i o d s when n e i t h e r power switching e l e m e n t is on. This i s called z e r o clamp-

ing and avoids the type of w a v e f o r m d i s t o r t i o n shown i n F i g u r e 5K.

3.

T h e unregulated a. c.. ( s q u a r e wave) output of a switchirg s t a g e c a n be o p e r a t e d on e i t h e r by a switching device ( t o produce q u a s i - s q u a r e w a v e s ) , o r by a non-linear r e s o n a n t circuit(for example, a constant voltage t r a n s f o r m e r ) . The latter, because their operation r e q u i r e s

driving p a r t of t h e i r c o r e into saturationlare l e s s efficient t h a n o r d i n a r y t r a n s f o r m e r s of the same VA rating. Also they tend t o p u l l

s p i k e s of c u r r e n t which r e q u i r e s o v e r d e s i g n of the i n v e r t e r power stage. Although they provide i n h e r e n t c u r r e n t limiting, t h e voltage

regulation with load change is not adequate f o r t h e s e applications; t h u s , the constant voltage t r a n s f o r m e r w a s not felt t o be s u i t e d f o r t h i s application.

Switching of the (a. c. ) output t o produce e s s e n t i a l l y a q u a s i - s q u a r e wave would r e q u i r e a n additional switch a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 - 8 t o provide z e r o clamping and avoid the unclamped waveform shown i n F i g u r e 5K.

In the a b s e n c e of feedback, the input voltage v a r i a t i o n s will account f o r the g r e a t e s t p o r t i o n of the output voltage v a r i a t i o n a n d will affect all t h r e e p h a s e s equally. T h e load v a r i a t i o n s on any one p h a s e will affect that p h a s e m o r e than

the other two.

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T h e a m o u n t of interaction, if any, will depend o n the d e s i g n of the i n v e r t e r .

It is advantageous t o have the t h r e e p h a s e s tied together as m u c h a s p o s s i b l e

s i n c e with p h a s e shift techniques (which a r e indicated h e r e ) i t is s i m p l e r f r o m the c o n t r o l point of view t o v a r y all t h r e e p h a s e s simultaneously t h a n individually.

Load s h a r i n g techniques basically involve using p a r t of the output of one p h a s e t o make up t h e composite output of another phase. In t h i s fashion a load on

one output p h a s e will r e s u l t i n s o m e effective load being p l a c e d on a t least p a r t of the i n v e r t e r s t a g e s f o r all phases. One method f o r doing t h i s is t o

start with a two p h a s e i n v e r t e r and t r a n s f o r m the outputs with a Scott-Tee,

yielding a t h r e e p h a s e output and two p r i m a r y p h a s e s which a r e g e n e r a l l y both loaded (though not equally) by a load on any one of the ( t h r e e ) s e c o n d a r i e s . Another method is t o s t a r t with a t h r e e phase i n v e r t e r and wind t h r e e s e c o n d a r i e s o n e a c h output t r a n s f o r m e r ; these s e c o n d a r i e s b h i c h m a y be of different n u m b e r of t u r n s ) a r e then e a c h connected i n series with o t h e r s f r o m different p h a s e output t r a n s f o r m e r s t o yield a composite output. Depending

on the r e l a t i v e n u m b e r and phasing of the interconnected windings, different h a r m o n i c s m a y a l s o be cancelled out. F o r instance, i n t h e c a s e of the

s i m p l e s t t h r e e p h a s e i n v e r t e r , the switched output of which is sI i m p l y t h r e e s q u a r e w a v e s , e a c h 120' out of p h a s e with r e s p e c t t o the o t h e r s , the addition

of the output of any one p h a s e and half the inverted s u m of the o t h e r two r e s u l t s
in a c o m p o s i t e wave which has no t h i r d harmonics.

T h e individual g e n e r a t e d

129

w a v e f o r m s ( A , B, and C ) along with the p h a s e A c o m p o s i t e output

/?

+ 2( - 8 O C ) a p p e a r

i n F i g u r e 1-9; a c i r c u i t f o r g e n e r a t i n g t h r e e

phase w a v e f o r m s of t h i s type is shown i n F i g u r e 10.

Algebraically, that the r e s u l t a n t contains no t h i r d h a r m o n i c c a n be s e e n as follows :

Though providing cancellation of the l a r g e s t and m o s t t r o u b l e s o m e h a r m o n i c , t h i s technique is again wasteful of t r a n s f o r m e r capability and weight because:
1. The voltages added together i n the s e c o n d a r i e s a r e not all i n p h a s e ,

r e s u l t i n g in a smaller v e c t o r s u m t h e n a l g e b r a i c s u m and hence wasteful of t r a n s f o r m e r s i n the same fashion as the p h a s e shift voltage regulation techniques a l r e a d y d i s c u s sed.

2. B e c a u s e the s u m of t h e t h r e e s q u a r e wave voltages applied t o the p h a s e

output t r a n s f o r m e r s d o e s not e q u a l z e r o , t h e s e t h r e e single p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e r s cannot be combined into a s i n g l e t h r e e - p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e r ,
( which would be smaller a n d l i g h t e r t h a n the t h r e e single p h a s e units. )

130

A s c h e m e which avoids t h e s e objections (again a t the e x p e n s e of a more

c o m p l e x logic s y s t e m ) c o n s i s t s of 3 320" quasi-square wave d r i v e s , s p a c e d 120'. E a c h individual power switch output i s thus f r e e f r o m the t h i r d h a r F u r t h e r m o r e , e a c h t r a n s f o r m e r now p r o v i d e s

m o n i c t o begin with.

J$g. 866

of t h e fundamental output of a t r a n s f o r m e r operated at the same voltage with

a s q u a r e wave d r i v e , but it only h a s t o support 213 as a t r a n s f o r m e r with s q u a r e wavy drive.

2 .67 of

the volt s e c o n d s

Thus, i t is m o r e efficiently used.

In addition, b e c a u s e the s u m of the output voltages f r o m t h i s t h r e e p h a s e switching s y s t e m e q u a l s z e r o , a t h r e e phase output t r a n s f o r m e r c a n be used. Figure 1- 11 shows t h e output voltages of the t h r e e p h a s e s of such a unit; The

inspection will show t h a t the s u m of t h e s e three v o l t a g e s e q u a l s zero.

u s u a l objection t o the quasi-square wave switching stage, its need f o r extra switching e l e m e n t s t o p e r f o r m the z e r o clamping function, d o e s not apply h e r e
i f a t h r e e p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e r is used as the output t r a n s f o r m e r b e c a u s e a

glance a t F i g u r e 1-11 will show that t h e r e are always two a n d only two s w i t c h e s on at the same t i m e , and they a r e producing e q u a l and opposite voltages. Thus,

the voltage i n that winding which h a s neither s i d e e n e r g i z e d through a switch

I
,

m u s t be z e r o i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y the f l u x relations r e q u i r e d of t h e c o r e .

Notice

t h a t i f t h r e e single-phase t r a n s f o r m e r s w e r e used instead, t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p would not need apply a n d s o m e f o r m of z e r o clamping would be needed f o r the switching s t a g e s .

TO obtain voltage regulation with r e s p e c t to input voltage and b a l a n c e d l o a d

131

variations, two w a v e f o r m s produced by e i t h e r of t h e s e techniques o r any o t h e r suitable one c a n be added together with a voltage feedback controlled v a r i a b l e p h a s e shift between them. T h e r e s u l t i n g s u m m a t i o n wave a l s o contains no

harmonic not p r e s e n t i n the individual w a v e f o r m s and, depending on the spacing, m a y contain r e d u c e d a m o u n t s of o t h e r h a r m o n i c s .

T h i s method p r o v i d e s voltage regulation to c o m p e n s a t e f o r input voltage a n d balanced load variations. T h e v a r i a t i o n due t o any unbalanced loads cannot

be compensated by t h i s s c h e m e

s i n c e it cannot v a r y t h e output of one p h a s e

only.

A f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s of t h i s c i r c u i t will indicate how m u c h of a v a r i a t i o n

of output voltage with unbalanced load c a n be expected.

T h i s v a r i a t i o n , which

i s expected t o be f a i r l y small, could then be accounted f o r by individual

low power q u a s i - s q u a r e wave r e g u l a t o r s in s e r i e s with e a c h p h a s e output.

E a c h q u a s i - s q u a r e wave power stage would be controlled by a voltage feedback circuit sensing the output of the p h a s e in which that q u a s i - s q u a r e wave s o u r c e w a s connected. By varying the width of the q u a s i - s q u a r e wave o v e r a vary a
smaller but adequate p e r c e n t a g e .

wide range, the p h a s e voltage would

Should the i n v e r t e r outputs have too l a r g e p h a s e s h i f t s f r o m the 120 s e p a r a t i o n required, the p h a s e of e a c h individual q u a s i - s q u a r e wave with r e s p e c t t o the m a i n switched output voltage could be v a r i e d by a p h a s e feedback network, t o bring the o v e r a l l p h a s e d i s p l a c e m e n t within specification. f o r such a s y s t e m is shown i n F i g u r e 1-12. T h e block d i a g r a m

132

IV

Conclusions A s u r v e y of i n v e r t e r configurations and switching d e v i c e s w a s undertaken and

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s analyzed.

The 3200 c p s 3 0 10 Kw i n v e r t e r

w a s a s s u m e d t o be the m o s t difficult, and an effort w a s s t a r t e d t o d e t e r m i n e a n optimum configuration f o r i t by examining v a r i o us i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s i n light of the s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s posed. design d e c i s i o n s to be made. It was felt that t h e r e w e r e two b a s i c

One w a s the selection of the b a s i c power switchThe second is the technique of c o m -

ing s t a g e and power switching element.

bining t h e s e b a s i c e l e m e n t s t o obtain a t h r e e p h a s e , voltage r e g u l a t e d sinus o i d a l output. Though n e i t h e r of t h e s e h a s been completed, the first h a s b e e n On the b a s i s

investigated enough that the following rating c h a r t s c a n be made.

of T a b l e 1-1 which c o m p a r e s switching d e m e n t s , i t would a p p e a r that, depending on the t e m p e r a t u r e s the i n v e r t e r would have to o p e r a t e in, and t h e a m o u n t of t h e r m a l d e r a t i n g d e s i r e d , e i t h e r the silicon o r g e r m a n i u m t r a n s i s t o r would
be c h o s e n a s the switching element.

B e c a u s e the s e r i e s i n v e r t e r c i r c u i t s a r e load s e n s i t i v e and a r e a l s o g e n e r a l l y used with S C R s a s opposed t o the t r a n s i s t o r s indicated above, they a r e not f e a s i b l e as the fundamental power switching s t a g e f o r t h i s i n v e r t e r . The

b r i d g e c i r c u i t s , with two s e m i c o n d u c t o r s in the f o r w a r d path of the d. c. input c u r r e n t have twice the l o s s e s and twice the n u m b e r of s e m i c o n d u c t o r s of the c e n t e r - t a p p e d p r i m a r y type. Since the n u m b e r of weight and l o s s e s

added by t h e s e e x t r a power switching elements will be g r e a t e r than the

133

savings a c c r u e d through m o r e efficient u s e of the output t r a n s f o r m e r s , t h e u s e of any type of b r i d g e c i r c u i t is contraindicated. T h u s , the power switching

s t a g e s s h a l l be of the p a r a l l e l i n v e r t e r with c e n t e r -tapped t r a n s f o r m e r p r i m a r y type.

T h e various p o s s i b l e m e t h o d s of voltage regulation a r e shown i n T a b l e 1 - 2 along with t h e i r advantages a n d disadvantages. nominal and a n output of 115 volts. T h e s e a r e f o r a n output of 28 v

( T h i s is mentioned b e c a u s e under

different input and output conditions, the d e s i r a b i l i t y of the different techniques will vary.

For example, i f the output voltage w e r e only 6 volts, the

technique of s a t u r a b l e r e a c t o r o r SCR modulation of the output would ba e x t r e m e l y inefficient. S i m i l i a r l y , at higher input voltages and w i d e r voltage

variations, the efficiency of the d. c. r e g u l a t o r technique wo*:ld be competitive with the o t h e r s , while i t is not a t 28 v . )

On the b a s i s of the m a t e r i a l in t h i s T a b l e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t the p h a s e shift regulation is m o s t advantageous f o r the 3200/v10 Kw i n v e r t e r . high efficiency with a m i n i m u m of power s e m i c o n d u c t o r s . It allows

134

0
d

.I

135

137

138

139

140

141

-T------L

142

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.

Parallel I n v e r t e r with R e s i s t a n c e Load, C. F. Wagner, A I. E. E. T r a n s a c t i o n s , v 54, November 1935, pp 1227-1235.

2.

Parallel I n v e r t e r with Inductive Load, C. F. Wagner, A. I. E. E. T r a n s a c t i o n s , v 55, S e p t e m b e r 1936, pp 970-980.

Q u a r t e r l y P r o g r e s s R e p o r t No. 4 on Voltage Regulation and P o w e r Stability i n Unconventional E l e c t r i c a l G e n e r a t o r S y s t e m s . ( C o n t r a c t NOW 60-0824-C) J u n e 30, 1961 (ASTIA #AD 265158) p 69. A High F r e q u e n c y P o w e r G e n e r a t o r Using S C R ' s Neville Mapham, Solid State Design, April 1963, pp 35-38. O v e r c o m i n g T u r n - o n Effects i n Silicon Controlled R e c t i f i e r s , Neville M a p h a m , E l e c t r o n i c s , August 17, 1962, pp 50-51. Silicon Controlled R e c t i f i e r Manual, G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c Company, p 149-151. Silicon Controlled R e c t i f i e r D e s i g n e r s ' Handbook, Westinghouse E l e c t r i c Corporation, p 7- 100. D e s i g n T e c h n i q u e s f o r Static I n v e r t e r s , S o r e n s e n (Space Technology L a b o r a t o r i e s ) , July 1959 (ASTIA #AD 227885). Quarterly P r o g r e s s R e p o r t # 4 o n Voltage Regulation and P o w e r Stability i n Unconventional E l e c t r i c a l G e n e r a t o r S y s t e m s (ASTIA #AD 265158) p 87. Static I n v e r t e r with Neutralization of H a r m o n i c s , A. Kernick, J. Roof, and T. Heinrich, A. I. E. E. Transactions, May 1962, pp 59-08.

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