Vibration Spectroscopy

Infrared spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is the subset of spectroscopy that deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. It covers a range of techniques, the most common being a form of absorption spectroscopy. As with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be used to identify compounds or investigate sample composition. Infrared spectroscopy correlation tables are tabulated in the literature.

Contents
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1 Theory 2 Sample preparation 3 Typical method 4 Summary of absorptions of bonds in organic molecules 5 Uses and applications 6 Isotope effects 7 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 8 Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

[edit] Theory
The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is divided into three regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The far-infrared, approximately 400-10 cm-1 (100030 m), lying adjacent to the microwave region, has low energy and may be used for rotational spectroscopy. The mid-infrared, approximately 4000400 cm-1 (301.4 m) may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated rotational-vibrational structure. The higher energy near-IR, approximately 14000-4000 cm-1 (1.40.8 m) can excite overtone or harmonic vibrations. The names and classifications of these subregions are merely conventions. They are neither strict divisions nor based on exact molecular or electromagnetic properties. Infrared spectroscopy exploits the fact that molecules have specific frequencies at which they rotate or vibrate corresponding to discrete energy levels. These resonant frequencies are determined by the shape of the molecular potential energy surfaces, the masses of the atoms and, by the associated vibronic coupling. In order for a vibrational mode in a molecule to be IR active, it must be associated with changes in the permanent dipole. In particular, in the BornOppenheimer and harmonic approximations, i.e. when the molecular Hamiltonian corresponding to the electronic ground state can be approximated by a harmonic oscillator in the neighborhood of the equilibrium molecular geometry, the resonant frequencies are determined by the normal modes corresponding to the molecular electronic ground state potential energy surface. Nevertheless, the resonant frequencies can be in a first approach related to the strength of the

bond, and the mass of the atoms at either end of it. Thus, the frequency of the vibrations can be associated with a particular bond type. Simple diatomic molecules have only one bond, which may stretch. More complex molecules have many bonds, and vibrations can be conjugated, leading to infrared absorptions at characteristic frequencies that may be related to chemical groups. For example, the atoms in a CH2 group, commonly found in organic compounds can vibrate in six different ways: symmetrical and antisymmetrical stretching, scissoring, rocking, wagging and twisting: Antisymmetric al stretching

Symmetrical stretching

Scissoring

Rocking

Wagging

Twisting

The infrared spectra of a sample is collected by passing a beam of infrared light through the sample. Examination of the transmitted light reveals how much energy was absorbed at each wavelength. This can be done with a monochromatic beam, which changes in wavelength over time, or by using a Fourier transform instrument to measure all wavelengths at once. From this, a transmittance or absorbance spectrum can be produced, showing at which IR wavelengths the sample absorbs. Analysis of these absorption characteristics reveals details about the molecular structure of the sample. This technique works almost exclusively on samples with covalent bonds. Simple spectra are obtained from samples with few IR active bonds and high levels of purity. More complex molecular structures lead to more absorption bands and more complex spectra. The technique has been used for the characterization of very complex mixtures.

[edit] Sample preparation

Gaseous samples require little preparation beyond purification, but a sample cell with a long pathlength (typically 5-10 cm) is normally needed, as gases show relatively weak absorbances. Liquid samples can be sandwiched between two plates of a high purity salt (commonly sodium chloride, or common salt, although a number of other salts such as potassium bromide or calcium fluoride are also used). The plates are transparent to the infrared light and will not introduce any lines onto the spectra. Some salt plates are highly soluble in water, so the sample and washing reagents must be anhydrous (without water). Solid samples can be prepared in two major ways. The first is to crush the sample with a mulling agent (usually nujol) in a marble or agate mortar, with a pestle. A thin film of the mull is applied onto salt plates and measured. The second method is to grind a quantity of the sample with a specially purified salt (usually potassium bromide) finely (to remove scattering effects from large crystals). This powder

mixture is then crushed in a mechanical die press to form a translucent pellet through which the beam of the spectrometer can pass. It is important to note that spectra obtained from different sample preparation methods will look slightly different from each other due to differences in the samples' physical states.

[edit] Typical method

Typical apparatus A beam of infrared light is produced and split into two separate beams. One is passed through the sample, the other passed through a reference which is often the substance the sample is dissolved in. The beams are both reflected back towards a detector, however first they pass through a splitter which quickly alternates which of the two beams enters the detector. The two signals are then compared and a printout is obtained. A reference is used for two reasons: This prevents fluctuations in the output of the source affecting the data

This allows the effects of the solvent to be cancelled out (the reference is usually a pure form of the solvent the sample is in)

Wavenumbers listed in cm-1.

[edit] Uses and applications

Infrared spectroscopy is widely used in both research and industry as a simple and reliable technique for measurement, quality control and dynamic measurement. The instruments are now small, and can be transported, even for use in field trials. With increasing technology in computer filtering and manipulation of the results, samples in solution can now be measured accurately (water produces a broad absorbance across the range of interest, and thus renders the spectra unreadable without this computer treatment). Some machines will also automatically tell you what substance is being measured from a store of thousands of reference spectra held in storage. By measuring at a specific frequency over time, changes in the character or quantity of a particular bond can be measured. This is especially useful in measuring the degree of polymerization in polymer manufacture. Modern research machines can take infrared measurements across the whole range of interest as frequently as 32 times a second. This can be done whilst simultaneous measurements are made using other techniques. This makes the observations of chemical reactions and processes quicker and more accurate. Techniques have been developed to assess the quality of tea-leaves using infrared spectroscopy. This will mean that highly trained experts (also called 'noses') can be used more sparingly, at a significant cost saving.[1] Infrared spectroscopy has been highly successful for applications in both organic and inorganic chemistry. Infrared spectroscopy has also been successfully utilized in the field of semiconductor microelectronics[2]: for example, infrared spectroscopy can be applied to semiconductors like silicon, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, zinc selenide, amorphous silicon, silicon nitride, etc.

[edit] Isotope effects

The different isotopes in a particular species may give fine detail in infrared spectroscopy. For example, the O-O stretching frequency of oxyhemocyanin is experimentally determined to be 832 and 788 cm-1 for (16O-16O) and (18O-18O) respectively. By considering the O-O as a spring, the wavelength of absorbance, can be calculated: where k is the spring constant for the bond, and is the reduced mass of the A-B system: (mi is the mass of atom i). The reduced masses for 16O-16O and 18O-18O can be approximated as 8 and 9 respectively. Thus

[edit] Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Main article: Fourier transform spectroscopy Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a measurement technique for collecting infrared spectra. Instead of recording the amount of energy absorbed when the frequency of the infra-red light is varied (monochromator), the IR light is guided through an interferometer. After passing the sample the measured signal is the interferogram. Performing a mathematical Fourier transform on this signal results in a spectrum identical to that from conventional (dispersive) infrared spectroscopy.

FTIR spectrometers are cheaper than conventional spectrometers because building of interferometers is easier than the fabrication of a monochromator. In addition, measurement of a single spectrum is faster for the FTIR technique because the information at all frequencies is collected simultaneously. This allows multiple samples to be collected and averaged together resulting in an improvement in sensitivity. Because of its various advantages, virtually all modern infrared spectrometers are FTIR instruments.

Fourier transform spectroscopy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search Fourier transform spectroscopy is a measurement technique whereby spectra are collected based on measurements of the temporal coherence of a radiative source, using time-domain measurements of the electromagnetic radiation or other type of radiation. It can be applied to a variety of types of spectroscopy including optical spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy (IR), nuclear magnetic resonance, and electron spin resonance spectroscopy. There are several methods for measuring the temporal coherence of the light, including the continuous wave Michelson or Fourier transform spectrometer and the pulsed Fourier transform spectrograph (which is more sensitive and has a much shorter sampling time than conventional spectroscopic techniques, but is only applicable in a laboratory environment).

Contents
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1 Continuous wave Michelson or Fourier transform spectrograph o 1.1 Pulsed Fourier transform spectrometer 2 Multi-bounce 3 Fellgett Advantage 4 Converting spectra from time domain to frequency domain 5 See also 6 External links 7 Further reading

[edit] Continuous wave Michelson or Fourier transform spectrograph

The Fourier transform spectrometer is just a Michelson interferometer but one of the two fullyreflecting mirrors is movable, allowing a variable delay (in the travel-time of the light) to be included in one of the beams. The Michelson spectrograph relies on the same principle as the Michelson-Morley experiment. Light from the source is split into two beams by a half-silvered mirror, one is reflected off a fixed mirror and one off a moving mirror which introduces a time delay -- the Fourier transform

spectrometer is just a Michelson interferometer with a movable mirror. The beams interfere, allowing the temporal coherence of the light to be measured at each different time delay setting. By making measurements of the signal at many discrete positions of the moving mirror, the spectrum can be reconstructed using a Fourier transform of the temporal coherence of the light. Michelson spectrographs are capable of very high spectral resolution observations of very bright sources. The Michelson or Fourier transform spectrograph was popular for infra-red applications at a time when infra-red astronomy only had single pixel detectors. Imaging Michelson spectrometers are a possibility, but in general have been supplanted by imaging Fabry-Perot instruments which are easier to construct.

[edit] Pulsed Fourier transform spectrometer

A pulsed Fourier transform spectrometer is usually used to measure the spectrum of the light transmitted through a laboratory sample. In a conventional (or "continuous wave") spectrometer, a sample is exposed to electromagnetic radiation and the response (usually the intensity of transmitted radiation) is monitored. The energy of the radiation is varied over the desired range and the response is plotted as a function of radiation energy (or frequency). At certain resonant frequencies characteristic of the specific sample, the radiation will be absorbed resulting in a series of peaks in the spectrum, which can then be used to identify the sample. (In magnetic spectroscopy, the magnetic field is often varied instead of the frequency of the incident radiation, though the spectra are effectively the same as if the field had been kept constant and the frequency varied. This is largely a question of experimental convenience.) Instead of varying the energy of the electromagnetic radiation, Fourier Transform spectroscopy exposes the sample to a single pulse of radiation and measures the response. The resulting signal, called a free induction decay, is a direct measurement of the temporal coherence of the light and contains a rapidly decaying composite of all possible frequencies. Using a Fourier transform of this, the spectrum of the light can be calculated as for the Michelson Fourier transform spectrometer. In this way the Fourier transform spectrometer can produce the same kind of spectrum as a conventional spectrometer, but in a much shorter time. The principles of the Fourier transform approach can be compared to the behavior of a musical tuning fork. If a tuning fork is exposed to sound waves of varying frequencies, it will vibrate when the sound wave frequencies are in "tune". This is similar to conventional spectroscopic techniques, where the radiation frequency is varied and those frequencies where the sample is in "tune" with the radiation detected. However, if we strike the tuning fork (the equivalent of applying a pulse of radiation), the tuning fork will tend to vibrate at its characteristic frequencies. The resulting tone consists of a combination of all of the characteristic frequencies for that tuning fork. Similarly the response from a sample exposed to a pulse of radiation is a signal consisting primarily of the characteristic frequencies for that sample. The Fourier transform is a mathematical technique for determining these characteristic frequencies from a single composite signal.

[ [edit] Converting spectra from time domain to frequency domain

The sum is performed over all contributing frequencies to give a signal S(t) in the time domain. gives non-zero value when S(t) contains a component that matches the oscillating function. Remember that

A Fourier transform spectrometer (abbreviated FTS) is a Michelson interferometer with a movable mirror. By scanning the movable mirror over some distance, an interference pattern is produced that encodes the spectrum of the source (in fact, it turns out to be its Fourier transform ). Fourier transform spectrometers have a multiplex advantage over dispersive spectral detection techniques for signal, but a multiplex disadvantage for noise. In its simplest form, a Fourier transform spectrometer consists of two mirrors located at a right angle to each other and oriented perpendicularly, with a beamsplitter placed at the vertex of the right angle and oriented at a 45 angle relative to the two mirrors. Radiation incident on the beamsplitter from one of the two "ports" is then divided into two parts, each of which propagates down one of the two arms and is reflected off one of the mirrors. The two beams are then recombined and transmitted out the other port. When the position of one mirror is continuously varied along the axis of the corresponding arm, an interference pattern is swept out as the two phase-shifted beams interfere with each other.

Raman spectroscopy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search Raman spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique used in condensed matter physics and chemistry to study vibrational, rotational, and other low-frequency modes in a system.[1] It relies on inelastic scattering, or Raman scattering of monochromatic light, usually from a laser in the visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range. The laser light interacts with phonons or other excitations in the system, resulting in the energy of the laser photons being shifted up or down. The shift in energy gives information about the phonon modes in the system. Infrared spectroscopy yields similar, but complementary information. Typically, a sample is illuminated with a laser beam. Light from the illuminated spot is collected with a lens and sent through a monochromator. Wavelengths close to the laser line, due to elastic Rayleigh scattering, are filtered out while the rest of the collected light is dispersed onto a detector. Spontaneous Raman scattering is typically very weak, and as a result the main difficulty of Raman spectroscopy is separating the weak inelastically scattered light from the intense Rayleigh scattered laser light. Raman spectrometers typically use holographic diffraction gratings and multiple dispersion stages to achieve a high degree of laser rejection. In the past, PMTs were the detectors of choice for dispersive Raman setups, which resulted in long acquisition times. However, the recent uses of CCD detectors have made dispersive Raman spectral acquisition much more rapid. Raman spectroscopy has a stimulated version, analogous to stimulated emission, called stimulated Raman scattering.

Contents
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1 Basic theory 2 History 3 Applications 4 Raman microspectroscopy 5 Variations

6 References 7 External links

[edit] Basic theory

Energy level diagram showing the states involved in Raman signal. The line thickness is roughly proportional to the signal strength from the different transitions. The Raman effect occurs when light impinges upon a molecule and interacts with the electron cloud of the bonds of that molecule. The incident photon excites one of the electrons into a virtual state. For the spontaneous Raman effect, the molecule will be excited from the ground state to a virtual energy state, and relax into a vibrational excited state, which generates Stokes Raman scattering. If the molecule was already in an elevated vibrational energy state, the Raman scattering is then called anti-Stokes Raman scattering. A molecular polarizability change, or amount of deformation of the electron cloud, with respect to the vibrational coordinate is required for the molecule to exhibit the Raman effect. The amount of the polarizability change will determine the intensity, whereas the Raman shift is equal to the vibrational level that is involved.

[edit] History
Although the inelastic scattering of light was predicted by Smekal in 1923, it was not until 1928 that it was observed in practice. The Raman effect was named after one of its discoverers, the Indian scientist Sir C. V. Raman who observed the effect by means of sunlight (1928, together with K. S. Krishnan and independently by Grigory Landsberg and Leonid Mandelstam).[1] Raman won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930 for this discovery accomplished using sunlight, a narrow band photographic filter to create monochromatic light and a "crossed" filter to block this monochromatic light. He found that light of changed frequency passed through the "crossed" filter. Subsequently the mercury arc became the principal light source, first with photographic detection and then with spectrophotometric detection. Currently lasers are used as light sources.

[edit] Applications

Raman spectroscopy is commonly used in chemistry, since vibrational information is very specific for the chemical bonds in molecules. It therefore provides a fingerprint by which the molecule can be identified. The fingerprint region of organic molecules is in the range 500-2000 cm-1. Another way that the technique is used is to study changes in chemical bonding, e.g. when a substrate is added to an enzyme. Raman gas analyzers have many practical applications, for instance they are used in medicine for real-time monitoring of anaesthetic and respiratory gas mixtures during surgery. In solid state physics, spontaneous Raman spectroscopy is used to, among other things, characterize materials, measure temperature, and find the crystallographic orientation of a sample. As with single molecules, a given solid material has characteristic phonon modes that can help an experimenter identify it. In addition, Raman spectroscopy can be used to observe other low frequency excitations of the solid, such as plasmons, magnons, and superconducting gap excitations. The spontaneous Raman signal gives information on the population of a given phonon mode in the ratio between the Stokes (downshifted) intensity and anti-Stokes (upshifted) intensity. Raman scattering by an anisotropic crystal gives information on the crystal orientation. The polarization of the Raman scattered light with respect to the crystal and the polarization of the laser light can be used to find the orientation of the crystal, if the crystal structure (specifically, its point group) is known. Raman active fibers, such as aramid and carbon, have vibrational modes that show a shift in Raman frequency with applied stress. Polypropylene fibers also exhibit similar shifts. The radial breathing mode is a commonly used technique to evaluate the diameter of carbon nanotubes. Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS), which is less sensitive to surface layers than conventional Raman, can be used to discover counterfeit drugs without opening their internal packaging, and for non-invasive monitoring of biological tissue.[2][3] Raman spectroscopy can be used to investigate the chemical composition of historical documents such as the Book of Kells and contribute to knowledge of the social and economic conditions at the time the documents were produced. [4] This is especially helpful because Raman spectroscopy offers a non-invasive way to determine the best course of preservation or conservation treatment for such materials.

[edit] Raman microspectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy offers several advantages for microscopic analysis. Since it is a scattering technique, specimens do not need to be fixed or sectioned. Raman spectra can be collected from a very small volume (< 1 m in diameter); these spectra allow the identification of species present in that volume. Water does not interfere very strongly. Thus, Raman spectroscopy is suitable for the microscopic examination of minerals, materials such as polymers and ceramics, cells and proteins. A Raman microscope begins with a standard optical microscope, and adds an excitation laser, a monochromator, and a sensitive detector (such as a charge-coupled device (CCD) or photomultiplier tube (PMT)). FT-Raman has also been used with microscopes.

In direct imaging, the whole field of view is examined for scattering over a small range of wavenumbers (Raman shifts). For instance, a wavenumber characteristic for cholesterol could be used to record the distribution of cholesterol within a cell culture. The other approach is hyperspectral imaging or chemical imaging, in which thousands of Raman spectra are acquired from all over the field of view. The data can then be used to generate images showing the location and amount of different components. Taking the cell culture example, a hyperspectral image could show the distribution of cholesterol, as well as proteins, nucleic acids, and fatty acids. Sophisticated signal- and image-processing techniques can be used to ignore the presence of water, culture media, buffers, and other interferents. Raman microscopy, and in particular confocal microscopy, has very high spatial resolution. For example, the lateral and depth resolutions were 250 nm and 1.7 m, respectively, using a confocal Raman microspectrometer with the 632.8 nm line from a He-Ne laser with a pinhole of 100 m diameter. Since the objective lenses of microscopes focus the laser beam to several micrometres in diameter, the resulting photon flux is much higher than achieved in conventional Raman setups. This has the added benefit of enhanced fluorescence quenching. However, the high photon flux can also cause sample degradation, and for this reason some setups require a thermally conducting substrate (which acts as a heat sink) in order to mitigate this process. By using Raman microspectroscopy, in vivo time- and space-resolved Raman spectra of microscopic regions of samples can be measured. As a result, the fluorescence of water, media, and buffers can be removed. Consequently in vivo time- and space-resolved Raman spectroscopy is suitable to examine proteins, cells and organs. Raman microscopy for biological and medical specimens generally uses near-infrared (NIR) lasers (785 nm diodes and 1064 nm Nd:YAG are especially common). This reduces the risk of damaging the specimen by applying high power. However, the intensity of NIR Raman is low (owing to the -4 dependence of Raman scattering intensity), and most detectors required very long collection times. Recently, more sensitive detectors have become available, making the technique better suited to general use. Raman microscopy of inorganic specimens, such as rocks and ceramics and polymers, can use a broader range of excitation wavelengths.[5] Yee

[edit] Variations
Several variations of Raman spectroscopy have been developed. The usual purpose is to enhance the sensitivity (e.g., surface-enhanced Raman), to improve the spatial resolution (Raman microscopy), or to acquire very specific information (resonance Raman). Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) - Normally done in a silver or gold colloid or a substrate containing silver or gold. Surface plasmons of silver and gold are easily excited by the laser, and the resulting electric fields cause other nearby molecules to become Raman active. The result is amplification of the Raman signal (by up to 1011). This effect was originally observed by Fleishman but the prevailing explanation was proposed by Van Duyne in 1977.[6]

Hyper Raman - A non-linear effect in which the vibrational modes interact with the second harmonic of the

excitation beam. This requires very high power, but allows the observation of vibrational modes which are normally "silent". It frequently relies on SERS-type enhancement to boost the sensitivity. Resonance Raman spectroscopy - The excitation wavelength is matched to an electronic transition of the molecule or crystal, so that vibrational modes associated with the excited electronic state are greatly enhanced. This is useful for studying large molecules such as polypeptides, which might show hundreds of bands in "conventional" Raman spectra. It is also useful for associating normal modes with their observed frequency shifts.

Spontaneous Raman Spectroscopy - Used to study the temperature dependence of the Raman spectra of molecules.

Optical Tweezers Raman Spectroscopy (OTRS) - Used to study individual particles, and even biochemical processes in single cells trapped by optical tweezers.

Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy - A two color pulse transfers the population from ground to a rovibrationally excited state, if the difference in energy corresponds to an allowed Raman transition. Two photon UV ionization, applied after the population transfer but before relaxation, allows the intra-molecular or intermolecular Raman spectrum of a gas or molecular cluster (indeed, a given conformation of molecular cluster) to be collected. This is a useful molecular dynamics technique.

Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS) The Raman scatter is collected from regions laterally offset away from the excitation laser spot, leading to significantly lower contributions from the surface layer than with traditional Raman spectroscopy.[7]

Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) - Two laser beams are used to generate a coherent anti-Stokes frequency beam, which can be enhanced by resonance.