External Costs of Transport - InFRAS-IWW

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Iinal PeporL
ZurichJKarlsruhe, 0cLober 2004

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EXTERNAL COSTS OF TRANSPORT
UPDATE STUDY
Final Report, Zurich/Karlsruhe, October 2004
Christoph Schreyer (INFRAS)
Christian Schneider (INFRAS)
Markus Maibach (INFRAS)
Prof. Werner Rothengatter (IWW)
Claus Doll (IWW)
David Schmedding (IWW)
ISBN nr 2-7461-0891-7
Warning
No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced or distributed by any means whatsoever, including
electronic, except for private and individual use, without the express permission of the International Union of
Railways (UIC). The same applies for translation, adaptation or transformation, arrangement or reproduction by
any method or procedure whatsoever. The sole exceptions - noting the author's name and the source -are "analyses
and brief quotations justified by the critical, argumentative, educational, scientific or informative nature of the
publication into which they are incorporated" (Articles L 122-4 and L122-5 of the French Intellectual Property
Code). International Union of Railways (UIC) - Paris, 2004
j3
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | 0vfkvIfw
0vfkvIfw

SuHHAk __________________________________________________________________ 1
1. IhIk00ufII0h ______________________________________________________ 21
2. uP0AIf HfIh000L06 _______________________________________________ 23
3. kfSuLIS 2000: I0IAL Ah0 AvfkA6f f0SIS ______________________________ 11
4. HAk6IhAL f0SIS Ih 0IfffkfhI IkAffIf SIIuAII0hS ______________________ 89
5. IhIfkPkfIAII0h 0f kfSuLIS Ah0 P0LIf f0hfLuSI0hS __________________ 101
AhhfX 1: 6fhfkAL IhPuI 0AIA______________________________________________ 118
AhhfX 2: HfH8fkS 0f Ihf A0vIS0k 80Ak0 __________________________________ 154
6L0SSAk ________________________________________________________________ 155
LIIfkAIukf_______________________________________________________________ 161

4j
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | f0hIfhI
f0hIfhI

SuHHAk __________________________________________________________________ 1
AIH Ah0 HLJ000L0CY__________________________________________________________7
J0JAL Ah0 AVLPACL C0SJS _______________________________________________________9
HAPCIhAL C0SJS ______________________________________________________________16
C0hCLSJI0h C0SJS_____________________________________________________________17
IhJLPhALISAJI0h 0LICY _______________________________________________________19
1. IhIk00ufII0h ______________________________________________________ 21
1.1. JL JASK______________________________________________________________21
1.2. SJPbCJbPL 0I JL PL0PJ _______________________________________________22
2. uP0AIf HfIh000L06 _______________________________________________ 23
2.1. CLhLPAL HLJ000L0CICAL ISSbLS _________________________________________23
2.1.1. 0verview o cosLs considered______________________________________________23
2.1.2. 0aLa basis and counLry allocaLion __________________________________________24
2.2. IHLICAJI0hS 0I PLCLhJ SJb0ILS 0h b0AJL HLJ000L0CY ___________________25
2.2.1. bhIJL ________________________________________________________________26
2.2.2. Swiss updaLe sLudy on exLernal accidenL cosLs ________________________________27
2.2.3. Swiss updaLe SLudy on exLernal air polluLion cosLs_____________________________28
2.3. ACCI0LhJ C0SJS ________________________________________________________28
2.3.1. rocedure o cosL esLinaLion ______________________________________________29
2.3.2. Pisk value _____________________________________________________________30
2.3.3. unan capiLal cosLs_____________________________________________________31
2.3.4. 0Lher exLernal cosLs _____________________________________________________32
2.3.5. InLernalised social cosLs _________________________________________________32
2.3.6. 0aLa issues ____________________________________________________________32
2.3.7. Harginal accidenL cosLs __________________________________________________33
2.4. h0ISL C0SJS ___________________________________________________________34
2.4.1. willingness Lo pay or noise reducLion ______________________________________35
2.4.2. ValuaLion o ealLh risks _________________________________________________37
2.4.3. Hedical cosLs __________________________________________________________38
2.4.4. Harginal noise cosLs_____________________________________________________39
2.5. AIP 0LLbJI0h C0SJS ___________________________________________________41
2.5.1. ValuaLion basis _________________________________________________________41
j5
2.5.2. rocedure or cosL esLinaLion _____________________________________________43
2.5.3. Harginal air polluLion cosLs _______________________________________________46
2.6. CLIHAJL CAhCL C0SJS __________________________________________________47
2.7. C0SJS I0P hAJbPL Ah0 LAh0SCAL ________________________________________52
2.7.1. rocedure or cosL esLinaLion (road, rail and air)______________________________52
2.7.2. ValuaLion basis (road, rail and air) _________________________________________54
2.7.3. Inland waLerborne LransporL ______________________________________________56
2.7.4. rocedure or Lhe esLinaLion o narginal cosLs _______________________________57
2.8. A00IJI0hAL C0SJS Ih bP8Ah APLAS________________________________________57
2.8.1. ValuaLion approach______________________________________________________57
2.8.2. SeparaLion eecLs ______________________________________________________58
2.8.3. Space availabiliLy or bicycles _____________________________________________59
2.9. b- Ah0 00whSJPLAH P0CLSSLS _________________________________________60
2.9.1. ValuaLion approach______________________________________________________60
2.9.2. rocedure or LoLal and average cosLs _______________________________________61
2.9.3. rocedure or Lhe esLinaLion o narginal cosLs _______________________________64
2.10. C0hCLSJI0h C0SJS______________________________________________________64
2.10.1. Ceneral approach _______________________________________________________64
2.10.2. ValuaLion issues ________________________________________________________65
2.10.3. InLer-urban Lraic daLabase_______________________________________________67
2.10.4. brban CongesLion_______________________________________________________70
2.10.5. CosL AllocaLion _________________________________________________________70
3. kfSuLIS 2000: I0IAL Ah0 AvfkA6f f0SIS ______________________________ 11
3.1. 0VLPVILw: J0JAL Ah0 AVLPACL C0SJS 2000 _________________________________71
3.2. PLSbLJS 2000 LP C0SJ CAJLC0PY _________________________________________79
3.2.1. AccidenL CosLs _________________________________________________________79
3.2.2. hoise CosLs ____________________________________________________________81
3.2.3. Air olluLion CosLs ______________________________________________________82
3.2.4. ClinaLe Change CosLs ____________________________________________________83
3.2.5. CosLs or haLure and Landscape____________________________________________84
3.2.6. AddiLional cosLs in urban areas ____________________________________________84
3.2.7. bp- and downsLrean processes ____________________________________________85
3.2.8. CongesLion CosLs _______________________________________________________85
4. HAk6IhAL f0SIS Ih 0IfffkfhI IkAffIf SIIuAII0hS ______________________ 89
6j
4.1. 0VLPVILw: ACCPLCAJL0 PLSbLJS __________________________________________89
4.2. PLSbLJS 2000 LP C0SJ CAJLC0PY _________________________________________90
4.2.1. AccidenL CosLs _________________________________________________________90
4.2.2. hoise CosLs ____________________________________________________________93
4.2.3. Air olluLion CosLs _____________________________________________________100
4.2.4. ClinaLe Change CosLs ___________________________________________________100
4.2.5. CosLs or haLure and Landscape___________________________________________101
4.2.6. AddiLional cosLs in urban areas ___________________________________________102
4.2.7. bp- and downsLrean processes ___________________________________________103
4.2.8. CongesLion CosLs ______________________________________________________104
5. IhIfkPkfIAII0h 0f kfSuLIS Ah0 P0LIf f0hfLuSI0hS __________________ 101
5.1. C0HAPIS0h wIJ 1995 PLSbLJS _________________________________________107
5.2. 0LICY 0ISCbSSI0h ____________________________________________________110
5.2.1. InLernalisaLion sLraLegies________________________________________________110
5.2.2. InsLrunenLs __________________________________________________________112
5.2.3. Ieedback Lo Lb-olicy and HS-Approaches __________________________________114
5.2.4. roposal or an inLernalisaLion sLraLegy aL Luropean level ______________________116
AhhfX 1: 6fhfkAL IhPuI 0AIA______________________________________________ 118
0VLPVILw 0h 0AJA AVAILA8ILIJY________________________________________________118
0AJA AVAILA8ILIJY I0P h0h Lb C0bhJPILS _______________________________________119
S0CI0-LC0h0HIC 0AJA_________________________________________________________120
JPAIIIC V0LbHLS_____________________________________________________________122
LHISSI0hS __________________________________________________________________129
LHISSI0h IACJ0PS ____________________________________________________________133
ACCI0LhJS __________________________________________________________________134
h0ISL ____________________________________________________________________140
IhIPASJPbCJbPL _____________________________________________________________142
C0hCLSJI0h _________________________________________________________________145
AhhfX 2: HfH8fkS 0f Ihf A0vIS0k 80Ak0 __________________________________ 154
6L0SSAk ________________________________________________________________ 155
LIIfkAIukf_______________________________________________________________ 161

j1
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | SuHHAk
SuHHAk

AIH Ah0 HLJ000L0CY
ILis sLudy is an updaLe of a former IC sLudy on exLernal effecLs (IuIRASJIUU 2000). IL
aims aL improving LLe empirical basis of exLernal cosLs of LransporL based on LLe acLual
sLaLe of LLe arL of cosL esLimaLion meLLodologies reflecLing also recenL sLudies on exLernal
cosLs of LransporL on a uropean level (especially uII).
ILe following dimensions are considered:
CosL caLegories: AccidenLs, noise, air polluLion (LealLL, maLerial damages and biospLere),
climaLe cLange risks, cosLs for naLure and landscape, addiLional cosLs in urban areas, up-
and downsLream processes and congesLion.
CounLries: 17 ( member sLaLes, SwiLzerland, uorway).
Base year: PeLailed resulLs for 2000.
PifferenLiaLion by means of LransporL:
Road LransporL: PrivaLe car, moLorcycles, bus, ligLL goods veLicles, Leavy goods
veLicles,
Rail LransporL: Passenger and freigLL,
Air LransporL: Passenger and freigLL,
UaLerborne LransporL: Inland waLer LransporL (freigLL).
Iwo sLudy ouLpuLs can be disLinguisLed:
IoLal and average cosLs for 17 differenLiaLed by means of LransporL,
Harginal cosLs per means of LransporL and Lraffic siLuaLion reflecL LLe addiLional cosLs
per addiLional uniL of LransporL. ILey represenL a uropean average wLicL could be
used as basis for LLe dimensioning of pricing insLrumenLs according Lo LLe approacL
of Social Harginal CosL Pricing.

8j
ILe following Lable summarises LLe approacL wiLL respecL Lo IuIRASJIUU (2000)

SuHHAk 0f HfIh000L06 f0k fAfh f0SI f0HP0hfhI
fost component
( o LoLal cosLs)
Approach 0ata bas!s 0!fferences to the past
study
AccidenL cosLs
(24)
Sane approach as in
IhIPASJIww 2000
IPJA0, bIC, LbP0SJAJ
sLaLisLics
LsLinaLions based on Lhe
noniLoringJvicLins princi-
ple
hoise cosLs
(7)
Sane approach as in
IhIPASJIww 2000, in-
proved daLabase and
neLhodology or Cernany
as reerence counLry
LCHJ, 0LC0, SJAIPPS
(railway noise), b8A Cer-
nany
hew values or valuaLion
o norLaliLy inpacLs o
LransporL noise
Air polluLion
(27)
Sane approach as in
IhIPASJIww 2000
bpdaLed JPLh0S daLa or
enissions and Lraic
volunes, inproved enis-
sion acLors
Inproved daLa basis or
enissions, laLesL resulLs
or non exhausL enissions
o H10
ClinaLe change
(30, high sce-
nario)
Sane approach as in
IhIPASJIww 2000 (avoid-
ance cosLs)
JPLh0S daLa or enissions,
new shadow prices, Lwo
Scenarios: 20 (low) and
140 (high) per Lonne
C02
hew daLa on avoidance
cosLs and relaLed shadow
prices
CosLs or naLure
and landscape
(3)
Sane approach as in
IhIPASJIww 2000 (unseal-
ing, resLoraLion and rena-
LuraLion cosLs)
LbP0SJAJ, hew Swiss
sLudy on cosLs o naLure
and landscape (neLhodol-
ogy)
Very snall dierences
(nainly changes o Lrans-
porL inrasLrucLure neL-
work).
AddiLional cosLs in
urban areas
(2)
Sane approach as in
IhIPASJIww 2000
bp-Lo-daLe populaLion
daLa or ciLies and urban
areas
bp-Lo-daLe populaLion
igures or ciLies and urban
areas, adapLaLion o cosL
indicaLors according Lo
C0 per capiLa
bp- and down-
sLrean processes
(7)
Sane approach as in
IhIPASJIww 2000
LcoinvenL, LcoinvenLory
or Lhe LransporL secLor
bp-Lo-daLe lie cycle as-
sessnenL daLa based on
LcoinvenL 2003.
CongesLion cosLs
(separaLe cosL
caLegory)
Sane approach as in
IhIPASJIww 2000
Luropean JransporL Hodel
VACLAV
bse o a new Lraic daLa
base which is consisLenL
or all counLries
IabIe 1 Penark: Jhe percenLages relecL Lhe share o LoLal cosLs excluding congesLion cosLs.

As sLown in Iable 1 we use a similar meLLodological approacL Lo LLe pasL sLudy Iu-
IRASJIUU (2000) for LLis updaLe sLudy. ILe main reason for LLis updaLing procedure is Lo
allow comparabiliLy beLween boLL sLudies. ILe meLLodology will be applied on significanLly
improved and updaLed daLa seLs of mosL inpuL parameLers (e.g. Lraffic volumes, emission
daLa, dose-response funcLions, eLc.).

10j
I0IAL f0SIS Ih 2000 8 f0SI fAIf60k & IkAhSP0kI H00f
[nillion LuroJyear|

koad

ka!I

Av!at!on
water-
borne

JoLal Car 8us HC L0V 0V ass.
LoLal
IreighL
LoLal
ass. IreighL ass. IreighL IreighL
AccidenLs 156'439 24 114'191 965 21'238 8'229 10'964136'394 19'194 262 0 590 0 0
hoise 45'644 7 19'220 510 1'804 7'613 11'264 21'533 18'877 1'354 782 2'903 195 0
Air ollu-
Lion
174'617 27 46'721 8'290 433 20'431 88'407 55'444108'838 2'351 2'096 3'875 360 1'652
ClinaLe
Change
igh
195'714 30 64'812 3'341 1'319 13'493 29'418 69'472 42'911 2'094 800 74'493 5'438 506
`~=
`~=
i=
NF
=
EOTDVRVF EQF= EVDORVF EQTTF ENUUFENDVOUF EQOMPF EVDVORF ESDNPMF=EOVVF ENNQF=ENMDSQOFETTTF ETOF
haLure &
Landscape
20'014 3 10'596 276 233 2'562 4'692 11'105 7'254 202 64 1'211 87 91
bp-J0own-
sLrean
2)

47'376 7 19'319 1'585 335 5'276 16'967 21'240 22'243 1'140 608 1'592 170 383
brban
LecLs
10'472 2 5'782 147 127 1'220 2'634 6'112 3'797 426 137 0 0 0
JoLal
Lb17
3)

650'275 100 280'640 15'114 25'491 58'824 164'346321'301223'114 7'828 4'487 84'664 6'250 2'632
IabIe 2 JoLal exLernal cosLs o LransporL in Lhe Lb17 counLries.
Penarks:
1) ClinaLe change cosLs or Lhe clinaLe change low scenario wiLh a shadow value o 20J L C0
2
(or inornaLion only,
values noL used Lo calculaLe LoLal cosLs).
2) ClinaLe change cosLs o up- and downsLrean processes are calculaLed wiLh Lhe shadow value o Lhe clinaLe change
high scenario (140JL C0
2
).
3) JoLal cosLs calculaLed wiLh Lhe clinaLe change high scenario.
j11
I0IAL fXIfkhAL f0SIS 2000 (LXCLb0IhC C0hCLSJI0h)
0
50'000
100'000
150'000
200'000
250'000
300'000
Car 8us HC L0V 0V Pail
ass.
Pail
IreighL
AviaLion
ass.
AviaLion
IreighL
waLer-
borne
Hill. per year
AccidenLs hoise
Air olluLion haLure & Landscape
brban LecLs bp- and 0ownsLrean rocesses
ClinaLe change low scenario ClinaLe change (dierence lowJhigh scenario)
INFRAS
15'000
25'000
59'000
164'000
8'000
4'000
85'000
6'000
3'000
281'000
f!gure 1 JoLal exLernal cosLs 2000 (Lb 17) by neans o LransporL and cosL caLegory. Poad LransporL is responsible or
84 o LoLal exLernal cosLs.
^~= are expressed in uro per 1'000 pkm and Lkm. UiLLin LLe passenger Lranspor-
LaLion secLor, passenger cars reacL 76 uro (LigL scenario). Railway cosLs amounL Lo 22.9
uro, wLicL is 3.3 Limes lower LLan cosLs for LLe road secLor. HosL imporLanL for LLe railway
secLor are LLe effecLs on air polluLion, climaLe cLange and noise. Ior LLe aviaLion secLor,
LLe predominanL cosL caLegory is climaLe cLange.
In LLe freigLL secLor, LLe average cosLs of air LransporL are significanLly LigLer LLan LLe
cosLs of all oLLer means of LransporL. ILis is especially due Lo LLe facL LLaL freigLL load (in
Lonnes) differs from mode Lo mode. Aeroplanes for example LransporL LigL qualiLy freigLL
of low specific weigLL. ILe cosLs for BPV (Leavy duLy veLicles) amounL Lo 71.2 uro per
1'000 Lkm, wLicL is 4 Limes LigLer LLan LLe cosL for railways (ClimaLe cLange LigL sce-
nario).

12j
AvfkA6f f0SIS Ih 2000 8 f0SI fAIf60k & IkAhSP0kI H00f
Average fost Passenger Average fost fre!ght
Poad Pail Poad Pail
Car 8us HC ass.
LoLal

Avia-
Lion
0ver-
all
L0V 0V JoLal
Avia-
Lion
waLer-
borne
0ver-
all

[Luro J 1000 pkn| [Luro J 1000 Lkn|
AccidenLs 30.9 2.4 188.6 32.4 0.8 0.4 22.3 35.0 4.8 7.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.5
hoise
1)
5.2 1.3 16.0 5.1 3.9 1.8 4.2 32.4 4.9 7.4 3.2 8.9 0.0 7.1
Air olluLion 12.7 20.7 3.8 13.2 6.9 2.4 10.0 86.9 38.3 42.8 8.3 15.6 14.1 38.5
ClinaLe
Change igh
17.6 8.3 11.7 16.5 6.2 46.2 23.7 57.4 12.8 16.9 3.2 235.7 4.3 16.9
`~=
`~=i
OF
=
EOKRF ENKOF ENKTF EOKQF EMKVF ESKSF EPKQF EUKOF ENKUF EOKQF EMKRF EPPKTF EMKSF EOKQF
haLure &
Landscape
2.9 0.7 2.1 2.6 0.6 0.8 2.0 10.9 2.0 2.9 0.3 3.8 0.8 2.6
bp-J0own-
sLrean
3)

5.2 3.9 3.0 5.0 3.4 1.0 3.9 22.4 7.4 8.8 2.4 7.4 3.3 8.0
brban LecLs 1.6 0.4 1.1 1.5 1.3 0.0 1.1 5.2 1.1 1.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 1.3
JoLal Lb 17
4)
76.0 37.7 226.3 76.4 22.9 52.5 67.2 250.2 71.2 87.8 17.9 271.3 22.5 80.9
IabIe 3 Average exLernal cosLs o LransporL in Lhe Lb17 counLries
Penarks:
1) Jhe nodal dierences in noise cosLs are direcLly relaLed Lo Lhe naLional noise exposure daLabases used and Lhus
nighL be subjecL Lo dierenL ways o noise exposure neasurenenL.
2) Average clinaLe change cosLs or Lhe low scenario (or inornaLion only, values noL used Lo calculaLe LoLal cosLs))
3) ClinaLe change cosLs o up- and downsLrean processes are calculaLed wiLh Lhe shadow value o Lhe 'ClinaLe Change
igh Scenario'
4) JoLal average cosLs calculaLed wiLh Lhe clinaLe change high scenario.
5) hoise cosLs or reighL Lrains nighL be under-esLinaLed as Lhe sinpliied Lraic allocaLion procedure applied did
allocaLe nosL reighL Lrains Lo dayLine Lraic.

j13
AvfkA6f fXIfkhAL f0SIS: PASSfh6fk 2000 (LXCLb0IhC C0hCLSJI0h)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
80
Car 8us Pail AviaLion
per 1000 pkn
AccidenLs hoise
bp- and 0ownsLrean rocesses brban LecLs
INFRAS
76.0
37.7
22.9
52.5
f!gure 2 Average exLernal cosLs 2000 (Lb 17) by neans o LransporL and cosL caLegory: assenger LransporL. Jhe high
value o clinaLe change cosLs in aviaLion is due Lo Lhe higher global warning eecL o aviaLion's C0
2
enissions aL high
alLiLude during lighL (acLor 2.5 used conpared Lo Lhe inpacLs o C0
2
enissions on Lhe earLh surace, based on ICC
1999).

14j
AvfkA6f fXIfkhAL f0SIS: fkfI6hI 2000 (LXCLb0IhC C0hCLSJI0h)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Poad IreighL Pail AviaLion waLerborne
per 1000 Lkn
AccidenLs hoise
INFRAS
87.8
17.9
271.3
22.5
f!gure 3 Average exLernal cosLs 2000 (Lb 17) by LransporL neans and cosL caLegory: IreighL LransporL. Jhe high value
o clinaLe change cosLs in aviaLion are due Lo Lhe higher global warning eecL o aviaLion's C0
2
enissions aL high
alLiLude during lighL (acLor 2.5 used conpared Lo Lhe inpacLs o C0
2
enissions on Lhe earLh surace, based on ICC
1999).
0eveIopment 1995-2000
IoLal cosLs increase in LLe period 1995-2000 by 12.1! (1995 values adjusLed Lo 2000
prices). ILe main reason for LLis developmenL are increasing Lraffic volumes wLicL lead Lo
LigLer green Louse gas emissions and LLus Lo increasing climaLe cLange risks (especially in
road passenger LransporL and air passenger LransporL). AnoLLer cosL caLegory wLicL sLows
increasing cosLs are air polluLion cosLs especially for road freigLL LransporL. AlLLougL PH10
exLausL emissions decrease significanLly due Lo improved engine LecLnologies and parLicle
filLers, non exLausL emissions increase more or less in line wiLL Lraffic volumes.

j15
f0HPAkIS0h: I0IAL fXIfkhAL f0SIS 1995 Ah0 2000 (LXCLb0IhC C0hCLSJI0h)
0
50'000
100'000
150'000
200'000
250'000
300'000
350'000
1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000
Hil. per year
AccidenLs hoise
bpsLrean rocesses brban eecLs
Poad ass. Poad IreighL Pail ass. Pail IreighL AviaLion ass. AviaLion IreighL
329'000
321'000
156'000
223'000
6'000 8'000
4'000 4'000
29'000
85'000
3'000
6'000
f!gure 4 Conparison wiLh Lhe LoLal exLernal cosLs beLween Lhe years 1995 and 2000 by LransporL neans and cosL caLe-
gory (1995 values aL 1995 prices, 2000 values aL 2000 prices).
16j
HAPCIhAL C0SJS
ILe following Lable sLows LLe values (LLe ranges respecLively) for all cosL caLegories. ILe
ranges are quiLe significanL, since differenL veLicle caLegories, counLries and Lraffic siLua-
Lions are considered.

A66kf6AIf0 kfSuLIS: HAk6IhAL f0SIS
J1000 pknJLkn
koad

ka!I

Av!at!on
wa-
ter-
borne
Car 8us HC L0V 0V ass. IreighL ass. IreighL IreighL
AccidenLs Harginal 10-90 1-7 36-629 10-110
0.7-
11.8
- - - - -
Average 30.9 2.4 188.6 35.01 4.75 0.74 - 0.37 - 0
hoise
1)
Harginal 0.07-13
0.05-
4.6
0.25-33 2.4-307 0.25-32
0.09-
1.6
0.06-
1.08
0.1-
4.0
0.3-
19
0
Average 5.2 1.3 16.0 32.4 4.9 3.9 3.2 1.8 8.9 0.00
Air olluLion Harginal
5.7-
44.9
12-18 3.2 15-100 33.5 5.1 7.4 0.2 1.8 8.8
(only healLh cosLs) Average 10.1 16.9 3.3 77.6 34.0 5.1 7.4 0.2 1.8 8.8
ClinaLe Change Harginal 1.7-27 0.7-9.5
1.7-
11.7
8.2-
57.4
1.8-
12.8
0.3-
7.1
0.4-
5.3
6.6-
46.2
33.7-
235.7
4.3
Average 17.6 8.3 11.7 57.4 12.8 5.9 3.2 46.2 235.7 4.3
haLure & Landscape Harginal 0-2.1 0-1.3 1.9 10.9 0.8
0.7-
1.2
0.1 1.1 6.5 0.8
Average 2.87 0.69 2.07 10.90 2.03 0.58 0.26 0.75 3.77 0.78
brban eecLs Harginal 1.1-9.6 0.1-2.2 0.7-7.1
3.0-
32.3
0.9-7.1 0 0 0 0 0
Average 1.6 0.4 1.1 5.2 1.1 1.3 0.5 0 0 0
bp- and down- Harginal 2.0-4.1 2.6-6.0 1.3-2.7
13.0-
23.4
3.6-7.4
0.9-
8.3
0.2-
1.7
0.8-
0.9
6.3-
8.1
0.8-
1.8
sLrean processes Average 5.2 3.95 2.98 22.44 7.36 3.22 2.44 0.99 7.38 3.27
IabIe 4 Harginal cosLs by cosL caLegory and LransporL nean (Lhe ranges relecL dierenL vehicle caLegories (peLrol,
diesel, elecLriciLy) and Lraic siLuaLions (urban, inLerurban). Ior urban eecLs ranges show dierenL narginal cosLs o
space availabiliLy and (low values) and separaLion cosLs (high values). Ior conparison average values as shown in
chapLer 3 are presenLed or each cosL caLegory.
Penarks:
1) Average and narginal noise cosLs are neasured by dierenL neLhods and Lhus are noL ully conparable. Jhe narginal
values are Lo be undersLood as ranges o usual cosLs. Considerably higher or lower values are possible in parLicular
cases.
If we compare average Lo marginal cosLs, LLe following general conclusions can be drawn:
ILe level of marginal and average cosL is comparable. Harginal cosLs are mucL more dif-
ferenLiaLed, since LLey relaLe Lo differenL Lraffic siLuaLions and Lypes of veLicles.
HosL imporLanL for LLe order of magniLude of marginal accidenL cosLs are LLe assumpLions
concerning LLe level of inLernalisaLion of LLe accidenL risk.
j11
Pue Lo LLeir decreasing cosL funcLion marginal noise cosLs fall below average cosLs for
medium Lo LigL Lraffic volumes. Bowever, in road and air Lraffic LLey may exceed average
cosLs since roads frequenLly lead LLrougL seLLlemenLs and LLe alLernaLion of Lraffic loads
over day vary considerably beLween LLe modes. ILe same Lolds for airporLs, wLere ap-
proacL paLLs ofLen lead direcLly over Lousing areas.
Ior air polluLion, average values are basically similar Lo marginal values due Lo linear dose
response funcLions and model calculaLions. ILere are big differences beLween differenL
veLicle caLegories.
Ior climaLe cLange, average cosLs are equal Lo marginal cosLs. ILe ranges sLem from dif-
ferenL veLicle caLegories. ILe same low-LigL assumpLions are applied.
Ior naLure and landscape, average cosLs are close Lo maximum marginal cosLs. ILis is
plausible since marginal cosLs are mosLly noL relevanL in LLe sLorL run.
Harginal cosLs of urban effecLs are generally LigLer LLan average cosLs. BoLL values
sLould be compared carefully since marginal cosLs are calculaLed using only urban Lraffic
volumes wLile average cosLs are calculaLed wiLL naLional Lraffic volumes. Harginal separa-
Lion cosLs are significanLly LigLer LLan marginal space availabiliLy cosLs.
Ior up- and downsLream processes marginal cosLs are mainly relaLed Lo precombusLion
processes. ILerefore marginal cosLs are generally lower LLan average cosLs wLicL include
as well veLicle and infrasLrucLure relaLed processes (producLion, mainLenance and disposal
of rolling sLock and infrasLrucLure). ILus average cosLs are close Lo long run marginal
cosLs.

C0hCLSJI0h C0SJS
q~== are defined according Lo economic welfare LLeory by LLe dead-
weigLL loss measure, wLicL represenLs LLe cosLs arising from an inefficienL use of LLe exisL-
ing infrasLrucLure. Ior LLe R-17 counLries, LoLal and average road congesLion cosLs, reve-
nues expecLed from LLeir inLernalisaLion via road pricing sysLems and an "engineering"
measure of addiLional Lime cosLs Lave been esLimaLed for LLe year 2000. Pue Lo LLe cLosen
welfare-economic approacL, congesLion cosLs by definiLion only appear for LransporL modes
wLere single users decide on LLe use LLey make of infrasLrucLure. ConsequenLly, rail and air
Lraffic are noL affecLed by LLis kind of congesLion. A comparison of LLe LLree congesLion-
relaLed approacLes is presenLed by LLe following figure.

18j
0fA0wfI6hI L0SS, fhAk6Ih6 kfvfhufS Ah0 0fLA f0SIS Ih k0A0 IkAhSP0kI 2000
0
50.000
100.000
150.000
200.000
250.000
A
U
S
T
R
I
A
B
E
L
G
I
U
M
D
E
N
M
A
R
K
F
I
N
L
A
N
D
F
R
A
N
C
E
G
E
R
M
A
N
Y
G
R
E
E
C
E
I
R
E
L
A
N
D
I
T
A
L
Y
L
U
X
E
M
B
O
U
R
G
N
E
T
H
E
R
L
A
N
D
S
N
O
R
W
A
Y
P
O
R
T
U
G
A
L
S
P
A
I
N
S
W
E
D
E
N
S
W
I
T
Z
E
R
L
A
N
D
U
N
I
T
E
D

K
I
N
G
D
O
M
M
i
l
l
i
o
n

E
u
r
o
Deadweight loss
Charging revenues
Delay costs

f!gure 5 Conparison o Lhe resulLs (2000) based on dierenL congesLion cosL esLinaLions.
ILe deadweigLL loss reflecLs LLe economic cosLs in relaLion Lo an opLimal Lraffic siLuaLion.
ILe cosLs are rougLly Lwice as LigL (63 billion uro) as LLe figure presenLed in LLe 2000
sLudy (33 billion uro). ILe reason for LLis drasLic increase is a meLLodological one, as
(1) LLe neLworks of LLe VACIAV Lraffic model are more dense LLan LLe ones used in LLe
2000 sLudy and
(2) Iraffic volumes, wLicL are noL considered by LLe VACIAV model, Lad been included
Lere.
ILe Lwo oLLer approacLes sLow LLe following resulLs for 2000:
Revenues from opLimal congesLion pricing amounL Lo 753 billion uros (8.4! of 0PP).
AddiLional Lime cosLs amounL Lo 268 billion uro (3.0! of 0PP).

AlLLougL road freigLL LransporL accounLs only for around 20! of Lraffic demand, iLs con-
gesLion cosLs are close Lo LLose of passenger veLicles. ILis facL can be explained by LLe
comparably LigL use of road capaciLy by freigLL veLicles.
ILe cLarging revenues are LLe amounL of money Lo be moved in order Lo remove LLe
deadweigLL loss. In LoLal across all counLries LLey are rougLly 12 Limes LigLer as LLe dead-
j19
weigLL loss iLself, wLicL implies, LLaL LLe LransacLion cosLs associaLed wiLL cLarge collec-
Lion are in LLe same order of magniLude as LLe expecLed social surplus. ILe delay cosL
measure is presenLed due Lo iLs simple definiLion and iLs comparabiliLy beLween road and
public LransporL, buL iL does noL reflecL an economic measure.
Average exLernal congesLion cosLs in passenger LransporL are 56! LigLer LLan in LLe
previous sLudy. Besides LLe increase of LransporL volumes on LLe uropean road neLwork
beLween 1995 and 2000, LLis developmenL is driven by LLe improved represenLaLion of ur-
ban Lraffic condiLions and by LLe more deLailed encoding of LLe inLer-urban road neLworks
wiLLin LLe VACIAV LransporL model.
In general LLe average cosL resulLs draw a realisLic picLure of LLe uropean road neL-
work condiLions, wLere areas along LLe "Blue Banana" (souLLern ngland, LLe Benelux
counLries, 0ermany Lo norLLern ILaly) sLow comparably LigL average cosL resulLs.

IhJLPhALISAJI0h 0LICY
In order Lo inLernalise exLernal cosLs properly, imbedded in a wider concepL of susLainable
LransporL, LLe following acLion lines are mosL imporLanL:
A Lm-dependenL BPV Lax in overall urope wLicL considers noL only accidenL cosLs, buL
also environmenLal cosLs like air polluLion, climaLe cLange and noise. Possible Lax levels
are according Lo average sLown in LLis reporL. IL is appropriaLe Lo apply sucL scLemes noL
only for moLorways.
ILe inLroducLion of road pricing scLemes for passenger cars, primarily in urban areas, Lo
consider capaciLy problems. An addiLional differenLiaLion according Lo environmenLal cri-
Leria (e.g. air polluLion) is appropriaLe.
A fuel price scenario in urope for all means of LransporL in order Lo meeL LLe aims of a
long Lerm climaLe sLraLegy, LLe raLes of LLe respecLive C02-Lax sLould be in line wiLL LLe
proposed sLadow prices (aL minimum 20 uro per Lonne of C02 relaLed Lo LLe LyoLo Lar-
geLs). HosL imporLanL is LLe inclusion of inLernaLional air LransporL, in order Lo reduce Lax
disLorLions beLween LransporL modes.
AddiLional measures in road LransporL in order Lo increase effecLiveness, sucL as Li-LecL-
road managemenL and inLermodal informaLion sysLems, sucL as improved liabiliLy sysLems
and environmenLally friendly and safe driving sLyles, supporLed by Lraffic calming meas-
ures (incl. speed limiLs).
20j
ILe applicaLion of rail Lrack pricing sysLems considering exLernal cosLs according Lo
PirecLive 2001J14.
Hore empLasis of LLe railways Lo speed up LecLnical progress in improving environmenLal
performance, sucL as wagon break improvemenLs (see IC uoise AcLion Plan) and energy
efficiency (see IC Piesel AcLion Plan, use of susLainable energy sources).

ILese mosL imporLanL inLernalisaLion insLrumenLs sLould be underlined wiLL a compreLen-
sive mulLimodal sLraLegy wiLL LLe following core elemenLs:
HulLimodal financial funds, financed (aL leasL parLly) by exLernaliLy cLarges from LLe road
secLor. ILese funds secure LLe necessary financial means for LLe modernisaLion of LLe
railways. In order Lo allocaLe LLese financial means properly, LLe socio-economic reLurn of
LLe invesLmenLs sLould be a major criLeria and LransparenL budgeLary rules of LLe fund
adminisLraLion are necessary.
A prioriLy Lo inLernalise exLernal accidenL and environmenLal cosLs in LLese secLors (road
and air LransporL) firsL, because LLese cosL caLegories are responsible for large parLs of LLe
LoLal exLernal cosLs, in order Lo finance LLe proposed mulLimodal fund.

j21
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | IhIk00ufII0h
1. IhIk00ufII0h

1.1. JL JASK
ILe IC sLudy on exLernal cosLs of LransporL (IuIRASJIUU 2000) Las sLown quanLiLaLive
figures for 1995 (incl. rougL forecasL for 2010) for congesLion, accidenL and environ-
menLal cosLs of LransporL for all UesLern uropean counLries. ILe figures consider LoLal,
average and marginal cosLs for all modes of LransporL and specific Lraffic siLuaLions. ILis
sLudy was and sLill is an imporLanL basis for LLe deLerminaLion of LLe level and sLrucLure
of exLernal cosLs of LransporL aL LLe uropean level. IL was used as a reference also in LLe
ULiLe Paper on Common IransporL Policy 2010.
In LLe mean Lime LLe approacL of exLernal cosLs and respecLive inLernalisaLion poli-
cies Las been furLLer developed, as well aL LLe scienLific and LLe policy level.
ILe new drafL Road PirecLive for BPV of LLe -Commission (adjusLmenL of PirecLive
1999J62) wanLs Lo consider parLs of exLernal cosLs, sucL as accidenLs.
ILe firsL -Rail Package (especially -PirecLive 2001J14) considers LLe approacL of
marginal cosL pricing for Lrack cLarging.
ILe -Commission is sLudying aL LLe momenL new pricing scLemes for air Lraffic man-
agemenL cLarges.
ILe approacL of LLe IuIRAS-IUU sLudy was used Lo esLimaLe exLernal cosL figures for
asLern uropean counLries, commissioned by 0CP and CI (0CP 2003)
UiLLin LLe 5
LL
Iramework ResearcL Programme, several projecLs presenL furLLer
meLLods and resulLs for exLernal cosLs figures. HosL imporLanL is RC0RP-II (corridor es-
LimaLes) and uII. uII Las finisLed by end of 2003. ILis projecL Las elaboraLed fig-
ures for marginal cosLs and LoLal cosL accounLs (-counLries and SwiLzerland 1996, 1998
and 2005). AlLLougL LLe focus is very similar Lo LLe aim of LLe IC-sLudy carried ouL by
IuIRAS-IUU, LLe meLLods and approacLes are parLly differenL. Based on a raLLer cau-
Lious scienLific approacL, LLe level of quanLiLaLive resulLs of uII is lower LLan LLe
level presenLed by IuIRAS-IUU.

ILis background makes iL necessary for an updaLed posiLion of LLe railways for LLe fuLure
discussion of exLernal cosLs and LLeir inLernalisaLion in LLe LransporL secLor. A new up-
daLe sLudy sLall provide up-Lo-daLe resulLs for LoLal, average and marginal exLernal cosLs
for LLe year 2000, considering LLe new evidence of -researcL.
22j
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | IhIk00ufII0h
1.2. SJPbCJbPL 0I JL PL0PJ
ILis reporL presenLs in a firsL parL (cLapLer 2) LLe basic meLLodological approacL for LLe
updaLe by reviewing LLe meLLodology used in LLe pasL IuIRASJIUU reporL in a criLical
manner, especially by considering LLe new resulLs of uII. ILe meLLodology is primarily
focussed on LLe esLimaLion of LoLal and average cosL per means of LransporL. ILis parL is
sLrucLured along eacL cosL componenL.

CLapLer 3 presenLs LLe resulLs for LoLal and average cosL 2000 for eacL cosL componenL
and counLry. ILere is an inLerpreLaLion in relaLion Lo LLe previous IuIRASJIUU sLudy.

CLapLer 4 presenLs LLe resulLs for marginal cosLs and compares LLe resulLs wiLL oLLer
sLudies (esp. uII).

CLapLer 5 presenLs LLe comparison wiLL 1995 figures and draws conclusions on policy im-
plicaLion. ILis cLapLer refers Lo previous work done by IC (IuIRAS 1998) on inLernalisa-
Lion insLrumenLs.

ILe Annex is presenLing inpuL figures and furLLer deLails on calculaLion meLLods.
j23
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | uP0AIf HfIh000L06
2. uP0AIf HfIh000L06
2.1. CLhLPAL HLJ000L0CICAL ISSbLS
2.1.1. 0VLPVILw 0I C0SJS C0hSI0LPL0
0verv!ew of costs cons!dered
ILe following Lable gives an overview of LLe cosL componenLs considered in LLis sLudy:

0vfkvIfw 0f fXIfkhAL f0SIS 8fIh6 f0hSI0fkf0
Iype of effect fost components Hethod Leverage po!nts
and var!ab!I!ty
Iype of fxternaI!ty
AccidenLs AddiLional cosLs o
- nedical care
- econonic producLion
losses
- suering and grie
Jhe value o hunan
lie is esLinaLed using
sLudies or willingness
Lo pay Lo reduce acci-
denL risks.
0epending on di-
erenL acLors (parLly
on vkn).
arLly exLernal (parL
which is noL covered
by individual insur-
ance), especially
opporLuniLy cosL and
suering and grie.
hoise 0anages (opporLuniLy
cosLs o land value)
and hunan healLh.
wJ approach or
disLurbed persons,
nedical cosLs and risk
value due Lo LransporL
noise
0epending on Lraic
volune and envi-
ronnenLal perorn-
ance.
Iully exLernal
Air polluLion 0anages (opporLuniLy
cosLs) o
- hunan healLh
- naLerialJbuildings
- crop losses
H10 dose response
uncLions are Lhe basis
or Lhe repair and
danage cosLs.
0epending on vkn,
energy consunpLion
and environnenLal
perornance.
Iully exLernal.
ClinaLe change 0anages (opporLuniLy
cosLs) o global warn-
ing.
Avoidance cosLs (2
scenarios) Lo reach
KyoLo LargeLs per
counLry or Lo reach
long Lern reducLion
LargeLs
0epending on con-
sunpLion o ossil
uels.
Iully exLernal.
haLure and land-
scape, ground
sealing
AddiLional cosL Lo
repair danages, con-
pensaLion cosLs.
CosLs are based on
uniL Lypes o repair
neasures, based on
space indicaLors.
Iixed cosLs Iully exLernal.
AddiLional cosLs in
urban areas (sepa-
raLion and space
scarciLy)
SeparaLion: Line
losses o pedesLrians
Space scarciLy: space
conpensaLion or bi-
cycles
CosL calculaLion based
on randon sanple
evaluaLion or dier-
enL ciLies in Lurope.
0epending on Lraic
volune
Iully exLernal.
bp- and down-
sLrean processes
AddiLional environ-
nenLal cosLs (clinaLe
change, air polluLion
and nuclear risks)
CalculaLion o Lhe
inpacL o addiLional
enissions conLribuLing
Lo air polluLion and
clinaLe change based
on Lie Cycle Analysis
daLa
Iixed cosLs (grey
energy o inrasLruc-
Lure and rolling
sLock)
Iully exLernal.
24j
0vfkvIfw 0f fXIfkhAL f0SIS 8fIh6 f0hSI0fkf0
Iype of effect fost components Hethod Leverage po!nts
and var!ab!I!ty
Iype of fxternaI!ty
CongesLion LxLernal addiLional
Line and operaLing
cosLs
Jine cosLs and addi-
Lional operaLing cosLs
o road users due Lo
congesLion
0epending on Lraic
anounL (nunber o
vehicles)
Average cosLs are
inLernal Lo Lhe
users. 0ierences
beLween narginal
and average cosLs
are exLernal cosLs.
IabIe 5 LxLernal cosLs caLegories wiLhin Lhis sLudy
2.1.2. 0AJA 8ASIS Ah0 C0bhJPY ALL0CAJI0h
harmon!sat!on of transport data
In order Lo base LLe calculaLion of exLernal cosLs for eacL counLry on consisLenL daLa,
comparable figures for Lraffic and LransporL volumes, emissions, eLc. are needed. ILere are
Lwo major sources for LLose daLa:
CounLry figures based on official naLional or uropean sLaLisLics (R0SIAI). AlLLougL
LLese are official figures, a comparison beLween differenL counLries is difficulL since LLe
elaboraLion of LLese figures usually follows differenL naLional meLLodologies and proce-
dures. AlLLougL LLe publicaLion 'nergy and IransporL in Iigures' (C 2001, C 2002)
covers all 15 counLries and someLimes even uorway and SwiLzerland, LLe main daLa
base for LransporL volumes are naLional sLaLisLics wLicL sLow comparable problems Lo
LLese described above.
SLandardised figures based on naLional performance figures like veLicle sLock eLc.
IRuPS1 provides deLailed LransporL daLa on a 15 level wLicL are considered Lo be
comparable beLween counLries and consisLenL even wiLL naLional sLaLisLics (values are
calibraLed Lo reliable naLional sLaLisLics). ILe IRuPS1 daLabase includes besides Lraffic
volumesJmileage daLa, LransporL daLa, loading facLors and emission daLa for LLe mosL
imporLanL greenLouse gases and polluLanLs.
t=~====~~===~=I=~==qobkap=~~J
~K Bowever for some LransporL means addiLional or differenL daLa sources were used Lo
improve LLe daLa siLuaLion. Ior a deLailed descripLion of LLe mosL imporLanL daLa sources
for eacL LransporL mean and cosL caLegory please refer Lo LLe Annex.
AIIocat!on of costs to countr!es
UiLL respecL Lo cosL allocaLion Lo differenL counLries a similar approacL as in LLe Iu-
IRASJIUU (2000) sLudy was cLosen. ILere are Lwo basic approacLes:
j25
Causer (naLionaliLy) perspecLive: all LransporL relaLed exLernaliLies caused by users of a
specific counLry are considered.
Sufferer (LerriLory) perspecLive: all LransporL relaLed exLernaliLies being caused in a spe-
cific counLry are considered.
Basically we will allocaLe exLernal cosLs from a LerriLory perspecLive. Bowever iL was noL
possible Lo be consisLenL for every inpuL daLa and cosL esLimaLion approacL. specially
inpuL figures for road LransporL are based on LLe naLionaliLy principle, because IRuPS1
daLa are derived from daLa on LLe naLional veLicle sLock wiLL addiLional assumpLion on
average yearly mileage and load facLors (Lo calculaLe pkm, Lkm). ILerefore an imporLanL
basic assumpLion Las Lo be made: xporL and imporL of mileage (and, as a resulL of emis-
sions) are balanced, e.g. if Swiss veLicles cause exLernaliLies in Irance iL is assumed LLaL
vice versa IrencL veLicles cause LLe same amounL of exLernal cosLs in SwiLzerland.

2.2. IHLICAJI0hS 0I PLCLhJ SJb0ILS 0h b0AJL HLJ000L-
0CY
RecenL sLudies on exLernal cosLs of LransporLs and LransporL accounLs sLow several differ-
ences in meLLodology, valuaLion and basic daLa. HosL differences in LLe resulLing cosL
figures could be Lraced back Lo LLese LLree influencing facLors. ILe mosL imporLanL sLud-
ies are LLe following:
uII: nificaLion of accounLs and marginal cosLs for IransporL fficiency
12

Swiss pdaLe SLudy on exLernal accidenL cosLs roadJrail (C0PIAu 2002)
Swiss pdaLe SLudy on exLernal air polluLion cosLs (IuIRASJHI0ISI 2003)
CHI (2003) sLaLes, LLose differences beLween sLudies can largely be explained by differ-
ences in 'sLaLisLics' (risk figures, Lraffic volumes, emission figures) and differences in nor-
maLive cLoices wiLL respecL Lo LransporL policy raLLer LLan Lo LransporL economics. SLeer
economic quesLions (valuaLion of polluLanLs eLc.) play only a minor role.

1 Jhere are oLher sLudies available like LxLernL, JPLhLh or PLC0P0IJ. Jhese sLudies are in general parL o Lhe bhIJL-
approach, since Lhe Leans were inLegraLed. Jhere are no urLher dierences in neLhodology Lo sLaLe. Jhereore we
renounce Lo do presenL a ull review o all individual reporLs.
2 InornaLion on Lhe 16 bhIJL 0eliverables and addiLional annex papers can be ound on Lhe bhIJL webpage:
hLLp:JJwww.iLs.leeds.ac.ukJprojecLsJuniLeJ
26j
2.2.1. bhIJL
HethodoIog!caI commons
uII is LLe firsL uropean wide sLudy wiLLin a researcL programme wLicL Las Lried
Lo esLimaLe LoLal, average and marginal cosLs for all means of LransporL. In general uII
Las followed LLe recommendaLions of LLe BigL Ievel 0roup. Besides some differences
Lo LLe meLLodology of IuIRASJIUU (2000), LLere are a loL of commons wLicL are impor-
LanL Lo raise credibiliLy of exLernal cosL esLimaLion.
uII Las used LLe same value of sLaLisLical life (Lo esLimaLe accidenL and LealLL cosLs)
of 1.5 million R0 (average) as IuIRASJIUU (2000). Pue Lo iLs sensibiliLy, LLis is very
imporLanL for LLe level of resulLs.
uII Las used LLe same procedure of value Lransfer and updaLe (according Lo 0PP
growLL) as IuIRASJIUU. BenefiL Lransfers beLween counLries are generally made in line
wiLL real 0PPs per capiLa, including a PurcLasing Power PariLy adjusLmenL (PPP).

HethodoIog!caI 0ev!at!ons
ILe main meLLodological deviaLions Lo LLe uII sLudy are LLe following:
PaLa basis: uII Las mainly used naLional sLaLisLics Lo esLimaLe differenL cosLs. ILese
deviaLe from uropean daLa like IRuPS for Lraffic and emission figures. ILus LLe com-
parabiliLy beLween counLries is resLricLed wiLLin uII.
AccidenL cosLs: sLare of exLernal cosLs of LoLal social accidenL cosLs: ILe uII approacL
is based on LLe assumpLion LLaL Lraffic parLicipanLs inLernalise LLe risk LLey impose
wLen enLering LLe Lraffic flow, buL LLey don'L inLernalise LLe risk LLey impose on oLLers.
Bence LLe exLernal parL is mucL smaller in uII LLan in LLe IC sLudy.
ClimaLe CLange: niL CosLs per Lonne C0
2
: ILe main differences Lo LLe IuIRASJIUU
(2000) sLudy are due Lo differenL avoidance cosL facLors per Lonne C0
2
. ILis cosL facLor is
LigLly dependenL on LLe objecLives for climaLe cLange policies and LLe measures wLicL
Lave Lo be Laken Lo reacL LLe greenLouse gas emission LargeLs. In LLe IuIRASJIUU
(2000) sLudy a raLLer LigL sLadow value (135 per Lonne C02) was cLosen wLicL aims Lo
reacL very ambiLious reducLion LargeLs (-50! beLween 1990-2030).
3
In addiLion, LLese
LargeLs Lave Lo be reacLed by Laking measures wiLLin LLe LransporL secLor. 0n LLe oLLer
Land LLe uII projecLs calculaLes wiLL a raLLer low value (20 per Lonne C02) wLicL is
based on less ambiLious LargeLs and full applicaLion of LLe flexible mecLanisms in LLe

3 IhIPASJIww has considered as well oLher avoidance scenarios wiLhin Lhe sensiLiviLy analysis. Jhe lowesL value corre-
sponds Lo Lhe bhIJL approach.
j21
LyoLo ProLocol (e.g. emission Lrading, JoinL ImplemenLaLion (JI) and Clean PevelopmenL
HecLanism (CPH).
Air polluLion: BoLLom up vs. Iop down approacLes: In uII LLe xLern Hodel was used
Lo calculaLe air polluLion cosLs. ILe main differences Lo previous sLudies on exLernal air
polluLion cosLs (see IuIRASJIUU 2000, HaibacL eL al. 1999, UB0 1999) can be explained
due Lo differenL dose-response-funcLions on LLe one Land and differenL emission figures
on LLe oLLer Land. In addiLion, a compleLely differenL procedure Lo esLimaLe LoLal cosLs
was used. ILe xLern Hodel is a boLLom-up 'impacL paLLway' approacL wLicL was used
Lo calculaLe LealLL cosLs in uII. Previous sLudies e.g. for SwiLzerland, AusLria and
Irance combined a Lop-down approacL based on measured PH10 polluLion daLa and a dif-
ferenLiaLed boLLom-up model wLicL quanLifies LLe individual LransporL relaLed popula-
Lion weigLLed PH10 exposure.

fonsequences for th!s update study
uII Las approved LLe valuaLion meLLodology of LLe BigL Ievel 0roup. ILe meLLod-
ology is focused basically on marginal cosL calculaLion. In addiLion uII Las used in gen-
eral a cauLious approacL based on solid scienLific resulLs. ILis leads Lo a sligLL bias for
underesLimaLion of exLernal cosLs, since LLe risk elemenL (and LLe problem LLaL some
cosLs cannoL be esLimaLed by solid meLLods) is an immanenL problem of exLernal cosL
analysis. ueverLLeless we Lave Lo consider and compare LLe mosL imporLanL differences
wiLLin eacL cosL componenL. ILis will lead Lo a differenLiaLion of LLe presenLaLion of re-
sulLs, considering upper and lower bounds.

2.2.2. SwISS b0AJL SJb0Y 0h LXJLPhAL ACCI0LhJ C0SJS
In 0cLober 2002 a new Swiss sLudy on exLernal accidenL cosLs for road and rail was pub-
lisLed, wLicL is basically an updaLe of a similar sLudy conducLed in 1995 wiLL LLe base
year 1993. ILe sLudy differs from LLe uII sLudy (Swiss PiloL AccounLs, uII 2002a) in
Lwo ways:
Causer perspecLive in LLe Swiss sLudy vs. vicLims perspecLive in uII: ILe vicLims
(moniLoring) perspecLive in uII is mainly applied due Lo daLa availabiliLy of moniLor-
ing daLa for mosL counLries raLLer LLan informaLion wLicL allow cosL allocaLion based on
LLe causer principle.
PisLincLion beLween inLernal and exLernal cosLs wiLL regard Lo LLe risk value: ULile
uII Lakes LLe perspecLive of LLe LransporL sysLem wLicL implies LLaL exLernal cosLs
28j
occur only if accidenL cosLs are noL covered compleLely by parLicipanLs of LLe LransporL
sysLem (e.g. subsidisaLion of LospiLal cosLs ouL of LLe public budgeL). All oLLer cosLs as
well as cosLs wLicL arise wiLL LLe accidenL vicLim are considered Lo be inLernal. In con-
LrasL in LLe perspecLive of LLe individual LransporL user exLernal cosLs occur if LLe acci-
denL causer covers noL all cosLs.
ILis approacL is in line wiLL LLe meLLodology used in IuIRASJIUU 2000 and demon-
sLraLes LLe differenL views of inLerpreLing accidenL exLernaliLies.

2.2.3. SwISS b0AJL SJb0Y 0h LXJLPhAL AIP 0LLbJI0h C0SJS
CurrenLly a new sLudy on exLernal air polluLion LealLL cosLs for SwiLzerland is in prepara-
Lion (by C0PIAuJIuIRAS). Basically, LLe UB0 1998 (UB0 1999a-d) is updaLed wiLL mosL
recenL emission daLa, a new dispersion model, new populaLion daLa and updaLed dose-
response funcLions. So far, a firsL inLermediaLe reporL on populaLion's exposure Lo PH10
was publisLed (IuIRASJHI0ISI 2003). ILis reporL covers LLe calculaLion of a popula-
Lion weigLLed exposure of PH10. So far, LLe UB0 (1998a) based dose-response funcLions
were used Lo esLimaLe air polluLion cosLs. IL is mosL likely LLaL LLe final resulLs are signifi-
canLly LigLer LLan LLe xLern-based figures of uII, since PH10 exposure is mucL
LigLer. ILe Swiss updaLe sLudy supporLs LLe approacL cLosen in IuIRASJIUU (2000).

AL LLe same Lime a sLudy Lo updaLe building damages is in progress (carried ouL by Iu-
IRAS). ILis sLudy analyses new empirical evidence of LLe influence of air polluLanLs on
building mainLaining beLaviour, esp. PH10. ILe sLudy will be finisLed by springLime 2004.
RecenL inLerim resulLs demonsLraLe LLaL damage cosLs will be lower LLan sLown in previ-
ous sLudies. AL LLe same Lime LLe cosLs are significanLly LigLer LLan compuLed by LLe
xLern model.

2.3. ACCI0LhJ C0SJS
ILe meLLodological approacL for LLe calculaLion of accidenL cosLs is mainly based on LLe
IuIRASJIUU (2000) sLudy. Bowever, recenL sLudies wiLLin uII sLow - as explained
above - several deviaLions wiLL respecL Lo LLe inLernal and exLernal parL of LLe risk value.
In LLis conLexL LLe perspecLive Laken is decisive on LLe sLare of inLernal and exLernal parL
of social accidenL cosLs. Irom LLe perspecLive of LLe LransporL caLegory (i.e. roadJrail) or
LLe LransporL sysLem exLernal cosLs only occur wLen social cosLs are noL covered wiLLin a
specific LransporL caLegory or LLe LransporL sysLem respecLively. Irom LLe perspecLive of
j29
LLe individual Lraffic parLicipanL exLernal cosLs occur wLen LLe causer of an accidenL does
noL cover LLe cosLs of an accidenL compleLely. In LLis case iL doesn'L make any difference
wLeLLer LLe cosLs LLereby incurred Lave Lo be covered by LLe noL guilLy vicLim of an acci-
denL, LLe general public or anoLLer LransporL caLegory.

2.3.1. P0CL0bPL 0I C0SJ LSJIHAJI0h
Ue use for LLis updaLe sLudy LLe same approacL as used in LLe previous sLudy. ILe follow-
ing cosL componenLs Lave Lo be considered Lo calculaLe social accidenL cosLs.

fXIfkhAL AffI0fhI f0SI f0HP0hfhIS
fffect fataI!t!es Injur!es
Pisk Value Loss o uLiliLy o Lhe vicLin, suering
o riends and relaLives
ain and suering o vicLins, riends and
relaLives
unan CapiLal Losses heL producLion losses due Lo reduced working Line, PeplacenenL cosLs
Hedical Care LxLernal cosLs or nedical care beore
Lhe vicLin deceased
LxLernal cosLs or nedical care unLil Lhe
person conpleLely recovers ron hisJher
injury
AdninisLraLive cosLs CosLs or police, or Lhe adninisLraLion o jusLice and insurance, which are noL
carried by Lhe LransporL users.
0anage Lo properLy hoL included because naLerial danages are paid by Lhe Lraic-parLicipanLs
Lhrough insurance preniuns.
IabIe 6
30j
HfIh000L06

Number of casualties
Fatalities
Severe Injuries
Slight injuries
Social Costs per casualty
Risk Value
Human Capital Losses
Medical Care
Administrative costs
Deduction of transfers from liability
insurance systems and
gratification payments
Allocation of total costs to the modes
Total external accident costs
Average costs per pkm and tkm by mode

f!gure 6
In a firsL sLep, LLe cosL componenLs per casualLy are added in order Lo esLimaLe social
accidenL cosLs. xLernal cosLs are LLen compuLed by subLracLing Lransfers from liabiliLy
insurance sysLems and graLificaLion paymenLs. ILe resulLing exLernal cosLs per casualLy
are mulLiplied wiLL LLe number of faLaliLies and injuries.
ILe allocaLion of exLernal cosLs Lo differenL veLicle caLegories depends on LLe avail-
able daLa. ILe IRIAP (2003) daLabase reporLs accidenL faLaliLies and severe injuries (inju-
ries wLicL make LospiLalisaLion of LLe vicLim necessary) from a vicLim's perspecLive. ILis
means LLaL no informaLion on LLe causer of any accidenL is available in LLe daLabase. A
deLailed analysis of 0erman accidenL daLa was LLerefore used Lo allocaLe exLernal cosL Lo
differenL road veLicle caLegories.

2.3.2. PISK VALbL
k!sk vaIue for fataI!t!es
AccidenLs are noL only LLe cause of pain and suffering, buL ofLen sLorLen LLe lifeLime of
LLeir vicLims. ILis clearly is a loss of welfare, wLicL can be regarded as exLernal cosLs LLaL
j31
Lave Lo be quanLified in moneLary Lerms. ILe Risk Value Lries Lo esLimaLe moneLary values
for pain, grief and suffering on an average LransporL accidenL. 0fLen iL is argued (see
uII) LLaL aL leasL a sLare of LLe Risk Value is inLernal because LLe Lraveller makes a
decision Lo make a Lrip or noL and in addiLion Las LLe cLoice abouL Lis mode of LransporL.
IL can be replied Lowever LLaL accidenL risks are very small and LLerefore an adequaLe risk
percepLion leading Lo a raLional modal cLoice is very difficulL if noL impossible. As a con-
sequence LLis sLudy will regard LLe enLire Risk Value as an exLernal cosL parL.
As in uII (see uellLLorp eL al. 2001) and LLe previous sLudy on exLernal cosLs of
LransporL (IuIRASJIUU 2000) we suggesL for LLe Value of SLaLisLical Iife (VSI) an amounL
of 1.5 million. A deLailed discussion on LLe VSI and deduced values can be found in LLe
boLL above menLioned sLudies. ILe Risk Value for accidenLs is used as well Lo esLimaLe
LealLL cosL for noise and air polluLion effecLs. Pue Lo LLe facL LLaL LLe cLosen VSI corre-
sponds Lo an average value of many differenL UIP sLudies, an adjusLmenL for LLe year
2000 is noL necessary or would sLow pseudo accuracy.
ILe VSI will be adjusLed Lo LLe counLries according Lo 0PP per capiLa.

k!sk vaIue for !njur!es
ILe Risk Value for injuries is esLimaLed as a sLare of LLe Risk Value for faLaliLies. ILe raLes
of LLe IuIRASJIUU (2000) sLudy will be used due Lo daLa availabiliLy of accidenL daLa (no
separaLion beLween severe permanenL injury and severe permanenL injury possible). In
addiLion, LLe applicaLion of LLe same sLares improves comparabiliLy beLween LLe former
sLudy and LLis updaLe sLudy.
ILe following Iable 7 gives an overview on LLe risk values used in LLis sLudy:

kISk vALuf Pfk fASuALI
Ih 1'000
fataI!t!es Injur!es
Severe Injur!es SI!ght Injur!es
Pisk Value 1'500 200 15
IabIe 1 Source: IhIPASJIww 2000
2.3.3. bHAh CAIJAL C0SJS
AccidenL faLaliLies of injuries enLail some reducLion in LLe fuLure social producL of an
economy. ILe producLion loss in LLis sLudy will be calculaLed according Lo LLe uII
meLLodology as ueL ProducLion Ioss: gross producLion loss - fuLure consumpLion.
32j
PaLa for LLe neL producLion loss will be derived from up-Lo-daLe R0SIAI daLa.

2.3.4. 0JLP LXJLPhAL C0SJS
ILe remaining exLernal cosLs for medical care, replacemenL cosLs and adminisLraLive cosLs
(police, jusLice, public adminisLraLion) Lave been analysed for almosL all 17 counLries in
LLe uII projecL as well as in LLe new Swiss sLudy on exLernal accidenL cosLs (C0PIAu
2002). Ior eacL counLry a besL guess will be used. ILe adequaLe daLa from IuIRASJIUU
and C0PIAu (2002) will be adjusLed according Lo 0PP growLL.

2.3.5. IhJLPhALISL0 S0CIAL C0SJS
Ue will base our approacL on LLe previous approacL and C0PIAu (2002). ILus LLe VSI
will be used as well for self made accidenLs.
In addiLion ofLen accidenL vicLims receive graLificaLion paymenL or Lransfers from
liabiliLy insurance of LLe parLy responsible. ILese Lransfers can be regarded as social cosLs
LLaL Lave been already inLernalised and LLus Lave Lo be subLracLed from LoLal exLernal
cosLs.

2.3.6. 0AJA ISSbLS
0ata source
ILe inLernaLional road Iraffic and AccidenL PaLabase (IRIAP 2003) is LLe main daLa source
for road Lraffic accidenLs. ILe Lerm 'LospiLalised' defined by IRIAP for 'non-faLal accidenL
vicLims admiLLed Lo LospiLal as paLienLs' (IRIAP 2003) is used as LLe daLa for severe inju-
ries. nreporLed casualLies are esLimaLed according Lo IRIAP assessmenLs (sLares of non
reporLed accidenLs remain LLe same LLan in LLe lasL sLudy). Hissing values for 2000 in LLe
IRIAP (2003) daLabase especially for severe injuries will be esLimaLed wiLL average values
of LLose counLries in LLe IRIAP daLabase, wLere values are available. Also naLional sLaLis-
Lic will be considered.

ka!I Acc!dents
Since annual rail accidenLs vary considerably, LLe number of casualLies is esLimaLed by
calculaLing LLe average of LLe years 1994-2000. ILe main daLabase is LLe deLailed IC
sLaLisLics. AccidenL aL railway crossings wLicL are - based on a deLailed analysis in 0er-
many - mainly caused by road users will be regarded as road accidenLs. Suicides are noL
considered.
j33
Concerning injuries, no differenLiaLed daLa for sligLL and severe injuries for rail Lrans-
porL were available. IL was assumed LLaL 25! of all rail injuries are severe injuries.
A!r transport acc!dents
AccidenL daLa are Laken ouL from LLe ICA0 sLaLisLics and represenLs an average accidenL
raLe for scLeduled air LransporL of uropean and uorLL American CounLries (scLeduled
services). AccidenL raLes Lave LLe dimension 'faLaliLiesJpkm'. IaLaliLies per counLry will be
calculaLed by mulLiplying LLe accidenL raLe wiLL LLe respecLive LransporL volume in air
passenger LransporL of eacL counLry. uo Injures will be included (due Lo LLe lack of daLa).

2.3.7. HAPCIhAL ACCI0LhJ C0SJS
ILe LLeory on marginal exLernal accidenL cosLs is new and Las been developed during LLe
lasL few years. ILe empirical knowledge on marginal accidenL cosLs is LLerefore quiLe poor.
Harginal accidenL cosLs are LLese cosLs induced by an addiLional veLicle using LLe
road neLwork, wLicL migLL cause posiLive or negaLive effecLs. IL is possible LLaL:
drivers are disLurbed by LLe growing Lraffic and LLerefore LLe number of accidenLs in-
creases more LLan proporLional, or
LLaL average speed slows down wiLL increasing Lraffic and LLus LLe number of accidenLs
increases slower LLan Lraffic volumes, or
a sLifL from severe Lo sligLL accidenLs occurs wiLL slower average Lraffic speeds on con-
gesLed roads.
0verall decreasing accidenL raLes could be observed in urope during LLe pasL 5 years. ILis
migLL imply LLaL marginal accidenL cosLs are decreasing in LLe same period. Bowever, in
LLe lasL decade new securiLy relevanL LecLnological improvemenLs sucL as anLilock brak-
ing sysLems or airbags Lave become were popular in new cars. ILerefore iL is difficulL Lo
separaLe LLe effecL of improved safeLy LecLnology and LLe effecL of increasing Lraffic vol-
umes on accidenL raLes and safeLy on roads. Ior a deLailed discussion please refer Lo LLe
previous sLudy (IuIRASJIUU 2000).
In LLis updaLe sLudy average accidenL cosLs will be calculaLed. ILe discussion in LLe
previous sLudy sLowed LLaL for medium Lraffic volumes marginal exLernal accidenL cosLs
are sligLLly lower or equal LLan average exLernal accidenL cosLs. 0LLer sLudies for moLor-
ways and inLer-urban roads resulL in marginal cosLs wLicL are sligLLly lower LLan average
cosLs. ILis implies LLaL an addiLional veLicle reduces speed and LLus accidenL probabiliLies
and severiLies.
34j
In a second sLep we will presenL resulLs of several uII case sLudies on marginal ac-
cidenL cosLs in urope.

2.4. h0ISL C0SJS
Compared Lo LLe IuIRASJIUU exLernal cosL sLudy 2000, LLe meLLodology for LLe esLima-
Lion of cosLs of LransporL noise will generally remain uncLanged in LLe presenL updaLe-
sLudy. Bowever, LLe daLabase on inLabiLanLs disLurbed by LransporL noise used in LLe
previous sLudy, wLicL was derived from 0CP daLa of LLe year 1991, is improved subsLan-
Lially by new sLaLisLical informaLion in LLis updaLe sLudy. IurLLer, LLe cosL raLes, wLicL
are used for LLe assessmenL of LLe noise-exposed populaLion, are adjusLed Lo LLe year
2000. Horeover, LLe assessmenL meLLod was supplemenLed wiLL medical cosLs of diseases,
caused by Lrans-porL noise exposure. Iigure 7 gives an overview on LLe updaLed meLLod-
ology, wLicL will be applied. ILe LoLal exLernal noise cosLs are mainly based on LLree cosL
elemenLs:
ILe Uillingness Lo pay per person disLurbed by a cerLain noise exposure level,
ILe valuaLion of faLaliLies wiLL risk value and
Hedical cosL, wLicL can be due Lo Lraffic noise
IL is assumed LLaL LLe obviously subjecLive UIP values come up Lo LLe decrease in
properLy values, wLicL can be considered as a more objecLive measure of facLor cosLs.
ILus iL is well possible Lo sum up LLe UIP wiLL LLe medical cosL componenLs Lo geL LLe
LoLal exLernal cosLs of LransporL noise.

j35
fSIIHAII0h 0f fXIfkhAL h0ISf f0SIS
Number of
Cardiac
Infarctions
No. of persons disturbed >65 dB(A) by transport
Number of persons disturbed
by transport noise
WTP per disturbed person
Number of acute cardiac infarctions
due to transport noise
Total external noise costs
Valuation of fatalities with
Risk Value
Distribution to Modes
Average Costs per pkm, tkm
Average Costs per pkm, tkm
Medical costs due
to transport noise

f!gure 1 HeLhodology used or Lhe esLinaLion o exLernal noise cosLs.
Ior some uropean counLries recenL and comparable noise daLa is noL available. In LLese
cases LLe daLa used in LLe 2000 sLudy was also used Lere. Bereby, LLe assumpLion wLicL
was already Laken in LLe previous reporL, LLaL LLe increased noise emission of LLe growing
Lraffic volumes and LLe improvemenL of Lraffic abaLemenL measures equal ouL eacL oLLer
and LLus LLe number of inLabiLanLs exposed Lo LransporL noise remains more or less con-
sLanL in LLe firsL place. ILe used daLabase is documenLed in LLe Annex (page 140 ff.)

2.4.1. wILLIhChLSS J0 AY I0P h0ISL PL0bCJI0h
Iigure 8 gives an overview of LLe values found by empirical sLudies on LLe cosLs of Lrans-
porL noise in urope. As during LLe pasL five years no new sLudies on LLe appraisal of
LransporL noise emissions Lave been conducLed in urope, LLe assumpLions on LLe devel-
opmenL of LLe inLabiLanLs' willingness-Lo-pay (UIP) for reducLions in noise exposure re-
main uncLanged compared Lo LLe lasL sLudy.
Because absoluLe UIP values can Lardly be compared across differenL counLries, LLe
daLa is seL in relaLion Lo LLe per capiLa income. ILe incremenLal increase of UIP per dB(A)
amounLs Lo 0.11! of per capiLa income. ILus, LLe crucial difference of LLe invesLigaLions
are noL LLe marginal cosLs per dB(A) increase, buL LLe LargeL levels assumed, i.e. LLe poinL
wLere LLe sLraigLL line crosses LLe x-axis. ILis sLudy (and also LLe IuIRASJIUU 2000
36j
sLudy) will apply again a cauLious approacL using 55 dB(A). ILe gradienL of LLe used
funcLion is nearly LLe same compared wiLL LLe funcLions, wLicL were found ouL by LLe
analysis of LLe oLLer sLudies (cp. Iigure 8).
ILe adopLed cosL raLes Lake inLo accounL LLe developmenL of 0PP per capiLa PPP
growLL raLes beLween LLe lasL sLudy (1995), wLere LLese raLes were used and LLe presenL
sLudy (2000). ILe updaLe facLors beLween 1995 and 1999 were Laken from LLe uII pro-
jecL, wLile, due Lo missing daLa, iL was assumed LLaL LLe annual grow raLe of 0PP per cap-
iLa remained uncLanged in 2000.

wILLIh6hfSS-I0-PA f0k h0ISf kf0ufII0h AS ShAkf 0f Pfk fAPIIA Ihf0Hf.
0,0%
0,5%
1,0%
1,5%
2,0%
2,5%
3,0%
3,5%
4,0%
4,5%
50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75
dB(A)
Pommerehne 1986
Soguel 1994
Iten 1990
IRER 1993
Weinberger 1990
INFRAS/ IWW 2000 and
2003

f!gure 8 0evelopnenL o Lhe willingness Lo pay as a share o per capiLa incone versus Lhe dierenL noise classes in
dierenL Luropean sLudies.
According Lo LLe previous sLudy (IuIRASJ IUU 2000) LLe UIP for LLe uI (noise level) in
LLe reference counLry 0ermany will be calculaLed as follows (including LLe inflaLion raLes
beLween 1995 and 2000 coming from uII.

j31
UIP(uI) - 21.23 * uI - 1168
4

ILe following values wiLL reference Lo 0ermany are used and exLrapolaLed by PPS-adjusLed
naLional values of 0PP per capiLa according Lo Iable 44 in LLe annex for LLe oLLer uro-
pean counLries. As LLere is no evidence LLaL 0ermany Lakes a specific posiLion wiLLin LLe
uropean counLies concerning LLe sensiLiviLy of iLs populaLion, LLe 0erman evidence Las
been considered as uropean average.

kfffkfhff vALufS 6fkHAh
d8(A} 55-60 60-65 65-10 10-15 >15
Poad, Air 53 159 265 371 477
Pail 0 53 159 265 371
IabIe 8 Peerence values or Cernany per person aecLed in Luro per reduced d8(A).
Compared Lo LLe previous sLudy LLe reference noise cosLs per exposed person and year are
differenLiaLed by LransporL mode. In line wiLL LLe legislaLion on noise impacL in a number
of uropean counLries
5
and referring Lo various scienLific reporLs
6
, an adjusLmenL of 5
dB(A) is applied for railway noise by 'sLifLing' LLe noise cosLs by one class. Background for
LLe legislaLion is a differenL percepLion of railway noise compared Lo road noise.

2.4.2. VALbAJI0h 0I LALJ PISKS
Ior LLe valuaLion of LLe increased morbidiLy and morLaliLy caused by LransporL noise, iL is
imporLanL Lo deLermine LLe increased LealLL risk in a firsL sLep. ILe LealLL risk can be
analysed in LLe same way we Lave already done for LLe lasL sLudy. Ue will make LLe as-
sumpLion LLaL LLe cardiac infarcL risk was noL increased beLween LLis sLudy and LLe previ-
ous. ILe liLeraLure Lo wLicL our lasL sLudy referred is sLill up-Lo-daLe. Hore recenL sLudies
only confirmed LLe daLa, wLicL we Lave already quoLed (HascLke eL al. (1997), BabiscL eL
al. (1993)). IurLLer evidence can be drawn from a L sLudy for LransporL noise impacLs in
LLe 70-75 dB(A) class and above 75 dB(A), wLicL reveals an increasing risk of cardiac in-
farcLions by a sLeady exposure Lo LransporL noise above 75 dB(A). ILe resulLs of LLe sLud-
ies are lisLed in LLe following Lable:

4
Jhe calculaLion neLhodology or Lhe wJ in dependence ron Lhe regarded noise level can be dierenL depending on Lhe
used approach. Ior exanple Lhe Cernan 8Vw uses or Lhe calculaLion o Lhe wJ Lhe ollowing ornula: wJ(hL)-25*-
hL-125, based on (weinberger 1991).
5
L.g. 0ennark, Irance, Cernany, Lhe heLherlands, SwiLzerland.
6
0uoLed in Lhe previous sLudy (IhIPASJ Iww 2000).
38j

IhfkfASf0 kISk 0f fAk0IAf IhfAkfII0hS 0uf I0 IkAhSP0kI h0ISf
Source Locat!on 65-10 d8(A} 10-15 d8(A} 15-80 d8(A}
8abisch eL al 1993 Caerphilly, Speedwell 20 - -
8abisch eL al. 1994 8erlin - 20 70
Values used in Lhis sLudy 20 30
IabIe 9
ILe valuaLion of LLe morLaliLy, i.e. acuLe cardiac infarcLions, wLicL are caused by Lrans-
porL noise, is carried ouL wiLL LLe value of a Luman life: 1.5 million (cp. CLapLer 2.3 on
accidenLs).

2.4.3. HL0ICAL C0SJS
ILe valuaLion of morLaliLy impacLs, as described in LLe secLion above Lakes only inLo ac-
counL LLe socieLy's willingness Lo pay for prevenLing deceases or deaLL cases, buL noL LLe
direcL cosLs of medical care for LLe affecLed inLabiLanLs. ULile in LLe presenL case of noise
impacLs, LLese medical cosLs were unaccounLed in LLe lasL Lwo sLudies, LLe presenL sLudy
will Lake LLese cosLs also inLo accounL. A large number of diseases are caused by noise
above 65 dB(A). Pepending on LLe duraLion and inLensiLy of noise, noise can lead Lo a
mulLipliciLy of LealLL problems. ILese problems are for example:
ImpairmenL of LLe aural acuiLy.
uegaLive influence on LLe vegeLaLive nervous sysLem:
BigL blood pressure,
BearL cycle complainLs and
PisLurbance of LLe digesLing organs.
AggravaLion of risk for iscLemic LearL illnesses - compreLensive Lerm for disease pic-
Lures, wiLL wLicL LLe coronary sclerosis (lack blood circulaLion of arLeries) is predomi-
nanL LLe acLual disease cause, e.g.:
Angina pecLoris,
Cardiac infarcL,
LearLbeaL disLurbances and
sudden LearL deaLL (cp. ValuaLion of faLaliLies).
ILe inLerrelaLionsLip beLween Lraffic noise above 65 dB(A) and iscLemic LearL illnesses
can be proved sLaLisLically (cp. BA 2000). According Lo daLa of LLe 0erman Iederal nvi-
ron-menLal Agency iL is possible Lo aLLribuLe alLogeLLer LLree per cenL of all cardiac in-
j39
farcLs Lo noise disLurbance. In 0ermany 1800 faLaliLies (in LLe year 2000) can be aLLrib-
uLed Lo Lraffic noise (cp. BA2000).
AbouL 8 percenL (cp. H0SCA 2002) of all economic cosLs of LearL illness are caused by
LransporL noise. ILis 8!-value represenLs LLe sLare of LLe cosL of LLe cardiovascular dis-
eases, wLicL can be aLLribuLed Lo LLe road Lraffic noise sLarLing from 65 dB(A). In LLe
reference counLry 0ermany eacL person, wLo is exposed Lo a road Lraffic noise of over 65
dB(A) will be addiLionally assessed wiLL an amounL of 130 for medical cosLs.
ILis addiLional medical cosL facLor will be calculaLed for eacL counLry as follows:

) ( 65
08 , 0
A db
Med
Person
NoP
CHI
C
>
=

Med
Person
C
: Hedical cosL raLe per Person
CBI: IoLal economic cosL of LearL illness
uoP~65dB(A): uumber of Persons exposed Lo a noise level over 65 dB(A)

2.4.4. HAPCIhAL h0ISL C0SJS
Ior LLe calculaLion of marginal noise cosLs LLis sLudy uses LLe same meLLodology assump-
Lions, wLicL were already used in LLe previous sLudy.
0ne of LLe mosL decisive cLaracLerisLics of Lraffic noise concerning marginal cosLs is
LLe inLerdependency beLween LLe number of sound sources, LLe emiLLed sound energy, iLs
spaLial dispersion and iLs percepLion by LLe Luman ear. 0n LLe exposure side LLe number
of affecLed inLabiLanLs and LLeir sensiLiviLy Lowards noise disLurbance, deLermined by LLe
Lype of land use and LLe Lime of day, is of greaL imporLance. Pue Lo LLis greaL amounL of
influencing parameLers LLe applicaLion of sopLisLicaLed emission-dispersion models Lo
parLicular scenarios of Lraffic siLuaLions and seLLlemenL sLrucLures is required in order Lo
be able Lo presenL concreLe values of marginal noise cosLs.
ILe scenarios selecLed refer Lo LLree decisive cLaracLerisLics, wLicL are:
LLree differenL Lypes of land use (rural, suburban and urban),
Lwo Lime periods (day, nigLL) and
Lwo Lraffic condiLions (relaxed, dense).
ILe Lype of land use in combinaLion wiLL LLe Lime period deLermines LLe LargeL level
of accepLed noise exposure. ILe Lype of land use furLLer deLermines LLe seLLlemenL sLyle
40j
and densiLy, wLicL finally resulLs in LLe number of inLabiLanLs exposed Lo noise and LLeir
aver-age disLance Lo LLe noise source.
ILe following Lwo Lables sLow an overview abouL LLe pLysical and Lraffic parameLers,
wLicL are used for LLe esLimaLion of marginal noise cosLs.

PhSIfAL PAkAHfIfkS f0k Ihf fSIIHAII0h 0f HAk6IhAL h0ISf f0SIS
Land use kuraI Suburban urban
I!me zone 0ay h!ght 0ay h!ght 0ay h!ght
JargeL level in d8(A) 50 40 60 50 70 60
0isLance Lo road J rail 100 n 20 n 10 n
SeLLlenenL densiLy 10 50 80
InhabiLanLs per kilone- 500 500 2000
AecLed inhabiLanLs per 50 250 3000
IabIe 10 hysical paraneLers or Lhe esLinaLion o narginal noise cosLs
IkAffIf PAkAHfIfkS I0 fSIIHAIf HAk6IhAL h0ISf f0SIS
Iransport mode koad ka!I
Area kuraI Suburban urban kuraI Suburban urban
JargeL level in d8(A) 131 221 521 S PJ LP
0isLance Lo road J rail 2'400 1'200 800 60 60 20
SeLLlenenL densiLy 6'800 4'800 2'650 30 30 5
InhabiLanLs per kiloneLre in builL-up
areas
130 80 40 250 160 80
AecLed inhabiLanLs per kiloneLre
roadJrail Lrack
15 10 5 100 50 20
3.2 -5.0 -5.0 -5.0
IabIe 11 Jraic paraneLers Lo esLinaLe narginal noise cosLs

Harg!naI costs for av!at!on
Compared Lo LLe previous sLudy marginal cosLs of air LransporL are calculaLed on LLe basis
of LLe available road and railway noise emission models. ILe raLio beLween marginal and
average cosLs is esLimaLed Lo be rougLly 40!. As a range for LLe marginal noise cosLs of
air Lraffic a range beLween 30! and 60! of average cosLs are considered.

j41
2.5. AIP 0LLbJI0h C0SJS
2.5.1. VALbAJI0h 8ASIS
Air polluLion is responsible for differenL social and exLernal cosLs wLicL are relevanL Lo
consider. UiLLin LLis updaLe sLudy LLe following elemenLs are Laken inLo consideraLion:
ImpacLs on Luman LealLL,
impacLs on maLerials and buildings,
impacLs on crops and agriculLural producLion.
ILe mosL imporLanL new researcL sLudy in LLe field of air polluLion cosLs is LLe uII
projecL (meLLodology: uII 2000a). Based on an ImpacL PaLLway ApproacL (IPA) devel-
oped in LLe C funded xLern ProjecL series a boLLom up calculaLion of exLernal air pollu-
Lion cosLs was made. ILe sLudy sLows considerable differences Lo previous cosL esLima-
Lions, wLicL can be inLerpreLed for LLose counLries covered by oLLer sLudies (e.g. SwiLzer-
land). In uII 2002a (PiloL accounLs for SwiLzerland) LLese differences were explained by
Lwo main reasons:
PifferenL base years for cosL esLimaLions (IuIRASJIUU 2000: 1995, UB0 1999a-d: 1996,
uII 1998) and considerable differences in LLe underlying amounL of PH10 emiLLed.
ILe calculaLion of PH10 emissions was revised several Limes in LLe lasL years. 0ne of LLe
Lricky poinLs is Lereby air cLemisLry and LLe role of non-exLausL parLicles due Lo Lire
and brake abrasion, wLirling up of dusL, eLc. Bowever, improvemenLs in engine LecLnol-
ogy, LLe inLroducLion of parLicle filLers in Lrucks, public LransporL buses and recenLly in
passenger diesel cars led Lo a reducLion of PH10 emissions and will lead Lo furLLer reduc-
Lions in LLe fuLure. BuL LLis refers only Lo exLausL emissions. ILe oLLer emissions (even
more imporLanL emissions due Lo abrasion, rising of dusL eLc.) will more or less develop
in line wiLL Lraffic volumes.
0ne of LLe main reasons for differences in cosL esLimaLions in recenL years are LLerefore
differenL emission figures.
ILe second and even more imporLanL reason for differences are subsLanLial differences in
LLe dose-response funcLions used in LLe xLern model and applied in LLe UB0-SLudy.
ILe funcLions in LLe xLern model presume a mucL lower responsiveness of Luman
LealLL on exposure Lo air polluLanLs LLan LLose used in LLe UB0-SLudy. ILe differences
amounL Lo more LLan a facLor 3 (LLe dose-response funcLions for long-Lerm morLaliLy
sLows even LigLer deviaLions Lo LLe funcLion used in UB0 (1999) and LLe previous
sLudy). ILis facLor reveals considerable differences in LLe opinions of scienLisLs wiLL re-
gard Lo LLe LreaLmenL of long-Lerm morLaliLy.
42j
Bowever, iL Las Lo be sLaLed LLaL in uII LLe agreed meLLodology could noL be applied
for LLe compuLaLion of LealLL cosLs in every single counLry. ILis was mainly due Lo poor
daLa availabiliLy and differenLiaLion in some counLries. ILis problem was even bigger for
LLe calculaLion of air polluLion cosLs wiLL LLe xLern impacL paLLway approacL, because
level of deLail and acLualiLy of naLional emission invenLories varies considerably beLween
counLries. ULile e.g. for SwiLzerland a compleLe, LigLly dissolved LLree-dimensional link
model for LransporL relaLed emissions was available, oLLer counLries could only provide
LoLal figures of LransporL emissions for one year, wLicL were in addiLion based on rela-
Lively poor daLa.
As a consequence, LLe xLern impacL paLLway approacL was only applied in a simplified
way wiLLin uII. specially local impacLs wLicL are parLicularly imporLanL for effecLs
on Luman LealLL wLere calculaLed based on cosL facLors found in 0ermany ( per Lonne
PH10) and Lransferred Lo LLe oLLer counLries using LoLal emissions. Besides, LLe dissolu-
Lion of LLe regional model wiLL wLicL air cLemisLry relaLed polluLanLs (especially secon-
dary parLicles wLicL affecLs Luman LealLL) are esLimaLed is raLLer rougL (50x50 km)
compared Lo LLe UB0 sLudy (see UB0 1999a-d). ILis sLudy is LLe basis for LLe calcula-
Lion of air polluLion cosL in LLe previous IuIRASJIUU (2000) sLudy and used dissoluLion
of 1x1 km for LLe compuLaLion of populaLion exposure Lo LransporL relaLed PH10. ILe
currenLly ongoing updaLe sLudy Las an even LigLer disaggregaLed exposure model
(200x200 m) wLicL is able Lo Lake local effecLs accuraLely inLo consideraLion.
ILe Swiss updaLe sLudy on air polluLion cosLs (see IuIRASJHI0ISI 2003 for firsL re-
sulLs) will use recenL epidemiological sLudies (e.g. Pope eL al. 2002) for improved dose-
response funcLions. Piscussions wiLL LLe projecL Leam of LLe Swiss updaLe sLudy sLowed
LLaL LLe new sLudies used Lo calculaLe dose-response funcLions confirm raLLer LLe UB0
values (see UB0 1999b) LLan LLose used in LLe xLern projecL.
7

7 0ral InornaLion ron HarLin Psli, rojecL Leader Lpideniology o Lhe Swiss updaLe sLudy on air polluLion cosLs,
InsLiLuLe or Social and revenLive nedicine, bniversiLy 8asel, SwiLzerland ron SepLenber 18
Lh
, 2003.
j43
2.5.2. P0CL0bPL I0P C0SJ LSJIHAJI0h
As explained above LLere are Lwo main approacLes Lo calculaLe air polluLion cosLs:
1. q==~~ (used in UB0 1999, IuIRASJIUU 2000, IuIRASJ HI0-
ISI 2003): ILis Lop down approacL is based on uniL values excerpLed from
LLese sLudies and Lransferred (wiLL several indicaLors) Lo oLLer counLries.
2. _==~~=ErkfqbI=bbF: se of LLe xLern models Lo esLi-
maLe values for differenL LransporL siLuaLions. ILis approacL is firsL and fore-
mosL able Lo calculaLe marginal cosLs and was used in uII also Lo esLimaLe
LoLal cosLs.
Ior LLis updaLe sLudy a Lop down approacL will be applied, according Lo LLe meLLodology
applied in UB0 (1999a-d) and IuIRASJHI0ISI (2003). ILe following reasons supporL
LLis procedure:
Improved comparabiliLy wiLL LLe pasL sLudy (IuIRASJIUU 2000).
HeLLodology approved by Swiss updaLe sLudy (IuIRASJHI0ISI 2003) especially wiLL
respecL Lo dose-response funcLions and LLe general esLimaLion procedure.
PaLa siLuaLion: Lo apply a boLLom up meLLodology deLailed emission invenLory daLa is
needed. ILe collecLion of spaLial informaLion on LransporL emissions, populaLion expo-
sure and background emissions of oLLer sources for all 17 counLries would go far be-
yond LLe scope of LLis updaLe sLudy.

ILe following figure sLows LLe mosL imporLanL esLimaLion sLeps:
44j
HfIh000L06 hfALIh f0SIS
Total transport PM
emissions (exhaust,
abrasion and
re-suspension
10
PM exposure
10
for all countries
Average cost per
transport mean
Total cost per
transport mode
Total health
costs
Additional cases
C
o
s
t
b
a
s
i
s
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
c
o
s
t
-
e
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n
A
l
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
t
o
t
r
a
n
s
p
o
r
t
m
e
a
n
s
E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
P
M
1
0
e
x
p
o
s
u
r
e
C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
c
a
s
e
s
Correlation function emission-exposure
Fixed baseline increments per 10 g/m
PM and 1 million inhabitants
10
3
WTP-Values, country adjusted
Share of PM emissions
10
per transport mode
mileages

f!gure 9 HeLhodology use or Lhe esLinaLion o healLh cosLs.
In LLe following secLions LLe differenL esLimaLions sLeps are described in deLail.
IotaI em!ss!on data
PH10 was cLosen as Lracer subsLance (according Lo IuIRASJHI0ISI 2003 and mosL
oLLer air polluLion cosL sLudies). Road, Rail and AviaLion missions are Laken from LLe
IRuPS 1 daLabase considering non-exLausL emissions as well (see secLion 0 for deLailed
emission daLa). Ior non-exLausL emissions new emission facLors were available from a
recenL Swiss sLudy (BUAI 2002 and BUAI 2003). specially road non-exLausL emissions
Lave been overesLimaLed in LLe pasL wLile non-exLausL emissions of rail LransporL was
underesLimaLed significanLly (refer Lo LLe Annex for deLailed emission facLors).
j45
PH10 exposure
sing correlaLion analysis wiLL weigLLed mean of PH10 emissions including non-exLausL
emissions and PH10 exposure daLa for AusLria, Irance and SwiLzerland LLe populaLion
weigLLed PH10 exposure will be esLimaLed.

faIcuIat!on of add!t!onaI cases
Ior LLe calculaLion of addiLional cases caused by LransporL PH10 emissions, LLe fixed base-
line increase funcLion from LLe UB0-sLudy was used (UB0 1999a-d). As soon as updaLed
funcLions from LLe currenLly running Swiss updaLe sLudy are available, LLese values can be
adjusLed accordingly:

hfALIh fffffIS 0f PH10 fXP0Sukf
Iixed baseline increnenL per 10 gJn
3
H10 and 1 nillion inhabiLanLs
addiLional cases (J-95 Conidence InLerval)
heaIth effect Austr!a france Sw!tzerIand Hean
Long-Lern norLaliLy (adulLs ~- 30 years) 374 340 337 350
PespiraLory ospiLal adnission (all ages) 228 148 133 110
Cardiovascular ospiLal Adnission (all ages) 449 212 303 321
Chronic 8ronchiLis Incidence (adulLs ~- 25
years) 413 394 431 413
8ronchiLis (children< 15 years) 3'196 4'830 4'622 4'216
PesLricLed AcLiviLy 0ays (adulLs ~- 20 years) 208'355 263'696 280'976 251'009
AsLhnaLics: AsLhna aLLacks (children < 15
years) 2'325 2'603 2'404 2'444
AsLhnaLics: AsLhna aLLacks (adulLs ~- 15
years) 6'279 6'192 6'366 6'219
IabIe 12 hunber o addiLional cases per 10 ngJn
3
H10 and 1 nillion inhabiLanLs. Ior all counLries wiLh Lhe excep-
Lion o AusLria, Irance and SwiLzerland Lhe sane nean values were used.
ILe exposiLion values will LLen be used Lo calculaLe LLe cases of morbidiLy and morLaliLy
wLicL were finally mulLiplied wiLL counLry adjusLed UIP values Lo receive LoLal exLernal
LransporL LealLL cosLs.

IotaI heaIth fosts
ILe following Lable sLow LLe UIP values for air polluLion LealLL effecLs:

46j
wILLIh6hfSS I0 PA vALufS f0k AIk P0LLuII0h hfALIh fffffIS
Inc!dent vaIue {furo] un!t
Long-Lern norLaliLy (adulLs ~- 30 years) 915'000
(61 o 1.5 nillion.)
per lie losL
PespiraLory ospiLal adnission (all ages) 7'870 per adnission
Cardiovascular ospiLal adnission (all ages) 7'870 per adnission
Chronic 8ronchiLis incidence (adulLs ~- 25 years) 209'000 per case
8ronchiLis (children< 15 years) 131 per case
PesLricLed AcLiviLy 0ays (adulLs ~- 20 years) 94 per day
AsLhnaLics: AsLhna aLLacks (children < 15 years) 31 per aLLack
AsLhnaLics: AsLhna aLLacks (adulLs ~- 15 years) 31 per aLLack
IabIe 13 willingness Lo pay: Average Luropean values or Lhe valuaLion o air polluLion healLh cosLs, rices 1995.
Source: IhIPASJIww (2000), w0 (1999)
As in LLe UB0 sLudy we will correcL LLe risk value considering age. Because LLe morLaliLy
risks are increasing wiLL age, LLe risk value is reduced Lo 61! of LLe LoLal esLimaLed value
of 1.5 million (see UB0 1999a-d for deLailed argumenLaLion). Values were adjusLed in
Lime using 0PP deflaLors (0CP 2002) and adjusLed Lo LLe differenL counLries.
8

IotaI costs per transport mode
IoLal cosLs will be allocaLed Lo LransporL modes according Lo LLeir sLare of LoLal PH10
emissions and LoLal PH10 exposure respecLively.

2.5.3. HAPCIhAL AIP 0LLbJI0h C0SJS
In LLis updaLe sLudy no separaLe boLLom-up calculaLion of marginal air polluLion cosLs
could be made (in LLe previous sLudy marginal air polluLion cosLs were calculaLed using
LLe xLern model).
Since dose response funcLions for LLe calculaLion of air polluLion cosLs are linear func-
Lions and exposure calculaLions are in our Lop-down model also linear funcLions, marginal
air polluLion cosLs are approximaLively equal Lo average air polluLion cosLs.

8 In conLrasL Lo Lhe previous sLudy IhIPASJIww (2000) Lhe willingness Lo pay values are inLerpreLed as Luropean
values and Lhereore adjusLed using C0 wiLh Lb17-100. In Lhe previous sLudy Lhe cosL values were regarded as
Swiss values and Lhereore adjusLed using C0 wiLh SwiLzerland - 100.
j41
2.6. CLIHAJL CAhCL C0SJS
IL is assumed LLaL LLe damage caused by greenLouse gases (0B0) Las a global scale. ILis
means LLere is no difference Low and wLere LLe emissions Lake place in LLe world. BigLer
concenLraLions of 0B0 cause a cLange of global LemperaLures wiLL iLs regional conse-
quences on rainfalls, frequency of Lurricanes and dry periods, on sea level and evenLually
on sea currenLs. ILese cLanges in global climaLe can imply land losses in LigLly populaLed
regions, exLreme climaLic evenLs, crop losses, LealLL effecLs (e.g. due a widening of LLe
regions infesLed wiLL malaria), eLc.
ILe LransporL secLor plays an imporLanL role in LLe 0B0 discussion. IL is LLe fasLesL
growing economic secLor (47! growLL since 1985 wiLLin ) and consumes more LLan 30!
of final energy. Because of LLe fuel dependency of LLe LransporL secLor, energy consump-
Lion Las also resulLed in an increase in greenLouse gas emissions. A major source of an-
LLropogenic C0
2
emissions is LransporL conLribuLing abouL one fourLL of LLe LoLal (I&
2003).
0LLer green Louse gases - like meLLane or u20 - are noL accounLed in LLeses calcula-
Lions. In green Louse gas equivalenLs LLeses gases caused by road, rail and air Lraffic
sLand for a relevanL parL of LLe climaLe cLange poLenLial wiLLin LLe 17 counLries (see
0B0-InvenLories).

vaIuat!on bas!s
ILe cosLs of C0
2
emissions are basically calculaLed by mulLiplying LLe amounL of C0
2
emiL-
Led by a cosL facLor. ILis subsLanLial facLor for LLe calculaLion of LLe cosLs of LLe climaLic
cLange is LLe sLadow value in currency per Lonne C0
2
. ILe cosLs for LLe avoidance of C0
2

ouLpuL depend sLrongly on LLe objecLives for climaLe cLange policies and sLraLegies (resp.
mecLanisms) via wLicL LLese objecLives would be reacLed. Ue can differenLiaLe for exam-
ple beLween LLe
LyoLo LargeLs (2008 - 2012) applied aL -level,
ILe reducLion LargeLs seL by a counLry or by inLernaLional LreaLy
9
. Some examples are
sLown in Iable 14.

9 Peerence Lo ArLicle 2 o Lhe bhICC (bh Iranework convenLion on ClinaLe Change) sLipulaLing "Lhe ulLinaLe objecLive
o Lhis ConvenLion is Lo achieve a sLabilisaLion o greenhouse gas concenLraLions in Lhe aLnosphere aL a level LhaL
would prevenL dangerous inLererence wiLh Lhe clinaLe sysLen" inplies a reducLion o world-wide C0
2
enissions by
50 (IC), or o 80 or 0LC0 counLries (indicaLed in Lhe presenLaLion o . wiederkehr aL Lhe bIC Pailway Lnergy
Liciency Conerence in Iebruary 4
Lh
, 2004).
48j
f0
2
kf0ufII0h IAk6fIS
keference[Study Scenar!o
un!ted k!ngdom
Poyal Connission on LnvironnenLal olluLion. b=
==~=~, June 2000
0ocunenL subniLLed Lo Lhe arlianenL
roposal o reducLion o C0
2
enissions up Lo 60 in
2050 conpared Lo 1997 (reerence year)
6ermany
wupperLal InsLiLuL r Klina, bnwelL, LnergieJCenLre
allenand de recherche spaLiale (0LP)JInsLiLuL r
Jhernodynanic.
i~~===~~=b=
=a~, July 2002
PeporL or Lhe LnvironnenL Iederal Agency (bnwelL-
bundesanL, b8A)
haLional reducLion LargeL or C0
2
enissions up Lo 80
in 2050 conpared Lo 1990 level

Sw!tzerIand
rognos AC
b===b=NVVMJOMPM==
p~=fs=W===~=k~~=~J
=`lOJo=
PeporL or Lhe Lnergy Iederal 0ice (8undesanL r
LnergiewirLschaL)
haLional reducLion LargeL or C0
2
enissions up Lo 60
in 2030 (wiLh 55 or LransporL secLor) conpared Lo
1990 level
france
haLional ClinaLe Change rogranne
rine HinisLer speech - Lyon - 0cLober 2002
roposal o reducLion LargeL or C0
2
enissions o 75
in 2050 or indusLrialised counLries
Internat!onaI targets
InLernaLional LargeLs Peerence Lo ArLicle 2 o Lhe bhICC (bh Iranework
convenLion on ClinaLe Change) sLipulaLing "Lhe ulLi-
naLe objecLive o Lhis ConvenLion is Lo achieve a sLa-
bilisaLion o greenhouse gas concenLraLions in Lhe
aLnosphere aL a level LhaL would prevenL dangerous
inLererence wiLh Lhe clinaLe sysLen" inplies a re-
ducLion o world-wide C02 enissions by 50 (IC),
or o 80 or 0LC0 counLries.
Luropean 6
Lh
progran o connuniLy acLion or envi-
ronnenL, LargeL: 70 o reducLion regarding Lo 1990
levels.
IabIe 14
UiLLin LLese goals LLe following mecLanism could be pursued:
ReducLion of LLe LoLal C0
2
emissions aL naLional levels (inland).
ReducLion of LLe C0
2
emissions of a cerLain secLor (indusLry, LransporL, LouseLolds eLc.)
in LLe inland.
ReducLion of LLe LoLal C0
2
emissions worldwide, wLicL are released by a counLry (e.g.
wiLL Lradable C0
2
cerLificaLes).
j49
ReducLion of LLe C0
2
emissions of a cerLain secLor (indusLry, LransporL, LouseLolds eLc.)
worldwide (e.g. wiLL Lradable C0
2
cerLificaLes).
All conceivable combinaLions.
In LLe following Lables a selecLion of available sLadow values is sLown. IL gives an over-
view of LLe large range of valuaLions for prices of emiLLed C0
2
for energy efficiency pro-
jecLs, mainly in LLe indusLrial secLor, and specific ones Lo LLe LransporLaLion secLor.

ShA00w vALufS uSf0 f0k fhfk6 fffIfIfhf Pk0JffIS
heLherlands LPbJ-2 pro-
gran (parL o Lhe Carbon-
crediLs.nl progran)
Average price o Lhe carbon crediLs is 4.78 per Lonne o C0
2
-eq. eniLLed
(25 nill. or 5.23 HL C0
2
eq.)
CounLries involved: Ponania, Slovakia and ungary

See: JI0 2002c

AIJ piloL progran o Iinland LsLinaLed price 6 Lo 8 per Lonne o C0
2
-eq. eniLLed.
CounLries involved or C0H
10
: Ll Salvador, hicaragua, Jhailand and VieLnan
CounLries involved or JI
11
: LsLonia, LaLvia, LiLhuania, oland and Pussia

See: JI0 2002b

China's C0H projecLs LsLinaLed price 10 bS$ per Lonne o C0
2.
-eq. eniLLed.
AL Lhis average price China could reduce 15 o iLs CC enissions conpared
Lo Lhe naLional baseline.

See: JI0 2002a

bK enissions Lrading schene
(LJS)
rice approx. 85 per Lonne o C0
2.
-eq. eniLLed.
Jhis value was ound in an aucLion, where Lhe bK governnenL disLribuLed Lhe
anounL o 225 anong Lhe parLicipaLing irns in exchange or enission
reducLion conniLnenLs.

See: JI0 2002a

Chicago ClinaLe Lxchange
(CCX)
AL Lhe irsL aucLion o C0
2
enissions allowances (SepLenber 30, 2003) an
average successul bid price o 0.98 bS$ per neLric Lonne o C0
2
or 2003 and
0.84 bS$ per neLric Lonne o C0
2
or 2005 was ound.

See: SAH 2003

IabIe 15 LisL o shadow values or C0
2
-eq. enissions or energy eiciency projecLs.

10 Clean developnenL nechanisn
11 JoinL inplenenLaLion
50j
IkAhSP0kIAII0h SffI0k: fSIIHAII0hS 0f HAk6IhAL Av0I0Ahff f0SIS
Study vaIue
uhIIf Ihe p!Iot accounts for 6ermany
Shadow value 20 per Lonne o C0
2.
eniLLed (avoidance cosLs). Jhis value lies wiLhin a
range o values o 5 Lo 38 per Lonne o C02 avoided presenLed by Capros
and HanLzos (2000).
Scenario Average value chosen by bhIJL.
Source bhIJL 2002b
uhIIf p!Iot accounts for Sw!tzerIand
2
eniLLed (avoidance cosLs)

Scenario Luropean average cosL esLinaLe o neeLing Lhe KyoLo LargeLs
SensiLiviLy analysis 80 per Lonne o C0
2
or a Swiss sensiLiviLy analysis (average ron Lhe sLudy
Haibach eL al., 1999).
0aLa basis Poad LransporL: C0
2
enission daLa
Pail and urban public LransporL: calculaLed ron inornaLion an energy
consunpLion and Lhe elecLriciLy producLion nix
AviaLion: calculaLed ron uel consunpLion daLa
SysLen border AviaLion: LerriLorialiLy principle o Lhe bhIJL piloLs accounLs
Source bhIJL 2002a
fahI
2.
eniLLed (avoidance cosLs). Jhis is equivalenL Lo ca. 4.6
-CenL per liLre gasoline and ca. 5.1 -CenL per liLre diesel (LnvironnenLal
exLernal cosLs o LransporL, Iriedrich and 8ickel, SLuLLgarL, 2001).

Scenario HeeLing Lhe KyoLo LargeLs in Cernany (Iahl eL. al. 1999)
Source Iahl eL al. (1999) used in bhIJL 2002b
0uer!nck
2.
eniLLed (avoidance cosLs). Jhis value lies wiLhin a
range o values o 5 Lo 38 per Lonne o C02 avoided presenLed by Capros
and HanLzos (2000). Jhis is equivalenL Lo ca. 4.6 -CenL per liLre gasoline
and ca. 5.1 -CenL per liLre diesel (LnvironnenLal exLernal cosLs o LransporL,
Iriedrich and 8ickel, SLuLLgarL, 2001).

Scenario HeeLing Lhe KyoLo LargeLs in 8elgiun.
Source 0uerinck J. eL al. 1999 used in bhIJL 2002b
IhfkAS [ Iww
2
eniLLed, wiLh a range o 70 up Lo 200 calculaLed
over a large range o narginal abaLenenL cosLs ron dierenL sLudies

Scenario PeducLion LargeL 50 in 2030 conpared Lo 1990 (reconnended by ICC),
which are nore sLringenL reducLions Lhan Lhe KyoLo ains are Lo reach sus-
LainabiliLy.
Source IhIPASJIww 2000
j51
IkAhSP0kIAII0h SffI0k: fSIIHAII0hS 0f HAk6IhAL Av0I0Ahff f0SIS
Study vaIue
fapros and Hantzos
2
eniLLed (1990 prices), wiLhouL inLernaLional enission
Lrading.

Scenario HeeLing Lhe KyoLo LargeLs in Lb.
Source Capros ., HanLzos L. 2000
fr!qu! and v!gu!er
Shadow value 37 bS$ per Lonne o C0
2
eniLLed. wiLh inLernaLional enission Lrading Lhis
anounL could be reduced Lo ca. 14 bS$ per Lonne o C0
2
.

Scenario HeeLing Lhe KyoLo LargeLs in Lb.
Source Criqui, Viguier 2000
fomm!ssar!at 6nraI du PIan - france
2
eniLLed (avoidance cosLs).
Scenario HeeLing Lhe KyoLo LargeLs in Irance, by using clean developnenL neasures
and enission Lrading. A shadow o 41 per Lonne o C0
2
eniLLed, when Lhe
KyoLo LargeLs have Lo be neL wiLhin Lhe Luropean ConnuniLies.
Source 8oiLeux H., 8aunsLark L. 2001
krom et aI. (fISAP study}
Shadow values Jhe sLudy shows or dierenL counLries shadow values:
8elgiun: 80 $ per Lonne o C0
2

heLherlands: 25 $ per Lonne o C0
2

Sweden: 170 $ per Lonne o C0
2

SwiLzerland: 160 $ per Lonne o C0
2

Scenario rices 1996, abaLenenL cosLs or reducLion conniLnenLs in Lhe KyoLo proLo-
col.
Source LJSA 1996
IabIe 16 0verview o shadow values or C0
2
enissions or Lhe LransporL secLor or avoidance cosLs ound in liLeraLure.
Compared Lo LLe sLown avoidance cosLs in Iable 16 ~~= esLimaLed in LLe sLudy
of IriedricL and Bickel (2001) are lower by a facLor of 10 Lo 100. ILey calculaLe a sLadow
value of 2.4 per Lonne of C0
2
wiLL a range from 0.1 up Lo 16.4 per Lonne of C0
2
. In LLe
esLimaLion process for LLis values are enormous uncerLainLies involved. An argumenL
migLL be LLaL damage cosLs only conLain cosLs of impacLs LLaL are reasonably well known
and undersLood, wLereas LLere migLL be furLLer impacLs noL known Loday. AnoLLer sLudy
(BoLmeyer eL al. 1997) sLows LLaL damages cosLs due Lo a loss of agriculLural producLion
in 50 years can be valued aL 0.7 $ up Lo 3.3 million $. Ue decide Lo base Lo valuaLion on
LLe avoidance cosL approacL.
ILe sLadow price in LLe IuIRASJIUU 2000 sLudy ( 135 per Lonne C0
2
) resulLs from
an ambiLious reducLion LargeL (-50! beLween 1990 and 2030) and a sLraLegy wLicL is
more inflexible LLan worldwide emission Lrading, because LLe reducLions sLould be
52j
reacLed wiLLin LLe uropean LransporL secLor only. ILis view accompanies LLe long Lerm
invesLmenLs as iL is usual for LransporL infrasLrucLure. Iower sLadow prices would be
acLieved by seL less ambiLious LargeLs and apply more flexible mecLanisms wiLLin LLe
LyoLo ProLocol
12
. Ue use a sLadow price of =NQM===`l
O
=~==~==J
==Ep~=eF, because LLe LransporL secLor - parLicularly railways -
are cLaracLerised by long-run invesLmenLs.=Iollowing IPCC long Lerm LargeLs sLould be
mucL more sLringenL LLan LyoLo LargeLs Lo reacL susLainabiliLy in LLe LransporL secLor.=0n
LLe oLLer Land we used=~==~===OM===`l
O
Ep~=iF for sLorL
Lerm LargeLs - as defined in LyoLo ProLocol - Lo calculaLe LLe lower bound of climaLe
cLange cosLs (see Iable 17).

SffhAkI0 Ah0 8Ah0wI0IhS uSf0 Ih IhIS SIu0
Scenar!o Avo!dance costs
Lower boundary: InLernaLional approach Lo neeL KyoLo LargeLs 20 per Lonne C0
2

bpper boundary: haLional LransporL approach Lo reach long Lern cuL o
C02 enission by 50 (2030)
140 per Lonne C0
2

IabIe 11
AddiLional alLiLude effecLs of aviaLion are menLioned in LLe IPCC reporL AviaLion and LLe
0lobal ALmospLere" (IPCC 1999). ILe concepL of ~~= describes LLe addi-
Lional LLermal power (in waLLs per square meLer) reacLing LLe earLL's surface due Lo LLe
increased greenLouse effecL caused by LLe emission of polluLanLs. Combined radiaLive
forcing of aviaLion emissions was esLimaLed aL OKR== LLan pure C0
2
relaLed
radiaLive forcing. ILis facLor was also used for LLe cosL calculaLions of aviaLion LransporL.

2.7. C0SJS I0P hAJbPL Ah0 LAh0SCAL
2.7.1. P0CL0bPL I0P C0SJ LSJIHAJI0h (P0A0, PAIL Ah0 AIP)
ILere exisL differenL issues and valuaLion approacLes Lo describe naLure and landscape
cosLs. In LLis sLudy we use a bio cenLric approacL - in conLrasL Lo anLLropocenLric ap-
proacL esLimaLes based on willingness Lo pay for specific Lypes of landscape (see for ex-
ample InfraconsulL 1998, BlcLlingerJJaggin 1996). Irom an economic poinL of view, LLe

12 Clean developnenL nechanisn, enission Lrading and joinL inplenenLaLion
j53
willingness Lo pay approacL would be mosL feasible. BuL a direcL valuaLion of LransporL
relaLed damages is Lowever noL available (see InfraconsulL 1998).
ILus we refer Lo a more pragmaLic buL consisLenL approacL, like in LLe pasL IC sLudy. ILe
bio cenLric approacL sLarLs from LLe definiLion of LLe scarciLy of naLure defined by ex-
perLs. RecenL infrasLrucLure projecLs raise differenL compensaLion and avoidance cosLs,
due Lo specific affords of environmenLal impacL analysis. ILus LLe average cosLs per km of
new infrasLrucLure are significanLly LigLer LLan LLe cosL of old infrasLrucLure. Based on a
neLwork classificaLion, cosLs are esLimaLed wLicL are necessary Lo improve exisLing infra-
sLrucLure Lo a level LLaL is more or less compaLibly wiLL LLe needs of LLe environmenL. A
seL of uniL cosLs ( per km of infrasLrucLure) based on repair and compensaLion cosL ap-
proacL is needed for calculaLions Loo.
ILe allocaLion of LLe cosL per LransporL mode Lo LLe veLicle caLegories is based on
specific assumpLions wLicL are discussed below (see also IuIRASJIUU 2000).

koad network
ILe lengLLs of LLe roads are given in nergy and IransporL in Iigures (2001) (see
Annex).
An average road widLL by Lype of road is calculaLed and aggregaLed for LLe oLLer uro-
pean CounLries. Iigures of road widLLs are based on siLuaLions from 0ermany and SwiL-
zerland (BfS 1991, 0Lnemann 1999). 0erman roads are generally wider LLan in SwiLzer-
land (especially moLorways). Io calculaLe LLe average we assume LLaL LLe big uropean
counLries correspond Lo LLe road widLLs of 0ermany and LLe small Lo LLe Swiss daLa.
sLimaLion of LLe sLare of LLe sealed area caused by road infrasLrucLure since 1950
100! of moLorways are considered alLLougL some of LLem Lad been builL before
1950 (30! in 0ermany, 0! in SwiLzerland) because LLeir impacLs Lo naLure and
landscape are severe (barrier effecLs).
Ior all oLLer roads, wLicL were builL afLer 1950 and pass rural area, a percenLage of
30! is accounLed.
AffiliaLed road feaLures sucL as resL sLops, mainLenance faciliLies and enLranceJexiL
areas are excluded.
Ue consider LLaL aL leasL 5 m roadsides correspond Lo a LoLal loss of naLural area (IUU
1998). A recenL sLudy (econcepLJnaLeco 2003) Lakes a widLL beLween 10 Lo 50 m on boLL
sides of LLe road, disLinguisLed beLween small roads up Lo LigLways.

54j
ka!I network
ILe lengLL of LLe rail neLwork is given in IC (2000) (see Annex).
UidLLs of rail Lracks are disLinguisLed beLween single and double and more Lracks. Ue
assume an average widLL of 6 m for a single Lrack resp. 13 m for double or more Lracks
(IUU 1998)
Because LLe rail neLwork Las noL been grown since 1950, LLe sLaLe of infrasLrucLure is
noL relevanL. Ior example, 0ermany's rail neLwork is abouL 15! sLorLer LLan in LLe year
of 1950. Regardless LLey are some negaLive effecLs Lo naLure and landscape coming from
LLe Loday's rail infrasLrucLure (especially LLe LigL speed neLwork wLicL was build afLer
1950). Ue assume LLaL 10! of LoLal rail neLwork Lave negaLive effecLs Lo naLure and
landscape.
uo compleLe loss of soil funcLions resulLs from rail infrasLrucLure, as LLis is LLe case wiLL
sealed area (for example waLer can Lrickle away). A 0erman sLudy (IUU 1998) esLimaLes
LLe raLe of sealing of rail Lracks abouL 50!.
An addiLional widLL of 5 m is considered Lo calculaLe LLe addiLional impaired area aL rail
Lrack sides. ILis is LLe Lalf of LLe affecLed widLL wLicL is used in a Swiss sLudy econ-
cepLJnaLeco (2003).

Av!at!on !nfrastructure
ILe number of all airporLs per counLry we Lake from IuIRASJIUU 2000 (see annex).
sLimaLion of LLe sealed area of naLional and regional airporLs:
Ue assume an average sealed area of abouL 300 LecLares for naLional airporLs in
urope. ILis corresponds Lo LLe sealed area of LLe airporL ZuricL - LloLen.
Ior regional airporLs we Lake an area of 80 LecLares.
HosL of LLe airporLs were builL afLer Second Uorld Uar. Ior LLis reason LLe wLole (100!)
sealed area of airporLs is considered in LLe calculaLions.
ILe addiLional impaired area by airporLs is calculaLed by assuming an addiLional radius
of 50 m for naLional airporLs resp. 25 m for regional airporLs.

2.7.2. VALbAJI0h 8ASIS (P0A0, PAIL Ah0 AIP)
ILis approacL divides LLe exLernal cosLs for naLure and landscape up inLo differenL cosL
componenLs (modules). IL Las Lo be quanLified LLe repair and compensaLion measures of
eacL cosL module. ILese cosLs are expressed in cosLs per m
2
of sealed area respecLively of
addiLional impaired area.
j55
ILe approacL considers only LLe concreLe cosLs and more or less calculable ones, be-
cause several exLernaliLies of naLure and landscape cannoL be quanLified.
unseaI!ng costs:
Io repair and compensaLe LLe damages of naLure and landscape caused by LransporL infra-
sLrucLure, one Las Lo unseal LLis area. ILe cosL of LLis process was calculaLed by a 0erman
sLudy (IUU 1998) wiLL an average value of 50 PHJm
2
(price level 1995).
kestorat!on costs of target b!otopes
AfLer LLe unsealing process iniLial bioLopes are noL yeL repaired properly, LLe area Las Lo
be resLoraLed. xisLing sLudies (BoscL & ParLner 1993, IUU 1998) sLow us a wide range of
LLese resLoraLion cosLs. Ue assume LLaL LLe average cosLs of reinsLall a LargeL bioLope
13

are 20 PHJm
2
(price level 1995).
So!I[water poIIut!on
ILe esLimaLion of LLese cosLs is very difficulL and experLs cannoL quanLify LLese cosLs in
relaLion Lo LransporL infrasLrucLure. An exisLing sLudy (IroelicL and Sporbeck 1995) calcu-
laLed cosLs of 70 PHJm
3
(price level 1995) soil
14
wLicL Lave Lo be carried off and depos-
iLed. As in IuIRASJIUU (2000) we assume LLaL LLe soil is polluLed Lo a depLL of 20 cm
and LLaL waLer purificaLion processes cosL more or less LLe same.
0ther !mpacts
Io quanLify oLLer exLernaliLies (barrier effecLs, visual effecLs, .) Lo naLure and landscape,
we esLimaLe LLe cosLs of 20 PHJm
2
(price level 1995) in LLis approacL. xisLing qualiLaLive
sLudies (Iorman R.I.I. eL al. 1998) assume LLaL LLe imporLance of LLese sLudies is given.
fost aIIocat!on
ILe allocaLion of road LransporL is according Lo PC (Passenger Car niL):
Passenger Car 1
HoLorcycle 0.5
Bus 3
IPV & BPV 2.5
ILe allocaLion of rail LransporL is according Lo Lrain kilomeLres.
15

ILe allocaLion of air LransporL is according Lo LLe aircrafL movemenLs.

13 In Lhis sLudy, we exclude Lhe very valuable bioLopes (like exLensive used bioLopes) because nosL o Lhe Lraic neL-
work goes Lrough 'nornal' (inLensive used) area.
14 Jhese cosLs are probably Loo low because a puriicaLion process o soil is noL included.
15
A disLincLion beLween elecLriied and noL elecLriied rail Lracks has noL been nade, alLhough Lhe danages are dier-
enL. whereas Lhe polluLion o diesel Lracks (due Lo air polluLanLs) is nainly causing soil and groundwaLer problens,
elecLriied Lracks are causing soil problens (due Lo abrasion) and visual inLrusion due Lo elecLriciLy wires.
56j
I!me per!od
Io calculaLe LLe annual LoLal exLernal cosLs, we divide LLe LoLal cosLs of LLe Lime period
(1950 - 2000) by LLe number of years (50 years).
fountry aggregat!on
ILe opporLuniLy cosL of a socieLy depends on iLs purcLase power. ILus, we will conse-
quenLly LranslaLe LLe values - derived from a represenLaLive sample of sLudies - from one
counLry Lo anoLLer. ILerefore we use LLe purcLase power pariLy rule. niL values will be
adjusLed by weigLing excLange raLes wiLL purcLase power values.
Adjustment !n pr!ces
Ue adjusLed LLe cosLs per m
2
wLicL base on 1995 wiLL LLe consumer price index (SLa-
LisLiscLes BundesamL 2003):
consumer price index 1995: 93.9
consumer price index 2000: 100

2.7.3. IhLAh0 wAJLP80PhL JPAhS0PJ
ILe deLailed approacL wLicL is Lrying Lo deLermine LLe cosLs of some repair and compen-
saLion measures is equal Lo IuIRASJIUU 2000. A sLorL overview and descripLion of LLe
meLLodology is given wiLL LLe following arLicles.
hetwork data
ILe lengLL of cLannels (arLificial waLerways wLose consLrucLion desLroyed naLural area)
Las Lo be known Lo deLermine LLe mosL imporLanL negaLive effecLs of waLerborne Lrans-
porL. ILese daLa are given in LLe R0SIAI sLaLisLical yearbook of regions (R0SIAI
1997). nforLunaLely, daLa are lacking for some counLries (see annex).
0eterm!nat!on of !mpa!red area by channeIs
A 0erman sLudy (IUU 1998) esLimaLes LLaL LLe LoLal use of area is beLween 9 and 10 Lec-
Lares per km cLannel (included are slopes, dimensioning of waLerways and waLerway ancil-
laries like sluices). ILey assume LLaL LLe sealed area wLicL depends on LLe lining of LLe
boLLom and LLe sorL of slopes is aL leasL one LecLare per km cLannel. IurLLer we assume
LLaL LLe renaLuraLion area corresponds Lo LLe area of slopes wLicL cover beLween 3 and 4
LecLares per km cLannel (IUU 1998).
fost determ!nat!on
nsealing cosLs: Ue Lake unsealing cosLs of 50 PHJm
2
(price level 1995) as for LLe oLLer
means of LransporL.
j51
ResLoraLion cosLs for slopes: ILe IUU sLudy recommends average cosLs of 770 PHJm
2

(price level 1995) Lo reinsLall exLensive used bioLopes aL Lumid LabiLaLs (as marsL lands,
reed beds).
RenaLuraLion cosLs of banks: IUU (1998) esLimaLes LLe renaLuraLion cosLs of enlarged
banks aL 700 PHJm (price level 1995).
Ue adjusL LLese cosLs wiLL LLe same consumer price indexes as we used for road, rail and
air LransporL.
fountry aggregat!on[fons!derat!on of t!me per!od
ILe calculaLed values are adjusLed by weigLing excLange raLes wiLL purcLase power val-
ues. IurLLer we consider a Lime period of 50 years wLicL corresponds Lo LLe Lime from
1950 Lill 2000.

2.7.4. P0CL0bPL I0P JL LSJIHAJI0h 0I HAPCIhAL C0SJS
Based on LLe assumpLion LLaL infrasLrucLure is fixed in LLe sLorL run, no sLorL run mar-
ginal cosL will occur in regard Lo naLure and landscape. 0ne excepLion is specific separa-
Lion (barrier) effecLs for fauna, wLicL migLL sligLLly depend on Lraffic volume. Since iL
was noL possible Lo esLimaLe LLese cosLs in deLail, we consider LLis effecL Lo be negligible.
ILaL means: CosL for naLure and landscape are only relevanL in LLe long run, wLere mar-
ginal cosLs are near Lo average cosLs of road infrasLrucLure, if we assume LLaL fuLure infra-
sLrucLure consLrucLion is likely Lo grow aL LLe same raLe as in LLe pasL.
Besides, LLere is a quesLion if LLese cosLs do differ beLween differenL Lraffic siLuaLions
and regional cLaracLerisLics, especially beLween urban and non-urban areas. ILis depends
very mucL on LLe concreLe case. Since LLe range of fuLure cLanges is very complicaLed, a
disLincLion is very arLificial. Bowever we consider long Lerm marginal cosLs only relevanL
for non-urban siLuaLions. Ior urban siLuaLions, fuLure infrasLrucLure will noL cause addi-
Lional damage Lo naLure and landscape, buL will increase scarciLy problems.

2.8. A00IJI0hAL C0SJS Ih bP8Ah APLAS
2.8.1. VALbAJI0h AP0AC
ILe meLLodology used Lo calculaLe addiLional cosLs in urban areas is based on LLe previous
sLudy (IuIRASJIUU 2000). ILe main inpuL parameLers were updaLed and cosL indicaLors
adjusLed Lo 2000 values. Ior furLLer deLailed informaLion on LLe meLLodology we refer Lo
LLe IuIRASJIUU (2000).
58j
Basically Lwo effecLs were considered:
Lime losses due Lo separaLion effecLs for pedesLrians
scarciLy problems (expressed as LLe loss of space availabiliLy for bicycles).
AnoLLer possible effecL (urban visual inLrusion due Lo LransporL volume and infrasLruc-
Lure) is very difficulL Lo measure and no reliable esLimaLes are available. ILerefore LLis
effecL was excluded from LLe calculaLion.
BoLL considered effecLs are aLLacLed Lo LLe road secLor in urban areas, and, Lo some
exLenL, also Lo rail LransporL. IL Las Lo be menLioned LLaL LLe esLimaLion of LLese ele-
menLs sLill is of a piloL cLaracLer. Ue Lave Lo noLe Lowever, LLaL boLL approacLes used are
jusL a proxy for urban Lraffic damages. ILe legiLimisaLion of LLese cosLs is based on a fair-
ness principle: ILe road secLor is leading Lo space scarciLy in ciLies, wLicL causes addi-
Lional cosL especially for non-moLorised LransporL.

2.8.2. SLAPAJI0h LIILCJS
Procedure for totaI and average costs
ILe esLimaLes are based on a piloL survey for ZuricL, wLere LLe levels and crossings are
measured in deLail. Also, resulLs of R0H0S (uropean Road HobiliLy SLudies) Lave been
used, especially daLa from HunicL, SouLLampLon and Hadrid. Ior LLese ciLies, neLwork
lengLL is available in deLail. ILe resulLs are Lransferred Lo oLLer ciLies, using general indi-
caLors like LLe Lraffic volume and percenLage of urban populaLion. Ior LLis purpose, we
use LLe populaLion of ciLies wiLL 50'000 inLabiLanLs and more.
ILe esLimaLion of separaLion effecLs of urban railway Lracks is based on LLe same meLLod-
ology. Railway Lracks Lave abouL LLe same separaLion effecL as an urban moLorway, pedes-
Lrians need Lo Lake a longer way and loose LLerefore Lime. A deLailed analysis of a model
ciLy (ZuricL, see deLails in IuIRASJIUU (2000)) gives a rougL daLabase for a specific ur-
ban effecL. Railway Lracks in Lunnels and on bridges are noL relevanL for LLis effecL and
are noL accounLed for.
ILis esLimaLion for several uropean ciLies sLows LLe following average uniL cosLs,
wLicL were Laken from IuIRASJIUU (2000) (price base year 1995) and adjusLed Lo 2000
values using 0PP deflaLors (0CP 2002). ILey Lave Lo be adjusLed wiLL LLe counLry spe-
cific adjusLmenL facLor.
Road: 54.8 uro per (urban) person and year
Rail: 18.6 uro per (urban) person and year.

j59
Procedure for marg!naI costs
SeparaLion cosLs depend direcLly on LLe Lraffic volume. ILus based on a waiLing curve we
assume LLaL marginal cosLs are rising due Lo addiLional Lraffic. According Lo LLe model,
only Lraffic on roads wiLL a volume beLween 400 and 800 veLicles per Lour can sLow mar-
ginal cosLs (roads wiLL LigLer Lraffic volumes Lave Loo mucL Lraffic so LLaL one addiLional
veLicle would cause addiLional cosLs). Ior LLis Lraffic siLuaLion (volumes beLween 400 and
800 veLicles per Lour), marginal separaLion cosLs are calculaLed, using an assumpLion for
percenLage of relevanL Lraffic volume and of relevanL daily Lours.

2.8.3. SACL AVAILA8ILIJY I0P 8ICYCLLS
Procedure for totaI and average costs
ILe meLLodology is again based on LLe previous sLudy (IuIRASJIUU 2000) and main cosL
indicaLors as well as LLe number of LLe affecLed populaLion were adjusLed Lo 2000 values.
IL is imporLanL Lo noLice LLaL LLis approacL (like LLe approacL for naLure and landscape)
is relaLed Lo LLe exisLing (road) infrasLrucLure. IL is an indirecL proxy of LLe scarciLy as-
pecLs in ciLies. ILus LLe approacL is only relevanL for LLe esLimaLion of LoLal and average
cosLs. sing LLis approacL, LLere are no sLorL run marginal cosLs occurring.
ILe esLimaLion of space availabiliLy for bicycles is used as a proxy for LLe scarciLy of
space in urban areas. ILey can be inLerpreLed as compensaLion cosLs for scarce infrasLruc-
Lure for non-moLorised LransporL. ILe aggregaLion Lo naLional cosL for LLis urban effecL
follows LLe same meLLodology as for LLe separaLion effecL. ILe projecLion Lo counLry wise
LoLal cosL is made using an average value per (urban) affecLed person. ILis value was be-
Lween 5 and 21 uro per person and year for LLe four model ciLies in 1995. An average
uniL value of 12 uro per urban person and year was adjusLed Lo LLe year 2000 using 0PP
deflaLors (0CP 2002). ILe resulLing value of 13.1 uro per urban person and year Las Lo
be correcLed wiLL LLe counLry adjusLmenL facLor. Again, urban populaLion are assumed Lo
live in ciLies wiLL more LLan 50'000 inLabiLanLs.

Procedure for marg!naI costs
ILe scarciLy cosLs expressed by addiLional space for bicycle lanes are parLly depending on
Lraffic volume. Since we jusL considered urban main roads wLicL are usually quiLe crow-
ded, an addiLional veLicle does noL cause addiLional need for space. ILaL means LLaL in
LLe sLorL run LLese cosLs are close Lo zero. ILe argumenLaLion Lowever is similar as wiLLin
LLe cosLs for naLure and landscape. In LLe long run, if capaciLy is overused, addiLional
60j
space will be needed for new roads and for new bicycle lanes respecLively. 0ne could argue
Lowever, LLaL a new road leads Lo a decrease of LLe exisLing space problem, leading as
well Lo a decrease of LLe cosLs respecLively. Bowever LLere migLL be a Lrade off wiLL oLLer
space problems in urban areas. ILus - in order Lo be in line wiLL LLe approacL for naLure
and landscape - we conclude LLaL long Lerm marginal cosLs are equal Lo average cosLs.
16

2.9. b- Ah0 00whSJPLAH P0CLSSLS
2.9.1. VALbAJI0h AP0AC
IndirecL effecLs of LransporL migLL cause addiLional exLernal effecLs. ILe meLLodology Lo
calculaLe addiLional exLernal cosLs of up- and downsLream processes is based on LLe Iu-
IRASJIUU (2000) sLudy. Bowever, improved life cycle analysis daLa for some modes was
available as well as new emission facLors for all modes.
Ue can disLinguisL LLe following LLree imporLanL processes:
1. b= (precombusLion): ILe producLion of all Lype of energy is causing
addiLional nuisances due Lo exLracLion, LransporL, Lransmission. ILey depend direcLly
on LLe amounL of energy used. ILese effecLs are relevanL for all LransporL means ex-
cepL LLe railways. Since LLe emissions of elecLriciLy producLion for railways operaLion
are already considered wiLLin air polluLion and climaLe cosLs, only risk elemenLs (e.g.
nuclear risks) are Lere considered in addiLion. ILese cosLs are also relevanL in LLe
sLorL run.
2. s==~=~~: ILe producLion of veLicles and rolling sLock is
imporLanL in LLe longer run, considering LLe life cycles of differenL LransporL means.
SLorL run marginal cosLs are zero. ILese elemenLs are causing especially addiLional
emissions inLo LLe air, Laving an addiLional effecL on air polluLion and climaLe cLange
cosLs.
3. f~==~=~~: ILe same argumenLs Lold Lrue for
LLe infrasLrucLure elemenLs LLemselves. In LLe long run, addiLional emissions Lave Lo
be considered Lere as well. ILey Lave Lo be LreaLed similar Lo LLe aspecLs of naLure
and landscape discussed above, because LLey are aLLacLed Lo exisLing infrasLrucLure
and LLus sunk cosLs. In conLrasL Lo LLose effecLs, up- and downsLream effecLs Lappen
especially during LLe consLrucLion pLase (e.g. surface renewal).

16 hoLe LhaL average cosL are higher Lhan expressed in Lhe resulLs chapLer, since Lhe cosLs esLinaLed are noL divided by
naLional vehicle kiloneLre, buL only by vehicle kiloneLres on urban nain roads.
j61
AlLLougL LLese processes refer Lo oLLer nuisances already considered wiLLin LLis reporL
(especially air polluLion and climaLe cLange), iL is useful Lo LreaL LLese up- and down-
sLream effecLs separaLely, in order Lo increase Lransparency. ILe following effecLs will be
disLinguisLed:
psLream effecLs as a percenLage of air polluLion cosLs, based on LLe amounL of indirecL
effecLs of relaLed emissions.
psLream effecLs as a percenLage of climaLe cLange cosLs, based on LLe amounL of indi-
recL processes of C0
2
emissions.
uuclear Power risks for elecLriciLy producLion.
Basic eco-invenLory daLa is Laken from LLe coninvenL 2000 (see coinvenL (2003ab).
ILis daLa base provides up-Lo-daLe life cycle analysis daLa wiLL relaLed emissions of LLe
mosL imporLanL green Louse gases and polluLanLs for many LransporL processes. ILe mone-
Lary values are based on LLe values used for air polluLion and climaLe cLange cosLs. Spe-
cific sLadow values used for LLe esLimaLion of nuclear power risks are Laken from Iu-
IRASJconcepLJPrognos (1996).

2.9.2. P0CL0bPL I0P J0JAL Ah0 AVLPACL C0SJS
ILe following figures presenL LLe approacL Lo calculaLe exLernal cosLs of up- and down-
sLream processes as well as nuclear risks:

62j
uP- Ah0 00whSIkfAH Pk0ffSSfS
1. Step: Identification of relevant processes
- vehicle production/maintainance/disposal
- direct vehicle use
- precombustion
- infrastructure
- CO, PM10
- for all vehicle types
2
2. Step: Emissions of direct use as percentage of
total process
"Precombustion" of electric traction already
considered
3. Step: Railway correction
Ecoinvent 2000
Air Pollution and
Climate Change Costs per vehicle km and pass./ton km
4. Step: Aggregation / Shadow Costs
Ecoinvent 2000

f!gure 10 rocedure or Lhe esLinaLion o exLernal cosLs o oLher up- and downsLrean processes
Regarding air polluLion cosLs of up- and downsLream processes, only PH10 emissions Lave
been Laken inLo accounL (previous sLudy PH10 and u0
x
) due Lo LLe facL LLaL PH10 was LLe
indicaLor polluLanL of LLe air polluLion cosL calculaLion for all LransporL means. Pue Lo iLs
low mobiliLy, LLe place wLere PH10 emissions occur is imporLanL. psLream processes like
mining for basic maLerials ofLen Lake place in remoLe areas wLere very few people are
affecLed by LLese emissions. ILe same is Lrue for oLLer processes in LLe life cycle. ILere-
fore we weigLLed PH10 emissions of differenL up- and downsLream processes wiLL plausi-
ble facLors in order noL Lo overesLimaLe air polluLion cosLs.
ClimaLe cLange cosLs of up- and downsLream processes are calculaLed wiLL LLe 'ClimaLe
CLange Scenario BigL'.

j63
fXIfkhAL f0SIS 0f hufLfAk kISkS
2. Step: Railway energy consumption per country
1. Step: Countrywise electricity production mix
Energy Production
(0.035 EURO per kWh)
3. Step: Shadow price for nuclear risks
(Passenger / Freight)
4. Step: Aggregation and Allocation
UIC
UCPTE
INFRAS/Econcept/
Prognos (1996)
Traffic Volume
f!gure 11 rocedure or Lhe esLinaLion o exLernal cosLs o nuclear risks.
Based on LLe meLLodology described in LLe cLapLer of air polluLion and climaLe cLange,
specific sLadow facLors (according Lo LLe percenLages of indirecL emissions) are used in
order Lo esLimaLe exLernal cosLs. ILe following Lable sLows LLe mosL imporLanL relaLions.

ShA00w fAfI0kS f0k 0IfffkfhI uPSIkfAH Pk0ffSSfS
Ih 0I JL PLS. C0SJ CAJLC0PY

A!r poIIut!on
(ercenLage o air polluLion cosLs)
fI!mate change
(ercenLage o clinaLe change cosLs)
assenger Cars 15 21
8uses and Coaches 16 15
HoLorcycles 15 21
L0V 15 18
0V 16 15
Pail assenger 14 30
Pail IreighL 14 30
Air assenger 6 2
Air IreighL 8 3
waLerways LransporL 22 31
IabIe 18 bsed shadow acLors or dierenL upsLrean processes.
64j
2.9.3. P0CL0bPL I0P JL LSJIHAJI0h 0I HAPCIhAL C0SJS
In LLe long run, all esLimaLed cosLs are relevanL, since producLion cycles are dependenL on
LLe Lraffic volume. ILus LLe esLimaLed average cosLs will serve as a basis for LLe esLima-
Lion of long run marginal cosLs. In LLe sLorL run Lowever, only addiLional cosLs of pre-
combusLion are imporLanL, since one can expecL, LLaL LLese cosLs vary direcLly wiLL LLe
use of energy. ILus sLorL Lerm marginal cosLs are based on LLe average cosLs of precom-
busLion (air polluLion, climaLe cLange cosLs and nuclear risks).

2.10. C0hCLSJI0h C0SJS
2.10.1. CLhLPAL AP0AC
ULile all oLLer cosL caLegories considered in LLis sLudy reflecL LLe exLernal cosLs imposed
by LransporL on LLe wLole of socieLy, including inLabiLanLs noL parLicipaLing in LransporL,
congesLion is a pLenomenon wiLLin LLe LransporL secLor. sers muLually disLurb eacL
oLLer, buL do noL impose exLra cosLs on LLe resL of socieLy. Considering delays in freigLL
or business LransporL, wLicL enLail addiLional producLion cosLs Lo cerLain indusLries, LLe
sLippers or LLe business Lraveller is assumed Lo accounL for LLese effecLs and LLus LLey
are noL exLernal. ILerefore, congesLion cosLs musL noL be added up wiLL classical exLer-
naliLies.
ILe overall meLLodology for esLimaLing congesLion cosLs remains uncLanged compared
Lo LLe former sLudy publisLed in HarcL 2000. In inLer-urban road LransporL LLe analysis is
based on Lraffic flow daLa by neLwork secLions provided by LLe uropean LransporL model
VACIAV. rban congesLion is analysed by generalising LLe resulLs of a number of available
urban case sLudies. As in LLe 2000 sLudy, LLe evaluaLion of LLese daLa bases will lead Lo
LLree differenL indicaLors of road Lraffic congesLion:
1. ILe "dead weigLL loss" as LLe neoclassical measure of LLe markeL inefficiency.
ILis measure gives an indicaLion of LLe savings in social cosLs wLicL can be
acLieved by inLernalising user exLernaliLies.
2. An engineering-sLyle delay measure, wLicL compares acLual user cosLs Lo a refer-
ence Ievel-of-Service. 0n LLe one Land LLis measure is arbiLrary as LLere is no
LLeoreLical foundaLion of reference Lraffic condiLions, buL on LLe oLLer Land iL is
easy Lo undersLand by non-economisLs.
3. Revenues expecLed from LLe inLernalisaLion of marginal social cosL prices. ILis
measure is closely linked Lo LLe dead weigLL loss as iL gives an indicaLion on Low
mucL money musL be moved in order Lo geL LLe social surplus calculaLed in (1).
j65
BoLL, Lraffic daLa bases and LLe valuaLion of road Lraffic congesLion Lave been subsLan-
Lially improved during LLe pasL LLree years. ILe new sources will be presenLed in deLail in
LLe following sub-secLions.
Also in LLis updaLe sLudy LLe evaluaLion of Lraffic congesLion is resLricLed Lo road
Lraffic for Lwo reasons: IirsL we imply LLaL in scLeduled services, i.e. in rail and air Lrans-
porL, sysLem operaLors Lry Lo opLimise LLe use of exisLing capaciLy and LLus delay exLer-
naliLies are already inLernalised. Second, for rail and air Lraffic no daLa on LLe relaLionsLip
beLween Lraffic volumes and average delay Limes are available, and LLus LLe dead weigLL
loss can noL be compuLed. Bowever, LLe sLudy will compile LLe uII counLry accounLs, in
wLicL delay cosLs for several LransporL modes Lave been presenLed in order Lo give an
impression on LLe order of magniLude of delays across modes.

2.10.2. VALbAJI0h ISSbLS
ILe cosLs affecLed by decreasing levels of service in road Lraffic are Lime cosLs and veLicle
operaLing cosLs, wLere Lime consumpLion clearly represenLs LLe dominaLing cosL elemenL.
In LLe uII projecL LLree recenL sLudies on LLe valuaLion of Lravel Lime Lad been se-
lecLed and compiled in order Lo receive a consisLenL valuaLion concepL for LLe user cosL
and benefiL case sLudies as well as for LLe valuaLion of Lraffic delays wiLLin LLe 18 counLry
accounLs. ILese cores sLudies are:
ILe L value of Lime sLudy carried ouL by LLe Bague ConsulL 0roup in 1994 (0unn and
RoLr 1996).
ILe 1995J1996 Value of Iime sLudy in LLe ueLLerlands, conducLed by LLe Bague ConsulL
0roup (0unn eL al. 1999)
ILe SwedisL value of Lime sLudy commissioned by LLe SwedisL InsLiLuLe for IransporL
and CommunicaLion Analysis (SILA) and financed by LLe SwedisL CommunicaLion and
ResearcL Board, LLe uaLional Road AdminisLraLion and LLe uaLional Rail AdminisLraLion
(Algers eL al. 1995, Algers eL al. 1996).
IurLLer informaLion Las been included on LLe values of freigLL LransporL of various modes
(Joung 1996) and on air Lravel found by LLe uI projecL (uellLLorp eL al. 1998). ILe
resulLs of LLe differenL sLudies were compiled by LransporL secLor and were updaLed Lo
1998. Iable 19 presenLs LLe comparison and LLe selecLed values for LLe uII projecL. Ior
LLis sLudy LLe uII values are applied afLer updaLing LLem Lo LLe year 2000.

66j
Iransport segment
hf6
1994
hf6
1998
hf6
1998 SIkA fuhfI uhIIf
bK hL hL SL Lb Lb
1994 1997 1997 1996 1995 1998
Passenger transport - v0I per person-hour
Car J noLorcycle 6.70 9.31
8usiness 21.23 21.00 11.95 21.00
ConnuLing J privaLe 5.53 6.37 3.91 6.00
leisure J holiday 3.79 5.08 3.10 4.00
Coach (InLer-urban) 7.47
8usiness 21.23 21.00
ConnuLing J privaLe 5.95 5.40 6.00
leisure J holiday 3.08 4.37 4.00
brban bus J Lranway 5.75
8usiness 21.23 21.00
InLer-urban rail 4.97 8.50
8usiness 18.43 11.95 16.00
Air Lraic 40.60
8usiness 16.20 16.20
ConnuLing J privaLe 10.11 10.00
leisure J holiday 10.11 10.00
fre!ght Iransport - v0I per veh!cIe, tra!n, wagon, sh!p and ton-hour
Poad JransporL 36.00 32.60
L0V 45.00 39.68 30.75 40.76
0V 48.00 39.68 30.75 43.47
Pail LransporL
Iull Lrainload 801.00 645.37 725.45
wagon load 32.00 26.16 28.98
Average per Lon 0.83 0.76
Inland navigaLion
Iull ship load 222.00 178.55 201.06
HariLine shipping
Iull ship load 222.00 178.55 201.06
IabIe 19 SelecLed SLudies on Lhe valuaLion o Lravel Line savings (Source: bhIJL)
As LLis sLudy will presenL LLe uII counLry resulLs for delay cosLs in LLe rail and aviaLion
secLor, Iable 19 conLains congesLion cosLs for all LransporL modes. According Lo LLe uII
meLLodology LLese values are Lransferred Lo LLe differenL counLries using 0PP per capiLa
figures. ILis approacL will be modified according Lo LLe meLLodology used in LLis sLudy
by including naLional values on LLe purcLasing power pariLy (PPP).

j61
2.10.3. IhJLP-bP8Ah JPAIIIC 0AJA8ASL
PaLa on road Lraffic volumes and on road capaciLies is Laken from LLe neLwork daLabase of
LLe uropean LransporL model VACIAV. ILe daLabase conLains all moLorways and mosL of
oLLer inLer-urban roads, wLicL are relevanL for inLer-regional Lraffic for 25 uropean
counLries. Bowever, LLe neLwork densiLy varies considerably beLween LLe counLries. ULile
LLe digiLised neLworks are very dense for 0ermany and LLe Benelux counLries, souLLern
urope, LLe BriLisL islands, Ireland and LLe Scandinavian counLries consisL of only basic
neLworks. ILis imbalance impacLs LLe ouLpuL of LLe congesLion esLimaLion Lo a LigL ex-
Lend and musL be considered carefully wLen inLerpreLing LLe resulLs. As LLe represenLa-
Lion of LLe naLional moLorway neLworks is equally good in LLe 17 counLries considered in
LLis sLudy, LLe resulLs are presenLed by road class Lo supporL LLe inLerpreLaLion process.
ILe Lraffic volumes on LLe neLwork are available for LLe caLegories passenger cars,
buses and goods veLicles. ILey Lave been produced by LLe Lraffic generaLion, disLribuLion
and assignmenL module of LLe VACIAV model. Ior LLe calibraLion of LLese assignmenL
resulLs u Lraffic counLs in combinaLion wiLL naLional sLaLisLics on link-specific volumes
and overall LransporL indicaLors Lad been used. Iigure 12 depicLs LLe neLwork densiLy of
LLe VACIAV daLabase.

f!gure 12 VACLAV Lraic neLwork and load daLabase (Source: Iww)
68j
ILe road links are encoded by LLe US road Lype, wLicL is Laken from LLe 0erman manual
for LLe economic assessmenL of road invesLmenL projecL US (I0SV 1997). ILis classifica-
Lion provides wiLL LLe basic road Lype (moLorway, Lrunk roads, urban collecLors and local
sLreeLs), LLe number of lanes per direcLion and LLe exisLence of emergency lanes. Ior
LLese road Lypes several seLs of speed flow relaLionsLips exisL, wLicL allow Lo esLimaLe LLe
Lravel speeds for various veLicle classes as a funcLion of Lraffic volume. ILe mosL recenL
speed-flow relaLionsLips in 0ermany are provided by LLe US manual, buL in LLe federal
invesLmenL plan 2003-2010 sLill LLe official funcLions defined in LLe 1980s are applied
(I0SV 2001). Iigure 13 compares LLese funcLions for a Lwo lane moLorway wiLL LLe speed-
flow curves provided by LLe L C0BA manual and wiLL a IRuu-sLyle funcLion (compare
ProosL eL al. 1999). According Lo LLe 0erman Hanual on Road Pesign "BBS" (I0SV 2001)
LLe qualiLy of Lraffic can be described by six service levels (I0S) from "A" (no muLual in-
Lerference of drivers) Lo "I" (congesLion) as a funcLion of Lraffic volume. Iigure 13 depicLs
LLe I0S-classificaLion of LLe US speed flow curve.

Speed-flow realtionships and the LOS concept
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Traffic volume (PCU / h and direction)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

s
p
o
e
e
d

(
k
p
h
)
German EWS-function
German RAS-W-function
UK COBA function
TRENEN-style function
LOS
A
LOS
B
LOS
C
LOS
D
LOS
E
LOS
F
LOS B
LOS A
LOS C
LOS D
LOS E
LOS F

f!gure 13 Jravel speed and Level o Service or passenger cars on a Lhree lane noLorway using dierenL speed-low
curves (Source: Iww)
UiLLin LLis sLudy US-funcLions are cLosen as LLey represenL LLe mosL recenL besL mod-
ern driving beLaviour. AlLLougL iL is acknowledged LLaL across urope drivers beLave
differenLly, for reasons of simpliciLy iL is assumed LLaL LLe US funcLions are more or less
valid for in all counLries invesLigaLed in LLis sLudy. ILe LransformaLion of LLe average
daily Lraffic volumes provided by LLe VACIAV daLabase inLo Lourly Lraffic volumes is car-
ried ouL using Lypical Lraffic paLLerns for eacL road Lype and for eacL veLicle caLegory
j69
provided by LLe 0erman Iederal BigLway ResearcL InsLiLuLe (BASL). Irom LLese paLLerns
depicLed in Iigure 14 we selecL paLLern B for passenger cars on moLorways, paLLern A for
passenger cars on oLLer roads and paLLern P for goods veLicles on all inLer-urban roads.

Typical patterns of traffic demand
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour of day
S
h
a
r
e

o
f

d
a
y
l
y

t
r
a
f
f
i
c

v
o
l
u
m
e

(
%
)
A: Distinct morning peak
B: Predominant morning peak; increasing traffic volume in the afternoon
C: Moderate morning- and afternoon peak
D: Constant traffic volume during the day
E: First rise of traffic volume in the morning, then further increase until the afternoon peak
F: Increase of traffic volume during the day until the very distinct afternoon peak

f!gure 14 Jypical Lraic paLLerns in road LransporL
UiLL LLis InformaLion LLe neLwork flow daLa can now be decomposed inLo veLicle kilo-
meLres per day in eacL I0S-clusLer. Ior eacL service level LLe dead weigLL loss as LLe pri-
mary ouLpuL of LLe congesLion analysis is compuLed in Lime uniLs per veLicle kilomeLre as
described in LLe inLroducLion Lo LLis secLion. sing LLe valuaLion of Lravel Lime and oper-
aLing cosLs according Lo SecLion 2.10.2 and informaLion on LLe mix of Lraffic Lypes and
Lravel purposes by road Lype and counLry, LLe overall dead weigLL loss per link can even-
Lually be compuLed.
A furLLer sensiLive parameLer for compuLing LLe dead weigLL loss is LLe elasLiciLy of
LransporL demand. As LLere are no new researcL resulLs known, we use LLe value of -0.3 as
Lad been done in LLe 2000-sLudy. UiLL LLis value, LLe acLual Lraffic volume and LLe
speed-flow relaLionsLips we now can compuLe LLe opLimal Lraffic volume as LLe inLersec-
Lion of LLe demand funcLion and LLe marginal social cosL curve. ILe dead weigLL loss LLen
resulLs as LLe inLegral of LLe gap beLween LLe marginal social cosLs curve and LLe demand
curve from LLe opLimal Lo LLe acLual Lraffic volume. ILis procedure is carried ouL for eacL
link and eacL Lime segmenL.
10j
ILe reference Lravel speed for esLimaLing delay cosLs is deLermined by rouLe searcL algo-
riLLms, wLicL are available for Lour planning in LLe inLerneL. Bere we find a reference
Lravel speed of 120 kpL on moLorways and 60 kpL on oLLer inLer-urban roads.
ILe expecLed revenues are compuLed as LLe difference beLween LLe marginal social cosLs
and LLe average user cosLs aL LLe opLimal Lraffic volume Limes LLe opLimal number of us-
ers.

2.10.4. bP8Ah C0hCLSJI0h
ILe meLLodology for esLimaLing urban congesLion cosLs used in LLis updaLe sLudy is
somewLaL differenL from LLe approacL of LLe lasL sLudy. IirsL, LLe I0S concepL is Lrans-
laLed Lo urban roads using LLe respecLive speed-flow curves. ILe sLare of veLicle kilome-
Lres performed under eacL I0S clusLer LLan is esLimaLed by compiling LLe following daLa
sources:
ILe 0CP invesLigaLion on susLainable urban LransporL, wLicL conLains daLa on Lravel
speeds in some sample ciLies in peak and in LLe off-peak period (0CP 1995).
ILe resulLs of LLe four uII case sLudies on urban congesLion in LLe morning peak Lraf-
fic of Brussels, Belsinki, dinburgL and Salzburg (uII 2002d).
ILe sLare of veLicle kilomeLres performed under conLesLed condiLions in urban Lraffic
reporLed by LLe uII counLry accounLs.
In conLrasL Lo LLe deLailed meLLodology carried ouL for moLorways and oLLer inLer-urban
roads, for urban congesLion only Lwo Ievel-of-Service condiLions, wLicL are "congesLed"
(I0S-) and "normal" (I0S-B) are disLinguisLed.
IoLal Lraffic volumes in urban areas by veLicle Lype are derived from LLe IRuPS daLabase
for eacL counLry.

2.10.5. C0SJ ALL0CAJI0h
ILe allocaLion of LoLal congesLion cosLs Lo veLicle Lypes is carried ouL by LLe concepL PC
(Passenger Car quivalenL) facLors. ILese facLors are Laken from laLesL researcL in 0er-
many (PrognosJIUU 2002) and in LLe niLed SLaLes (IBUA 1997) and are used Lo weigLL
eacL veLicle Lype's Lraffic volume in proporLion Lo LLe road capaciLy occupied by iL. ILe
PC-facLors for goods veLicles vary beLween 1.5 for I0Vs in urban areas and 3.5 for B0Vs
on inLer-urban roads. ILe deLailed values used in LLis sLudy are sLown in Iable in LLe
Annex Lo LLis reporL.

j11
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | kfSuLIS 2000: I0IAL Ah0 AvfkA6f f0SIS
3. kfSuLIS 2000: I0IAL Ah0 AvfkA6f f0SIS
11

3.1. 0VLPVILw: J0JAL Ah0 AVLPACL C0SJS 2000
ILe following Lables and figures sLow LLe overall resulLs of LLe updaLe sLudy. Ior a com-
parison wiLL LLe resulLs of LLe lasL sLudy (IuIRASJIUU 2000) please refer Lo cLapLer 5.1
(page 107).

Acc!dent and env!ronmentaI costs 2000
ILe following figures presenL LLe resulLs for LoLal and average cosLs for 2000. q~=J
~==(excluding congesLion cosLs, wiLL climaLe cLange LigL scenario) amounL Lo
650 billion uros for 2000, being 7.3! of LLe LoLal 0PP in 17. ClimaLe cLange is LLe
mosL imporLanL cosL caLegory wiLL 30! of LoLal cosL, if LigL sLadow prices are used. Air
polluLion and accidenL cosLs amounL Lo 27! and 24! respecLively. ILe cosLs for noise and
up- and downsLream processes eacL accounL for 7! of LoLal cosLs. ILe cosLs for naLure and
landscape and addiLional urban effecLs are of minor imporLance (5!). ILe mosL imporLanL
mode is road LransporL, causing 83.7! of LoLal cosL, followed by air LransporL, causing
14! of LoLal exLernal cosLs. Railways (1.9!) and waLerways (0.4!) are of minor impor-
Lance. Iwo LLirds of LLe cosLs are caused by passenger LransporL and one LLird by freigLL
LransporL.

17 All igures in Lhis chapLer relecL Lhe clinaLe change high scenario (140 Luro per Lonne o C02).
12j
I0IAL f0SIS Ih 2000 8 f0SI fAIf60k & IkAhSP0kI H00f
[nillion LuroJyear|

koad

ka!I

Av!at!on
water-
borne

LoLal
IreighL
LoLal
AccidenLs 156'439 24 114'191 965 21'238 8'229 10'964136'394 19'194 262 0 590 0 0
hoise 45'644 7 19'220 510 1'804 7'613 11'264 21'533 18'877 1'354 782 2'903 195 0
Air ollu-
Lion
174'617 27 46'721 8'290 433 20'431 88'407 55'444108'838 2'351 2'096 3'875 360 1'652
ClinaLe
Change
igh
195'714 30 64'812 3'341 1'319 13'493 29'418 69'472 42'911 2'094 800 74'493 5'438 506
`~=
`~=
i=
NF
=
EOTDVRVF EQF= EVDORVF EQTTF ENUUFENDVOUF EQOMPF EVDVORF ESDNPMF=EOVVF ENNQF=ENMDSQOFETTTF ETOF
haLure &
Landscape
20'014 3 10'596 276 233 2'562 4'692 11'105 7'254 202 64 1'211 87 91
bp-J0own-
sLrean
2)

47'376 7 19'319 1'585 335 5'276 16'967 21'240 22'243 1'140 608 1'592 170 383
brban
LecLs
10'472 2 5'782 147 127 1'220 2'634 6'112 3'797 426 137 0 0 0
JoLal
Lb17
3)

650'275 100 280'640 15'114 25'491 58'824 164'346321'301223'114 7'828 4'487 84'664 6'250 2'632
IabIe 20 JoLal exLernal cosLs o LransporL in Lhe Lb17 counLries.
Penarks:
1) ClinaLe change cosLs or Lhe clinaLe change low scenario wiLh a shadow value o 20J L C0
2
(or inornaLion only,
values noL used Lo calculaLe LoLal cosLs).
2) ClinaLe change cosLs o up- and downsLrean processes are calculaLed wiLh Lhe shadow value o Lhe clinaLe change
high scenario (140JL C0
2
).
3) JoLal cosLs calculaLed wiLh Lhe clinaLe change high scenario.

j13
I0IAL fXIfkhAL f0SIS 2000 (LXCLb0IhC C0hCLSJI0h)
0
50'000
100'000
150'000
200'000
250'000
300'000
Car 8us HC L0V 0V Pail
ass.
Pail
IreighL
AviaLion
ass.
AviaLion
IreighL
waLer-
borne
Hill. per year
AccidenLs hoise
brban LecLs bp- and 0ownsLrean rocesses
INFRAS
15'000
25'000
59'000
164'000
8'000
4'000
85'000
6'000
3'000
281'000
f!gure 15 JoLal exLernal cosLs 2000 (Lb 17) by LransporL neans and cosL caLegory.
^~= are expressed in uro per 1'000 pkm and Lkm. UiLLin LLe passenger Lrans-
porLaLion secLor, passenger cars reacL 76 uro (LigL scenario). Railway cosLs amounL Lo
22.9 uro, wLicL is 3.3 Limes lower LLan cosLs for LLe road secLor. HosL imporLanL for LLe
railway secLor are LLe effecLs on air polluLion, climaLe cLange and noise. Ior LLe aviaLion
secLor, LLe predominanL cosL caLegory is climaLe cLange.

14j
AvfkA6f f0SIS Ih 2000 8 f0SI fAIf60k & IkAhSP0kI H00f
Poad Pail Poad Pail
Car 8us HC ass.
LoLal

Avia-
Lion
0ver-
all
L0V 0V JoLal
Avia-
Lion
waLer-
borne
0ver-
all

AccidenLs 30.9 2.4 188.6 32.4 0.8 0.4 22.3 35.0 4.8 7.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.5
hoise
1)
5.2 1.3 16.0 5.1 3.9 1.8 4.2 32.4 4.9 7.4 3.2 8.9 0.0 7.1
Air olluLion 12.7 20.7 3.8 13.2 6.9 2.4 10.0 86.9 38.3 42.8 8.3 15.6 14.1 38.5
ClinaLe
Change igh
17.6 8.3 11.7 16.5 6.2 46.2 23.7 57.4 12.8 16.9 3.2 235.7 4.3 16.9
`~=
`~=i
OF
=
EOKRF ENKOF ENKTF EOKQF EMKVF ESKSF EPKQF EUKOF ENKUF EOKQF EMKRF EPPKTF EMKSF EOKQF
haLure &
Landscape
2.9 0.7 2.1 2.6 0.6 0.8 2.0 10.9 2.0 2.9 0.3 3.8 0.8 2.6
bp-J0own-
sLrean
3)

5.2 3.9 3.0 5.0 3.4 1.0 3.9 22.4 7.4 8.8 2.4 7.4 3.3 8.0
brban LecLs 1.6 0.4 1.1 1.5 1.3 0.0 1.1 5.2 1.1 1.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 1.3
JoLal Lb 17
4)
76.0 37.7 226.3 76.4 22.9 52.5 67.2 250.2 71.2 87.8 17.9 271.3 22.5 80.9
IabIe 21 Average exLernal cosLs o LransporL in Lhe Lb17 counLries
Penarks:
1) Jhe nodal dierences in noise cosLs are direcLly relaLed Lo Lhe naLional noise exposure daLabases used and Lhus
nighL be subjecL Lo dierenL ways o noise exposure neasurenenL.
2) Average clinaLe change cosLs or Lhe low scenario (or inornaLion only, values noL used Lo calculaLe LoLal cosLs))
3) ClinaLe change cosLs o up- and downsLrean processes are calculaLed wiLh Lhe shadow value o Lhe 'ClinaLe Change
igh Scenario'
4) JoLal average cosLs calculaLed wiLh Lhe clinaLe change high scenario.
5) hoise cosLs or reighL Lrains nighL be under-esLinaLed as Lhe sinpliied Lraic allocaLion procedure applied did
allocaLe nosL reighL Lrains Lo dayLine Lraic.
j15
AvfkA6f fXIfkhAL f0SIS: PASSfh6fk 2000 (LXCLb0IhC C0hCLSJI0h)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
80
Car 8us Pail AviaLion
per 1000 pkn
AccidenLs hoise
INFRAS
76.0
37.7
22.9
52.5
f!gure 16 Average exLernal cosLs 2000 (Lb 17) by neans o LransporL and cosL caLegory: assenger LransporL. Jhe
high value o clinaLe change cosLs in aviaLion is due Lo Lhe higher global warning eecL o aviaLion's C0
2
enissions
aL high alLiLude during lighL (acLor 2.5 used conpared Lo Lhe inpacLs o C0
2
enissions on Lhe earLh surace, based
on ICC 1999).

16j
AvfkA6f fXIfkhAL f0SIS: fkfI6hI 2000 (LXCLb0IhC C0hCLSJI0h C0SJS)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Poad IreighL Pail AviaLion waLerborne
per 1000 Lkn
AccidenLs hoise
INFRAS
87.8
17.9
271.3
22.5
f!gure 11 Average exLernal cosLs 2000 (Lb 17) by LransporL neans and cosL caLegory: IreighL LransporL.
In LLe =, LLe average cosLs of air LransporL are significanLly LigLer LLan LLe
cosLs of all oLLer means of LransporL. ILis is especially due Lo LLe facL LLaL freigLL load
(in Lonnes) differs from mode Lo mode. Aeroplanes for example LransporL LigL qualiLy
freigLL of low specific weigLL. ILe cosLs for BPV (Leavy duLy veLicles) amounL Lo 71.2
uro per 1'000 Lkm, wLicL is 4 Limes LigLer LLan LLe cosL for railways (ClimaLe cLange
LigL scenario).

ILe following Lables and figures presenL resulLs per counLry. uoLe LLaL LLe accuracy level
for disaggregaLed resulLs in general is considerably lower LLan on aggregaLe (i.e. -
level).
j11
I0IAL f0SIS Ih 2000 8 f0uhIk & IkAhSP0kI H00f (uPPfk 80uh0}
[nillion LuroJyear|
koad

ka!I

Av!at!on
wa-
ter-
borne

LoLal
IreighL
LoLal
AusLria 16'573 2.5 7'365 211 803 369 6'270 8'379 6'639 120 152 1'209 46 28
8elgiun 22'293 3.4 10'884 261 348 1'500 5'846 11'493 7'346 243 125 2'482 451 152
0ennark 11'084 1.7 4'064 630 158 572 3'623 4'852 4'196 220 61 1'584 173 0
Iinland 7'257 1.1 3'606 353 49 542 1'534 4'008 2'077 73 103 944 43 10
Irance 87'495 13.5 35'446 2'088 2'638 15'120 18'855 40'172 33'975 729 549 11'085 817 169
Cernany 149'054 22.9 70'789 2'922 4'554 7'076 43'725 78'266 50'801 2'409 1'496 13'653 1'255 1'174
Creece 13'528 2.1 4'358 218 1'630 1'803 3'148 6'206 4'951 51 5 2'214 101 0
Ireland 6'831 1.1 2'641 190 88 430 2'132 2'919 2'562 40 19 1'220 70 0
ILaly 95'238 14.6 42'073 2'466 9'918 7'199 24'937 54'457 32'137 1'064 490 6'730 355 4
Luxenb'g 1'566 0.2 681 54 28 31 443 762 473 16 18 129 155 12
heLherl. 30'468 4.7 9'679 388 669 33 10'947 10'736 10'979 363 51 6'428 835 1'076
horway 7'860 1.2 3'758 400 160 496 1'468 4'319 1'965 87 60 1'383 46 0
orLugal 12'717 2.0 3'779 202 1'232 1'422 4'223 5'213 5'645 112 57 1'623 67 0
Spain 58'161 8.9 21'008 590 1'549 13'158 11'992 23'146 25'150 367 178 9'140 180 0
Sweden 13'686 2.1 6'375 669 177 909 3'359 7'221 4'267 93 182 1'803 120 1
SwiLzerl. 13'845 2.1 6'618 283 491 562 2'053 7'393 2'615 193 204 3'262 180 0
bK 102'619 15.8 47'580 3'191 986 7'564 19'773 51'758 27'337 1'649 737 19'776 1'356 6
Lb17 650'275 100 280'640 15'114 25'491 58'824 164'346 321'301 223'114 7'828 4'487 84'664 6'250 2'632
IabIe 22 JoLal exLernal cosLs o LransporL 2000 (Lb 17) by counLry wiLh shadow value or clinaLe change o 140 JL
C0
2
.

18j
I0IAL f0SIS Ih 2000 8 f0uhIk & IkAhSP0kI H00f (uPPfk 80uh0}
0 20'000 40'000 60'000 80'000 100'000 120'000 140'000 160'000
AusLria
8elgiun
0ennark
Iinland
Irance
Cernany
Creece
Ireland
ILaly
Luxenb'g
heLherl.
horway
orLugal
Spain
Sweden
SwiLzerl.
bK
Hil. per year
Poad ass. Poad IreighL Pail ass. Pail IreighL
AviaLion ass. AviaLion IreighL waLerborne
INFRAS
f!gure 18 JoLal exLernal cosLs o LransporL 2000 (Lb 17) by counLry (shadow value or clinaLe change: 140 JL C0
2
).

j19
AvfkA6f f0SIS Ih 2000 8 f0uhIk & IkAhSP0kI H00f (uPPfk 80uh0}
Poad Pail Poad Pail
Car 8us HC ass.
LoLal

Avia-
Lion
0ver-
all
L0V 0V JoLal
Avia-
Lion
wa-
Ler-
borne
0ver-
all

AusLria 71.4 21.6 226.3 71.9 11.7 51.0 64.5 199.6 36.5 38.2 7.9 269.0 13.8 35.2
8elgiun 140.8 27.2 278.2 130.4 27.5 49.9 96.9 267.4 83.6 97.2 16.8 263.6 23.2 89.0
0ennark 62.7 39.7 222.9 59.6 54.0 52.0 57.4 253.3 67.7 75.2 32.1 274.9 0.0 76.0
Iinland 54.9 44.4 109.5 54.2 18.0 54.5 52.7 206.0 62.6 76.5 10.5 285.9 19.1 59.4
Irance 68.6 24.4 255.7 65.5 9.2 52.3 57.5 257.0 81.7 117.4 11.2 274.1 22.1 102.0
Cernany 92.5 34.8 262.6 90.3 31.0 52.0 78.2 271.8 78.4 87.0 19.8 272.8 18.9 75.8
Creece 51.5 12.8 164.8 55.6 30.7 48.7 53.4 187.6 46.5 64.1 35.4 256.8 0.0 65.0
Ireland 94.3 64.6 290.0 93.4 22.9 57.4 77.0 296.8 65.0 74.8 45.9 303.6 0.0 76.0
ILaly 73.7 43.1 212.0 80.7 21.5 58.1 74.1 270.6 78.6 93.4 29.9 297.4 34.8 91.2
Luxenb'g 141.4 127.9 369.8 143.6 32.2 26.9 87.5 322.9 121.6 126.7 27.3 140.6 38.2 113.8
heLherl. 92.5 36.8 293.2 91.4 28.6 56.8 72.0 230.8 75.5 75.6 22.2 299.8 28.6 69.6
horway 75.0 98.9 216.9 78.7 33.5 59.2 71.6 673.6 118.6 149.8 24.6 309.7 0.0 131.8
orLugal 47.0 24.2 236.0 55.5 30.8 47.6 52.8 226.2 61.8 75.6 29.0 251.0 0.0 75.1
Spain 49.0 17.1 231.0 49.3 19.4 50.3 48.7 224.3 54.7 90.5 18.6 264.4 0.0 88.6
Sweden 64.0 77.8 143.3 65.9 18.0 53.9 61.5 197.4 85.9 97.7 10.9 284.9 0.0 75.2
SwiLzerl. 81.7 47.1 245.6 83.1 13.7 52.0 65.4 575.6 143.7 171.3 19.1 275.8 0.0 112.8
bK 84.0 82.3 260.1 85.0 34.9 51.9 70.6 263.3 71.0 88.9 28.8 273.7 30.6 87.1
Lb17 76.0 37.7 226.3 76.4 22.9 52.5 67.2 250.2 71.2 87.8 17.9 271.3 22.5 80.9
IabIe 23 Average exLernal cosLs 2000 (Lb 17) by counLry (shadow value or clinaLe change: 140 JL C0
2
).

3.2. PLSbLJS 2000 LP C0SJ CAJLC0PY
3.2.1. ACCI0LhJ C0SJS
ULile LoLal accidenL cosLs almosL remain uncLanged, average exLernal accidenL cosLs de-
crease significanLly due Lo increasing Lraffic volumes. Average exLernal accidenL cosLs
decrease in road passenger LransporL by 8! and in rail passenger LransporL by 22!.

80j
k0A0 AffI0fhI fAIALIIIfS 1995 Ah0 2000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1000
8000
9000
A
u
s
L
r
i
a
8
e
l
g
i
u
n
0
e
n
n
a
r
k
I
i
n
l
a
n
d
I
r
a
n
c
e
C
e
r
n
a
n
y
C
r
e
e
c
e
I
r
e
l
a
n
d
I
L
a
l
y
L
u
x
e
n
b
'g
h
e
L
h
e
r
l
.
h
o
r
w
a
y
o
r
L
u
g
a
l
S
p
a
i
n
S
w
e
d
e
n
S
w
i
L
z
e
r
l
.
b
K
IaLalaLies
1995 2000 IhIPAS
f!gure 19 Values based on IPJA0, excluding casualLies caused by non-noLorised LransporL.
kAIL AffI0fhI fAIALIIIfS 1995 Ah0 2000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
A
u
s
L
r
i
a
8
e
l
g
i
u
n
0
e
n
n
a
r
k
I
i
n
l
a
n
d
I
r
a
n
c
e
C
e
r
n
a
n
y
C
r
e
e
c
e
I
r
e
l
a
n
d
I
L
a
l
y
L
u
x
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n
b
'g
h
e
L
h
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r
l
.
h
o
r
w
a
y
o
r
L
u
g
a
l
S
p
a
i
n
S
w
e
d
e
n
S
w
i
L
z
e
r
l
.
b
K
IaLalaLies
1995 2000 INFRAS
f!gure 20 IaLaliLies based on a seven years average (1995: 1991-1997, 2000: 1994-2000). Jhe noLiceable increase o
aLaliLy nunbers in Cernany is caused by Lhe ICL accidenL in Lschede in 1998 (wiLh 101 vicLins).
j81
0verall accidenL cosLs increased beLween 1995 and 2000 by 0.5! alLLougL LLe number of
faLaliLies decreased in LLe same period by 12!. ILe mosL imporLanL reasons for LLis devel-
opmenL are:
Increasing numbers of severe injuries,
BigLer ueL producLion losses (in line wiLL growLL of 0PP per capiLa),
Increase of addiLional exLernal cosLs (cosLs for medical care, replacemenL cosLs, adminis-
LraLive cosLs, eLc.) in line wiLL growLL of 0PP per capiLa.

3.2.2. h0ISL C0SJS
In comparison Lo LLe previous sLudy (IuIRASJ IUU 2000) LLe LoLal exLernal noise cosLs
Lave increased drasLically (25!). ULile in LLe previous sLudy abouL 36 billion uros were
accounLed for LoLal exLernal noise cosLs of LransporL, in LLe acLual sLudy abouL 46 billion
uros were calculaLed. ILe resulLs by LransporL mode sLow, LLaL LLe noise cosLs of LLe
rail-ways Lave grown marginally by 10!, wLereas LLe cosLs calculaLed for road and avia-
Lion Lave increased drasLically (road: 26! and air: 23!). ILe allocaLion Lo veLicle
Lypes wiLLin LLe modes Las alLered only sligLLly due Lo cLanges in Lraffic volumes.
ILe marginal increase of exLernal railway noise cosLs is parLly due Lo LLe LecLnical
improvemenLs inLroduced by railway companies and Lrack operaLors (new veLicle fleeL,
noise proLecLion measures eLc.). Bowever, iL musL be considered LLaL LLe daLabase of in-
LabiLanLs exposed Lo LransporL noise Las been subsLanLially alLered for some counLries,
and LLaL LLe cLanges in LoLal noise cosLs are LLus due Lo meLLodological improvemenLs.
ILis Lolds in parLicular Lrue for LLe drasLic increases of exLernal noise cosLs faced by road
and air modes.
ILe reasons for LLe drasLic increases in road and aviaLion noise cosLs can be explained
as follows:
(1) Besides LLe willingness Lo pay (UIP) and LLe valuaLion of morLaliLy and morbidiLy
used for LLe 1995 and 2000 sLudies, LLis sLudy Lakes inLo accounL LLe medical cosLs,
wLicL are caused by Lraffic noise above 65 db(A). ILese cosLs are mainly allocaLed Lo
road Lraffic as LLe sLare of inLabiLanLs exposed Lo railway noise above 65 dB(A) is com-
parably low.
(2) ILe daLa basis is improved wiLL up-Lo-daLe naLional and inLernaLional sLudies on
noise concernmenL (e.g. UB0). In LLe previous sLudy for some counLries (e.g. ILaly)
noise concernmenL was calculaLed by exponenLial smooLLing. HosL of LLese daLa gaps
(esp. for rail and road) can now be filled and LLus give a more realisLic picLure of LLe
82j
real siLuaLion of noise exposure. In mosL cases LLe values, used in LLe old sLudy, for LLe
exposed populaLion by railway noise were Loo LigL, wLile in a number of counLries LLe
sLare of populaLion exposed Lo road and air Lraffic noise Lurned ouL Lo be Loo low.

Ior some modes, average exLernal noise cosLs in passenger and freigLL LransporL are dras-
Lically lower LLan in LLe previous sLudy. ILis developmenL, wLicL is parLicularly obvious
for aviaLion, is driven by LLe increase of LransporL volumes on LLe uropean Lraffic neL-
work beLween 1995 and 2000.
ILere are also side measures, wLicL influence LLis developmenL, e.g.:
BeLLer noise proLecLion (e.g. sound insulaLing windows) and
uew uropean noise legislaLives (improved noise sLandards).

3.2.3. AIP 0LLbJI0h C0SJS
UiLLin passenger LransporL, cars amounL Lo 12.7 uroJ1'000 pkm, wLicL is ca. 1.9 Limes
LigLer LLan rail LransporL. ILis relaLion Las improved Lowards road LransporL due Lo LLe
facL LLaL more and beLLer informaLion regarding non-exLausL emission facLors of passen-
ger road LransporL was available. UiLLin freigLL LransporL, air polluLion cosLs of BPV are
more LLan 4.5 Limes LigLer LLan rail LransporL.
In comparison wiLL 1995 LoLal Air PolluLion cosLs increase by ca. 30!. ILe main rea-
sons are:
Pecreasing exLausL emissions buL increasing non exLausL emissions (in line wiLL Lrans-
porL volume),
0PP adapLaLion of Uillingness Lo pay values per addiLional case (9.5!) wiLL LLe excep-
Lion of LLe risk value.
PopulaLion growLL (1.3!),
uew inLerpreLaLion of LLe relevanL cosL facLors of LLe UB0-sLudy (UB0 1999a-d). ILe
cosLs facLors in LLis sLudy correspond more Lo uropean values LLan Lo Swiss values. As a
consequence LLe value Lransfer procedure Las Lo be modified (-100 insLead of SwiLzer-
land-100).

j83
3.2.4. CLIHAJL CAhCL C0SJS
Comparing LLe average climaLe cLange cosLs, LLe following commenLs can be made:
18

UiLLin passenger LransporL, cars amounL Lo 17.6 uroJ1'000 pkm (upper bound for
sLadow value), wLicL is a liLLle LigLer amounL as LLe air polluLion cosLs. ILe values for
rail passenger LransporL are abouL one-LLird of road passenger LransporL. ILe values re-
sulLing for air passenger LransporL are similar Lo LLose of passenger cars.
UiLLin freigLL LransporL, LLe average values for BPV are more LLan 4 Limes LigLer LLan
LLe values for rail LransporL. Very LigL values (abouL 14 Limes LigLer LLan road freigLL
LransporL) resulL for air freigLL LransporL. Bere as well we Lave Lo consider LLaL LLe indi-
caLor (Lonnes) is noL really comparable, since producLs of LigLer value are usually Lrans-
porLed by air. UaLerborne LransporL also produces raLLer low cosLs per Lonne kilomeLre,
iL being rougLly 1 uro per 1000 Lkm LigLer LLan rail LransporL.
ILe differences beLween LLe counLries also mainly depend on LLe veLicle park (age and
environmenLal performance of LLe park, sLare of diesel) and LLe naLional elecLriciLy mix
(for LLe rail secLor).

Iable 24 sLows LLe increase in LoLal veLicle kilomeLres beLween 1995 and 2000. C0
2
emis-
sions depend direcLly on LLe fuel resp. energy consumpLion of a veLicle. ILis means LLaL
more Lraffic - expressed in veLicle kilomeLres - leads Lo more emissions. 0n LLe oLLer
Land, improved fuel efficiency lead Lo a decrease in energy consumpLion wiLLin road
LransporL over LLe lasL years. In LLe period beLween 1996 and 2001 fuel consumpLion of
passenger cars in urope decreased by around 2.1! per year (BI 2003).

IhfkfASf 0f vkH 8fIwffh 1995 Ah0 2000

koad

ka!I

Av!at!on
ass. LoLal IreighL LoLal JoLal JoLal
Lb17 12 16 7 159
1)

1) Load IacLor AviaLion Lb17: 141 persons per aircraL
IabIe 24
ILis Lrend leads finally Lo LigLer LoLal cosLs wLereas average cosLs remain more or less in
LLe same range for 2000 compared Lo 1995.

18 ClinaLe change high scenario.
84j
AnoLLer reason for LigLer LoLal cosLs is LLaL LLe upper bound of avoidance cosLs is
140 per Lon C0
2
compared Lo 135 per Lon C0
2
in IuIRASJIUU 2000, wLicL is abouL
3.7! more.

3.2.5. C0SJS I0P hAJbPL Ah0 LAh0SCAL
ILe LoLal exLernal cosLs for naLure and landscape are, compared Lo oLLer cosL caLegories
(e.g. climaLe cLange, eLc.), very low. Road LransporL Las more LLan 90! of all arising LoLal
cosLs for naLure and landscape, because of LLe growing road neL in urope. ILe counLries
Irance, 0ermany and ILaly cover more LLen 50! of LLe cosLs.

Comparing LLe average cosLs, LLe following commenLs can be made:
UiLLin passenger LransporL, cars amounL Lo 2.86 uroJ1'000 pkm, wLicL is abouL 5 Limes
LigLer LLan rail. 0ne main reason is LLaL road infrasLrucLure Las increased significanLly
beLween 1950 and Loday, wLereas rail infrasLrucLure remained raLLer sLable.
UiLLin freigLL LransporL, LLe relaLion is even more in favour of rail. Rail cosLs are even
lower LLan waLerborne LransporL, since - as wiLL road LransporL - LLe infrasLrucLure for
waLerborne LransporL Las increased wiLLin LLe lasL decades.
ILe differences beLween LLe counLries are mainly based on LLe increase of infrasLrucLure
beLween 1950 and Loday on LLe one Land and LLe loading facLors of infrasLrucLure on
LLe oLLer Land.

3.2.6. A00IJI0hAL C0SJS Ih bP8Ah APLAS
IoLal addiLional cosLs in urban areas are wiLL a sLare of 2! of LoLal exLernal cosLs a cosL
caLegory of minor imporLance. Road LransporL conLribuLes Lo 95! of LoLal exLernal cosLs in
urban areas wLereas rail LransporL is responsible for LLe remaining 5!. UiLLin LLe cosL
caLegory separaLion cosLs are of major imporLance wiLL a sLare of over 81!. Regarding
average cosLs LLe following can be sLaLed:
UiLLin passenger LransporL, addiLional cosLs in urban areas Lave LLe same level for pas-
senger cars and rail (average cosLs for rail LransporL are ca. 14! lower). ILis is due Lo
LLe facL LLaL LLe deLours due Lo railway lines are bigger, alLLougL LLe absoluLe amounL
is mucL lower. Bowever LLe space availabiliLy for bicycle lanes is only relevanL for road
LransporL. ILey are only relevanL locally. ILe naLional average values are raLLer low.
UiLLin freigLL LransporL, LLe average cosLs of BPVs are 55! Limes LigLer LLan LLe cosLs
for freigLL rail. uo cosLs are occurring for LLe oLLer LransporL means.
j85
ILe differences beLween LLe counLries are mainly based on LLe amounL and LLe sLare of
urban LransporL. ILus counLries like LLe ueLLerlands, L and 0ermany Lave raLLer LigL
average cosLs (for urban populaLion figures refer Lo Iable 45).
In comparison Lo 1995 LoLal exLernal cosLs for addiLional urban effecLs increase by 18!.
ILis is mainly due Lo LLe adapLaLion of uniL cosL facLors and an increase of urban popu-
laLion.

3.2.7. b- Ah0 00whSJPLAH P0CLSSLS
HosL imporLanL are upsLream processes for climaLe cLange cosLs, mainly based on LLe use
of fossil energy for LLe consLrucLion of veLicles and infrasLrucLure. ILey amounL Lo 52!
of LoLal cosLs, wLereas LLe air polluLion cosLs amounL Lo 48!. uuclear power risks Lave a
minor sLare, buL are of special inLeresL Lo rail LransporL. ILey amounL Lo 0.36 billion uro.
Comparing LLe average cosLs, we can sLaLe LLe following imporLanL resulLs:
UiLLin passenger LransporL, upsLream effecLs are LigLer for passenger cars LLan passen-
ger rail, wLereas LLe cosLs for air LransporL are significanLly lower. uuclear power risks
are imporLanL for rail and amounL Lo 17-23! of average cosLs.
UiLLin freigLL LransporL, rail Las abouL 33! of LLe cosLs of BPV. ILe sLare of nuclear
power risks is similar Lo LLose in passenger LransporL. ULereas LLe cosLs for waLerborne
LransporL are very low, LLe LigL level for air freigLL LransporL occurs due Lo LLe low
loading facLors.
ILe differences beLween LLe counLries are mainly based on LLe amounL of mileage and
iniLial air polluLion and climaLe cosLs. ILe nuclear power risks are direcLly based on LLe
railways sLare of elecLriciLy producLion mix.
Compared Lo 1995 cosL for up- and downsLream processes decreased by 16!. ILe main
reason for LLaL is LLe new life cycle assessmenL daLa (coinvenL 2003ab). In addiLion
reducLion facLors for PH10 emissions of up- and downsLream processes Lave been inLro-
duced because LLe populaLion is exposed Lo a lower degree Lo LLese emissions wLicL of-
Len occur in remoLe areas.

3.2.8. C0hCLSJI0h C0SJS
ILe deadweigLL loss as LLe economic measure of LoLal congesLion cosLs, is rougLly Lwice
as LigL (63 billion uro) as LLe figure presenLed in LLe 2000 sLudy (33 billion uro). ILe
reason for LLis drasLic increase is a meLLodological one, as
86j
(1) LLe neLworks of LLe VACIAV Lraffic model are more dense LLan LLe ones used in LLe
2000 sLudy and
(2) Iraffic volumes, wLicL are noL considered by LLe VACIAV model, Lad been included
Lere.
ILe LigLesL sLare of LoLal cosLs is calculaLed for 0ermany, wLicL is on LLe one Land
caused by LLe LigL Lraffic volumes on LLe 0erman neLwork, buL also by LLe LigL qualiLy of
LLe digiLised road neLwork used by LLe LransporL model. Also road freigLL LransporL ac-
counLs only for around 20! of Lraffic demand, iLs congesLion cosLs are close Lo LLose of
passenger veLicles. ILis facL can be explained by LLe comparably LigL use of road capaciLy
by freigLL veLicles.

Besides LLe deadweigLL loss, LLe expecLed revenues from cLarging road Lraffic for conges-
Lion and delay cosLs, wLicL express LLe addiLional resource consumpLion of LransporL,
compared Lo a selecLed reference speed, Lave been calculaLed. ILe resulLs obLained by
using LLe uropean LransporL model VACIAV are presenLed in Iigure 21. IL sLows LLaL LLe
deadweigLL loss as LLe real economic measure of congesLion is only 8! Lo 10! of LLe
cLarging revenues, wLicL reflecL LLe LoLal amounL of money Lo be moved in order Lo re-
move LLe deadweigLL loss. Assuming LLaL LLe cLarge collecLion is associaLed wiLL 5! Lo
15! of LransacLion cosLs iL geLs obvious, LLaL LLe social surplus expecLed from LLe inLer-
nalisaLion of congesLion cosLs ranges in LLe same order of magniLude of LLe cosLs associ-
aLed wiLL iLs acLievemenL. ILus, LLe area-wide inLroducLion of congesLion cLarging sys-
Lems in wLole urope geLs quesLionable. Bowever, in dense Lraffic areas LLe efficiency of
sucL sysLems migLL be more favourable.

j81
0fA0wfI6hI L0SS, fhAk6Ih6 kfvfhufS Ah0 0fLA f0SIS Ih k0A0 IkAhSP0kI 2000
0
50.000
100.000
150.000
200.000
250.000
A
U
S
T
R
I
A
B
E
L
G
I
U
M
D
E
N
M
A
R
K
F
I
N
L
A
N
D
F
R
A
N
C
E
G
E
R
M
A
N
Y
G
R
E
E
C
E
I
R
E
L
A
N
D
I
T
A
L
Y
L
U
X
E
M
B
O
U
R
G
N
E
T
H
E
R
L
A
N
D
S
N
O
R
W
A
Y
P
O
R
T
U
G
A
L
S
P
A
I
N
S
W
E
D
E
N
S
W
I
T
Z
E
R
L
A
N
D
U
N
I
T
E
D

K
I
N
G
D
O
M
M
i
l
l
i
o
n

E
u
r
o
Deadweight loss
Charging revenues
Delay costs

f!gure 21 Conparison o dierenL congesLion cosL neasures or 2000
ILe deadweigLL loss concepL can noL be applied Lo scLeduled LransporL as in LLis case
capaciLy is allocaLed by a cenLral auLLoriLy and LLus congesLion cosLs are noL enLirely
exLernal. Bowever, LLe uII sLudy Las concluded wiLL a number of delay cosL figures for
some uropean counLries. ILey Lave been defined in a very cauLious way in order Lo ap-
proacL LLe deadweigLL loss measure as good as possible. ILe comparison in Iable 25 sLows
LLaL (1) LLe differences of LLe Lwo values for LLe big counLries in road LransporL are in
mosL cases minor and LLaL (2) LLe delay cosLs for rail and air LransporL LogeLLer range aL
abouL 1! Lo 5! of road delay cosLs. Bowever, LLese resulLs musL be considered wiLL care
as LLe meLLodology applied was noL unique in LLe differenL counLry accounLs.

88j
I0IAL f0SIS Ih 2000 8 f0uhIk & IkAhSP0kI H00f
[nillion LuroJyear|

CounLry Jhis sLudy
0eadweighL loss
2000 values in 2000 prices
bhIJL counLry accounLs
0elay cosLs
(1998 values in Luro 1990)
Poad PoadJ Pail Air
AusLria 1'224 1.589 25 57
8elgiun 2'186 32
0ennark 814 407 9 119
Irance 9'500 20.268 133 1.090
Cernany 16'354 17.506 682 147
Creece 931 5.239 36 47
Ireland 337 401
heLherlands 4'263 3.103 45 89
orLugal 666 141 8
Spain 3'880 3.726 10 249
Sweden 761 63 21
SwiLzerland 936 651 65 132
bK 12'108 19.371 185 581
IabIe 25 Conparison Lo Lhe resulLs o Lhe bhIJL counLry accounLs

Average exLernal congesLion cosLs are compuLed by dividing LLe deadweigLL loss per user
group by iLs Lraffic volume. In passenger LransporL LLey are 56! LigLer LLan in LLe previ-
ous sLudy. Besides LLe increase of LransporL volumes on LLe uropean road neLwork be-
Lween 1995 and 2000, LLis developmenL is driven by LLe improved represenLaLion of urban
Lraffic condiLions and by LLe more deLailed encoding of LLe inLer-urban road neLworks
wiLLin LLe VACIAV LransporL model.
In general LLe average cosL resulLs draw a realisLic picLure of LLe uropean road neL-
work condiLions, in LLaL LLe areas along LLe "Blue Banana" (souLLern ngland, LLe Bene-
lux counLries, 0ermany Lo norLLern ILaly) sLow comparably LigL average cosL resulLs.

j89
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | HAk6IhAL f0SIS Ih 0IfffkfhI IkAffIf SIIuAII0hS
4. HAk6IhAL f0SIS Ih 0IfffkfhI IkAffIf SIIuAII0hS

4.1. 0VLPVILw: ACCPLCAJL0 PLSbLJS
ILe following Lable sLows LLe values (LLe ranges respecLively) for all cosL caLegories. ILe
ranges are quiLe significanL, since differenL veLicle caLegories, counLries and Lraffic siLua-
Lions are considered.

A66kf6AIf0 kfSuLIS: HAk6IhAL f0SIS
J1000 pknJLkn
koad

ka!I

Av!at!on
wa-
ter-
borne
Car 8us HC L0V 0V ass. IreighL ass. IreighL IreighL
AccidenLs Harginal 10-90 1-7 36-629 10-110
0.7-
11.8
- - - - -
Average 30.9 2.4 188.6 35.01 4.75 0.74 - 0.37 - 0
hoise
1)
Harginal 0.07-13
0.05-
4.6
0.25-33 2.4-307 0.25-32
0.09-
1.6
0.06-
1.08
0.1-
4.0
0.3-
19.0
0
Average 5.2 1.3 16.0 32.4 4.9 3.9 3.2 1.8 8.9 0.00
Air olluLion Harginal
5.7-
44.9
12-18 3.2 15-100 33.5 5.1 7.4 0.2 1.8 8.8
(only healLh cosLs) Average 10.1 16.9 3.3 77.6 34.0 5.1 7.4 0.2 1.8 8.8
ClinaLe Change Harginal 1.7-27 0.7-9.5
1.7-
11.7
8.2-
57.4
1.8-
12.8
0.3-
7.1
0.4-
5.3
6.6-
46.2
33.7-
235.7
4.3
Average 17.6 8.3 11.7 57.4 12.8 5.9 3.2 46.2 235.7 4.3
haLure & Landscape Harginal 0-2.1 0-1.3 1.9 10.9 0.8
0.7-
1.2
0.1 1.1 6.5 0.8
Average 2.87 0.69 2.07 10.90 2.03 0.58 0.26 0.75 3.77 0.78
brban eecLs Harginal 1.1-9.6 0.1-2.2 0.7-7.1
3.0-
32.3
0.9-7.1 0 0 0 0 0
Average 1.6 0.4 1.1 5.2 1.1 1.3 0.5 0 0 0
bp- and down- Harginal 2.0-4.1 2.6-6.0 1.3-2.7
13.0-
23.4
3.6-7.4
0.9-
8.3
0.2-
1.7
0.8-
0.9
6.3-
8.1
0.8-
1.8
sLrean processes Average 5.2 3.95 2.98 22.44 7.36 3.22 2.44 0.99 7.38 3.27
IabIe 26 Harginal cosLs by cosL caLegory and LransporL nean (Lhe ranges relecL dierenL vehicle caLegories (peLrol,
diesel, elecLriciLy) and Lraic siLuaLions (urban, inLerurban). Ior urban eecLs ranges show dierenL narginal cosLs o
space availabiliLy and (low values) and separaLion cosLs (high values). Ior conparison average values as shown in
chapLer 3 are presenLed or each cosL caLegory.
Penarks:
1) Average and narginal noise cosLs are neasured by dierenL neLhods and Lhus are noL ully conparable. Jhe nar-
ginal values are Lo be undersLood as ranges o usual cosLs. Considerably higher or lower values are possible in parLicu-
lar cases.
If we compare average and marginal cosLs, LLe following general conclusions can be
drawn:
90j
ILe level of marginal and average cosL is comparable. Harginal cosLs are mucL more dif-
ferenLiaLed, since LLey relaLe Lo differenL Lraffic siLuaLions and Lypes of veLicles.
HosL imporLanL for LLe order of magniLude of marginal accidenL cosLs are LLe assump-
Lions concerning LLe level of inLernalisaLion of LLe accidenL risk.
Pue Lo LLeir decreasing cosL funcLion marginal noise cosLs fall below average cosLs for
medium Lo LigL Lraffic volumes. Bowever, in road and air Lraffic LLey may exceed aver-
age cosLs since roads frequenLly lead LLrougL seLLlemenLs and LLe alLernaLion of Lraffic
loads over day vary considerably beLween LLe modes. ILe same Lolds for airporLs, wLere
approacL paLLs ofLen lead direcLly over Lousing areas.
Ior air polluLion, average values are basically similar Lo marginal values due Lo linear
dose response funcLions and model calculaLions. ILere are big differences beLween dif-
ferenL veLicle caLegories.
Ior climaLe cLange, average cosLs are equal Lo marginal cosLs. ILe ranges sLem from
differenL veLicle caLegories.
Ior naLure and landscape, average cosLs are close Lo maximum marginal cosLs. ILis is
plausible since marginal cosLs are mosLly relevanL only in LLe long run.
Harginal cosLs of urban effecLs are generally LigLer LLan average cosLs. BoLL values
sLould be compared carefully since marginal cosLs are calculaLed using only urban Lraffic
volumes wLile average cosLs are calculaLed wiLL naLional Lraffic volumes. Harginal sepa-
raLion cosLs are significanLly LigLer LLan marginal space availabiliLy cosLs.
Ior up- and downsLream processes marginal cosLs are mainly relaLed Lo precombusLion
processes. ILerefore marginal cosLs are generally lower LLan average cosLs wLicL include
as well veLicle and infrasLrucLure relaLed processes (producLion, mainLenance and dis-
posal of rolling sLock and infrasLrucLure). ILus average cosLs are close Lo long run mar-
ginal cosLs.
ILe following cLapLers presenL more deLailed resulLs per cosL caLegory.

4.2. PLSbLJS 2000 LP C0SJ CAJLC0PY
4.2.1. ACCI0LhJ C0SJS
Harginal exLernal accidenL cosLs are LLe cosLs induced by an addiLional veLicle kilomeLre.
ILere are four imporLanL influencing facLors for exLernal accidenL cosLs:
LLe cosLs of an accidenL,
LLe accidenL risk,
LLe proporLion of LLe cosL already born by LLe user,
j91
LLe risk elasLiciLy (cLange in risk as LLe Lraffic volume cLanges).

Ue disLinguisL beLween accidenLs on moLorways, on inLer-urban roads and in urban areas.
In LLe IRIAP daLabase on road accidenLs in urope was used Lo calculaLe average cosLs
wLicL are LLe basis for LLe esLimaLion of marginal cosLs. Pue Lo daLa availabiliLy (lack of
differenLiaLion in LLe IRIAP daLabase as well as missing values for specific counLries and
years) a number of esLimaLions Lad Lo be made.
ILe IRIAP daLabase is incompleLe and many daLa (accidenL disLribuLion as well as veLi-
cle kilomeLre on differenL road Lypes) Lave Lo be esLimaLed
Harginal cosLs are spliL Lo LLe road modes by using LLe same disLribuLion as average
accidenL cosLs.
ILe following Lable sLows LLe range of marginal accidenL cosLs for medium Lraffic flows in
selecLed counLries.

kAh6f 0f HAk6IhAL AffI0fhI f0SIS f0k Hf0IuH IkAffIf fL0wS
LP 1'000 KH J JKH
Hotorways Inter-urban koads urban koads
fars h0v fars h0v fars h0v
Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh
AusLria 9.4 18.0 22.4 0.8 1.5 1.9 24.1 27.6 33.9 2.0 2.3 2.9 34.1 35.2 36.2 2.9 3.0 3.1
8elgiun 11.3 21.7 27.1 1.2 2.4 2.9 60.3 69.0 84.9 6.4 7.3 9.0 122.6 126.4130.2 11.2 11.6 11.9
0ennark 3.6 6.8 8.5 0.4 0.8 1.0 20.3 23.2 28.5 2.4 2.7 3.4 50.7 52.3 53.9 5.4 5.6 5.8
Iinland 3.5 6.8 8.5 0.5 0.9 1.1 20.5 23.5 28.9 2.7 3.1 3.8 6.8 7.0 7.2 0.9 0.9 1.0
Irance 4.1 7.8 9.8 1.0 1.8 2.3 24.9 28.5 35.0 5.8 6.6 8.1 33.5 34.6 35.6 6.7 7.0 7.2
Cernany 5.1 9.7 12.2 0.8 1.5 1.9 34.9 39.9 49.2 5.3 6.1 7.5 87.3 90.0 92.8 11.4 11.8 12.1
Ireland
Pep.
8.0 15.3 19.1 1.0 1.9 2.4 13.8 15.8 19.5 1.8 2.0 2.5 42.7 44.0 45.4 5.4 5.6 5.8
heLher-
lands
3.8 7.4 9.2 0.5 0.9 1.1 34.4 39.3 48.4 4.1 4.7 5.8 93.5 96.4 99.3 9.8 10.1 10.4
Sweden 2.4 4.7 5.9 0.4 0.7 0.9 17.0 19.4 23.9 2.5 2.9 3.5 12.1 12.5 12.9 1.8 1.8 1.9
SwiLzer-
land
3.0 5.9 7.3 0.6 1.1 1.3 31.3 35.8 44.1 5.8 6.6 8.1 35.5 36.6 37.7 6.5 6.7 6.9
bK 4.8 9.2 11.5 0.6 1.1 1.3 28.9 33.1 40.7 3.3 3.8 4.7 33.2 34.2 35.2 3.8 3.9 4.0
IabIe 21
Io improve comparabiliLy wiLL oLLer sLudies, marginal cosLs are expressed in per 1'000
veLicle kilomeLre in LLe following Lable:

92j
kAh6f 0f HAk6IhAL AffI0fhI f0SIS f0k Hf0IuH IkAffIf fL0wS
LP 1'000 VLICLL KIL0HLJPL
Hotorways Inter-urban koads urban koads
fars h0v fars h0v fars h0v
Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh Iow mean h!gh
AusLria 14.2 27.3 34.1 8.7 16.6 20.7 36.7 41.9 51.6 22.3 25.5 31.4 51.8 53.5 55.1 31.6 32.5 33.5
8elgiun 11.3 21.7 27.1 7.5 14.4 18.0 60.3 69.0 84.9 39.1 44.7 55.0 122.6 126.4130.2 69.0 71.1 73.3
0ennark 6.3 12.1 15.1 4.0 7.6 9.5 35.8 40.9 50.4 23.1 26.4 32.4 89.5 92.3 95.1 52.3 53.9 55.6
Iinland 5.0 9.5 11.9 3.4 6.5 8.1 28.7 32.9 40.4 19.5 22.3 27.4 9.5 9.8 10.1 6.5 6.7 6.9
Irance 7.5 14.5 18.0 5.4 10.5 13.1 46.0 52.6 64.8 32.9 37.6 46.3 62.0 63.9 65.9 38.4 39.6 40.8
Cernany 7.1 13.6 17.0 4.5 8.6 10.7 48.9 55.9 68.8 30.6 35.0 43.0 122.2 126.0 129.9 65.4 67.5 69.5
Ireland
Pep.
11.2 21.6 26.9 8.8 16.9 21.1 19.5 22.3 27.5 15.3 17.5 21.5 60.2 62.1 64.0 47.2 48.7 50.1
heLher-
lands
6.2 12.0 14.9 3.9 7.5 9.4 55.9 63.8 78.6 35.8 41.0 50.4 151.9 156.6 161.3 85.2 87.9 90.5
Sweden 3.9 7.6 9.5 2.5 4.9 6.1 27.4 31.3 38.5 17.5 20.0 24.6 19.5 20.1 20.7 12.5 12.9 13.3
SwiLzer-
land
5.1 9.8 12.2 3.1 6.0 7.5 52.3 59.8 73.6 32.3 36.9 45.5 59.3 61.2 63.0 36.6 37.8 38.9
bK 7.7 14.9 18.6 4.5 8.6 10.7 46.6 53.2 65.5 26.9 30.8 37.9 53.4 55.0 56.7 30.9 31.8 32.8
IabIe 28
ILe influence of Lraffic volumes on accidenL risks and accidenL cosLs is noL yeL clear. Pif-
ferenL sLudies indicaLe LLaL accidenL risks decline wiLL increasing Lraffic volumes. ILe
following Lable gives an overview on marginal accidenL cosLs from differenL uII case
sLudies (see Iindberg 2002 for deLails):

j93
HAk6IhAL fXIfkhAL AffI0fhI f0SIS
PLSbLJS 0I SLLLCJL0 bhIJL CASL SJb0ILS
veh!cIe category AII roads Hotorways Inter-urban
koads
urban koads
kesuIts for Sw!tzerIand, [vkm
Cars 0.012 0.003 0.016 0.042
HoLorcycles 0.080 0.002 0.055 0.309
Coaches 0.132 0.009 0.208 0.774
brban ublic LransporL 0.025 - 0.039 0.047
L0V 0.014 0.003 0.021 0.053
0V 0.018 0.003 0.027 0.107
Sweden h0v, [vkm
Sweden average ~12L 0.0084 - - -
12L - 14.9L (2) (-0.00081) - - -
15L - 18.9 L (3) 0.0062 - - -
19L - 22.9 L (4) 0.0074 - - -
23L - 26.9L (5) 0.0081 - - -
27L - 30.9L (6) 0.016 - - -
Above 31 L (7) 0.032 - - -
IabIe 29 Source: Lindberg 2002, Sonner eL al. 2002.
ILe resulLs of LLe uII case sLudies are in LLe same order of magniLude buL generally
lower LLan LLe resulLs of our calculaLions. HosL imporLanL are LLe assumpLions concerning
LLe inLernalisaLion of LLe accidenL risk. ILe above presenLed uII resulLs for SwiLzer-
land are based on LLe assumpLion LLaL LLe causer of an accidenL normally bears only Lis
consequences of LLe accidenL, buL noL (or jusL parLly) LLe cosLs of LLe non-responsible
vicLims. If LLe average accidenL risk is considered Lo be inLernalised (because LLe Lrans-
porL users are supposed Lo be aware of LLe average risk), LLe resulL - due Lo LLe under
proporLional increase in LLe number of accidenLs and LLe facL LLaL paymenLs of insurances
and social securiLy Lo Lraffic accidenL vicLims and LLeir dependenLs respecLively - are
negaLive marginal cosLs in LLe range beLween -0.004 and -0.031 per vkm, according Lo
differenL road Lypes.

4.2.2. h0ISL C0SJS
According Lo LLe meLLodology described in LLe previous sLudy and in CLapLer 2.4 LLe sub-
sequenL secLions sLow LLe resulLs of LLe esLimaLed marginal noise cosLs for cLaracLerisLic
Lraffic siLuaLions for road and rail Lraffic. Ior reasons of simplificaLion LLe marginal cosL
esLimaLes are averaged across Lime of day and Lraffic densiLies. ILe magniLude of LLese
influencing variables can be esLimaLed (cp. IuIRASJ IUU sLudy 2000) as follows:
94j
ILe differences in marginal cosLs beLween day and nigLL Lime sLem from differenL LargeL
levels. Ior a 10 dB(A) reducLion in accepLed noise emissions e.g. marginal noise cosLs
migLL increase by a facLor of 2.5.
A doubling in veLicles per Lour in road, rail or air LransporL leLs marginal noise cosLs de-
crease by approximaLely 30!.
ILe average marginal cosL values esLimaLed for road, rail and air LransporL are presenLed
by LLe following Lable.

HAk6IhAL h0ISf f0SIS 8 H00f Ah0 AkfA 2000

furo [ 1000 vkm furo [ 1000 pkm Heans of
transport Inter-urban urban Inter-urban urban
koad
assenger car 0.14 18.42 0.07 13.16
HoLorcycle 0.28 36.84 0.25 32.89
8us J coach 0.71 92.10 0.05 4.61
L0V 0.71 92.10 2.37 307.01
0V 1.31 169.47 0.25 31.98
ka!I
igh speed rail 28.54 229.18 0.09 0.73
JradiLional rail 32.61 399.10 0.13 1.61
IreighL 34.35 574.64 0.06 1.08
Av!at!on*
assenger 590.04 1'102.79 6.54 16.96
IreighL 590.04 1'102.79 47.19 88.22
waterborne
IreighL 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
IabIe 30 Harginal noise cosLs by node and area 2000 (*Jhe colunns 'inLer-urban' and 'urban' here denoLe shorL- and
long disLance lighLs).
ILe Lable allows LLe following conclusions:
ILe marginal cosL values per Lonne kilomeLre in road Laulage are very LigL compared Lo
LLe marginal cosL values in rail goods LransporL, wLicL is due Lo LLe mucL bigger pack-
age size in rail compared Lo BPV. ILe same conclusion can be drawn for passenger Lrans-
porL, buL LLe resulLs Leavily depend on Lrain occupancy facLors.
Harginal noise cosLs of road LransporL in urban areas are rougLly a facLor 100 LigLer
LLan LLe values obLained in rural areas. Bowever, Lere LLe populaLion densiLies, LLe
sLrucLure of seLLlemenLs and LransporL infrasLrucLure and Lraffic densiLies play a decisive
role for LLe level of naLional (or average) noise cosLs in parLicular cases.
j95
Pue Lo LLese LigL differences of values, a direcL comparison of marginal and average
cosLs is difficulL. Bowever, LLe resulLs indicaLe, LLaL in road LransporL average cosLs are
locaLed beLween marginal cosLs in rural and in urban areas. 0nly in rail LransporL mar-
ginal cosLs are well below average cosLs (across all counLries). Bowever, LLis resulL
sLrongly varies wiLL Lrain occupancy or loading facLors.
ILe noise emissions per passenger or Lonne kilomeLre esLimaLed for air LransporL exceed
LLe values calculaLed for LLe land-based LransporL modes. Bowever, as LLe esLimaLion of
airporL noise emissions is based on average cosLs LLe presenL resulLs need Lo be regarded
wiLL care.
UaLerborne goods LransporL is assumed noL Lo cause noise polluLion.
As noise cosLs are exLremely sensiLive Lo LLe affecLed region an in-depLL analysis of local
condiLions is sLrongly recommended in order Lo make cosL values reliable.

koad transport
ILe Lable below displays LLe social marginal noise cosLs caused by road LransporL veLicles
(in combinaLion wiLL LLe scenarios used for LLe IuIRASJ IUU 2000 sLudy). ILe values are
presenLed in uro per 1000 veLicle, passenger and Lonne kilomeLres for cars, moLorcycles,
buses, IPVs and BPVs. AssumpLions, wLicL are necessary for LLe calculaLion of marginal
cosLs, are Laken from LLe previous sLudy. ILe inLerpreLaLion of LLe calculaLed resulLs can
also be done analogously Lo LLe previous sLudy.
96j
HAk6IhAL h0ISf f0SIS f0k k0A0 IkAffIf Ih 0IfffkfhI IkAffIf SIIuAII0hS
SCLhAPI0S ALPLA0Y bSL0 I0P JL IhIPASJIww 2000 SJb0Y
Harg!naI costs per veh!cIe k!Iometre Harg!naI costs per pass. [ tonne
k!Iometre
Scenar!os
furo [ 1000 vkm furo [ 1000 pkm furo [ 1000
tkm
Area I!me Iraff!c far Hf 8us L0v h0v far Hf 8us L0v h0v
Jhin 0.14 0.28 0.69 0.69 1.27 0.07 0.25 0.05 2.30 0.24 0ay
0ense 0.06 0.13 0.32 0.32 0.58 0.03 0.11 0.02 1.05 0.11
Jhin 0.25 0.50 1.26 1.26 2.31 0.13 0.45 0.08 4.19 0.44
kuraI
highL
0ense 0.12 0.23 0.58 0.58 1.06 0.06 0.21 0.04 1.92 0.20

Jhin 1.19 2.39 5.97 5.97 10.99 0.63 2.13 0.40 19.91 2.07 0ay
0ense 0.43 0.86 2.14 2.14 3.94 0.23 0.77 0.14 7.14 0.74
Jhin 2.18 4.35 10.88 10.88 20.01 1.14 3.88 0.73 36.26 3.78
Sub-
urban
highL
0ense 0.78 1.56 3.90 3.90 7.18 0.41 1.39 0.26 13.01 1.35

Jhin 18.49 36.98 92.45 92.45 170.11 13.21 33.02 4.62 308.18 32.10 0ay
0ense 7.63 15.25 38.13 38.13 70.16 5.45 13.62 1.91 127.11 13.24
Jhin 33.68 67.35 168.38 168.38 309.82 24.05 60.14 8.42 561.26 58.46
urban
highL
0ense 13.89 27.78 69.45 69.45 127.79 9.92 24.80 3.47 231.50 24.11
IabIe 31 Harginal noise cosLs or road Lraic in dierenL Lraic siLuaLions
In general LLe comparison of marginal and average noise cosLs is difficulL as LLey are
compuLed on a very differenL basis. ULile for average cosLs LLe differenL naLional prac-
Lices of esLimaLing LLe number of inLabiLanLs exposed Lo cerLain noise levels and sources
diverges from counLry Lo counLry, LLe scenarios selecLed for esLimaLing marginal cosLs
migLL noL reflecL LLe disLribuLion of Lraffic condiLions in urope adequaLely.

ka!I transport
ILe marginal cosLs of rail passenger and goods LransporL in general sLow a similar picLure
Lo LLe sysLemaLic found in road Lraffic noise. AssumpLions, wLicL are necessary for LLe
calculaLion of marginal cosLs, are Laken from LLe previous sLudy. ILe inLerpreLaLion of LLe
calculaLed resulLs can be also done analogously Lo LLaL reporL.
j91
HAk6IhAL h0ISf f0SIS f0k kAIL IkAffIf Ih 0IfffkfhI IkAffIf SIIuAII0hS
SCLhAPI0S ALPLA0Y bSL0 I0P JL IhIPASJIww 2000 SJb0Y
Harg!naI costs per tra!n k!Iometre Harg!naI costs per pass. [ tonne
k!Iometre
Scenar!os
furo [ 1000 vkm furo [ 1000 pkm furo [
1000 tkm
Area I!me Iraff!c hSI IkI fI hSI IkI fI
Jhin 25.2 28.8 30.3 0.08 0.12 0.06 0ay
0ense 15.3 17.4 18.4 0.05 0.07 0.03
Jhin 45.9 52.4 55.2 0.15 0.21 0.10
kuraI
highL
0ense 27.8 31.8 33.5 0.09 0.13 0.06

Jhin 174.0 198.9 209.5 0.56 0.80 0.40 0ay
0ense 106.1 121.2 127.7 0.34 0.49 0.24
Jhin 316.9 362.2 381.5 1.01 1.46 0.72
Suburban
highL
0ense 193.1 220.7 232.5 0.62 0.89 0.44

Jhin 0.0 0.0 424.8 0.00 0.00 0.80 0ay
0ense 0.0 274.8 322.5 0.00 1.11 0.61
Jhin 569.6 821.2 963.8 1.82 3.31 1.82
urban
highL
0ense 347.1 500.4 587.4 1.11 2.02 1.11
IabIe 32 Harginal noise cosLs or rail Lraic in dierenL Lraic siLuaLions (SJ - igh-speed Lrain, IPJ - InLer-
regional passenger Lrain, IJ - IreighL Lrain).
ILe comparison of marginal noise cosLs in rail passenger LransporL (per pkm) are sligLLly
lower LLan LLose compuLed for rail freigLL Lraffic (expressed per Lkm), buL LLe values
range in LLe same order of magniLude. ILe same comparison wiLL average cosLs sLows
LLaL noise cosLs of passenger LransporL are sligLLly LigLer LLan average noise cosLs of
freigLL LransporL. ILis is explained by meLLodological problems separaLing LLe number of
inLabiLanLs disLurbed by Lraffic noise Lo differenL Limes of day for esLimaLing average
cosLs.
ILus, LLe facL LLaL rail freigLL Lraffic mainly Lakes place during LLe nigLL and passen-
ger Lrain movemenLs in firsL insLance occur during dayLime could noL be adequaLely ac-
knowledged by LLe cosL allocaLion procedure. Accordingly, noise cosLs of rail freigLL
LransporL are probably under-esLimaLed wLile LLe average cosL values in passenger Lrans-
porL are presumably Loo LigL. In conLrasL, LLe model-based calculaLion scLeme for mar-
ginal cosLs was able Lo reflecL LLese cLaracLerisLics and LLus LLe relaLive noise cosL levels
of freigLL and passenger services as expressed by LLe marginal cosL values are more realis-
Lic LLan of LLe average cosL values compuLed on LLe basis of LLe noise exposure daLabase.

98j
Av!at!on
Referring Lo LLe meLLodology concerning marginal cosLs LLe evaluaLion of aviaLion noise
emissions is based on a more pragmaLic approacL (cp. IuIRASJ IUU 2000 sLudy). ULile
LLe raLLer dense neLworks of LLe land-based modes road and rail jusLify LLe presenLaLion
of cLaracLerisLic example siLuaLions, wLicL can be idenLified all over urope, LLe compara-
bly limiLed number of airporLs (as LLe noise emiLLers of aviaLion) requires a more counLry-
based esLimaLion of marginal noise cosLs.
ILe sLarLing poinL of LLe esLimaLion are LLe average cosLs per counLry in uro per
1000 passenger or Lon kilomeLre (see summary of uropean values in Iable 21). According
Lo LLe meLLodological assumpLions made in secLion 2.4.4 a range of marginal cosLs be-
Lween 30! and 60! of average cosLs per counLry can be derived from LLe calculaLions in
road and rail LransporL. 0uL of LLis range of values LLe lower and upper limiLs of marginal
cosL esLimaLes for aviaLion are deLermined. ILe range of marginal social noise cosL esLi-
maLes in aviaLion for urope is sLown in Iable 33.

HAk6IhAL h0ISf f0SIS f0k AIk IkAhSP0kI f0k 0IfffkfhI IkAffIf SIIuAII0hS

Average cost
est!mate
Average costs Harg!naI costs
Iow est!mate
Harg!naI costs
h!gh est!mate

assenger
J1000 pkn
IreighL
J1000 Lkn
assenger
J1000 pkn
IreighL
J1000 Lkn
assenger
J1000 pkn
IreighL
J1000 Lkn
Low (AJ, SL) 0.24 1.0 0.1 0.3
0.2 0.6
igh (IJ, hL) 6.0 28.6 2.0 9.5 4.0 19
JoLal LbP 17 0.1 0.3 4.0 19
IabIe 33 Harginal noise cosLs or air LransporL or dierenL Lraic siLuaLions
AmongsL oLLer deLerminanLs, sucL as populaLion densiLy, Lerrain and weaLLer condiLions,
LLe difference beLween marginal and average cosLs depends on LLe prevailing Lraffic level.
ULile aL low Lraffic densiLies LLe effecL of an addiLional (marginal) veLicle is above LLaL of
LLe average fleeL, e.g. marginal cosLs are LigLer LLan average cosLs, LLe degressive slope
of LLe marginal cosL funcLion causes marginal cosLs Lo fall below average cosLs aL LigL
Lraffic volumes. ILus, LLe same Lype of aircrafL will cause less marginal cosLs aL LigLly
frequenLed airporLs LLan aL less frequenLed ones.
ILe upper bound of average noise cosLs is marked by LLe ueLLerlands, wLicL is noL
surprising due Lo LLeir LigL populaLion densiLy. ILus iL can be assumed LLaL airporLs are
j99
locaLed close Lo seLLlemenLs, wLicL indicaLes LLaL marginal social noise cosLs of less fre-
quenLed airporLs in LLe ueLLerlands are well above LLe uropean average. 0n LLe oLLer
side, AusLria sLows LLe lowesL level of average noise cosLs. Considering LigLly frequenLed
airporLs, i.e. LLe capiLal airporL of Vienna, LLis leads Lo LLe lower bound of LLe marginal
cosL esLimaLes.

100j
4.2.3. AIP 0LLbJI0h C0SJS
ILe following Lable presenLs LLe resulLs for LLe mosL imporLanL veLicle caLegories, LecL-
nologies and Lraffic siLuaLions. ILe resulLs are based on average cosL calculaLions using
differenLiaLed emission facLors for PH10.

HAk6IhAL AIk P0LLuII0h f0SIS f0k SIAh0Ak0 IkAffIf SIIuAII0hS
J1'000 VKHJKH
veh!cIe type IechnoIogy fm!ss!on factors
gJvkn
Harg!naI fosts
J1'000 vkn
Harg!naI fosts
J1'000 pknJLkn
Casoline 0.045 9.54 5.72 assenger car
urban
0iesel 0.350 74.74 44.86
Casoline 0.045 9.54 5.80 assenger car
inLer-urban 0iesel 0.141 30.12 18.32
Jwo-wheelers Casoline 0.017 3.59 3.21
8uses 0iesel 1.361 310.76 17.74
Coaches 0iesel 0.966 220.64 11.65
0V 0iesel 1.084 227.29 33.50
Casoline 0.059 11.36 15.14
L0V
0iesel 0.394 75.62 100.82
Jrain assenger - 6.00 696.00 5.1
Jrain IreighL - 21.40 2'437.00 7.4
Air assenger - - 24.0 0.2
Air IreighL - - - 1.8
waLerborne Jrans-
porL
- -
8.8
IabIe 34

4.2.4. CLIHAJL CAhCL C0SJS
Iable 35 presenLs LLe resulLs for LLe main clusLering. ILe resulLs are comparable wiLL LLe
average cosLs, buL differ especially according Lo LLe differenLiaLion used. Road LransporL
causes LigLer marginal cosLs in urban areas LLan in inLerurban Lraffic.

j101
HAk6IhAL fLIHAIf fhAh6f f0SIS
H!n!mum shadow vaIue:
20 per t f0
2

Hax!mum shadow vaIue:
140 per t f0
2

per 1'000 vkn per 1'000
pknJLkn
per 1'000 vkn per 1'000
pknJLkn
assenger Car urban (all
Lechniques)
6.4 3.9 45.0 27.0
assenger Car inLerur-
ban (all Lechniques)
2.9 1.7 20.2 12.2
brban 8us 0iesel 23.6 1.4 165.0 9.5
Coaches 0iesel 13.2 0.7 92.3 4.9
Jwo-wheelers 1.9 1.7 13.1 11.7
L0V (all Lechniques) 6.1 8.2 42.6 57.4
0V 0iesel 12.4 1.8 86.5 12.8

Jrain assenger 0iesel 116 1.0 814 7.1
Jrain assenger LlecLric 108 0.8 754 5.4
igh Speed Jrain 56 0.3 393 2.2
Jrain IreighL 0iesel 237 0.8 1'658 5.3
Jrain IreighL LlecLric 119 0.4 832 2.7

AviaLion assenger 931 6.6 6'517 46.2
AviaLion IreighL - 33.7 - 235.7

waLerborne IreighL 402 0.6 2'812 4.3
IabIe 35

4.2.5. C0SJS I0P hAJbPL Ah0 LAh0SCAL
Harginal cosLs for naLure and landscape Lave Lo be disLinguisLed beLween sLorL and long
run. In LLe sLorL run, infrasLrucLure is given and an addiLional veLicle does noL cause
addiLional effecLs. In LLe long run Lowever, new infrasLrucLure will be necessary leading
Lo addiLional effecLs. As menLioned in cLapLer 2, LLeses cosLs migLL amounL Lo LLe same
level as LLe average cosLs. ILe spaLial differenLiaLion sLows a zero value for urban Lrans-
porL, since addiLional infrasLrucLure is causing mainly scarciLy problems and does noL
Larm naLure.
102j
HAk6IhAL f0SIS f0k hAIukf Ah0 LAh0SfAPf
Short run marg!naI cost Long run marg!naI cost
per 1'000 vkn per 1'000 pknJLkn
assenger Car urban 0 0.0 0.0
assenger Car inLerurban 0 4.0 2.1
brban 8us 0 0.0 0.0
Coaches 0 25.7 1.3
Jwo-wheelers 0 2.1 1.9
L0V 0 36.2 10.9
0V 0 11.5 0.8

Jrain assenger 0 232 1.2
igh Speed Jrain 0 232 0.7
Jrain IreighL 0 75 0.1

AviaLion assenger 0 79 1.1
AviaLion IreighL 0 83 6.5

waLerborne IreighL 0 922 0.8
IabIe 36 Harginal cosLs or naLure and landscape or dierenL Lraic siLuaLions, expressed in cosLs per vehicle kilo-
neLres and per passenger resp. Lonne kiloneLres.

4.2.6. A00IJI0hAL C0SJS Ih bP8Ah APLAS
ILe following Lables presenL marginal cosLs for separaLion effecLs and space availabiliLy.
Harginal separaLion cosLs are raLLer LigL, since LLey refer Lo a specific siLuaLion. IL is
imporLanL Lo noLe LLaL LLese cosLs only occur for specific Lraffic siLuaLions (for average
veLicle frequencies of 400 Lo 800 veLicles). Iower speed (due Lo congesLion) will decrease
marginal cosLs significanLly. AlLLougL LLere are posiLive average cosLs for LLe railways in
urban areas, marginal cosLs are zero, since separaLion is noL dependenL from LLe Lrain
frequency. ILis is Lrue for LigLways as well.

HAk6IhAL SfPAkAII0h f0SIS f0k uk8Ah IkAhSP0kI HfAhS
bP8Ah HAIh P0A0S
[1'000 vkm [1'000 pkm resp. tkm
ass. Car 16.0 9.6
8us 39.9 2.2
HoLorcycle 8.0 7.1
L0V 24.0 32.3
0V 47.9 7.1
InLer-ciLy Jrain assenger 0 0
IabIe 31
j103
Harginal space availabiliLy cosLs are in LLe sLorL run zero, since iL is a fixed cosL compo-
nenL. In LLe long run Lowever, LLey are posiLive, since addiLional infrasLrucLure seeks as
well for increased space availabiliLy for bicycle lanes. ILey are similar Lo average cosLs. In
comparison Lo average cosLs esLimaLed in LLe resulLs cLapLer Lowever, LLey are signifi-
canLly LigLer, since LLey only refer Lo LLe mileage driven on urban main roads.

HAk6IhAL SPAff AvAILA8ILII f0SIS f0k uk8Ah IkAhSP0kI HfAhS
bP8Ah HAIh P0A0S
Short run marg!naI
costs
Long run marg!naI costs
J1'000 vkn J1'000 pkn resp. Lkn
ass. Car 0 1.77 1.07
8us 0 1.93 0.11
HoLorcycle 0 0.77 0.69
L0V 0 2.25 3.04
0V 0 6.01 0.89
InLer-ciLy Jrain assenger 0 1.77 1.07
IabIe 38
4.2.7. b- Ah0 00whSJPLAH P0CLSSLS
p- and downsLream processes are in general in line wiLL LLe mileage driven, buL wiLL
differenL Lime Lorizons. In LLe sLorL run only precombusLion (producLion and LransporL of
energy for LransporL purposes) is direcLly depending on veLicle kilomeLres. ILe following
Lable presenLs LLese sLorL run marginal cosLs, wLicL are sligLLly below 50! of long run
marginal (eq. average) cosLs. UiLLin rail LransporL, LLey are lower for diesel LLan for elec-
LriciLy driven rolling sLock, since LLe main componenLs of diesel Lrains are already in-
cluded in marginal air polluLion and climaLe cLange cosLs. Ior elecLriciLy Lrains, LLe main
sLorL run marginal cosL componenL is LLe nuclear power risk. Since iL is a marginal cosL
componenL, LLe value is equal for differenL counLries, since an addiLional Lrain is consum-
ing elecLriciLy based on an inLernaLional marginal mix (based on LLe average CPI mix)
wiLLin a liberalised energy markeL.

104j
HAk6IhAL f0SIS f0k uP- Ah0 00whSIkfAH Pk0ffSSfS
LbP0 LP VKH Ah0 KH, JKH
Short run marg!naI costs Long run marg!naI costs
per vkm per pkm, tkm per vkm per pkm, tkm
Car 3.3 2.0 6.7 4.1
8us 46.6 2.6 108.3 6.0
HC 1.5 1.3 3.0 2.7
L0V 9.7 13.0 17.4 23.4
0V 24.1 3.6 50.5 7.4
assenger Jrain LlecLric 151 1.10 737 5.36
assenger Jrain 0iesel 128 0.93 1'143 8.30
IreighL Jrain LlecLric 99 0.30 107 0.33
IreighL Jrain 0iesel 64 0.20 543 1.66
Air passenger LransporL 115 0.81 128 0.91
waLerborne JransporL 860 0.75 2'007 1.76
IabIe 39 Harginal cosLs or up- and downsLrean processes or dierenL Lraic siLuaLions.

4.2.8. C0hCLSJI0h C0SJS
ILe calculaLion of marginal cosLs presumes LLe specificaLion of local Lraffic condiLions and
LLus LLe developmenL of LLe uropean LransporL environmenL or cLanging neLwork speci-
ficaLions of LLe model for compuLing LoLal congesLion cosLs do noL impacL marginal cosL
resulLs. ILe only sensiLive variables for LLe compuLaLion of marginal cosLs per veLicle
kilomeLre are LLe value of Lime per passenger and goods, veLicle occupancy raLes or load-
ing facLors and LLe prevailing Lraffic mix. ILe loading facLors Lave been Laken from LLe
IRuP daLabase and LLe cLanges in LLe value of Lime and Lraffic mix parameLers Lave
been seL in accordance Lo LLe LoLal cosL accounLing scLeme.
Iable 40 presenLs an overview of LLe marginal cosLs for dense, buL noL LoLally con-
gesLed Lraffic condiLions. ILe following ouLpuLs of LLe calculaLion scLeme are sLown:
Harginal social cosLs (HSC) under currenL condiLions.
CLarge: ILis value represenLs LLe marginal social cosLs afLer a sopLisLicaLed congesLion
pricing sysLem Lad been implemenLed, wLicL is equal Lo iLs Loll level.
Av. PUI: ILe average deadweigLL loss gives an indicaLion of LLe welfare gain per uniL
priced (veLicles, passengers or Lons of goods) acLieved under a congesLion pricing re-
gime.
I.e. LLe second value represenLs LLe decisive economic measures of congesLion per Lraffic
uniL. ILese values range around 1 per veLicle kilomeLre for passenger cars, wLile LLe
j105
relaLed average deadweigLL loss is only a fricLion of LLaL - and parLicular in LLe more con-
gesLed urban neLworks.

SfLffIf0 HAk6IhAL f0SI vALufS f0k k0A0 f0h6fSII0h
ACJbAL LXJLPhAL C0SJS, 0JIHAL CAPCLS Ah0 AVLPACL 0LA0wLICJ L0SS
CosL caLegory HSff fharge Av. 0wL HSff fharge Av. 0wL
Luro J 1000 vkn Luro J 1000 pkn, Lkn
Passenger car
- InLer-urban 1977.4 1004.2 77.6 1284.0 652.1 50.4
- urban 2708.0 1594.9 60.1 1592.9 938.2 35.3
HotorcycIe
- InLer-urban 988.7 502.1 38.8 898.8 456.5 35.3
- urban 1354.0 797.5 30.0 1230.9 725.0 27.3
8us
- InLer-urban 3954.8 2008.5 155.1 131.8 66.9 5.2
- urban 5415.9 3189.8 120.2 270.8 159.5 6.0
L0v
- InLer-urban 2966.1 1506.4 116.4 4237.3 2152.0 166.2
- urban 4062.0 2392.4 90.1 5802.8 3417.6 128.8
h0v
- InLer-urban 6921.0 3514.9 271.5 1017.8 516.9 39.9
- urban 9477.9 5582.2 210.3 1393.8 820.9 30.9
IabIe 40 Sunnary o narginal congesLion cosLs.
Iable 41 sLows LLe deLailed resulLs for marginal congesLion cosLs under various Lraffic
condiLions. Bere iL geLs obvious LLaL simple average values are noL very Lelpful for seLLing
concreLe pricing scLemes. ILe values also sLow LLaL LLe raLio beLween LLe average dead-
weigLL loss per veLicle kilomeLre and LLe cLarges Lo be raised Lo reacL LLis welfare gain
improves wLen Lraffic geLs denser.
AlLLougL LLe uII resulLs Lave lead Lo a sligLLly increasing value of Lime, in par-
Licular for ligLL goods veLicles, LLe resulLs presenLed in LLis updaLe sLudy are in LLe same
order of magniLude LLan LLe marginal cosLs reporLed in LLe 2000 sLudy.
106j
SfLffIf0 HAk6IhAL f0SI vALufS f0k k0A0 f0h6fSII0h
ACJbAL LXJLPhAL C0SJS, 0JIHAL CAPCLS Ah0 AVLPACL 0LA0wLICJ L0SS
HSLC, Charges HSff fharge Av. 0wL HSff fharge Av. 0wL
and av. 0wL Luro J 1000 vkn Luro J 1000 pkn, Lkn
Passenger car
- HoLorway
- Pelaxed 10.7 10.7 0.0 6.9 6.9 0.0
- 0ense 1.977.4 1.004.2 77.6 1.284.0 652.1 50.4
- CongesLed 2.032.0 1.477.8 194.6 1.319.5 959.6 126.4
- Pural
- Pelaxed 37.3 37.3 0.0 24.2 24.2 0.0
- 0ense 1.253.6 802.9 2.1 814.0 521.4 1.4
- CongesLed 1.950.9 1.687.3 28.3 1.266.8 1.095.6 18.4
- brban
- Pelaxed 25.9 25.9 0.0 15.2 15.2 0.0
- 0ense 2.708.0 1.594.9 60.1 1.592.9 938.2 35.3
- CongesLed 3.096.1 2.205.3 178.5 1.821.2 1.297.2 105.0
HotorcycIe
- HoLorway
- Pelaxed 5.4 5.4 0.0 4.9 4.9 0.0
- 0ense 988.7 502.1 38.8 898.8 456.5 35.3
- CongesLed 1.016.0 738.9 97.3 923.7 671.7 88.4
- Pural
- Pelaxed 18.7 18.7 0.0 17.0 17.0 0.0
- 0ense 626.8 401.5 1.0 569.8 365.0 0.9
- CongesLed 975.4 843.6 14.1 886.8 766.9 12.9
- brban
- Pelaxed 12.9 12.9 0.0 11.8 11.8 0.0
- 0ense 1.354.0 797.5 30.0 1.230.9 725.0 27.3
- CongesLed 1.548.1 1.102.7 89.2 1.407.3 1.002.4 81.1
8us [ coach
- HoLorway
- Pelaxed 21.4 21.4 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.0
- 0ense 3.954.8 2.008.5 155.1 131.8 66.9 5.2
- CongesLed 4.064.1 2.955.7 389.2 135.5 98.5 13.0
- Pural
- Pelaxed 74.6 74.6 0.0 2.5 2.5 0.0
- 0ense 2.507.2 1.605.8 4.2 83.6 53.5 0.1
- CongesLed 3.901.7 3.374.6 56.6 130.1 112.5 1.9
- brban
- Pelaxed 51.7 51.7 0.0 2.6 2.6 0.0
- 0ense 5.415.9 3.189.8 120.2 270.8 159.5 6.0
- CongesLed 6.192.2 4.410.6 356.9 309.6 220.5 17.8
L0v
- HoLorway
- Pelaxed 16.1 16.1 0.0 22.9 22.9 0.0
- 0ense 2.966.1 1.506.4 116.4 4.237.3 2.152.0 166.2
- CongesLed 3.048.1 2.216.8 291.9 4.354.4 3.166.8 417.0
- Pural
- Pelaxed 56.0 56.0 0.0 80.0 80.0 0.0
- 0ense 1.880.4 1.204.4 3.1 2.686.3 1.720.5 4.5
- CongesLed 2.926.3 2.530.9 42.4 4.180.4 3.615.6 60.6
- brban
- Pelaxed 38.8 38.8 0.0 55.4 55.4 0.0
- 0ense 4.062.0 2.392.4 90.1 5.802.8 3.417.6 128.8
- CongesLed 4.644.2 3.308.0 267.7 6.634.5 4.725.7 382.4
h0v
- HoLorway
- Pelaxed 37.5 37.5 0.0 5.5 5.5 0.0
- 0ense 6.921.0 3.514.9 271.5 1.017.8 516.9 39.9
- CongesLed 7.112.2 5.172.4 681.1 1.045.9 760.6 100.2
- Pural
- Pelaxed 130.6 130.6 0.0 19.2 19.2 0.0
- 0ense 4.387.7 2.810.2 7.3 645.2 413.3 1.1
- CongesLed 6.828.0 5.905.5 99.0 1.004.1 868.5 14.6
- brban
- Pelaxed 90.5 90.5 0.0 13.3 13.3 0.0
- 0ense 9.477.9 5.582.2 210.3 1.393.8 820.9 30.9
- CongesLed 10.836.4 7.718.6 624.6 1.593.6 1.135.1 91.9
IabIe 41 0eLailed resulLs or narginal congesLion cosLs.
j101
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | IhIfkPkfIAII0h 0f kfSuLIS Ah0 P0LIf f0hfLuSI0hS
5. IhIfkPkfIAII0h 0f kfSuLIS Ah0 P0LIf f0hfLuSI0hS

5.1. C0HAPIS0h wIJ 1995 PLSbLJS
IoLal cosLs increase in LLe period 1995-2000 by 12.1! (1995 values adjusLed Lo 2000
prices). ILe main reason for LLis developmenL are increasing Lraffic volumes wLicL lead
Lo LigLer green Louse gas emissions and LLus Lo increasing climaLe cLange risks (espe-
cially in road passenger LransporL and air passenger LransporL). AnoLLer cosL caLegory
wLicL sLows increasing cosLs are air polluLion cosLs especially for road freigLL LransporL.
AlLLougL PH10 exLausL emissions decrease significanLly due Lo improved engine LecL-
nologies and parLicle filLers, non exLausL emissions increase more or less in line wiLL Lraf-
fic volumes.

f0HPAkIS0h: I0IAL fXIfkhAL f0SIS 1995 Ah0 2000 (LXCLb0IhC C0hCLSJI0h)
0
50'000
100'000
150'000
200'000
250'000
300'000
350'000
1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000
Hil. per year
AccidenLs hoise
Poad ass. Poad IreighL Pail ass. Pail IreighL AviaLion ass. AviaLion IreighL
329'000
321'000
156'000
223'000
6'000 8'000
4'000 4'000
29'000
85'000
3'000
6'000

f!gure 22 Conparison wiLh Lhe LoLal exLernal cosLs beLween Lhe years 1995 and 2000 by LransporL neans and cosL
caLegory (1995 values aL 1995 prices, 2000 values aL 2000 prices).

108j
f0HPAkIS0h: AvfkA6f fXIfkhAL f0SIS 1995 Ah0 2000 PASSfh6fk IkAhSP0kI
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
80
90
1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000
per 1000 pkn
AccidenLs hoise
INFRAS
Poad ass. Pail ass. AviaLion ass.
85.3
76.4
20.3
22.9
47.6
52.5

f!gure 23
In passenger LransporL average cosLs remain more or less sLable. ILe following conclusions
can be drawn:
In road passenger LransporL a nominal decrease of average exLernal cosLs of around 8!
could be observed. ILis is mainly due Lo a decline of accidenL cosLs (improved road
safeLy in almosL all counLries), lower air polluLion cosLs and lower cosLs of up and down-
sLream processes. Iower air polluLion cosLs in road passenger LransporL are LLe resulL of
an improved emission daLa base wLicL leads Lo a new cosL allocaLion of LoLal air pollu-
Lion cosLs Lo LLe differenL means of LransporL.
A nominal increase of around 13! of average cosLs in rail passenger LransporL is mainly
a resulL of new non exLausL emission facLors for rail LransporL wLicL lead Lo LigLer air
j109
polluLion cosLs aLLribuLed Lo rail LransporL
19
. AnoLLer reason for LLe increase is a beLLer
daLabase on rail noise exposure.
ILe increase in average air passenger LransporL (10!) is a resulL of an improved daLa-
base on aviaLion emissions especially regarding C0
2
emissions. AL LLe same Lime new
daLa on up- and downsLream processes lead Lo a decreasing average cosLs for up- and
downsLream processes.

f0HPAkIS0h: AvfkA6f fXIfkhAL f0SIS 1995 Ah0 2000 fkfI6hI IkAhSP0kI
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000
per 1000 Lkn
AccidenLs hoise
ClinaLe change low scenario ClinaLe change (dierence lowJhigh scenario) INFRAS
Poad IreighL Pail IreighL AviaLion IreighL
88.5 87.8
18.6 17.9
204.7
271.3

f!gure 24
In freigLL LransporL average exLernal cosLs sLow only small cLanges. ILe following conclu-
sions can be made:

19 Jhe sLudy on non-exhausL enissions or SwiLzerland (8bwAL 2003) is sLill going on wiLh Lhe general ain Lo veriy Lhe
so ar published daLa.
110j
Average cosLs in road freigLL LransporL decrease by ca. 1!. ILere is a sligLL decrease of
average accidenL cosLs (-35!) wLile air polluLion (14!) and noise cosLs (11!) in-
creased.
In rail freigLL LransporL average cosLs decrease by 4!. AlLLougL air polluLion cosLs in-
crease significanLly (LLe reason for LLis developmenL is explained above) a noLiceable
decrease of noise and climaLe cLange cosLs as well as declining cosLs for up- and down-
sLream processes can be observed.
Air freigLL LransporL sLows significanL cLanges (33!) wLicL are mainly LLe resulL of an
improved daLabase on aviaLion. Bowever iL Las Lo be sLaLed LLaL only mixed air LransporL
(i.e. passenger and freigLL LransporL) is considered because LLere was no daLa available
on cargo-only air services. ILe allocaLion of emissions and cosLs Lo passenger and freigLL
LransporL was made using a conversion facLor of 190 kg for eacL passenger.

5.2. 0LICY 0ISCbSSI0h
5.2.1. IhJLPhALISAJI0h SJPAJLCILS
0!scuss!on of Soc!aI Harg!naI fost Pr!c!ng
SLraLegies for LLe inLernalisaLion of exLernal cosLs of LransporL Lave been widely discussed
in LLe lasL decade, on policy level and on scienLific level aL LLe same Lime. ILe focus of
LLis discussion is sLrongly relaLed Lo LLe discussion of fair and efficienL pricing of Lrans-
porL in urope. ILis discussion Las been launcLed on -level wiLL LLe 0reen Paper on fair
and efficienL pricing (1996) and LLe following ULiLe Paper on fair infrasLrucLure use
(1998). specially LLe laLLer Las relaLed LLe inLernalisaLion sLraLegies Lo LLe principle of
social marginal cosL pricing, based on economic welfare LLeory. Several sLudies (e.g.
ProosL eL al. 1999, uII 2003) Lave sLown LLaL LLe inLegral implemenLaLion of sucL a
principle would maximise economic welfare and lead Lo significanLly LigLer level of effi-
ciency in LLe overall LransporL sysLem. ILe mosL imporLanL impacLs of LLe implemenLaLion
of social marginal cosL pricing can be summarised as follows:
fficienL and opLimal prices are sligLLly differenL Lo LLe level of marginal cosL esLimaLed
in LLis reporL. ILey would be a liLLle biL lower since prices reflecL also demand reacLions.
ILis is mosL imporLanL for road pricing in urban areas,
IransporL prices (especially for road LransporL) would increase in LLe urban areas, espe-
cially for road LransporL, compared Lo Loday's siLuaLion. ILis is due Lo LLe facL LLaL ex-
Lernal congesLion cosLs are raLLer LigL compared Lo normal service condiLions. 0n LLe
oLLer Land, road cosLs for peripLeral areas wiLLouL congesLion would decrease.
j111
0n average, LLe price level would sligLLly increase compared Lo Loday's siLuaLion. ILis
means: 0eneraLed revenues by a pricing sysLem according Lo social marginal cosLs would
increase for road LransporL.
ILe recenL policy discussion Las sLown LLaL a sLringenL implemenLaLion of LLe LLeoreLical
approacL is noL possible and appropriaLe, due Lo LLeoreLical, pracLical and financial rea-
sons (see also IuIRASJIC 1998):
Since congesLion cosLs are LLe mosL imporLanL caLegory, LLe approacL is very sensiLive in
regard Lo LLe level of LLese cosLs. ILe imporLance of exLernal congesLion cosLs applies
for a LigLly differenLiaLed road pricing sysLem wLicL is Loo complicaLed for users and
Loo cosLly. Besides LLere are social argumenLs Lo consider like unwanLed disLribuLion ef-
fecLs and LLe guaranLee of individual daLa securiLy.
ILe approacL is noL feasible for LransparenL financing scLemes and insLiLuLional ap-
proacLes, since full cosL recovery is noL possible.
ILe approacL is Loo narrow, especially for problems like noise and accidenL cosLs. Har-
ginal noise and accidenL cosLs are mucL lower LLan LLe relaLed average cosL figures, if
LLe pricing principle is focussing on addiLional cosLs per veLicle kilomeLre.
ILis leads Lo LLe conclusion LLaL a wider concepL is needed wLicL differenLiaLes beLween
LLe recovery of infrasLrucLure cosLs considering scarciLies and exLernal cosLs (accidenLs,
environmenL) wLicL can be inLernalised by a seL of insLrumenLs.

A w!der concept: InternaI!sat!on as part of a susta!nab!I!ty concept
Besides efficiency, oLLer aims sLould be considered, relaLed Lo LLe criLeria of susLainable
LransporL, sucL as
ffecLiveness: SignificanL reducLion of environmenLal nuisances (sucL as air polluLion,
noise, greenLouse gases) and increase of safeLy,
Iong Lerm focus, incl. LLe possibiliLy Lo finance fuLure LransporL infrasLrucLure,
PracLicabiliLy and Lransparency for LLe users,
ConsideraLion of sensiLive areas.

SucL a wider concepL Las LLree pillars, wLicL can be cLaracLerised as follows:
1. An improved pricing sysLem, wLicL considers LLe differenL level of exLernal
cosLs beLween modes, as well in LLe price level and in LLe pricing sLrucLure.
2. AddiLional (non pricing) insLrumenLs wLicL supporL LLe reducLion of LLe level
of environmenLal and accidenL cosLs.
112j
3. An insLiLuLional framework wLicL allows susLainable decisions on infrasLruc-
Lure invesLmenL and financing.

5.2.2. IhSJPbHLhJS
0verv!ew of most !mportant !nstruments
According Lo LLe pillars menLioned above, we can differenLiaLe pricing (in a larger conLexL
also oLLer economic) and non economic insLrumenLs. ILe following Iable 42 gives an over-
view of LLe mosL imporLanL insLrumenLs.

ILe Lable indicaLes LLaL LLe inLernalisaLion of exLernal cosLs is only successful, if a mix of
insLrumenLs is used in differenL LransporL secLors is applied. ILe pricing insLrumenLs usu-
ally sLow a raLLer LigL level of cosL-effecLiveness (e.ge. efficiency), buL are noL always
very effecLive in increasing safeLy or reducing environmenLal damages. 0nly in combina-
Lion wiLL oLLer measures, sucL as LecLnical measures and speed limiLs, an overall effec-
Liveness and efficiency can be secured.

Steer!ng and f!nanc!ng funct!on of pr!c!ng !nstruments
ILe pricing insLrumenLs lead Lo sLeering and financing effecLs, for addiLional infrasLruc-
Lure measures (like for example safeLy measures or capaciLy increase), for LLe financing of
organisaLionalJinsLiLuLional measures eLc. ILis raises LLe quesLion on LLe mosL efficienL
use of revenues of pricing measures. ILe following economic rules sLould be considered:
Simple earmarkinging and LLe generaLion of specific LransporL funds are noL efficienL,
buL usually very effecLive. In order Lo raise efficiency and allocaLe funds properly, Lrans-
parenL economic rules (i.e. LLe use of socio economic cosL benefiL analysis) sLould be
applied.
Crossmodal or general LransporL infrasLrucLure funds (i.e. LLe financing of rail infrasLruc-
Lure by using revenues from road pricing) are supposed Lo be useful and fair, since LLe
use of financing rules for road and rail can be Larmonised. Ioday's siLuaLion migLL enfa-
vour road LransporL infrasLrucLure since LLeir financing means are earmarked. Crossmo-
dal funds are especially useful Lo finance invesLmenLs for areas or corridors, wLere LLe
inLermodal relaLion is raLLer sLrong (i.e. urban areas, sensiLive regions, Lransalpine cor-
ridors, as iL is applied in LLe Swiss approacL).

j113
0vfkvIfw 0f IhIfkhALISAII0h IhSIkuHfhIS
Iype of !nstrument fffect!veness fost-fffect!ve-ness-
rat!o (rank!ng}
fongest!on
eak load pricing Lcononic igh 1
InrasLrucLure operaLion nanage-
nenL, LelenaLics
Jechnical igh 2
Acc!dents
LducaLion 0rganisaLionJInsLiLuLional Hediun 1
Change o insuranceJ liabil-
iLy(8onus-Halus sysLens)
Lcononic igh 2
LiniLaLion o alcohol liniLs Connand and ConLrol igh 3
Speed liniLs Connand and ConLrol Very igh 4
Courses or driving sLyles 0rganisaLionJInsLiLuLional igh 5
Local neasures InrasLrucLure Local igh 6
ho!se
hew brake sysLens rail Jechnical igh 1
HoLor caps or 0V Jechnical Low 2
Speed liniLs Connand and ConLrol Hediun 3
Special Lyres or road Jechnical Low 4
hoise wallsJwindows InrasLrucLure igh 5
A!r poIIut!on
AlLernaLive noLors or busses Jechnical Low 1
LbP0 IV norns Connand and ConLrol igh 2
Kn-Lax (enission dependenL)
Iuel Lax
Lcononic igh 3
brban parking policy LcononicJInrasLrucLure Hediun 4
brban Poad ricing Lcononic Hediun 5
brban Lraic bans Connand and ConLrol igh 6
fI!mate fhange
0riving courses 0rganisaLionJInsLiLuLional Hediun 1
KyoLo Hechanisns (Lnission Lrad-
ing, clean developnenL nechanisns)
Lcononic igh 2
Iuel Lax
Kerosene Lax
Lcononic igh 3
Penewable energies or elecLriciLy
producLion (rail)
Jechnical igh 4
AlLernaLive uels (8usJ0V) Jechnical igh 5
IeebaLes Poad Lcononic Low 6
Iuel sLandardsJ alLernaLive Iuels Connand and ConLrol Hediun 7
IabIe 42 0verview o Lhe nosL eecLive neasures by Lype o exLernaliLy (Source: SynLhesis o dierenL sLudies)
Panking: 1- Heasures wiLh besL cosL-eecLiveness-raLio, based on IhIPASJbIC 1998 and own esLinaLes.
114j
5.2.3. ILL08ACK J0 Lb-0LICY Ah0 HS-AP0ACLS
fu-PoI!cy
ILe ongoing debaLe on level can be cLaracLerised as follows:
Road freigLL LransporL: ILe proposiLion of LLe Commission for a new direcLive Lo replace
LLe urovigneLLe PirecLive 1999J62 seeks for a variabilisaLion and differenLiaLion of ex-
isLing road Laxes for BPV and applies a pricing principle wLicL is based on full cosL re-
covery of infrasLrucLure cosLs and exLernal accidenL cosLs. ILe Lax can be differenLiaLed
according Lo environmenLal criLeria (esp. R0 norms) and according Lo scarciLy criLeria
(regional differenLiaLion in order Lo consider congesLion cosLs). In addiLion a surcLarge
Lo LLese cosLs is allowed in sensiLive areas. ILe revenues sLould be used Lo recover infra-
sLrucLure and accidenL cosLs. In sensiLive areas, a crossmodal financing of infrasLrucLure
would be possible. Iixed cLarges (flaL Laxes, veLicle and purcLase Laxes) sLould be re-
duced.
ILis proposal is considering aL leasL parLs of exLernal cosLs and does noL simply follow
LLe social marginal cosL approacL. IL Lowever neglecLs environmenLal cLarges and does
noL aim aL inLernalising LLose exLernaliLies direcLly. IurLLermore LLe inLermodal ap-
proacL is raLLer weak.
Road passenger LransporL: ILe LarmonisaLion of naLional mineral oil Laxes and veLicle
Laxes is a difficulL approacL aL -level. AL LLe same Lime new aLLempLs for road pricing
for passenger cars are going Lo be discussed, mainly aL naLional level.
Rail LransporL: ILe Rail Packages are proposing Lrack pricing sysLems wLicL aL leasL
cover variable cosL of mainLenance and operaLion. IL is allowed Lo increase LLose prices
according Lo LLe abiliLy Lo pay of LLe users in order Lo cover larger parLs of infrasLruc-
Lure cosLs. ILis approacL is in general in line wiLL efficienL pricing scLemes (like Lwo
parL pricing). ILere are some incenLives Lo differenLiaLe Lrack prices according Lo envi-
ronmenLal criLeria (noise cLaracLerisLics). CapaciLy orienLed prices Lowever are noL yeL
proposed.
AviaLion: ILe aLLempLs Lo Larmonise landing and emission cLarges for airporLs are ongo-
ing. In addiLion LLere are proposals for new regimes for en-rouLe cLarges, considering
capaciLy consLrainLs and environmenLal criLeria.
ClimaLe policy: ILere a no aLLempLs visible for a general C02 cLarge on a uropean scale.
Horeover LLere are aLLempLs Lo pusL LyoLo mecLanisms sucL as emission Lrading sysLems
and CPH (clean developmenL mecLanisms), wLicL lead Lo financing sysLems in LLe Lrans-
j115
porL secLor: Small LransporL fees can be used Lo buy C02-emission cerLificaLes in oLLer
secLors and counLries.
SuccessfuI approaches at state IeveI
In LLe lasL years, some successful inLernalisaLion sLraLegies Lave been implemenLed aL
naLional level, for example
LLe Iondon congesLion cLarge, wLicL cLarges all moLorised road LransporL veLicles in
LLe cenLre area. IransporL volumes Lave declined by more LLan 15!. ILe revenues are
used Lo increase LLe supply of public LransporL, a widely accepLed approacL.
LLe Swiss BPV cLarge, wLicL is LLe firsL real inLernalisaLion cLarge based on esLimaLes
on exLernal accidenL and environmenLal cosLs. ILe cLarge Las reduced road BPV Lrans-
porL volumes by more LLan 3! and Las sLippers and freigLL forwarders moLivaLed Lo use
LransporL alLernaLives by rail. ILe revenues of LLe Swiss BPV Lax are used Lo finance rail
infrasLrucLure (crossmodal funding).
LLe 0erman and AusLrian approacLes Lo inLroduce a new and km-dependenL BPV cLarge
for LigLways. ILe 0erman cLarge is only relaLed Lo infrasLrucLure cosLs, LLere is a differ-
enLiaLion according Lo emission criLeria and revenues are use Lo crossfinance also rail in-
vesLmenLs. In spiLe LLe LecLnical problems for LLe Lime being, LLe LecLnology (in con-
LrasL Lo SwiLzerland and AusLria) Las a LigL fuLure poLenLial.

Interpretat!on
Pricing measures Lave gained imporLance in LLe lasL years, especially in LLe freigLL secLor.
ILe new BPV cLarges are promising approacLes Lo inLernalise exLernal cosLs in LLe road
freigLL secLor. Based on laLesL experience, one Las Lo sLaLe LLaL LLe mosL imporLanL sLorL
Lerm effecL is LLe increase of BPV efficiency. 0nly in LLe longer run, modal sLifL effecLs
can be expecLed, since reacLions of sLippers Lo cLange LransporL modes will Lake Lime and
depend also on qualiLy criLeria. ILe developmenL Las sLown LLaL LLe sLraLegy of variabili-
saLion of fixed cLarges and LLe differenLiaLion according Lo environmenLal criLeria Las
become a common and widely accepLed approacL. 0f greaL imporLance is LLe developmenL
of common pricing LecLniques and enforcemenL sysLems, in order Lo guaranLee Lransna-
Lional inLeroperabiliLy.
As regards LLe siLuaLion of railways and LLe difference of exLernal cosLs beLween rail,
road and air LransporL, LLe developmenL is Leading in LLe rigLL direcLion, buL is noL yeL
sufficienL:
116j
ILere is no LLorougL consideraLion of environmenLal cosLs like air polluLion and climaLe
cLange in LLe level of prices. IL is noL sufficienL Lo differenLiaLe exisLing Lax levels ac-
cording Lo R0 criLeria. ILe exLernal cosLs sLould also be reflecLed in LLe level of
prices.
ILe approacLes are mosLly relaLed Lo road freigLL LransporL. Passenger LransporL Las
been Lackled so far only aL LLe urban level in a few uropean ciLies.
ILere is no climaLe policy visible wLicL aims aL accepLing LLe LigL long Lerm risks of
climaLe cLange relaLed Lo LransporL emissions and enfavours energy efficienL rail Lrans-
porL.

5.2.4. P00SAL I0P Ah IhJLPhALISAJI0h SJPAJLCY AJ LbP0-
LAh LLVLL
In order Lo inLernalise exLernal cosLs properly, imbedded in a wider concepL of susLainable
LransporL, LLe following acLion lines are mosL imporLanL:
A Lm-dependenL BPV Lax in overall urope wLicL considers noL only accidenL cosLs, buL
also environmenLal cosLs like air polluLion, climaLe cLange and noise. Possible Lax levels
are according Lo average or marginal cosLs sLown in LLis reporL. IL is appropriaLe Lo ap-
ply sucL scLemes noL only for moLorways.
ILe inLroducLion of road pricing scLemes for passenger cars, primarily in urban areas, Lo
consider capaciLy problems. An addiLional differenLiaLion according Lo environmenLal cri-
Leria (e.g. air polluLion) is appropriaLe.
A fuel price scenario in urope for all means of LransporL in order Lo meeL LLe aims of a
long Lerm climaLe sLraLegy, LLe raLes of LLe respecLive C02-Lax sLould be in line wiLL LLe
proposed sLadow prices (aL minimum 20 uro per Lonne of C02 relaLed Lo LLe LyoLo Lar-
geLs). HosL imporLanL is LLe inclusion of inLernaLional air LransporL, in order Lo reduce
Lax disLorLions beLween LransporL modes.
AddiLional measures in road LransporL in order Lo increase effecLiveness, sucL as Li-LecL-
road managemenL and inLermodal informaLion sysLems, sucL as improved liabiliLy sys-
Lems and environmenLally friendly and safe driving sLyles, supporLed by Lraffic calming
measures (incl. speed limiLs).
ILe applicaLion of rail Lrack pricing sysLems considering exLernal cosLs according Lo
PirecLive 2001J14.
j111
Hore empLasis of LLe railways Lo speed up LecLnical progress in improving environ-
menLal performance, sucL as wagon break improvemenLs (see IC uoise AcLion Plan) and
energy efficiency (see IC Piesel AcLion Plan, use of susLainable energy sources).

ILese mosL imporLanL inLernalisaLion insLrumenLs sLould be underlined wiLL a compre-
Lensive mulLimodal sLraLegy wiLL LLe following core elemenLs:
HulLimodal financial funds, financed (aL leasL parLly) by exLernaliLy cLarges from LLe
road secLor. ILese funds secure LLe necessary financial means for LLe modernisaLion of
LLe railways. In order Lo allocaLe LLese financial means properly, LLe socio-economic re-
Lurn of LLe invesLmenLs sLould be a major criLeria and LransparenL budgeLary rules of
LLe fund adminisLraLion are necessary.
A prioriLy Lo inLernalise exLernal accidenL and environmenLal cosLs in LLese secLors (road
and air LransporL) firsL, wLicL cause LigL levels of exLernaliLies, in order Lo finance LLe
proposed mulLimodal fund.

118j
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | AhhfX 1: 6fhfkAL IhPuI 0AIA
AhhfX 1: 6fhfkAL IhPuI 0AIA

0VLPVILw 0h 0AJA AVAILA8ILIJY
ILe following Lable presenLs LLe daLa used and LLe differences Lo LLe previous reporL.

0vfkvIfw 0h 0AIA S0ukffS
Sources 8ased on kemarks [ fomparab!I!ty
(IhfkAS[Iww 2000}
Iransport voIumes
Poad JPLh0S1 daLabase
8bwAL 2000
Hodel calculaLions
Hodel calculaLions
Sinilar buL inproved daLa
basis
Pail JPLh0S1 daLabase and
bIC

8IS 2000 and SYh 2002
Hodel calculaLions

haLional sLaLisLics
CalibraLed JPLh0S daLa
wiLh bIC daLa
basis
AviaLion JPLh0S1 daLabase
ICA0
Hodel calculaLions
AirporL sLaLisLics
Hodel calculaLion see
IhIPASJIww 2000
Inland waLerways JPLh0S1 daLabase

Hodel calculaLions

basis
fm!ss!ons
Poad JPLh0S1 daLabase
8bwAL 2000
Hodel calculaLions
Hodel calculaLions
Sinilar buL updaLed daLa
basis
Pail bIC J JPLh0S1 daLabase

8bwAL 1996
Swiss elecLriciLy produc-
Lion nix
Hodel calculaLions

Hodel calculaLions
Hodel calculaLions

basis
Swiss diesel Lrains (reighL)
Swiss elecL. Lrains

AviaLion JPLh0S1 daLabase

Hodel calculaLions

basis
Inland waLerways JPLh0S1 daLabase Hodel calculaLions
Infrastructure
Poad LbP0SJAJ haLional sLaLisLics updaLed daLabase
Pail bIC
8IS
haLional sLaLisLics
haLional sLaLisLics
basis
AviaLion IhIPASJIww 2000 CounLed airporLs

sane daLa as in IhIPASJIww
2000
Inland waLerways LbP0SJAJ haLional sLaLisLics

basis
j119
0vfkvIfw 0h 0AIA S0ukffS
Sources 8ased on kemarks [ fomparab!I!ty
(IhfkAS[Iww 2000}
Acc!dents
Poad IPJA0 0aLabase haLional sLaLisLics

sane daLa base as in Ih-
IPASJIww 2000, daLa on
injuries ragnenLary
Pail bIC sLaLisLics haLional sLaLisLics

basis
AviaLion Lb JransporL in Iigures Airclains, AviaLion
SaeLy heLwork
(2000J2001daLa)
basis
Inland waLerways noL relevanL - -
IabIe 43

0AJA AVAILA8ILIJY I0P h0h Lb C0bhJPILS
Sw!tzerIand
nforLunaLely LLere are neiLLer Lraffic volume nor emissions daLa for SwiLzerland in LLe
IRuPS1 daLabase found. 0LLer sources could fill up LLese gaps.
Road LransporL volumes and emissions were found in LLe sLaLisLics of Swiss governmenL
(BUAI, 2000).
PeLailed daLa on Swiss railway is Lard Lo find. ILe IC sLaLisLics gives us only aggregaLed
numbers for passenger and freigLL Lrain km. ILe newesL compleLe daLa seL separaLed afLer
LLe LracLion Lypes for Lrain km is available for LLe year 1995. A LoLal number for passen-
ger km is found on LLe BundesamL fr SLaLisLik (BIS) daLa pool, buL only for LLe year
1997. Ionnes km for freigLL Lrains is available again in LLe IC sLaLisLic for LLe year 2000,
buL only for LLe railway company SBB. IoLal emissions for diesel freigLL Lrains we found
in BUAI 1996. missions for elecLric Lrains are calculaLed wiLL elecLriciLy consumpLion
daLa and emission facLors for LLe Swiss elecLriciLy producLion mix (IuIRASJIUU 2000).
PaLa for AviaLion: ICA0 daLa.

horway
nforLunaLely LLere are neiLLer Lraffic volume nor emissions daLa for uorway in LLe
IRuPS1 daLabase.
Ue calculaLe LransporL volumes for uorway (pkm, Lkm and vkm) by apply LLe SwedisL
growLL facLor on LLe uorwegian daLa from 1995 (IuIRASJIUU 2000). Some daLa are also
120j
available on LLe SLaLisLical earbook uorway 2002 on LLe inLerneL. Ue used LLis daLa Lo
cLeck our calculaLions, excepL for LLe Leavy duLy veLicles we use LLis numbers.
Road emissions were esLimaLed by using uorwegian LransporL volumes (from LLe SLaLisLical
earbook uorway 2002) and SwedisL veLicle km and emissions (from IRuPS1).

S0CI0-LC0h0HIC 0AJA
Socio-economic daLa framework is Laken from LLe R0SIAI yearbook 2002 (R0SIAI
2002).

CounLry ShorLcuL C0 opulaLion LoLal C0 per
CapiLa
C0 per
CapiLa S
CounLry
AdjusLnenL
IacLor
Area
bniL 8illion Luro ho. Luro per CapiLa LbP 17 - 100 kn
2
8ase year 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
AbSJPIA AJ 204.84 8'103'000 25'280 24'570 108.0 83'859
8LLCIbH 8L 248.34 10'239'000 24'254 25'130 110.5 30'518
0LhHAPK 0K 176.49 5'330'000 33'113 27'140 119.3 43'094
IIhLAh0 II 131.67 5'171'000 25'463 23'200 102.0 304'530
IPAhCL IP 1'404.78 59'226'000 23'719 22'250 97.8 543'965
CLPHAhY 0L 2'025.53 82'164'000 24'652 23'540 103.5 357'020
CPLLCL CP 122.99 10'543'000 11'665 15'460 68.0 131'626
IPLLAh0 IL 103.47 3'777'000 27'395 26'800 117.8 70'273
IJALY IJ 1'165.68 57'680'000 20'209 22'890 100.6 301'316
LbXLH80bPC Lb 20.93 436'000 48'013 43'750 192.4 2'586
hLJLPLAh0S hL 401.09 15'864'000 25'283 26'310 115.7 33'882
h0PwAY h0 175.51 4'479'000 39'184 31'200 137.2 307'860
0PJbCAL J 115.26 9'998'000 11'528 16'770 73.7 91'906
SAIh LS 608.79 39'442'000 15'435 18'110 79.6 504'790
SwL0Lh SL 246.62 8'861'000 27'832 22'960 101.0 410'934
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 259.58 7'164'000 36'234 28'300 124.4 39'769
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 1'547.90 59'623'000 25'962 23'560 103.6 243'820
IotaI 8'959.46 388'100'000 23'085 22'143 100.0 3'501'749

IabIe 44 Socio econonic daLa o Lb17 counLries.
d== (0PP) is LLe resulL of all producLion acLiviLy aL markeL prices. IL is
LLe final resulL of LLe producLion acLiviLy of residenL producer uniLs. IL can be defined in
LLree ways.
0PP is LLe sum of gross value added of LLe various insLiLuLional secLors or LLe various
indusLries, plus Laxes and less subsidies on producLs (wLicL are noL allocaLed Lo secLors
and indusLries). IL is also LLe balancing iLem in LLe LoLal economy producLion accounL
(producLion approacL).
j121
0PP is LLe sum of final uses of goods and services by residenL insLiLuLional uniLs (acLual
final consumpLion and gross capiLal formaLion), plus exporLs and minus imporLs of goods
and services (expendiLure approacL).
0PP is LLe sum of uses in LLe LoLal economy generaLion of income accounL (compensaLion
of employees, Laxes on producLion and imporLs less subsidies, gross operaLing surplus and
mixed income of LLe LoLal economy) (income approacL) (SA 95, 8.89).
In LLese Lables, 0PP corresponds Lo LLe economy's ouLpuL of goods and services less inLer-
mediaLe consumpLion, plus VAI on producLs and neL Laxes (i.e. Laxes less subsidies) linked
Lo imporLs. ValuaLion aL consLanL prices means valuing LLe flows and sLocks in an accounL-
ing period aL LLe prices of LLe reference period (SA 95, 1.56).
0PP, and in parLicular 0PP per capiLa, is one of LLe main indicaLors for economic analy-
sis as well as spaLial andJor Lemporal inLernaLional comparisons. In order Lo faciliLaLe LLese
inLernaLional comparisons, LLe 0PP in naLional currency of eacL Hember SLaLe is converLed
inLo a common currency (C unLil 1998, uro from LLe beginning of 1999) by means of iLs
official excLange raLe. Bowever, LLis does noL necessarily reflecL LLe acLual purcLasing
power of eacL naLional currency on iLs economic LerriLory, because LLe converLed 0PP is a
funcLion noL only of LLe level of goods and services produced on LLe economic LerriLory,
buL also of LLe general price level. ILerefore, LLe simple use of LLe 0PP converLed inLo a
common currency does noL provide, in mosL cases, a correcL indicaLion of LLe volume of
goods and services are necessary.
In order Lo remove LLe disLorLions due Lo price-level differences, LransiLive ~=
=~ (PPPs) are calculaLed and used as a facLor of conversion (excLange raLe
from naLional currency Lo PPS). ILese pariLies are obLained as a weigLLed average of rela-
Live price raLios regarding a Lomogeneous baskeL of goods and services, comparable and
represenLaLive for eacL Hember SLaLe. ILe 'comparable volume' values of 0PP obLained in
LLis way is Lence expressed in Lerms of purcLasing power sLandards (PPS), a uniL LLaL is
independenL of any naLional currency.

122j
Share of urban popuIat!on
CounLry opulaLion LoLal opulaLion in ciLies
~ 50'000
inhabiLanLs
brban
bniL ho. ho.
8ase year 2000 2000 2000
AbSJPIA 8'103'000 2'371'400 29
8LLCIbH 10'239'000 3'319'000 32
0LhHAPK 5'330'000 1'771'500 33
IIhLAh0 5'171'000 2'085'100 40
IPAhCL 59'226'000 13'033'700 22
CLPHAhY 82'164'000 32'583'300 40
CPLLCL 10'543'000 4'027'600 38
IPLLAh0 3'777'000 1'377'600 36
IJALY 57'680'000 18'560'200 32
LbXLH80bPC 436'000 79'800 18
hLJLPLAh0S 15'864'000 7'867'000 50
h0PwAY 4'479'000 1'714'800 38
0PJbCAL 9'998'000 2'019'300 20
SAIh 39'442'000 21'671'500 55
SwL0Lh 8'861'000 3'301'800 37
SwIJZLPLAh0 7'164'000 1'206'700 17
bhIJL0 KIhC00H 59'623'000 29'672'100 50
IotaI 388'100'000 146'662'400 38%

IabIe 45 ercenLage o urban populaLion. Sources: www.world-gazeLLeer.con, LbP0SJAJ 2002

JPAIIIC V0LbHLS
PaLa for road, aviaLion
20
and inland waLerway LransporL volumes are based on IRuPS 1
(qoansporL and bkvironmenL aaLabase pysLem Version 1), wLicL is a R0SIAI projecL
funded by P0 IransporL. IRuPS 1 provide a range of LransparenL, consisLenL and com-
parable environmenLal pressure indicaLors caused by LLe various modes of LransporL. A
compleLe seL of daLa is available for:
Hodes of LransporL: Road, rail, sLipping and air LransporL for differenL Lype of veLicles,
passenger and freigLL LransporL.
CounLries: R 15 (SwiLzerland and uorway added separaLely).
nvironmenLal nuisances:
Air emissions (C0, C0
2
, uHV0C, CB
4
, u0
x
eLc.),
uoise emissions,

20 Air reighL is esLinaLed based on ICA0 daLa.
j123
UasLe producLion.
Iime span: 1990 - 2020.

IRuPS 1 daLa were compared wiLLin LLe daLabase IRH0V Lo oLLer daLa sources as ACA,
0CP, R0SIAI, uaLional SLaLisLics L (inL.), uaLional SLaLisLics AI (inL.) and oLLer ua-
Lional SLaLisLics daLa. Iraffic volumes for veLicles, passenger and freigLL LransporL are cal-
culaLed wiLL LLe ~~= and noL LLe domesLic principle. ILis means LLaL for-
eign veLicles, wLicL drive wiLLin a cerLain counLry do noL appear in LLe sLaLisLics.

koad transport
Iable 46 sLows veLicle kilomeLres by counLry from LLe IRuPS1 daLabase for 2000.
Poad nill. vkn - 2000 Vehicle Lype
CounLry ShorL CuL Car (urban) Car (non urban) 8uses Coaches Jwo-wheelers L0V 0V JoLal
AusLria AJ 21049 46850 344 86 3168 2465 15783 89745
8elgiun 8L 20869 56423 268 67 1116 7479 11402 97624
0ennark 0K 14704 22056 656 164 633 3012 5566 46790
Iinland II 14063 32815 494 124 403 3510 3407 54816
Irance IP 111835 167753 2681 670 9211 78436 40538 411124
Cernany 0L 203417 343403 3592 898 15487 34708 97289 698794
Creece CP 22124 24888 224 224 8828 12815 7896 76998
Ireland IL 4965 14895 210 53 272 1932 3782 26108
ILaly IJ 105950 239966 2747 754 41766 35477 46868 473528
Luxenbourg Lb 1748 2137 36 9 67 126 474 4597
heLherlands hL 21916 42507 361 90 2036 189 16736 83836
horway h0 0 25907 283 71 657 2458 1329 30704
orLugal J 8465 26807 244 244 4662 8379 13405 62207
Spain LS 69684 100275 679 679 5987 78210 33054 288569
Sweden SL 16715 45192 700 175 1103 6136 5568 75588
SwiLzerland C 0 48492 200 122 1802 3252 2551 56419
bniLed Kingdon bK 161765 189898 3557 889 3387 38299 34279 432074
JoLal 799270 1430264 17276 5319 100584 316883 339927 3009521

IabIe 46
Passenger kilomeLre resp. Lonne kilomeLres (IRuPS1 daLabase) for year 2000 are lisLed in
Iable 47.
Poad nill. pknJLkn - 2000 VehJype
CounLry ShorL CuL Car (urban) Car (non urban) 8uses Coaches Jwo-wheelers L0V 0V JoLal
AusLria AJ 31'994 71'213 7'823 1'956 3'548 1'849 171'843 290'226
8elgiun 8L 20'869 56'423 7'703 1'925 1'250 5'609 69'956 163'736
0ennark 0K 25'879 38'984 12'693 3'173 709 2'259 53'533 137'230
Iinland II 19'689 45'941 6'350 1'587 451 2'633 24'496 101'146
Irance IP 206'797 310'196 68'553 17'135 10'317 58'827 230'652 902'477
Cernany 0L 284'784 480'764 67'215 16'804 17'346 26'031 557'854 1'450'796
Creece CP 39'822 44'798 8'547 8'548 9'887 9'611 67'642 188'856
Ireland IL 7'001 21'002 2'353 588 304 1'449 32'810 65'506
ILaly IJ 174'818 395'945 44'852 12'307 46'778 26'607 317'434 1'018'742
Luxenbourg Lb 2'168 2'650 335 84 75 94 3'641 9'047
heLherlands hL 35'600 69'049 8'426 2'107 2'280 142 145'058 262'662
horway h0 50'111 3'238 809 739 737 12'379 68'013
orLugal J 19'301 61'121 4'176 4'176 5'221 6'284 68'336 168'614
Spain LS 175'604 252'694 17'253 17'257 6'705 58'658 219'131 747'301
Sweden SL 26'911 72'759 6'884 1'720 1'235 4'602 39'095 153'207
SwiLzerland C 0 80'982 3'740 2'281 2'000 976 14'286 104'264
bniLed Kingdon bK 260'441 305'735 31'021 7'751 3'793 28'725 278'652 916'118
JoLal 1'331'679 2'360'364 301'162 100'208 112'639 235'092 2'306'797 6'747'941

IabIe 41
124j
ka!I data
UiLL respecL Lo rail daLa Lwo major daLa sources are available. Ue compared rail LransporL
volumes from LLe IRuPS1 daLabase wiLL LLe official IC railway sLaLisLics. ILe available
daLa frame found in LLe IC sLaLisLics 2000 and 2001 (IC 2002a and IC 2003) is sLown in
Iable 48.

2000 igh Speed
CounLry ShorLcuL JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
0 JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
bniL: nill. Lrain kn
AbSJPIA AJ 7 4 3 98 51 47 12 12 0 24 24 0 n.a. 140 91 50
8LLCIbH 8L 9 4 5 29 17 13 1 1 0 52 51 1 4 96 77 18
0LhHAPK 2) 0K n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. 61 55 6
IIhLAh0 II 12 5 7 25 15 10 0 0 0 7 7 0 1 45 28 17
IPAhCL IP 44 25 19 199 65 135 51 51 0 98 97 1 137 528 373 155
CLPHAhY 0L 151 111 40 591 401 190 103 103 0 73 73 0 66 985 755 230
CPLLCL CP 6 5 1 0 0 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 n.a. 17 15 1
IPLLAh0 IL 12 9 3 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 n.a. 15 13 3
IJALY IJ 16 14 3 213 157 56 36 36 0 28 28 0 17 310 252 58
LbXLH80bPC Lb 1 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 5 5 0 n.a. 7 6 1
hLJLPLAh0S 2) hL n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0
h0PwAY h0 4 2 2 12 5 7 2 2 0 16 16 0 n.a. 34 25 9
0PJbCAL 2) J n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. 40 32 8
SAIh LS 19 8 10 55 23 31 21 21 0 84 84 0 12 190 149 42
SwL0Lh 2) SL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -15 -15 0 15 0 0 0
SwIJZLPLAh0 1) C 0 0 0 4 3 1 0 0 0 5 5 0 n.a. 140 108 32
bhIJL0 KIhC00H 1) bK 112 36 76 45 34 10 173 173 0 182 180 2 n.a. 512 424 88
J0JAL JJ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 252 n.a. n.a. 718
0aLa source: ~ bIC 2000, Pail sLaLisLics Jab 41
~ bIC 2001, Pail sLaLisLics Jab 41
Penarks: 1) 0aLa ron bIC 2001 : narked yellow
2) ho daLa ound in bIC sLaLisLics
All Lypes o LracLion 0iesel loconoLives LlecLric loconoLives 0iesel railcars LlecLric railcars

IabIe 48
Some differences exisL beLween LLe menLioned Lwo daLabases resp. LLere are missing daLa
for some counLries:

f0uhIkIfS HISSIh6 Ih kAIL SIAIISIIfS (IkAIh kH}
Source H!ss!ng country kemarks Act!ons
bIC 0ennark
heLherlands
orLugal
Sweden
0nly bIC sLaLisLical or
2000 and 2001 daLa con-
sidered
JPLh0S1 daLa were used
JPLh0S1 horway
SwiLzerland
8oLh counLries do noL
parLicipaLe in Lhe projecL.
horway: bIC daLa were used
SwiLzerland: bIC daLa used
IabIe 49
AnoLLer problem in LLe IC sLaLisLics is LLaL sub figures (i.e. Lraffic volumes by LracLion
Lype) do noL sum up Lo LoLal values (sum Lrain-km of all LracLion Lypes). ILerefore we
merged LLe informaLion in LLe Lwo daLabases by calibraLing LLe IRuPS1 daLaseL wiLL LLe
IC sLaLisLical daLa. IirsL, we calculaLe LLe calibraLion facLor for eacL LracLion Lype. ILis
means we simply calculaLe LLe proporLional porLion (percenLage) from IC values Lo
j125
IRuPS1 values. In a second sLep, we mulLiplied LLe IRuPS Lraffic volumes and also emis-
sions parLiLioned afLer LracLion Lype wiLL LLe calibraLion facLor.

igh Speed
JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
JoLal passenger
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains

AbSJPIA AJ
54 87 34 108 104 113 126 126 0 90 90 0 n.a.
8LLCIbH 8L 106 103 109 105 106 104 114 114 n.a. 98 99 75 91
0LhHAPK 0K n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
IIhLAh0 II 100 106 97 118 120 115 n.a. n.a. n.a. 103 103 n.a. 38
IPAhCL IP 119 110 134 109 108 110 116 116 n.a. 115 116 77 94
CLPHAhY 0L 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 n.a. 100
CPLLCL CP 102 100 112 n.a. n.a. n.a. 104 104 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
IPLLAh0 IL 97 113 65 n.a. n.a. n.a. 119 119 n.a. 108 108 n.a. n.a.
IJALY IJ 98 95 115 99 102 90 104 104 65 71 71 62 96
LbXLH80bPC Lb 60 6 118 118 154 73 118 118 n.a. 114 114 n.a. n.a.
hLJLPLAh0S hL n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 0
h0PwAY h0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 n.a. 100 100 n.a. n.a.
0PJbCAL J n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
SAIh LS 134 111 161 99 117 89 135 135 n.a. 107 107 n.a. 81
SwL0Lh SL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n.a. -74 -74 n.a. 62
SwIJZLPLAh0 C n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 386 763 312 94 79 262 103 103 0 113 112 569 n.a.
0iesel loconoLives LlecLric loconoLives 0iesel railcars LlecLric railcars

IabIe 50 0eviaLions beLween bIC and JPLh0S daLa (Lrain-kn (bIC)JLrain-kn (JPLh0S))
AL LLe end of LLe described procedure, we obLained a IRuPS1 daLaseL calibraLed wiLL LLe
IC daLa for Lrain km:

2000
Lrains
reigLh
Lrains
JoLal 0iesel
LracLion
assenger IreighL JoLal
LlecLric
LracLion
assenger IreighL
bniL
nill. Lrain kn nill. Lrain kn nill. Lrain kn nill. Lrain kn nill. Lrain kn nill. Lrain kn nill. Lrain kn nill. Lrain kn nill. Lrain kn
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 140 91 50 19 16 3 122 75 47
8LLCIbH 8L 96 77 18 10 5 5 85 72 13
0LhHAPK 0K 62 55 7 39 35 4 23 20 3
IIhLAh0 II 45 28 17 12 5 7 33 23 10
IPAhCL IP 528 373 155 95 75 19 434 298 136
CLPHAhY 0L 985 755 230 254 214 40 730 540 190
CPLLCL CP 17 15 1 17 15 1 0 0 0
IPLLAh0 IL 15 13 3 13 11 3 2 2 0
IJALY IJ 310 252 58 52 50 3 258 202 56
LbXLH80bPC Lb 7 6 1 1 0 1 6 6 1
hLJLPLAh0S hL 125 118 8 12 11 1 113 107 6
h0PwAY h0 34 25 9 7 4 2 27 21 7
0PJbCAL J 46 38 8 20 17 3 26 21 5
SAIh LS 190 149 42 40 29 10 151 119 31
SwL0Lh SL 91 56 35 10 7 3 81 48 32
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 140 108 32 8 6 2 132 102 30
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 512 424 88 285 209 76 226 214 12
J0JAL JJ 3'343 2'581 762 894 711 183 2'448 1'869 579
AII types of tract!on JoLal 0iesel LracLion JoLal LlecLric LracLion

IabIe 51 JransporL volune in nillion Lrain kn
UiLL LLe same calibraLion facLors we adjusL passenger km and Lonnes km from LLe IRuPS
daLabase. SwiLzerland figures are found in BIS 2000 and IC 2002a. PaLa for uorway is
available in LLe SLaLisLical earbook of uorway (Su 2002).

126j
2000
Lrains
reigLh Lrains JoLal 0iesel
LracLion
assenger IreighL JoLal LlecLric
LracLion
assenger IreighL
bniL
nio. pknJLkn nio. pkn nio. Lkn nio. pknJLkn nio. pkn nio. Lkn nio. pknJLkn nio. pkn nio. Lkn
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 29'521 10'290 19'231 2'342 1'310 1'032 27'179 8'980 18'199
8LLCIbH 8L 16'281 8'819 7'462 3'018 870 2'148 13'263 7'949 5'314
0LhHAPK 0K 5'952 4'062 1'890 3'569 2'579 991 2'383 1'483 900
IIhLAh0 II 13'865 4'040 9'825 5'090 889 4'201 8'774 3'151 5'623
IPAhCL IP 128'323 79'493 48'830 20'521 14'458 6'062 107'802 65'035 42'768
CLPHAhY 0L 153'800 75'500 78'300 33'061 20'904 12'157 120'739 54'596 66'143
CPLLCL CP 1'818 1'673 144 1'818 1'673 144 0 0 0
IPLLAh0 IL 2'179 1'765 414 2'095 1'681 414 84 84 0
IJALY IJ 65'919 49'524 16'395 4'977 4'271 707 60'941 45'253 15'688
LbXLH80bPC Lb 1'148 486 662 393 19 374 755 467 288
hLJLPLAh0S hL 14'984 12'671 2'313 1'429 994 435 13'556 11'677 1'879
h0PwAY h0 5'051 2'600 2'451 1'219 572 646 4'504 2'700 1'805
0PJbCAL J 5'580 3'633 1'947 2'479 1'656 823 3'101 1'977 1'124
SAIh LS 28'552 18'960 9'593 6'377 3'987 2'390 22'175 14'973 7'202
SwL0Lh SL 21'818 5'154 16'664 1'610 371 1'238 20'209 4'783 15'426
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 24'762 14'104 10'658 0 0 0 0 0 0
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 72'792 47'213 25'579 46'035 23'584 22'450 26'757 23'629 3'128
J0JAL JJ 592'345 339'987 252'358 136'032 79'818 56'214 432'223 246'737 185'486
All Lypes o LracLion JoLal 0iesel LracLion JoLal LlecLric LracLion

IabIe 52 JransporL volunes in nillion pkn resp. Lkn or rail Lraic used in Lhe calculaLions.

Av!at!on data
Regarding aviaLion LransporL daLa Lwo possible daLa sources are available: IRuPS 1 daLa as
well as ICA0 sLaLisLical daLa, wLicL were used for LLe lasL IC sLudy (base year 1995, see
IuIRASJIUU 2000). ILe IRuPS1 daLabase only conLains air passenger LransporL daLa. PaLa
for air freigLL LransporL were noL available. Bowever, in air LransporL LLere is no clear dis-
LincLion possible beLween passenger and freigLL LransporL, since mosL passenger aircrafLs
also carry a considerable amounL of freigLL. As a resulL, emission daLa of air LransporL in
IRuPS1 include also emissions of freigLL LransporL wiLL respecL Lo LLose aircrafLs wLicL
carry passenger and freigLL. 0nly freigLL-only air LransporL services are noL included.
ILe second possible daLa source for air LransporL daLa are ICA0 sLaLisLical daLa wLicL
was used in LLe IuIRASJIUU (2000) sLudy. Based on LLe airporL Lraffic (aircrafL move-
menLs, passenger and freigLL daLa), addiLional informaLion on LLe number of passengers
and amounL of freigLL and mail Lo domesLic and inLernaLional desLinaLions and assumpLions
on LLe average fligLL disLance Lraffic volumes and LransporL performances figures could be
derived.
ILe following Lable sLow LLe resulLs for IRuPS1:

j121
pkm - Iake 0ff, fru!se and Land!ng vkm - Iake 0ff, fru!se and Land!ng
CounLry ShorLcuL
AirJShorL
aul
AirJHediun
aul
ShorL
Hediun aul
AirJLong
aul
AirJShorL
aul
AirJHediun
aul
ShorL
Hediun aul
AirJLong
aul
bniL nill. pkn nill. pkn nill. pkn nill. pkn nill. vkn nill. vkn nill. vkn nill. vkn
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 1'382 6'220 7'602 16'113 42'011 445'541 487'552 3'045'269
8LLCIbH 8L 2'893 6'696 9'589 40'147 75'576 419'938 495'514 8'904'917
0LhHAPK 0K 1'634 9'898 11'532 18'907 44'494 725'201 769'695 4'000'702
IIhLAh0 II 1'623 2'679 4'302 13'003 44'641 195'154 239'795 2'653'149
IPAhCL IP 12'521 30'250 42'771 169'089 408'674 2'116'447 2'525'121 47'116'798
CLPHAhY 0L 16'745 26'725 43'470 218'860 571'478 1'833'248 2'404'726 57'096'649
CPLLCL CP 2'119 1'540 3'659 41'823 59'894 117'876 177'770 8'679'894
IPLLAh0 IL 3'306 2'678 5'984 15'258 115'728 190'848 306'576 3'967'212
IJALY IJ 7'941 24'103 32'044 83'786 276'507 1'731'030 2'007'536 18'082'535
LbXLH80bPC Lb 0 0 0 0 n.b. n.b. 0 n.b.
hLJLPLAh0S hL 4'229 7'798 12'027 101'111 132'656 559'669 692'325 32'489'420
h0PwAY h0 0 0 0 0 n.b. n.b. 0 n.b.
0PJbCAL J 586 2'382 2'968 31'109 16'810 179'648 196'458 6'539'452
SAIh LS 8'914 11'000 19'914 161'633 275'239 813'835 1'089'075 33'813'899
SwL0Lh SL 4'856 4'854 9'710 23'741 151'182 323'339 474'521 4'555'703
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 0 0 0 0 n.b. n.b. 0 n.b.
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 14'804 29'076 43'880 337'461 480'823 2'033'204 2'514'027 96'212'136
I0IAL II 83'552 165'898 249'450 1'212'042 2'695'114 11'684'911 14'380'691 321'151'135

IabIe 53 JPLh0S1 air LransporL daLa. Jhere is no daLa available or Luxenbourg, horway and SwiLzerland. Jo inprove
conparabiliLy Lo ICA0 daLa we sun up ShorLHediun aul services which correspond nore or less Lo donesLic LransporL
in Lhe ICA0 neLhodology.
IRuPS 1 daLa for passenger air LransporL are based on R0C0uIR0I acLiviLy movemenLs.
ILese daLa conLain movemenLs per aircrafL Lype and originJdesLinaLion pair.
missions and fuel consumpLion as well as Lraffic indicaLors like passenger kilomeLres
and veLicle kilomeLres Lave been found in LLe IRuPS 1 daLaseL per counLry (15) and
per LLree disLance classes:
sLorL Laul: < 500 km
medium Laul: 500 - 1000 km
long Laul: ~ 1000 km
As well as for:
Lake off (alLiLude < 3000 fL aL deparLure)
cruise (alLiLude ~ 3000 fL)
landing (alLiLude < 3000 fL aL desLinaLion).
ILe spliL beLween passenger and freigLL Lraffic was noL made in IRuPS 1, due Lo LLe lack
of freigLL daLa reporLed. uo freigLL daLa is included in LLe IRuPS aviaLion daLabase. ILis
means on LLe oLLer Land LLaL all emissions from aviaLion are allocaLed Lo passenger Lrans-
porL.
0ne source LLaL publisLes passenger km as well as Lon km is LLe AA daLa. A cross
cLeck made by IRuPS sLowed LLaL LLe AA daLa seem Lo underesLimaLe acLual passenger
km flown by an order of 40 - 100. Since no oLLer source for freigLL was available Lo cLeck
128j
LLe reliabiliLy of LLe AA freigLL daLa, iL musL be assumed LLaL LLis daLa source underesLi-
maLes acLual Lonne km as well.

CounLry ShorLcuL
Connercial Air JransporL
naLional inLern. LoLal naLional inLern. LoLal naLional inLern. LoLal
bniL 1'000 LJ0 1'000 LJ0 1'000 LJ0 nill. pkn nill. pkn nill. pkn nill. Lkn nill. Lkn nill. Lkn
8ase year 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
AbSJPIA AJ 8.3 84.8 93.1 149 15'810 15'960 0.2 184.5 185.6
8LLCIbH 8L 9.0 143.5 152.5 2 30'121 30'123 0.1 961.8 962.4
0LhHAPK 0K 26.4 123.5 149.9 596 22'642 23'238 13.7 521.1 585.1
IIhLAh0 II 32.0 46.5 78.4 913 9'750 10'662 2.1 124.9 134.7
IPAhCL IP 321.7 401.8 723.6 13'581 89'404 102'985 72.7 1'714.4 2'053.5
CLPHAhY 0L 284.9 549.0 833.9 12'245 134'086 146'331 109.0 3'045.3 3'553.8
CPLLCL CP 47.0 40.3 87.3 1'567 9'653 11'220 6.3 102.6 132.2
IPLLAh0 IL 20.9 84.9 105.8 340 22'551 22'891 6.5 208.5 238.6
IJALY IJ 187.4 236.2 423.5 8'612 54'309 62'921 49.0 775.6 1'004.1
LbXLH80bPC Lb 0.0 25.3 25.3 0 2'318 2'318 0.0 701.1 701.1
hLJLPLAh0S hL 3.9 203.5 207.5 51 54'740 54'791 0.0 1'774.4 1'774.4
h0PwAY h0 135.2 60.4 195.6 4'771 11'984 16'755 17.4 80.1 161.1
0PJbCAL J 18.8 81.3 100.0 1'280 19'965 21'245 11.0 183.3 234.8
SAIh LS 302.3 319.3 621.6 13'463 108'027 121'490 68.9 455.7 777.1
SwL0Lh SL 83.1 106.5 189.6 2'813 21'185 23'997 12.6 397.2 456.0
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 25.0 204.9 230.0 698 41'511 42'210 5.4 679.0 704.3
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 274.4 615.5 889.9 9'823 196'605 206'428 66.8 3'196.3 3'508.1
J0JAL JJ 1'180.1 3'321.0 5'101.0 10'902 844'662 915'564 441.6 15'105.1 11'166.1
Source: IfA0 0!gest of Stat!st!cs ho 494: AIkP0kI IkAffIf 2000 (Part 8, yeIIow pages}: SuH 0f ALL AIkP0kIS
pkn and Lkn: passenger * av. IlighL disLance (naLional: 300 kn, inLernaLional: 1400 kn)
1) 0ennark: AllocaLion or reighL and nail based upon passenger daLa, IreighL daLa 1999, Hail daLa 1995
2) IranceJSwiLzerland: 8aselJHulhouse: all novenenLs, passenger and reighLJnail daLa are allocaLed 50J50 Lo Irance and SwiLzerland
3) IrelandJILaly: nail allocaLion Cork0ublin based on reighL daLa
4) SwiLzerland: nail allocaLion Zurich based on reighL daLa
LI0 pkm tkm

IabIe 54 Air LransporL daLa based on ICA0 sLaLisLical daLa.
Ue suggesL using Lrends passenger LransporL daLa (pkm, emissions) and include freigLL
LransporL according Lo LLe spliL LkmJpkm in Iable 54.
Ue assumed LLaL one passenger is equal Lo 190 kg freigLL (IuIRASJIUU 2000).

InIand waterborne transport
IRuPS1 provide specific Lraffic volume daLa for inland waLerborne freigLL LransporL. Iable
55 sLows LLe available daLa:
j129
CounLry ShorLcuL
nio Lkn nio vkn
8ase year 2000 2000
AbSJPIA AJ 2'025 2'025
8LLCIbH 8L 6'561 6'561
0LhHAPK 0K 0 n.b.
IIhLAh0 II 506 506
IPAhCL IP 7'624 7'624
CLPHAhY 0L 62'000 62'000
CPLLCL CP 0 n.b.
IPLLAh0 IL 0 n.b.
IJALY IJ 125 125
LbXLH80bPC Lb 327 327
hLJLPLAh0S hL 37'630 37'630
h0PwAY h0 0 n.b.
0PJbCAL J 0 n.b.
SAIh LS 0 n.b.
SwL0Lh SL 0 n.b.
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 0 n.b.
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 200 200
J0JAL JJ 116'998 116'998
Inland waLerways

IabIe 55 Inland waLerborne LransporL daLa in Lb17.

LHISSI0hS
koad
ILe IRuPS1 daLabase delivers LLe following LoLal emissions for road LransporL:

Passenger
CounLry ShorLcuL Ln_C4 Ln_C0 Ln_C02 Ln_C Ln_hHC Ln_h0x Ln_H Ln_S02
bniL [LJa| [LJa| [LJa| [LJa| [LJa| [LJa| [LJa| [LJa|
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 6'494 522'429 13'529'280 65'068 58'574 59'731 2'779 1'706
8LLCIbH 8L 4'774 385'661 16'344'914 45'934 41'161 57'923 4'258 2'240
0LhHAPK 0K 3'690 288'098 7'428'940 44'024 40'333 42'106 689 999
IIhLAh0 II 3'806 374'955 8'993'059 44'559 40'753 51'015 1'263 913
IPAhCL IP 24'830 2'160'900 59'113'923 345'193 320'363 300'228 11'550 9'140
CLPHAhY 0L 69'938 5'656'198 122'938'365 565'220 495'282 507'527 20'979 16'456
CPLLCL CP 5'783 672'565 10'947'530 129'513 123'730 53'200 987 1'034
IPLLAh0 IL 1'601 158'680 3'882'827 30'409 28'808 21'907 416 671
IJALY IJ 34'357 3'800'816 73'890'079 669'152 634'795 401'127 13'124 10'296
LbXLH80bPC Lb 371 26'301 797'000 2'492 2'120 2'256 111 87
hLJLPLAh0S hL 8'453 612'483 14'306'825 67'902 59'449 48'192 2'359 1'903
h0PwAY h0 4'004 340'453 6'534'213 41'395 37'391 28'584 494 1'023
0PJbCAL J 4'523 425'918 7'385'299 71'613 67'090 37'681 844 886
SAIh LS 19'918 2'183'152 38'404'688 288'956 269'038 187'557 13'527 5'568
SwL0Lh SL 9'490 806'051 15'599'595 96'771 87'282 68'716 1'200 2'447
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 1'552 200'207 10'535'132 23'671 22'118 27'437 672 1'049
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 47'789 4'179'099 85'595'362 538'418 490'629 353'820 8'337 13'715
I0IAL II 251'314 22'193'966 496'221'030 3'010'290 2'818'915 2'249'006 83'589 10'134

IabIe 56 JoLal enissions or passenger road LransporL.
130j
fre!ght
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 1'269 52'806 13'423'697 19'265 17'996 129'157 8'382 2'514
8LLCIbH 8L 788 67'492 8'730'398 19'675 18'888 73'023 6'299 1'615
0LhHAPK 0K 543 44'098 5'160'935 10'373 9'830 43'668 3'019 941
IIhLAh0 II 280 24'020 3'096'029 6'832 6'553 26'226 2'524 513
IPAhCL IP 4'833 633'326 45'386'942 128'854 124'020 359'806 36'629 8'081
CLPHAhY 0L 6'444 483'914 64'135'081 165'456 159'012 558'609 52'603 11'990
CPLLCL CP 1'105 146'769 9'257'713 28'220 27'116 81'133 6'072 1'588
IPLLAh0 IL 251 14'855 2'992'780 4'917 4'666 25'968 1'953 564
IJALY IJ 3'712 352'494 39'182'580 88'261 84'549 317'433 26'179 7'166
LbXLH80bPC Lb 36 2'580 334'700 677 641 2'888 192 61
hLJLPLAh0S hL 1'010 38'009 12'208'616 19'464 18'454 104'611 7'266 2'323
h0PwAY h0 391 66'255 1'996'728 8'723 8'332 16'483 1'072 354
0PJbCAL J 654 39'553 8'775'738 19'273 18'619 70'409 8'478 1'235
SAIh LS 5'327 803'945 46'492'493 121'679 116'352 372'614 36'930 6'724
SwL0Lh SL 1'018 167'058 5'469'279 22'755 21'737 45'642 3'021 977
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 143 19'878 3'224'612 3'906 3'762 23'987 1'139 553
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 5'080 640'119 36'637'652 100'223 95'143 264'970 20'076 6'305
I0IAL II 32'884 3'591'110 306'505'914 168'555 135'610 2'516'625 221'833 53'505

IabIe 51 JoLal enissions or reighL road LransporL.
ka!I
IoLal emissions for rail LransporL (passenger and freigLL) for LLe year 2000 are lisLed in
Iable 58 and Iable 59.

Passenger
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 250 199 241'721 43 50 1'100 71 286
8LLCIbH 8L 1'023 157 427'087 24 52 1'687 143 2'302
0LhHAPK 0K 694 925 463'508 250 19 5'336 334 1'023
IIhLAh0 II 308 135 182'493 27 15 813 54 231
IPAhCL IP 927 1'595 902'501 424 82 9'555 687 5'268
CLPHAhY 0L 10'186 3'587 5'044'435 837 206 22'490 2'187 21'476
CPLLCL CP 0 372 110'741 104 0 1'964 119 134
IPLLAh0 IL 24 194 68'446 54 2 1'052 65 155
IJALY IJ 942 962 1'571'533 191 887 8'240 564 8'477
LbXLH80bPC Lb 5 5 19'274 1 3 27 1 14
hLJLPLAh0S hL 1'995 410 967'089 70 163 2'747 176 1'031
h0PwAY h0 43 229 103'984 61 13 1'229 76 144
0PJbCAL J 313 282 223'536 71 47 1'772 132 1'190
SAIh LS 1'835 841 974'209 203 96 6'306 578 7'652
SwL0Lh SL 42 104 66'539 26 12 571 36 99
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 0 71 52'711 64 0 360 16 76
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 5'392 5'587 3'539'275 1'474 237 35'224 2'506 18'882
I0IAL II 23'919 15'655 14'959'082 3'923 1'884 100'413 1'145 68'439

IabIe 58 JoLal enissions or passenger rail LransporL.

j131
fre!ght
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 248 208 242'715 46 49 1'150 74 288
8LLCIbH 8L 188 232 138'690 61 10 1'380 91 495
0LhHAPK 0K 0 240 71'382 67 0 1'266 77 86
IIhLAh0 II 185 376 197'654 99 9 2'048 127 245
IPAhCL IP 273 795 362'581 216 24 4'531 306 1'668
CLPHAhY 0L 5'016 1'831 2'503'179 430 101 11'414 1'098 10'599
CPLLCL CP 0 21 6'401 6 0 114 7 8
IPLLAh0 IL 0 81 24'090 23 0 427 26 29
IJALY IJ 318 141 476'514 13 300 1'813 132 2'800
LbXLH80bPC Lb 1 46 16'763 13 1 245 15 19
hLJLPLAh0S hL 124 60 70'339 14 10 351 22 76
h0PwAY h0 6 52 20'142 14 2 280 17 27
0PJbCAL J 98 144 86'494 38 15 848 59 392
SAIh LS 532 408 331'233 105 28 2'695 220 2'276
SwL0Lh SL 46 110 71'348 27 14 603 38 106
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 0 52 38'798 47 0 265 11 56
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 397 3'077 1'054'199 855 17 16'668 1'037 2'349
I0IAL II 1'431 1'814 5'112'524 2'014 519 46'096 3'351 21'520

IabIe 59 JoLal enissions or reighL rail LransporL.
0ther transport means
IoLal missions for air LransporL (passenger) for LLe year 2000 are sLown in Iable 60. ILis
daLa seL comes also ouL of LLe IRuPS1 daLabase.
Passenger
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 0 3'435 3'197'688 1'468 0 10'235 0 1'015
8LLCIbH 8L 0 5'397 6'128'599 1'785 0 19'347 0 1'946
0LhHAPK 0K 0 3'852 4'086'354 1'178 0 12'488 0 1'297
IIhLAh0 II 0 2'250 2'386'055 883 0 7'781 0 757
IPAhCL IP 0 22'433 28'639'153 9'144 0 91'274 0 9'092
CLPHAhY 0L 0 26'659 34'255'146 10'213 0 108'588 0 10'875
CPLLCL CP 0 4'987 5'852'426 1'688 0 18'253 0 1'858
IPLLAh0 IL 0 3'128 3'162'770 1'018 0 10'580 0 1'004
IJALY IJ 0 12'893 15'716'767 4'539 0 51'620 0 4'989
LbXLH80bPC Lb 0 197 307'603 65 0 879 0 98
hLJLPLAh0S hL 0 9'102 14'224'165 3'011 0 40'650 0 4'516
h0PwAY h0 0 3'404 3'395'621 1'057 0 10'674 0 1'078
0PJbCAL J 0 3'201 4'201'503 1'191 0 14'144 0 1'334
SAIh LS 0 18'255 24'219'012 6'556 0 82'319 0 7'689
SwL0Lh SL 0 4'726 4'714'182 1'467 0 14'819 0 1'497
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 0 8'941 8'324'370 3'821 0 26'645 0 2'643
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 0 34'629 50'025'943 13'678 0 158'383 0 15'881
I0IAL II 0 161'490 212'831'358 62'162 0 618'618 0 61'561

IabIe 60 JoLal enissions or passenger air LransporL.

132j
InIand waterways: 6as 0!I[Hed!um Speed
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 2 60 62'570 60 58 1'199 80 68
8LLCIbH 8L 8 194 202'726 194 188 3'886 259 220
0LhHAPK 0K 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
IIhLAh0 II 1 15 15'635 15 14 300 20 17
IPAhCL IP 9 226 235'572 226 218 4'516 301 256
CLPHAhY 0L 73 1'836 1'915'721 1'836 1'775 36'723 2'448 2'081
CPLLCL CP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
IPLLAh0 IL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
IJALY IJ 0 4 3'862 4 4 74 5 4
LbXLH80bPC Lb 0 10 10'092 10 9 193 13 11
hLJLPLAh0S hL 45 1'114 1'162'719 1'114 1'077 22'289 1'486 1'263
h0PwAY h0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0PJbCAL J 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
SAIh LS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
SwL0Lh SL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 0 6 6'180 6 6 118 8 7
I0IAL II 139 3'465 3'615'016 3'465 3'349 69'299 4'620 3'921

IabIe 61 JoLal enissions or reighL inland waLerborne LransporL (JPLh0S1).

j133
LHISSI0h IACJ0PS

fHISSI0h fAfI0kS 8 vfhIfLf IPf
veh!cIe type f0
2

gJpkn , gJLkn
f0
2

gJvkn
PH10
(exhaust em!s-
s!ons}
gJpkn , gJLkn
PH10
(exhaust em!s-
s!ons}
gJvkn
PH10
(non-exhaust
em!ss!ons}
gJvkn
koad
ass. Car non
urban
192.9 144 0.01 0.02 0.045
assenger Car
urban
87.3 322 0.03 0.06 0.045
Jwo-wheelers 83.7 94 0 0 0.0165
8us (0iesel) 67.6 1'180 0.04 0.708 0.653
Coaches (0ie-
sel)
35.0 656 0.02 0.313 0.65.
L0V (all Lech-
niques)
410 304 0.32 0.24 0.059
0V (0iesel) 91.1 615 0.06 0.431 0.653
ka!I
ass. Locono-
Live & Pailcar
(0iesel)
50.8 5'814 0.05 6.24 3.0
ass. Locono-
Live & Pailcar
(elecLric)
38.7 5'389 0.01 1.64 3.0
igh Speed
Jrain (elec-
Lric)
15.7 2'804 0.01 0.92 3.0
IreighL Loco-
noLive &
Pailcar (0ie-
sel)
38.0 11'845 0.04 4.94 17.0
IreighL Loco-
noLive &
Pailcar (elec-
Lric)
19.0 5'942 0.01 1.72 17.0
0ther Iransport Heans
ass. AviaLion 132 18'621 - - -
IreighL. Avia-
Lion
673 - - - -
waLerways 31 20'084 0.04 25.67 -
IabIe 62 Lnission acLors by vehicle Lype or C0
2
and H10 (exhausL and non-exhausL enissions) based on Lhe JPLh0S1
daLabase.
ILe following Lable sLows LLe relevanL daLa used Lo calculaLe emission facLors for non-
exLausL emissions in rail LransporL. PaLa calculaLion is based on BUAI 2003, Irain-km for
134j
2000 are Laken from naLional public LransporL sLaLisLics, since IC sLaLisLics only cover
Lrain-kilomeLres of IC members in SwiLzerland.
(hLLp:JJwww.sLaLisLik.adnin.chJsLaL_chJber11JdLr11c.hLn)

h0h fXhAuSI PH10 fHISSI0hS Ih kAIL IkAhSP0kI
CALCbLAJI0h 8ASL0 0h 8bwAL 2003
Passenger fre!ght IotaI
r=b= L~= L~= L~=
JoLal Lnissions 2000
8rake abrasion 84.0 329.0 413.0
Jrack abrasion 170.0 103.0 273.0
wheel abrasion 77.0 47.0 124.0
ConLacL line abrasion 11.0 7.0 18.0
LxhausL (diesel engines only) 0.0 45.0 45.0
Pesuspension 79.0 48.0 127.0
JoLal enissions 421.0 579.0 1000.0
hon-exhaust em!ss!ons 421.0 534.0 955.0
JoLal IacLors
Jrain-kn SwiLzerland (1'000
kn)
140'692.0 31'434.0 172'126.0
r=b=~= Lq~J= Lq~J= Lq~J=
Lnission acLors hon-exhausL
enissions
3.0 17.0 5.5
IabIe 63 hon-exhausL H10 enissions or rail LransporL in SwiLzerland. CalculaLion used Lo esLinaLe Luropean hon-
exhausL enission acLors or rail LransporL.
ILe sLudy on non-exLausL emissions for SwiLzerland is sLill going on wiLL LLe general aim
Lo verify LLe so far publisLed daLa.

ACCI0LhJS
koad Acc!dent 0ata
Road AccidenL PaLa was Laken from LLe IRIAP daLabase (IRIAP 2003). ILere is no deLailed
informaLion on accidenLs of BPV and IPV available. IaLaliLies and Injuries are reporLed
wiLLin LLe IRIAP daLabase from a vicLim's perspecLive, i.e. LLere is no informaLion of LLe
responsible causer of an accidenL available.

j135
koad
ho. CounLry ShorLcuL brban Poads InLerurban
roads
(-cde)
HoLorways ighways,
Hain or
haLional
Poads
0Lher roads Pegional
roads (-de)
JoLal
bniL
AccidenLs wiLh
injuries
AccidenLs wiLh
injuries
AccidenLs wiLh
injuries
AccidenLs wiLh
injuries
AccidenLs wiLh
injuries
AccidenLs wiLh
injuries
AccidenLs wiLh
injuries
8ase year 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Colunn a b c d e g
1 AbSJPIA AJ 25'400 16'726 2'466 6'985 7'275 14'260 42'126
2 8LLCIbH 8L 24'860 24'204 4'713 13'208 6'283 19'491 49'065
3 0LhHAPK 0K 4'368 2'978 331 739 1'908 2'647 7'346
4 IIhLAh0 II 3'734 2'899 152 1'207 1'540 2'747 6'633
5 IPAhCL IP 80'574 40'649 7'401 8'731 24'517 33'248 121'223
6 CLPHAhY 0L 245'470 137'479 25'578 38'754 73'147 111'901 382'949
7 CPLLCL CP 16'059 0 0 0 0 6'606 23'001
8 IPLLAh0 IL 4'330 3'427 46 1'333 2'048 3'381 7'757
9 IJALY IJ 158'215 53'726 13'396 0 0 40'330 211'941
10 LbXLH80bPC Lb 362 543 111 0 0 432 905
11 hLJLPLAh0ShL 25'202 12'745 2'767 4'951 5'027 9'978 37'947
12 h0PwAY h0 2'945 5'495 0 0 0 0 8'440
13 0PJbCAL J 30'042 14'117 1'918 8'667 3'532 12'199 44'159
14 SAIh LS 57'009 44'720 3'121 0 0 0 101'729
15 SwL0Lh SL 9'010 6'760 1'128 0 0 0 15'770
16 SwIJZLPLAh0 C 15'094 8'643 2'256 4'406 1'981 6'387 23'737
17 bhIJL0 KIhC0bK 176'406 65'711 9'368 0 0 56'343 242'117
IotaI 819'080 440'822 14'152 88'981 121'258 319'950 1'326'845

IabIe 64 AccidenL daLa road LransporL. hunber o accidenLs wiLh injuries 2000. Source: IPJA0 2003
136j
koad
fasuaIt!es by road use type
ho. CounLry ShorLcuL edesLrians CyclisLs HoLorcycles assenger
cars and vans
0Lher
LransporL
neans
(L0VJCV)
JoLal
bniL IaLaliLies IaLaliLies IaLaliLies IaLaliLies IaLaliLies IaLaliLies
8ase year 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Colunn
1 AbSJPIA AJ 140 62 156 549 69 976
2 8LLCIbH 8L 142 134 182 922 80 1'460
3 0LhHAPK 0K 99 58 71 235 35 498
4 IIhLAh0 II 62 53 19 224 38 396
5 IPAhCL IP 838 270 1'392 5'291 288 8'079
6 CLPHAhY 0L 993 659 1'102 4'396 353 7'503
7 CPLLCL CP 375 22 502 891 245 2'035
8 IPLLAh0 IL 85 10 39 260 21 415
9 IJALY IJ 848 371 1'229 3'535 427 6'410
10 LbXLH80bPC Lb 11 1 8 53 2 75
11 hLJLPLAh0ShL 106 198 196 513 69 1'082
12 h0PwAY h0 47 13 46 224 11 341
13 0PJbCAL J 382 55 435 899 89 1'860
14 SAIh LS 898 84 866 3'289 639 5'776
15 SwL0Lh SL 73 47 49 393 29 591
16 SwIJZLPLAh0 C 130 48 111 273 30 592
17 bhIJL0 KIhC0bK 889 131 612 1'784 164 3'580
IotaI 6'118 2'216 1'015 23'131 2'589 41'669

IabIe 65 AccidenL daLa road LransporL. hunber o aLaliLies 2000. Source: IPJA0 2003
PaLa on injuries is only available for selecLed counLries for 2000.
j131
koad
fasuaIt!es by road use type
ho. CounLry ShorLcuL edesLrians CyclisLs HoLorcycles assenger
cars and vans
0Lher
LransporL
neans
(L0VJCV)
JoLal
bniL Severe injuries Severe injuries Severe injuries Severe injuries Severe injuries Severe injuries
8ase year 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Colunn
1 AbSJPIA AJ - - - - - -
2 8LLCIbH 8L 621 971 1'980 5'701 526 9'799
3 0LhHAPK 0K 436 658 839 2'139 294 4'366
4 IIhLAh0 II - - - - - -
5 IPAhCL IP - - - - - -
6 CLPHAhY 0L 11'932 15'586 17'579 52'759 4'560 102'416
7 CPLLCL CP - - - - - -
8 IPLLAh0 IL - - - - - -
9 IJALY IJ - - - - - -
10 LbXLH80bPC Lb - - - - - -
11 hLJLPLAh0ShL 759 2'263 2'808 5'030 647 11'507
12 h0PwAY h0 165 80 205 804 11 1'265
13 0PJbCAL J 1'365 166 1'905 2'774 705 6'915
14 SAIh LS 3'288 475 7'323 14'233 2'445 27'764
15 SwL0Lh SL - - - - - -
16 SwIJZLPLAh0 C - - - - - -
17 bhIJL0 KIhC0bK - - - - - -
IotaI 18'566 20'199 32'639 83'440 9'188 164'032

IabIe 66 AccidenL daLa road LransporL. hunber o severe injuries 2000. Source: IPJA0 2003

ka!I Acc!dent 0ata
Rail AccidenL PaLa were Laken from official IC sLaLisLics (IC 2002c). uumber of faLaliLies
and injuries for LLe calculaLion of accidenL cosLs are based on a 7 years Lime series 1994-
2000. ILe following Lables sLow LLe mosL recenL daLa for 1999 and 2000:
138j
ka!I 2000
fasuaIt!es by acc!dent type
ho. CounLry ShorLcuL Collisions
and
derailnenLs
0Lher
accidenLs
er 1 8ill.
kn
Collisions
and
derailnenLs
0Lher
accidenLs
er 1 8ill.
kn
bniL IaLaliLies IaLaliLies IaLaliLies Injuries Injuries Injuries
8ase year 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Colunn
1 AbSJPIA AJ 0 4 0.49 0 12 1.46
2 8LLCIbH 8L 0 3 0.39 6 6 1.55
3 0LhHAPK 0K . . . . . .
4 IIhLAh0 II 0 2 0.59 0 3 0.88
5 IPAhCL IP 2 13 0.22 0 21 0.30
6 CLPHAhY 0L 9 29 0.51 170 54 3.03
7 CPLLCL CP . . . . . .
8 IPLLAh0 IL 0 2 1.44 0 0 0.00
9 IJALY IJ 0 8 0.18 3 27 0.69
10 LbXLH80bPC Lb 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00
11 hLJLPLAh0ShL . . . . . .
12 h0PwAY h0 16 0 6.07 23 0 8.73
13 0PJbCAL J 0 2 0.00 2 27 0.00
14 SAIh LS 0 0 0.00 1 0 0.05
15 SwL0Lh SL 0 0 0.00 2 . .
16 SwIJZLPLAh0 C 0 2 0.16 0 9 0.70
17 bhIJL0 KIhC0bK 10 3 0.00 17 46 0.00
IotaI 31 68 10 224 205 544

IabIe 61 AccidenL daLa rail LransporL 2000. IaLaliLies and Injuries 2000. Source: IPJA0 2003. Penark: .: no daLa
available or Lhe respecLive year.
j139
ka!I 1999
fasuaIt!es by acc!dent type
ho. CounLry ShorLcuL Collisions
and
derailnenLs
0Lher
accidenLs
er 1 8ill.
kn
Collisions
and
derailnenLs
0Lher
accidenLs
er 1 8ill.
kn
bniL IaLaliLies IaLaliLies IaLaliLies Injuries Injuries Injuries
8ase year 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999 1999
Colunn
1 AbSJPIA AJ 0 8 1.00 2 16 2.25
2 8LLCIbH 8L 0 3 0.41 0 6 0.82
3 0LhHAPK 0K 2 . . 12 . .
4 IIhLAh0 II 0 1 0.29 0 6 1.76
5 IPAhCL IP 0 12 0.18 0 24 0.36
6 CLPHAhY 0L 2 26 0.38 11 40 0.70
7 CPLLCL CP 0 1 0.63 7 24 19.58
8 IPLLAh0 IL 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00
9 IJALY IJ 0 22 0.51 6 55 1.40
10 LbXLH80bPC Lb 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00
11 hLJLPLAh0ShL . . . . . .
12 h0PwAY h0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00
13 0PJbCAL J 0 10 0.00 0 55 0.00
14 SAIh LS 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00
15 SwL0Lh SL 0 0 0.00 0 2 0.27
16 SwIJZLPLAh0 C 1 3 0.32 0 6 0.48
17 bhIJL0 KIhC0bK 29 8 0.00 126 38 0.00
IotaI 34 94 4 164 212 568

IabIe 68 AccidenL daLa rail LransporL 1999. IaLaliLies and Injuries 1999. Source: IPJA0 2003. Penark: .: no daLa
available or Lhe respecLive year.

A!r acc!dent data
Air accidenL daLa is Laken from ICA0:

vIfIIHS Ih AvIAII0h AffI0fhIS
0VLP Lb JLPPIJ0PY 8Y AhY 0LPAJ0P
ears Passenger fataI!t!es per 100 m!II!on pkm
1990 0.03
1991 0.03
1992 0.05
1993 0.04
1994 0.05
1995 0.02
1996 0.05
1997 0.03
1998 0.03
1999 0.02
IabIe 69 Source: ICA0 2001a: Jhe world o Civil AviaLion 1999-2002, ICA0, 2001
140j
h0ISL
ILe daLa base for LLe naLional populaLion exposed Lo LransporL noise is based on LLe daLa
seLs, wLicL were already used for LLe IuIRASJIUU (1995) and IuIRASJIUU (2000) sLudies.
In LLese Lwo sLudies LLe daLa was Laken ouL of LLe 0CP nvironmenLal Compendium 1993
(0CP 1993), updaLed and exLended wiLL up-Lo-daLe naLional sLudies.
Ior LLis updaLe-sLudy LLe daLa seLs were updaLed again wiLL some new naLional sLudies
(e.g. resulLs of naLional sLudies in AusLria and ILaly abouL road-, rail- and rail-noise were
accounLed). In LLe field of rail noise LLe SIAIRRS projecL (SIAIRRS 2001aJb) Lave provided
wiLL a series of new values. ILe following Iable 70 documenLs LLe used values. ILe values
were compiled by assessing LLe liLeraLure lisLed in LLe boLLom line of LLe Lable.

hAII0hAL P0PuLAII0h fXP0Sf0 I0 IkAhSP0kI h0ISf
HILLI0h
fountry ear koad A!r ka!I
55-
60
60-
65
65-
10
10-
15
>15 55-
60
60-
65
65-
10
10-
15
>15 55-
60
60-
65
65-
10
10-
15
>15
AusLria (1,2) 2002 2.34 1.82 0.42 0.29 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.05 0.04
8elgiun 00J89 3.00 2.72 1.08 0.09 0.52 0.31 0.14 0.05 0.02
0ennark 1990 0.56 0.41 0.41 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.01
Iinland (3) 00J89 0.35 0.21 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
Irance (4) 1986 12.00 9.30 6.20 2.76 0.22 0.23 0.11 0.06
Cernany (5) 2000 14.84 12.61 7.42 4.2 1.24 0.30 0.13 8.57 5.11 1.90 0.58 0.08
Creece (10) 1980 2.02 1.01 1.01 0.81 0.20
Ireland 2000 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00
ILaly (7) 1997 19.00 12.47 7.23 2.18 0.59 1.47 1.06 0.47 0.18 0.19 3.59 2.59 1.35 0.42 0.18
Luxenb'g 2000 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
heLherl. 1987 5.10 2.40 0.40 0.15 0.15 3.15 1.80 0.30 0.10 0.67 0.14 0.04 0.03 0.02
horway (1) 1991 0.60 0.40 0.25 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00
orLugal 00J90 0.74 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.36 0.21 0.10 0.04 0.02
Spain 00J80 7.35 4.83 2.80 0.84 0.24 0.49 0.30 0.14 0.05 0.02
Sweden (6) 1991 0.84 0.40 0.27 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.13 0.05 0.01
SwiLzerl. (8) 02J85 1.98 1.05 0.55 0.24 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.48 0.22 0.11 0.05 0.01
bK (1)
90J89
J72
16.20 10.20 4.60 0.50 0.60 1.21 0.16 0.03 0.50 0.16 0.04
IabIe 10 haLional populaLion exposed Lo LransporL noise [Hillion|, 0LC0 1993. AddiLional sources:
(1) ron quesLionnaire
(2) Iederal LnvironnenLal Agency AusLria, 2001
(3) Lkono Lnergy, 1993
(4) bIC - InLernalisaLion o exLernal eecLs
(5) b8A, 2000 (projecLed Lo LoLal Cernany)
(6) ansson, 1994
(7) Schade 2003, HinisLero dell'AnbienLe 1997
(8) 8bwAL, 2002
(9) SJAIPPS, 2001 (iLalic leLLers)
(10) 0LC0JLCHJ JransporL and Lhe LnvironnenL 1998
j141
According Lo LLe IuIRASJIUU (1995) and IuIRASJIUU (2000) sLudies iL is sLill a prob-
lem Lo geL empirical daLa for all counLries, LransporL modes and noise exposure levels. ILus,
missing daLa Lad Lo be esLimaLed using LecLniques of daLa exLrapolaLion.
ILe resulLs of LLe daLa compilaLion are sLown in Iable 71. IL sLould be kepL in mind
LLaL some of LLe daLa seLs musL be Landled wiLL care for lack of beLLer daLa.

hAII0hAL P0PuLAII0h fXP0Sf0 I0 IkAhSP0kI h0ISf
HILLI0h
fountry ear koad A!r ka!I
55-
60
60-
65
65-
10
10-
15
>15 55-
60
60-
65
65-
10
10-
15
>15 55-
60
60-
65
65-
10
10-
15
>15
AusLria 2002 2.34 1.82 0.42 0.29 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.05 0.04 MKMP MKMO
8elgiun 89J00 3.00 2.72 1.08 MKMV MKMN MKNO MKMV MKMQ MKMO MKMN= 0.52 0.31 0.14 0.05 0.02
0ennark 1990 0.56 0.41 0.41 MKMS MKMQ 0.06 0.03 MKMN MKMN MKMM= MKMU= 0.05 0.02 MKMN MKMM
Iinland 89J00 MKPR= MKOQ= 0.21 MKMQ MKMM MKMS MKMQ MKMO MKMN MKMN= 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
Irance 1986 12.0 9.30 6.20 OKTS MKPQ MKSV MKQV MKOM MKMV MKMS= 0.22 0.23 0.11 0.06 0.05
Cernany
4
2000 14.8 12.6 1.42 4.2 1.24 MKQT MKPV MKPM MKOM 0.13 8.51 5.11 1.90 0.58 0.08
Creece 1980 2.02 1.01 1.01 0.81 0.20 MKMR MKMR MKMO MKMN MKMN= MKMU= MKMQ= MKMN MKMN MKMM
Ireland 2000 0.69 0.45 0.26 0.08 0.02 MKMQ MKMP MKMN MKMN MKMM= 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00
ILaly 1997 18.4 12.1 1.01 2.11 0.51 1.41 1.06 0.41 0.18 0.19 3.59 2.59 1.35 0.42 0.18
Luxenb'g 2000 MKMU= MKMR= MKMP MKMN MKMM MKMM MKMM MKMM MKMM MKMM= 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00
heLherl. 1987 5.10 2.40 0.40 0.15 0.15 3.15 1.80 0.30 MKNM MKMR= 0.61 0.14 0.04 0.03 0.02
horway 1991 0.60 0.40 0.25 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00
orLugal 90J00 NKVQ= NKOU= MKTQ MKOO MKMS MKNO MKMV MKMQ MKMO MKMN= 0.36 0.21 0.10 0.04 0.02
Spain 80J00 1.35 4.83 2.80 0.84 0.24 MKQS MKPP MKNQ MKMS MKMQ= 0.49 0.30 0.14 0.05 0.02
Sweden 1991 0.84 0.40 0.21 MKMS MKMN 0.01 0.04 0.00 MKMM MKMM= 0.24 0.13 0.05 MKMN MKMM
SwiLzerl. 85J02 1.98 1.05 0.55 0.24 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.48 0.22 0.11 0.05 0.01
bK
1

90J89
J72
16.2 10.2 4.60 0.50 0.60 OKOR 1.21 0.16 MKMP MKMN= 0.66 0.50 0.16 MKMQ MKMO
IabIe 11 LsLinaLion o populaLion exposed Lo LransporL noise [Hill.|.
Penarks:
- Iigures in boId Ietters are based on Lhe nean values
- Iigures in !taI!c Ietters are esLinaLed
- Iigures, narked wiLh grey are updaLed"
PaLa abouL LLe populaLion exposed Lo air Lraffic noise is sLill noL very reliable. Io geL more
precise informaLion, deLailed reporLs on exposed inLabiLanLs for a sample of uropean air-
porLs were accounLed.
A more precisely look on LLe values of LLe exposed populaLion in comparison beLween
differenL counLries (e.g. ILe ueLLerlands, SwiLzerland and 0ermany) sLows LLaL LLe raLio
beLween LLe RailJ Road and Air exposed populaLion differenLiaLe from counLry Lo counLry.
ILe ueLLerlands wiLL LLe LigLesL populaLion densiLy reporL for 1998 abouL less LLan Lwo
142j
LLird of noise annoyance compared wiLL 0ermany and SwiLzerland (cp. [ScLade 2003|). ILis
is sLown in Iable 72. ILis could parLially be due Lo differences in LLe surveys, buL also due
Lo LLe differenL noise abaLemenL policies in LLe differenL counLries (e.g. very early LLe
ueLLerlands noise abaLemenL acL in 1979 inLroduced a general naLion-wide noise exposure
LargeL of 50 dB(A)).

f0HPAkIS0h 0f ShAkfS 0f PfkS0hS kfP0kIIh6 Ahh0Ahff 8ffAuSf 0f IkAhSP0kI
h0ISf Ih SukvfS
hetherIands 6ermany Sw!tzerIand
Share of annoyed persons !n
surveys 1998 {%]
40
all sources
58,5
only LransporL sources
64
all sources
Average popuIat!on dens!ty
{pers[km]
379 230 177
IabIe 12 Conparison o shares o persons reporLing annoyance because o LransporL noise in surveys (cp. [Schade
2003|).

IhIPASJPbCJbPL
InfrasLrucLure daLa for all modes are needed Lo deLermine infrasLrucLure area and LoLal cosLs
for naLure and landscape. ILe firsL sLep Lo calculaLe infrasLrucLure area for road, Lrain and
inland waLerborne LransporL is LLe lengLL of LLis LransporLaLion rouLes resp. LLe number of
airporLs in every counLry.

j143
koad !nfrastructure
2000
CounLry ShorLcuL HoLorways ighways,
nain or
naLional
roads
Secondary or
regional
roads
0Lher roads
bniL
kn kn kn kn
8ase year
2000 2000 2000 2000
AbSJPIA AJ 1'634 10'260 23'065 98'000
8LLCIbH 8L 1'691 12'542 1'326 130'300
0LhHAPK 0K 902 758 9'961 59'882
IIhLAh0 II 512 13'271 28'633 35'993
IPAhCL IP 9'626 27'500 358'500 586'000
CLPHAhY 0L 11'515 41'321 86'823 502'253
CPLLCL CP 700 9'100 31'300 75'600
IPLLAh0 IL 103 5'270 10'700 76'600
IJALY IJ 6478 46'043 113'924 487'752
LbXLH80bPC Lb 115 837 1'911 2'326
hLJLPLAh0S hL 2'291 6'650 57'500 59'400
h0PwAY h0 144 26'561 27'213 36'962
0PJbCAL J 1'441 11'408 58'990 n.a.
SAIh LS 8'893 24'124 139'656 489'698
SwL0Lh SL 1484 13212 83427 112829
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 1642 18276 51197 n.a.
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 3529 48194 113105 207256
J0JAL JJ 52'700 315327 1197231 2960851
Source: LC 2002: Lb Lnergy and JransporL in Iigures 2002
hoLe : ~ Jhe deiniLion o road Lypes varies ron CounLry Lo CounLry
~ Jhe igure or "0Lher roads" in Cernany derives ron 1995

IabIe 13 Poad neLwork in Lb17 counLries.

144j
ka!I !nfrastructure
2000 Lines noL
elecLriied
LlecLriied
lines
JoLal
CounLry ShorLcuL JoLal single Lrack douple Lrack
or nore
JoLal single Lrack douple Lrack
or nore
bniL
kn kn kn kn kn kn kn
8ase year
AbSJPIA AJ 2'309 2'292 17 3'356 1'505 1'851 5'665
8LLCIbH 8L 766 495 271 2'705 347 2'358 3'471
0LhHAPK 0K 1'422 1'048 374 625 92 533 2'047
IIhLAh0 II 3'482 3'482 0 2'372 1'865 507 5'854
IPAhCL IP 15'177 3'620 11'557 14'166 1'885 12'281 29'343
CLPHAhY 0L 17'573 14'861 2'712 19'079 4'050 15'030 36'652
CPLLCL CP 2'299 1'978 321 0 0 0 2'299
IPLLAh0 IL 1'872 1'419 453 47 0 47 1'919
IJALY IJ 5'537 5'493 44 10'946 4'826 6'120 16'468
LbXLH80bPC Lb 13 13 0 261 121 140 274
hLJLPLAh0S hL 740 0 740 2'062 286 1'776 2'802
h0PwAY h0 1'660 1'660 0 2'519 2'334 185 4'179
0PJbCAL J 1'910 1'876 34 904 440 464 2'814
SAIh LS 6'343 6'322 21 7'525 4'015 3'510 13'868
SwL0Lh SL 2'541 2'541 0 7'405 5'710 1'695 9'946
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 19 19 0 4'989 2'879 2'111 2'975
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 11'418 4'304 7'114 4'988 3'140 1'848 16'406
J0JAL JJ 75'081 51'423 23'658 83'950 33'494 50'455 156'983
0aLa source 1) bIC 2000: SLaLisLique InLernaLionale des Chenins de er 2000
2) bIC 2001: SLaLisLique InLernaLionale des Chenins de er 2001
3) 0aLa or SwiLzerland: Schweizerische VerkehrssLaLisLik 1996J2000, 8S, heuenburg 2000

IabIe 14 Pail neLwork in Lb17 counLries.

j145
Av!at!on and waterborne transport !nfrastructure
humber of A!rports fanaIs
CounLry ShorLcuL
haLional
AirporLs
Pegional
AirporLs
heLwork
LengLh
bniL h h kn
8ase year 1995 1995 1997
AbSJPIA AJ 3 6 -
8LLCIbH 8L 5 6 880
0LhHAPK 0K 2 15 -
IIhLAh0 II 6 23 125
IPAhCL IP 15 122 4'183
CLPHAhY 0L 25 90 1'729
CPLLCL CP 2 46 6
IPLLAh0 IL 3 17 -
IJALY IJ 7 67 203
LbXLH80bPC Lb 1 0 -
hLJLPLAh0S hL 8 18 3'745
h0PwAY h0 1 57 n.a.
0PJbCAL J 3 21 -
SAIh LS 10 46 -
SwL0Lh SL 11 45 70
SwIJZLPLAh0 C 2 18 -
bhIJL0 KIhC00H bK 20 134 191
I0IAL II 124 131 11'132
Source: AirporL daLa: IhIPASJIww 2000
Inland waLerways: LC 2001 (Lb Lnergy and JransporL in Iigures 2001)

IabIe 15 LengLh o canals (noL included are river and lakes) and Lhe nunber o naLional and regional airporLs in Lb17
counLries.

C0hCLSJI0h
Add!t!onaI Input 0ata
ILe meLLodology for esLimaLing urban congesLion cosLs requires LLe following inpuL daLa:

1. A represenLaLive speed-flow relaLionsLip for a Lypical urban arLerial and an or-
dinary secondary road Laken ouL of LLe 0erman US manual.
2. Iravel speeds in peak and off-peak in selecLed urban areas from uII (Ac-
counLs and case sLudies).
3. ILe price elasLiciLy of demand of urban Lravel, if available for peak and off-peak
Lraffic.
146j
4. IoLal Lravel demand and Lraffic mix per counLry on urban arLerials and oLLer
urban roads, eacL for peak and off-peak Lraffic.
As in LLe previous sLudy we selecL LLe speed-flow relaLionsLips from LLe 0erman US
manual. from LLe 24 road Lypes provided by LLe manual we selecL an ordinary main road
wiLL a single carriageway and Lwo lanes per direcLion (Iype 5.21). Ior LLis road Lype LLe
speed flow funcLion Lakes LLe form:

) 10 536 . 2 exp( 1 . 0 1 . 60
3
Q V =

V is LLe Lravel speed of passenger cars and goods veLicles in kpL and 0 denoLes LLe
Lraffic volume in PCJL. Beyond a cerLain Lraffic volume, wLicL corresponds Lo a Lravel
speed of approximaLely 40 kpL on road Lype 4.21 and 20 kpL for road Lype 5.12) LLe func-
Lion would be replaced by anoLLer one, wLicL would smooLLly approacL a posiLive, mini-
mum Lravel speed. As LLis would violaLe LLe idea of marginal cosL pricing and LLe compuLa-
Lion of LLe deadweigLL loss, we use LLe simple form as presenLed above.
ILe sLare of congesLed Iraffic and LLe Lravel speeds in congesLion and in normal Lraffic
condiLions are Laken ouL of LLe counLry reporLs of LLe uII projecLs (P5, P8 and P12).

fountry Share of congested traff!c fongest!on hormaI cond!t!ons
ArLerial 0Lher ArLerial 0Lher
Cernany 1.5 5.3
1)
35.2 18,6
SwiLzerland 30.9 36.0
AusLria 1.9 10 10 58 19
Spain 0.4 10
2)
90
2)
heLherlands 1.5 10 27.13
Creece 13 30
ILaly 18.4 25
orLugal 1.4 10 40
1)
SLop-and-go speed. -
2)
All roads besides noLorways
IabIe 16 Jravel speeds and share o congesLed Lraic in urban areas (source: bhIJL)
In parLicular LLe Lravel speeds for SwiLzerland are ouLsLanding as Lere LLe classificaLion
of Lraffic condiLions was peak J off-peak and noL congesLion J normal condiLions. AnoLLer
exLreme is provided by LLe 0erman values because congesLion Lere is defined sLricLly as
sLop-and-go Lraffic. As LLe remaining values Lend Lo converge aL 10 kpL for congesLed con-
diLions and around 30 kpL for normal Lraffic condiLions we selecL LLese Lwo values as repre-
senLaLive for all uropean ciLies.
j141
ILis approacL of disLinguisLing beLween congesLed and non-congesLed condiLions is
more direcL LLen LLe one Laken by LLe previous sLudy, in wLicL iL was disLinguisLed be-
Lween peak and off-peak condiLions, for wLicL (widely differing) speed daLa was Laken for a
number of sample ciLies worldwide.
ILe daLa sLows LLaL LLere is very limiLed informaLion on LLe deLails of urban Lraffic
condiLion on a uropean scale available and LLaL LLe Lypology of Lraffic siLuaLion widely
diverges, even wiLLin LLe uII projecL. ILus, for LLis sLudy we Lake an averaging uro-
pean perspecLive by making LLe following assumpLions:
1. Iravel speeds under congesLion are 10 kpL and 30 kpL oLLerwise.
2. ILe sLare of congesLed Lraffic relaLive Lo LoLal urban Lraffic is 1.5!.
3. ILe sLare of urban Lraffic is provided by LLe IRuPS daLabase for LLe coun-
Lries. ILe missing values are seL in accordance wiLL AusLria (represenLaLive for
SwiLzerland), Sweden and Iinland (represenLaLive for uorway).
According Lo LLe previous sLudy, LLe price elasLiciLy of Lraffic demand is seL Lo -0.3 for
urban as well as for inLer-urban Lraffic.
Ior calculaLing naLional values of Lravel Lime in urban areas LLe sLare of Lravel pur-
poses (business, privaLeJcommuLing and leisure) and LLe veLicle occupancy raLes Lave been
exLracLed from LLe uII counLry accounLs daLa. nforLunaLely, mosL counLries Lave eiLLer
noL reporLed LLis informaLion, Lave simply used LLe daLa proposed for 0ermany or Lave noL
disLinguisLed beLween rural and urban roads. ILe daLa available is presenLed in Iable 77.

148j

8us!ness
Pr!vate[
commut!ng
Le!sure 8us!ness
Pr!vate[
commut!ng
Le!sure
urban roads
AusLria 12 64 24 1.1 1.3 2.0
Cernany 18 34 48 1.2 1.4 2.1
Creece 39 39 22 1.2 1.4 2.0
orLugal 9 74 17 1.2 1.2 1.6
Spain 18 33 49 1.2 1.4 2.1
SwiLzerland 15 65 20 1.3 1.2 2.0
Ih!s Study 12 64 24 1.1 1.3 2.0
InLer-urban roads
Cernany 18 34 48 1.2 1.4 2.1
Creece 20 50 30 1.2 1.4 2.0
Spain 18 33 49 1.2 1.4 2.1
SwiLzerland 20 33 47 1.3 1.2 2.0
Jhis sLudy 18 34 48 1.2 1.4 2.1
IabIe 11 Share o Lravel purposes and vehicle occupancy raLes in car Lravel (source: bhIJL)
HosL of LLe uII counLries eiLLer use LLe defaulL daLa provided for 0ermany (wLicL
does noL disLinguisL beLween urban and non-urban Lraffic) or do noL reporL LLe conLenLs of
LLeir sources. IurLLer, LLe available daLa on Lravel purposes in urban Lraffic sLow some
conLradicLing Lendencies: ULile 0reece reporLs a mucL LigLer sLare of business Lraffic in
agglomeraLions, PorLugal, AusLria and SwiLzerland reporL vice-versa figures. ILus, for urban
areas we use LLe AusLrian daLa as LLis averages beLween LLe available specific urban values.
Ior inLer-urban Lraffic we selecL LLe 0erman daLa, as LLis is used by mosL of LLe uII
counLry accounLs.
ILe picLure concerning veLicle occupancy raLes looks more condensed. Bere we also
cLose LLe 0erman values for inLer-urban Lraffic and reduce LLem by 0.1 for all Lravel pur-
poses in LLe case of urban Lraffic.

vaIue of I!me and un!t cost funct!ons
BoLL, urban and inLer-urban congesLion is compuLed by speed-flow funcLions, wLicL ex-
press Lravel speed as a funcLion of LLe passenger car equivalenLs (PC) per Lour. ILus, LLe
Value of Iime used in LLis sLudy musL be expressed in uroJPC-L. sing LLe above daLa on
Lravel purposes and LLeir valuaLion according Lo LLe uII valuaLion convenLions, average
uropean values of Lime per veLicle-L is calculaLed according Lo Iable .

j149
Vehicle type Bus/coach 2-Wheelers LDV HDV
Units Business
Private/
commutng
Leisure
Urban roads
- Occupancy 1,20 1,40 2,10 30,00 1,10 1,00 1,00
- VOT / unit 21,00 6,00 3,50 5,32 5,32 40,76 43,47
- Share of purpose 0,12 0,64 0,24 - - - -
- VOT / veh. 25,20 8,40 7,35
(all purposes) 10,72 159,55 5,85 40,76 43,47
- PCE 1,00 2,50 0,50 1,52 2,50
Inter-Urban roads
- Occupancy 1,20 1,40 2,10 30,00 1,10 1,00 1,00
- VOT / unit 21,00 6,00 4,00 4,83 4,83 40,76 43,47
- Share of purpose 0,18 0,34 0,48 - - - -
- VOT / veh. 25,20 8,40 8,40
(all purposes) 12,46 144,88 5,31 40,76 43,47
- PCE 1,00 2,50 0,50 1,52 3,50
private/commuting
and leisure
All commodities /
average velhicle load
Passenger car

IabIe Vehicle-speciic paraneLers or calculaLing congesLion cosLs
ILis average uropean Value of Iime is converLed inLo naLional values per passenger car
equivalenL in urban and inLer-urban Lravel using LLe counLry-specific Lraffic mix of eacL
neLwork caLegory ouL of Iable 46. ILe resulLing values of Lravel Lime are presenLed in
Iigure 25.

vALufS 0f IIHf Pfk PASSfh6fk fAk f0uIvALfhI
Values of Time per Passenger Car Equivalent
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
30,00
35,00
A
T
B
E
D
K F
I
F
R
D
E
G
R I
E I
T
L
U
N
L
N
O
P
T
E
S
S
E
C
H
U
K
E
U
R
1
7

/

P
C
E
-
k
m
Urban
Rural

f!gure 25 Conparison o naLional Values o Jine.

150j
niL cosL funcLions express LLe average cosLs per passenger car equivalenL by Lraffic siLua-
Lion, wLicL are I0S A Lo I in inLer-urban Lraffic and congesLion J normal condiLions in ur-
ban LransporL. According Lo LLe Lype of ouLpuL, uniL cosLs are compuLed as follows:
Concerning LLe LoLal revenues Lo be expecLed from road pricing LLe uniL cosLs are calcu-
laLed deriving LLe producL ouL of LLe number of users Limes LLe derivaLive of LLe users'
average Lravel Lime by LLe number of users.
Ior calculaLing LLe deadweigLL loss, LLe difference beLween LLe marginal exLernal cosL
curve and LLe demand curve is compuLed.
Ior LLe delay cosL measure, LLe exLra Lravel Lime per km compared Lo a reference service
level, wLicL is selecLed Lo be I0S-B for all road caLegories, is compuLed.

Poad Value bniL cosLs (h J 1000 CL-kn)
Lype A 8 C 0 L I
HoLorways 0wL 0.20 0.79 2.36 5.33 7.19 10.60
PLV 2.33 10.10 58.36 82.66 82.66 82.66
0elay 0.00 0.00 0.28 35.40 36.83 37.36
Jrunk roads 0wL 0.22 0.82 1.34 2.08 2.23 2.60
PLV 2.74 13.50 43.87 45.87 45.87 45.87
0elay 0.00 0.00 0.57 78.90 84.17 84.17
brban roads 0wL 3.27 4.46 7.04 13.06 19.79 34.28
PLV 53.57 77.54 127.90 226.42 226.42 226.42
0elay 0.00 0.00 8.20 50.75 63.73 65.34
IabIe 18 Average Luropean value o Lravel Line by vehicle Lype.

Serv!ce IeveIs !n road transport
ILe inpuL daLa for esLimaLing road congesLion cosLs is provided by LLe base scenario 2000
of LLe Iu-SIAC projecL carried ouL for LLe uropean Commission. ILe modelled Lraffic flows
are calibraLed by auLomaLic counLing posL informaLion. Ior LLe currenL analysis LransporL
flows by passenger cars and by goods veLicles on moLorways and on Lrunk roads are disLin-
guisLed. ILe model resulLs for buses are noL used by road segmenL as LLey do noL maLcL
LLe counLing posL daLa sufficienLly.
sing LLe US speed flow curves and LLe Ievel-of-Service definiLion by LLe BBS manual
as described in SecLion 2.7 LLe model daLa can be compiled inLo veLicle kilomeLres by ser-
vice level. ILe aggregaLed daLa by counLry is presenLed in Iable 79 and Iable 80.

j151
IkAhSP0kI v0LuHf 0h H0I0kwAS 8 IkAhSP0kI IPf Ah0 L0S
HILLI0h CL-KH
fountry LeveI of Serv!ce
A 8 f 0 f f
AbSJPIA 20.260 4.965 2.258 1.346 1.080 1.071
8LLCIbH 13.942 6.576 4.482 3.687 1.528 4.137
0LhHAPK 10.754 2.883 1.018 778 220 280
IIhLAh0 20.326 1.608 524 125 14 14
IPAhCL 99.150 35.171 21.576 12.523 7.675 11.375
CLPHAhY 117.582 35.650 31.729 26.258 16.411 35.547
CPLLCL 10.901 483 247 167 122 1.627
IPLLAh0 7.683 1.142 511 159 0 3
IJALY 63.295 23.529 14.306 11.022 5.166 11.780
LbXLH80bPC 776 133 193 37 61 0
hLJLPLAh0S 16.461 5.550 4.856 4.184 3.045 15.503
h0PwAY 7.446 580 337 182 154 483
0PJbCAL 10.026 2.847 1.373 1.161 98 617
SAIh 30.589 6.208 3.110 1.784 639 1.550
SwL0Lh 30.305 3.197 1.424 308 298 415
SwIJZLPLAh0 14.390 2.829 1.597 1.354 408 1.317
bhIJL0 KIhC00H 40.041 10.727 8.480 7.098 3.852 30.384
J0JAL 513.926 144.078 98.022 72.176 40.770 116.104
IabIe 19 CL-kn by L0S on noLorways 2000
Ior oLLer inLer-urban roads LLan moLorways (Lrunk roads) LLe Lraffic volume daLa re-
porLed by LLe VACIAV Lraffic model Lad Lo be updaLed as LLe model does noL conLain all
naLional road links. ILus, LLe difference beLween LLe LoLal naLional volumes reporLed by
LLe IRuPS daLabase and LLe VACIAV daLabase Lad been allocaLed Lo Lrunk roads. As iL can
be assumed LLaL LLe mosL imporLanL links are conLained in LLe VACIAV model, LLe remain-
ing veLicle kilomeLres are allocaLed Lo I0S-level A (compare Iable 80).

152j
IkAhSP0kI v0LuHf 0h Ikuhk k0A0S 8 IkAhSP0kI IPf Ah0 L0S
HILLI0h CL-KH
fountry LeveI of Serv!ce
A 8 f 0 f f
AbSJPIA
46.486 146 53 9 24 18
8LLCIbH
50.635 875 297 220 147 504
0LhHAPK
18.637 0 0 0 0 0
IIhLAh0
21.111 0 0 0 0 0
IPAhCL
120.430 8.067 4.788 2.844 1.759 3.056
CLPHAhY
276.842 1.825 874 621 475 1.509
CPLLCL
39.963 184 0 0 0 771
IPLLAh0
14.544 179 28 28 80 60
IJALY
263.517 1.656 90 93 0 0
LbXLH80bPC 1.796 0 0 0 0 0
hLJLPLAh0S
18.293 586 431 385 233 710
h0PwAY
15.255 84 100 106 0 79
0PJbCAL
49.270 175 31 45 0 495
SAIh
179.076 11.458 4.831 3.073 1.444 1.908
SwL0Lh
28.402 107 0 0 0 0
SwIJZLPLAh0
21.585 7 5 0 0 0
bhIJL0 KIhC00H
159.061 7.946 4.955 3.375 1.060 5.634
J0JAL
1.324.904 33.297 16.483 10.800 5.223 14.746
IabIe 80 CL-kn by L0S on Lrunk roads 2000
ILe Lraffic condiLions on urban roads are only differenLiaLed by "normal Lraffic condi-
Lions" (I0S-level B) and "congesLed Lraffic condiLions" (I0S-level ). According Lo LLe re-
porLs of LLe uII projecL on LLe sLare of congesLed Lraffic in a number of urban areas
(Vienna, Iisbon, 0porLo, ALLens) a common sLare of 1.5! is used.

kesuIts
Iable 81 presenLs LLe resulLs for LLe LLree measures of congesLion cosLs by counLry. Ue can
draw LLe following conclusions:
ILe deadweigLL loss as LLe economic measure of LoLal congesLion cosLs, is rougLly Lwice
as LigL (63 billion uro) as LLe figure presenLed in LLe 2000 sLudy (33 billion uro). ILe
reason for LLis drasLic increase is a meLLodological one, as (1) LLe neLworks of LLe VA-
CIAV Lraffic model are more dense LLan LLe ones used in LLe 2000 sLudy and (2) Lraffic
volumes, wLicL are noL considered by LLe VACIAV model, Lad been included Lere. Respec-
Lively, LLe overall increase in LLe veLicle kilomeLres capLured by LLe presenL meLLodology
is also rougLly Lwice as LigL as LLe Lraffic volumes considered iL LLe 1995 sLudy.
j153
ILe revenues Lo be expecLed from sLorL-run marginal congesLion pricing is more LLan Len
Limes LigLer LLan LLe social surplus creaLed under LLis pricing regime, wLicL is LLe dead-
weigLL loss. ILus, iL is mosL likely LLaL LLe welfare gains from applying social marginal
cosL pricing are eaLen up by LransacLion cosLs for running LLe pricing sysLem and for col-
lecLing and allocaLing LLe revenues.
ven under LLe cauLious assumpLions Laken Lere, LLe delay cosL measure is beLween six
and seven Limes LigLer LLan LLe deadweigLL loss. Considering LLe previous sLaLemenLs on
LLe possible inefficiency of raising congesLion cLarges, LLis measure LLus may lead Lo
wrong policy conclusions.

kfSuLIS 0f Ihf f0h6fSII0h f0SI HfASukfS
HILLI0h LbP0 LP YLAP
fountry 0eadwe!ght Ioss SkHf-Pr!c!ng kevenues 0eIay costs
Inter-urb. urban IotaI Inter-urb. urban IotaI Inter-urb. urban IotaI
AbSJPIA
730 494 1'224
9'532 5'729 15'261 1'935 2'315 4'250
8LLCIbH
1'724 462 2'186
21'505 5'348 26'853 6'676 2'226 8'901
0LhHAPK
363 452 814
5'015 5'223 10'238 861 2'176 3'037
IIhLAh0
182 280 462
2'496 3'231 5'727 85 1'386 1'472
IPAhCL
6'418 3'081 9'500
88'016 35'606 123'622 28'874 14'999 43'873
CLPHAhY
12'008 4'345 16'354
143'138 50'323 193'461 44'683 20'700 65'383
CPLLCL
435 495 931
4'633 5'727 10'360 1'801 2'398 4'199
IPLLAh0
162 175 337
2'431 2'030 4'461 392 836 1'228
IJALY
5'474 2'545 8'019
68'118 29'422 97'539 16'410 12'341 28'752
LbXLH80bPC
48 62 110
760 713 1'473 100 298 399
hLJLPLAh0S
3'700 562 4'263
37'583 6'528 44'111 14'925 2'610 17'534
h0PwAY
276 192 468
3'317 2'207 5'524 904 957 1'862
0PJbCAL
408 258 666
5'557 2'994 8'550 1'398 1'194 2'592
SAIh
1'793 2'087 3'880
27'297 24'129 51'425 10'231 10'095 20'325
SwL0Lh
395 367 761
5'241 4'231 9'472 567 1'805 2'372
SwIJZLPLAh0
660 276 936
8'226 3'177 11'403 1'974 1'374 3'349
bhIJL0 KIhC00H
8'486 3'623 12'108
91'374 41'825 133'199 40'478 17'763 58'241
J0JAL
43'263 19'755 63'018
524'238 228'442 752'680 172'295 95'472 267'767
IabIe 81 Heasures o road congesLion 2000.

154j
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | AhhfX 2: HfH8fkS 0f Ihf A0vIS0k 80Ak0
AhhfX 2: HfH8fkS 0f Ihf A0vIS0k 80Ak0

0unLLer IIUAu0R, IC
Snejana HARL0VIC-CBuAIS, IC
dward CAIIBR0P, CR
PLilippe P0HR0, CSSPI
Iars J0BAuSS0u, BV
PeLra L0uI0, PB A0
BelmuL LPPIUISR, CIIJSBB
Sergio de IAZZARI, IS IRuIIAIIA
Susana HARIIuS, uII
SanLos uuZ PI CAHP0, RuI
Uim 00SIRUIJL, uS - uV
SLepLen PRLIuS, CHI
BriLLa SCBRIuR, CR
Cecile S00uu, SuCI
Sabine VAu SIHA, SuCBJuHBS
PeLer UIPRLBR, 0CP

j155
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | 6L0SSAk
6L0SSAk

AccidenL insurance VolunLary or mandaLed insurance againsL LLe risks of accidenLs
(properLy and LealLL). ILe premia serve Lo (parLly) inLernalise ex-
Lernal cosLs.
AccidenL raLe AccidenL raLes describe LLe probabiliLy of an accidenL per 1'000 ve-
Licle kilomeLres.
Average cosLs IoLal cosLs in a period, divided by LLe quanLiLy (ouL-puL) pro-
ducedJconsumed in LLaL period. Iong Lerm average cosLs include a
sLare of fixed cosLs (e.g. cosLs associaLed wiLL expansion of exisLing
infra-sLrucLure).
Barrier effecL SeparaLion of adjacenL areas due Lo road or rail infrasLrucLure in-
vesLmenLs, negaLive impacL on Luman beings (e.g. recreaLion), or on
flora and fauna (e.g. consLricLion of LabiLaL).
ConLingenL valuaLion meLLod ValuaLion Lechnique which asks people direcLly how nuch
Lhey are willing Lo payJLo accepL or inprovingJdeLerioraLing envi-
ronnenLal qualiLy. HeLhod is based on Lhe sLaLed preerence ap-
proach, iL is Lhe only neLhod LhaL allows Lhe esLinaLion of exisLence
value. Jhe values obLained are conpared wiLh oLher opporLuniLies, in
order Lo nake visible a budgeL resLricLion.
CosL-effecLiveness Seeks Lo minimise LLe cosLs of acLieving a given (e.g. environ-
menLal) objecLiveJLargeL. ILis principle is a second-besL" eiciency
criLerion, oLen used when a ull cosL-beneiL analysis is noL easible.
C0
2
Carbon dioxide is a major greenLouse gas i.e. iL conLribuLes Lo LLe
climaLe cLange.
Pecibel (dB(A)) Pecibel (dB) is a measure for LLe inLensiLy of sound energy.
According Lo LLe cLaracLerisLic of Luman ears LLe relaLionsLip be-
Lween sound energy and dB is logariLLmic. Several filLers Lave been
defined Lo acLieve a beLLer adapLaLion of dB measuremenLs and LLe
loudness impression of Luman beings. ILe mosL commonly used
Lype of filLer is LLe (A) filLer.
Pefensive expendiLures ValuaLion Lechnique wherein a value or environnenLal qualiLy is
inerred ron people's (volunLary) expendiLures ained aL inproving
Lheir siLuaLion.
156j
Pose-response-funcLions IuncLions sLowing LLe connecLion beLween a specific con-
cenLraLion and iLs specific effecLs. ILey are especially used for LLe
measuremenLs of air polluLion impacLs. Ior example LealLL: ImpacLs
on morLaliLy due Lo specific air polluLion concenLraLions.
fficiency Refers Lo LLe efficienL allocaLion of scarce resources. AL LLe margin,
resources sLould be used by LLe individual wLo is willing Lo pay LLe
mosL for LLem (i.e. wLere marginal social cosL equals marginal social
benefiL).
lasLiciLy ProporLional cLange in demand in response Lo a price increase or
decrease (price elasLiciLy), or reacLion in LoLal demand afLer an in-
creaseJdecrease in income (income elasLiciLy).
nvironmenLal effecLiveness ffecL on LLe environmenL LLaL a given policy response gen-
eraLes. ILis criLerion ignores LLe economic cosLs LLaL may resulL
from implemenLing LLe policy.
xisLence value conomic value wLicL people aLLribuLe Lo someLLing purely for iLs
exisLence (no consumpLion is fore-seen), can only be esLimaLed via
LLe conLingenL valuaLion meLLod.
xLernaliLy (exLernal cosL) conomic cosL noL normally Laken inLo accounL in markeLs
and in LLe decisions made by markeL players.
Iixed cosL CosL wLicL are noL depending on LLe Lraffic volume (in LLe sLorL
run).
(Iull) fuel cycle CompleLe fuel cycle, comprising discovery, depleLion (mining), proc-
essing, LransporL and use of an energy resource.
Iree-flow siLuaLion Iraffic siLuaLion wiLLouL congesLion, used as a reference level. su-
ally an 0ff-Peak-SiLuaLion can be used for urban Lraffic.
0PP (- 0ross PomesLic ProducL). ILe 0PP is LLe sum of all goods and
services produced wiLLin a counLry and a year. 0PP per capiLa can
be regarded as LLe relaLive economic power of a counLry per inLabi-
LanL.
BCJV0C Bydrocarbons J VolaLile 0rganic Compounds conLribuLe Lo ozone
formaLion. Some like benzene, buLadiene and benzo-a-pyrene Lave
been found Lo Lave impacLs on public LealLL.
BPV Beavy duLy veLicles (Road Lrucks) above 3,5 Lonne gross weigLL.
j151
Bedonic pricing ValuaLion Lechnique which iners a value for environmenLal qualiLy
from renL or properLy price differenLials.
Buman value (loss) Value aLLribuLed Lo Luman life in excess of LLe average economic
ouLpuL produced by an individual (e.g. grief, pain, eLc.). -~ VSI
InLernalisaLion IncorporaLion of an exLernaliLy inLo LLe markeL decision making
process LLrougL pricing or regulaLory inLervenLion. In LLe narrow
sense inLernalisaLion is implemenLed by cLarging LLe polluLers wiLL
LLe damage cosLs of LLe polluLion generaLed by LLem, LLe corre-
sponding damage cosLs resp. according Lo LLe polluLer pays princi-
ple.
IPV IigLL duLy veLicles (Vans up Lo 3,5 Lonnes gross weigLL).
Iife-cycle based approacL An approacL, wLere up- and downsLream processes of Lrans-
porL services are included (i.e. veLicle producLion and disposal, fuel
cycles of LLe elecLriciLy producLion eLc.).
Harginal cosLs CosLs relaLed Lo a small incremenL in demand (e.g. an exLra veLicle-
kilomeLre driven). Iong-Lerm marginal cosLs include LLe capaciLy
expansion needed Lo service increased Lraffic demands.
HC HoLorcycle
u0x uiLrogen oxides, wLicL are formed primarily by fuel combusLion and
conLribuLe Lo LLe formaLion of acid rain. ILey also combine wiLL
Lydrocarbons in LLe presence of sunligLL Lo form ozone.
0pporLuniLy cosLs CosLs wLicL arise wLen a parLicular projecL resLricLs alLernaLive uses
of a scarce resource (e.g. land-use of infrasLrucLure prevenLs an al-
LernaLive use, sucL as recreaLion). ILe size of an opporLuniLy cosL is
LLe value of a resource in iLs mosL producLive alLernaLive use.
0pLion value Value of keeping open LLe possibiliLy of consuming a goodJservice
aL some Lime in LLe fuLure.
PC (- Passenger Car niLs) PC is used in order Lo sLandardise veLicles
in relaLion Lo a passenger car. Speed and lengLLs differenLials are
mosL common. UiLLin LLis sLudy LLey are used for LLe allocaLion of
differenL cosLs (e.g. naLure and landscape, urban effecLs, conges-
Lion).
pkm Passenger kilomeLre
158j
PH ParLiculaLe maLLer. Iine parLiculaLe (PH10 wiLL a diameLer of less
LLan 10 n) can conLribuLe Lo Lhe chronic and acuLe respiraLory dis-
ease and premaLure morLaliLy, as LLey are small enougL Lo be in-
Laled inLo LLe lungs. Iarger parLicles decrease visibiliLy and increase
fouling.
PolluLer-pays-principle PoliLicalJeconomic principle wLicL sLipulaLes LLaL LLe user sLould
pay LLe full social cosL (including environmenLal cosLs) of LisJLer
acLiviLy.
PrecombusLion ProducLion, sLorage and LransporLaLion of energy for iLs final use.
PrevenLion approacL ValuaLion Lechnique or esLinaLing exLernaliLies whereby Lhe cosLs of
prevenLing damage are used as a proxy for LLe cosL of LLe damage
iLself for socieLy.
ProducLiviLy 0uLpuL divided by LLe inpuLs needed Lo produce LLaL ouLpuL in
value Lerms.
Public good 0oodJservice for wLicL properLy rigLLs are noL defined. UiLLouL
governmenL inLervenLion, environmenLal goods (e.g. clean air) are
usually LreaLed as public.
ProgressiviLyJRegressiviLy Ierm Lo describe LLe impacL of governmenL policy on income
disLribuLions. ProgressiveJregressive effecLs occur wLen poor Louse-
Lolds spend a smallerJlarger proporLion of LLeir income for a par-
Licular measure (e.g. a Lax) LLan do ricLer LouseLolds.
PurcLasing power pariLy (- PPP) ILe purcLasing power pariLy describes LLe amounL of goods
or services wLicL can be bougLL in a parLicular counLry compared Lo
a reference counLry. ILe PPP necessarily musL be expressed relaLive
Lo a parLicular currency.
Revealed preference ValuaLion Lechnique wherein consuners. choices are revealed in Lhe
narkeLplace (e.g. by Lhe purchase o a good).
Risk approacL ValuaLion Lechnique or esLinaLing exLernaliLies whereby exLernal
cosLs inerred ron prenia for risk facLors (e.g. LLe cosL of insurance,
or of risk diversificaLion).
Risk value HoneLary value for pain, grief and suffering of an average LransporL
vicLim, mainly used for LLe esLimaLion of accidenL faLaliLies.
j159
SLadow Prices SLadow price is LLe marginal opporLuniLy cosL of LLe use of a re-
source (i.e. LLe loss of benefiLs caused if LLis resource cannoL be
used LLe nexL besL purpose).
Social cosLs ILe sum LoLal of inLernal and exLernal cosLs.
Social cosL benefiL analysis SysLemaLic esLimaLion of all cosLs and benefiLs of a projecL
LLaL are relevanL Lo socieLy. Includes boLL Lechnological exLernal-
iLies and pecuniary exLernaliLies, as long as Lhe laLLer are noL nerely
redisLribuLion o incone.
S02 SulpLur dioxide conLribuLes Lo LLe formaLion of sulpLaLe aerosols
and is LLe primary polluLanL in LLe formaLion of acid rain. IL can
also cause respiraLory sysLem damage in Lumans.
Speed-flow funcLion A maLLemaLical or grapLical relaLionsLip beLween LLe flow on a
parLicular road, and LLe speed of LLaL Lraffic flow. As Lraffic flows
increase, Lraffic speeds evenLually fall.
SLaLed preference ValuaLion Lechnique wherein noneLary esLinaLes are derived ron
hypoLheLical sLaLenenLs by individuals abouL Lheir preerences. Jhe
Lypical neLhod used is a quesLionnaire approacL (e.g. conLingenL
valuaLion neLhod).
IecLnological xLernaliLy xLernal effecL LLaL is noL acLively or volunLarily processed
LLrougL markeLs, wLicL resulLs in economic inefficiencies. ILis oc-
curs wLen some firm or individual uses an asseL wiLLouL paying
for iL. IecLnically LLey occur wLere one producLive acLiviLy cLanges
LLe amounL of ouLpuL or welfare wLicL can be produced by some
oLLer acLiviLy using any given amounL of resources. uegaLive LecL-
nological exLernaliLies reduce LLe amounL of ouLpuL or welfare
wLicL an economy can produce wiLL any given allocaLion of inpuLs.
Lkm Ionne kilomeLre
Iraffic mode CaLegory of means of LransporL (road, rail, aviaLion, sLipping, eLc.).
Iraffic volume Heasure for Lraffic acLiviLy wLicL can be expressed in veLicle-
kilomeLres, or in passengerJLonne kilomeLres.
CPI (nion pour la coordinaLion de la producLion eL du LransporL de
l'elecLriciLe)
InLernaLional mix of elecLriciLy producLion, varying sligLLly every year. ILe mix used for
LLe forecasL 2010 is based on:
160j
50! fossil fuels
15! Lydro generaLion
35! nuclear generaLion.
niL cosLs CosLs per uniL of service or goods provided (e.g. Lraffic volume).
(ser) cLarge CLarge imposed on LLe user of a good (e.g. road infrasLrucLure),
ofLen linked Lo LLe cosLs generaLed by Lis or Ler use.
LiliLy (PrivaLe) PrivaLe benefiL received by an individual due Lo LisJLer consump-
Lion of a good or service, or by LLe exisLence of LLaL goodJservice.
LiliLy (Social) ILe aggregaLe of privaLe uLiliLies in an economy.
ValuaLion Process of esLimaLing LLe economic value of a cerLain quanLiLy of a
LransporL goodJservice, generally expressed in moneLary Lerms.
Value of sLaLisLical life (-VSI) ILe value of sLaLisLical life is a meLLodology Lo find a mone-
Lary pendanL Lo a killed or injured Luman being. VSI is LLe oppor-
LuniLy cosLs o a saved hunan lie.
Variable cosLs ( Iixed cosLs) Iull cosLs can be subdivided inLo ixed cosLs and vari-
able cosLs. Iixed cosLs renain consLanL wiLh varying use o a LransporL
sysLen (e.g. supplier- or capiLal cosLs for road and rail neLworks or
adminisLraLive cosLs). ILe expression "fixed" in LLe way iL is used in
LLe Real CosL ScLeme means "fixed in LLe sLorL run" (wiLLouL con-
sideraLion of new infrasLrucLure), as in LLe long run also infrasLruc-
Lure supply cosLs vary wiLL LLe Lraffic demand LLaL is in LLe long
run all cosLs can be made variable. Hain relaLions of variable cosLs
are kilomeLres driven or LLe amounL of veLicles (e.g. crossing a spe-
cific secLion).
Vkm, VeLicle-kilomeLre 0ne kilomeLre Lravelled by a single veLicle.
Uillingness Lo pay (- UIP). ILe willingness (or abiliLy) of people Lo pay for LLe abolisL-
menL, reducLion or recepLion of a parLicular maLLer can be esLimaLed
by Lwo ways: (1) by sLaLed preerence surveys and by hedonic pric-
ing meLLods.

j161
IhfkAS[Iww | 0cLober 2004 | LXJLPhAL C0SJS 0I JPAhS0PJ | LIIfkAIukf
LIIfkAIukf

^==~K=NVVRW=Ars IidsvardessLudie 1994, final reporL and resulLs, Algers S, Bugosson
B, IindqvisL-Pellen J 1995SLudy commissioned by LLe SwedisL InsLiLuLe for IransporL
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29,-30. 0cLober 1996 in UokingLam, L.
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and iLs relaLion Lo road Lraffic noise - LLe Berlin case conLrol sLudies. nvironmenLal
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sance, CommissariaL 0eneral du Plan, Paris, 2001.
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LersLellungskosLen), IorscLungsvorLaben i. A. d., BIAuI (Bfu), 1993.
_rtî=NVVSW mwelL-HaLerialien ur. 49 - ScLadsLoffemissionen und IreibsLoffverbraucL
des 0ffroad-SekLor, Bern, 1996.
_rtî=OMMMW ScLrifLenreiLe mwelL ur. 255 - IufLscLadsLoff-missionen des SLrassenver-
keLrs 1950-2020 (uacLLrag), Bern, 2000.
_rtî=OMMNW HassnaLmen zur RedukLion der PH10-missionen, mwelL-HaLerialien ur.
136, IufL, BundesamL fr mwelL, Uald und IandscLafL (BUAI), Bern, 2001.
_rtî=OMMOW PH10-missionen des VerkeLrs, SLaLusbericLL, Ieil ScLienenverkeLr, m-
welLmaLerialien ur. 144, IufL, BundesamL fr mwelL, Uald und IandscLafL (BUAI),
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162j
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ergy Issues, 14, pp. 169-183.
`=mKI=s=iK=OMMMW LyoLo and LecLnology aL world level: cosLs of C0
2
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greenLouse gases included in LLe LyoLo ProLocol. CosLs and poLenLial measures and pol-
icy insLrumenLs Lo reduce 0B0 emissions, ViLo & L-Ieuven.
b`jq=OMMPW=xLernal and InfrasLrucLure CosLs of Road and Rail Iraffic - Analysing uropean
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sels.
b~=`=ENVVUFW ULiLe Paper Iair PaymenL for InfrasLrucLure se, Brus-
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b~=`=OMMNW PrafL PirecLive for LLe noise cerLificaLion of landing cLarges,
2001J0308
b`=OMMNW nergy and IransporL in Iigures 2001 (uropean CommuniLies in co-operaLion
wiLL urosLaL), Iuxembourg, 2001.
b`=OMMOW nergy and IransporL in Iigures 2002 (uropean CommuniLies in co-operaLion
wiLL urosLaL), Iuxembourg, 2002.
b`=OMMPW=hLLp:JJeuropa.eu.inLJconnJenergy_LransporLJenJeL_en.hLnl
b`jq=NVVU: fficienL IransporL for urope, Policies for InLernalisaLion of xLernal cosLs,
Paris 1998.
b=OMMP~W=coinvenL daLa v1.01, Iinal reporLs ecoinvenL 2000 uo. 1-15, Swiss Cen-
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b=OMMPW Iife Cycle InvenLories of IransporL Servieses, PaLa v1.01 (2003), Spiel-
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b~=OMMP: LosLenwaLrLeiL im VerkeLr unLersLLzL nacLLalLige HobiliLaL (Iair Lrans-
porL pricing Lelps wiLL susLainable mobiliLy), llwanger, 0unLLer, in: isenbaLnLecLni-
scLe RundscLau (Railway IecLnical Review), 5 (2003), p. 281-289,
bqp^m=NVVSW nergy IecLnology SysLems Analysis Programme (ISAP) of nergy ResearcL
CenLer of LLe ueLLerlands, PeLLen - uI, 1996.
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CP-R0H, uropean CommuniLies, 0ffice for official PublicaLions of LLe uropean com-
muniLies, Iuxembourg, 2002.
c~==~K=NVVVW
3
ueL. In: Iorum fr nergiemodelle und nergiewirLscLafLlicLe SysLem-
analysen in PeuLscLland (Brsg.) (1999) nergiemodelle zum LlimascLuLz in PeuLscL-
land. PLysica -Verlag, Beidelberg.
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cdps=OMMNW BandbucL fr die Bemessung von SLraenverkeLrsanlagen (BBS), Ausgabe
2001. ResearcL SocieLy for Road and IransporLaLion Science, Cologne.
cet^=NVVTW Iederal BigLway CosL AllocaLion SLudy 1997. Iinal ReporL Lo LLe Congress of
LLe niLed SLaLes. UasLingLon P.C., 1997
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Seminar organised by LLe PIRC, 29,-30. 0cLober 1996 in UokingLam, L.
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Savings in 1997. Proceedings of LLe 8LL Uorld Conference on IransporL ResearcL,
pp.513-526. Volume 3 IransporL HodellingJAssessmenL. diLed by Heersman, B., Van de
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e==~K: Social CosLs and SusLainabiliLy, Berlin, 1997.
f`^l=OMMN~W ILe Uorld of Civil AviaLion 1999-2002, ICA0, 2001
f`^l=OMMN: Iraffic Commercial Air Carriers, PigesL of SLaLisLics uo. 490, Series I-uo. 60,
InLernaLional Civil AviaLion 0rganizaLion ICA0, HonLreal 2001.
f`^l=OMMO~: AirporL Iraffic 2000, PigesL of SLaLisLics uo. 494, Series AI-uo. 41, InLerna-
Lional Civil AviaLion 0rganizaLion ICA0, HonLreal 2002.
164j
f`^l=OMMO: 0n-IligLL 0rigin and PesLinaLion, ear and 0uarLer ending 31 Pecember 2001,
PigesL of SLaLisLics uo. 496, Series 0I0P-uo. 96, InLernaLional Civil AviaLion 0rganiza-
Lion ICA0, HonLreal 2002.
f`^l=OMMO: IleeL - Personnel Commercial Air Carriers, PigesL of SLaLisLics uo. 497, Series
IP-uo. 54, InLernaLional Civil AviaLion 0rganizaLion ICA0, HonLreal 2002.
fkco^p=NVVRW 0koinvenLar IransporLe, IransporLe - 0rundlagen fr den kologiscLen Ver-
gleicL von IransporLsysLemen und fr den inbezug von IransporLsysLemen in 0kobi-
lanzen, SPP mwelL, Hodul 5, ZricL 1995.
fkco^pLftt=NVVRW=xLernal effecLs of LransporL, IC, LarlsruLe, ZuricL, Paris 1995.
fkco^pLbLm=NVVSW Pie vergessenen Hilliarden, xLerne LosLen im nergie-
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fkco^pLjbqblqbpq=OMMP: xLerne 0esundLeiLskosLen durcL verkeLrsbedingLe IufLver-
scLmuLzung - ScLadsLoffexposiLion, nLwurf ZwiscLenbericLL IufLscLadsLoffmodellie-
rung, BeldsLab, J. (IuIRAS), Lnzle, I. (HI0ISI), im AufLrag von: BundesamL fr
RaumenLwicklung AR, ZricLJBern SepLember 2003
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LosLen des VerkeLrs in der ScLweiz (0VI-AufLrag ur. 174), Bern 1993.
foqâ=OMMP: InLernaLional Road Iraffic and AccidenL PaLa Base (0CP), BundesansLalL fr
SLrassenwesen (BASL), SLand AugusL 2003, BergiscL 0ladbacL 2003.
f=NVVM: HikrokonomiscLe BewerLung von Veranderungen der mwelLqualiLaLen, ZricL
1990.
gfn=OMMO~W JoinL ImplemenLaLion 0uarLerly - April 2002
gfn=OMMOW JoinL ImplemenLaLion 0uarLerly -July 2002
gfn=OMMOW JoinL ImplemenLaLion 0uarLerly - Pecember 2002
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organised by LLe PIRC, 29,-30. 0cLober 1996 in UokingLam, L
i=OMMO: Harginal accidenL cosLs - case sLudies, Peliverable 9, uII (uIficaLion of
accounLs and marginal cosLs for IransporL fficiency), funded by 5
LL
Iramework RIP
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BericLL P3 und HaLerialienband H3 des uaLionalen IorscLungsprogramms 41 VerkeLr
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p. 3-10 and 3J97 p. 86-95, 1997.
jlp`^=OMMOW SusLainabiliLy AssessmenL Hodule. Peliverable P4 of LLe projecL H0SCA (Peci-
sion SupporL SysLem for inLegraLed Poor-Lo-Poor Pelivery: Planning and ConLrol in Io-
gisLic CLains) funded by LLe 5LL framework programme of LLe uropean commission.
ProjecL coordinaLor: III-consulLing srl., Rome.
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LL
Iramework RIP Programme, IIS, niversiLy of Ieeds,
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L., ProjecL funded by LLe C, ConLracL no: SI.96.SC.116, Brussels, 1999.
mLftt=OMMOW=UegekosLenrecLnung fr das BundesfernsLrassenneLz unLer Berck-
sicLLigung der VorbereiLung einer sLreckenbezogenen AuLobaLnbenuLzungsgebLr. Re-
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mt`=OMMN: SLudy of LLe Ierminal CLarges for Air Iraffic ConLrol services, C,
Brussels.
omf=OMMPW=RegulaLory Policy InsLiLuLe: SLudy on LLe implemenLaLion rules of economic
regulaLion wiLLin LLe framework of LLe implemenLaLion of LLe Single Sky, P0 IRu.
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p==~K=OMMO: Peliverable 9: AccidenL CosL case SLdies, Case SLudy 8a: Harginal ex-
Lernal accidenL cosLs in SwiLzerland, uII (uIficaLion of accounLs and marginal cosLs
for IransporL fficiency) Peliverable 9, funded by 5
LL
Iramework RIP Programme, IIS,
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Railway SysLems. ProjecL funded by LLe uropean Commission. ProjecL Co-ordinaLor:
uropean Rail ResearcL InsLiLuLe.
pq^foop=OMMN~W CompleLe PaLa SeLs for UP1. Peliverable 4 of LLe sLudy: SLraLegies and
Iools Lo Assess and ImplemenL noise ReducLion measures for Railway SysLems .ProjecL
funded by LLe uropean Commission. ProjecL Co-ordinaLor: uropean Rail ResearcL In-
sLiLuLe.
pq^foop=OMMNW Hid Ierm ReporL of LLe sLudy: SLraLegies and Iools Lo Assess and Imple-
menL noise ReducLion measures for Railway SysLems. ProjecL funded by LLe uropean
Commission. ProjecL Co-ordinaLor: uropean Rail ResearcL InsLiLuLe.
pq^foop=OMMOW Peliverable 10, SynLLesis ReporL Uork Package 1 Uorking documenL of LLe
sLudy: SLraLegies and Iools Lo Assess and ImplemenL noise ReducLion measures for
Railway SysLems. ProjecL funded by LLe uropean Commission. ProjecL Co-ordinaLor:
uropean Rail ResearcL InsLiLuLe.
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r_^=OMMM: BA 2000: mwelLbundesamL (Brsg.): PaLen zur mwelL 2000, InLerneLdownlo-
ad von LLLp:JJwww.umwelLbundesamL.orgJdzuJdefaulL.LLml, vom 07.05.2002.
rf`=OMMO~W=InLernaLional Railway SLaLisLics 2000, IC - SLaLisLics CenLre, Irilingual publica-
Lion (nglisL, 0erman, IrencL), Paris, Hay 2002
rf`=OMMOW=Railway Lime-series daLa 1970-2000, IC - SLaLisLics CenLre, Irilingual publica-
Lion (nglisL, 0erman, IrencL), Paris, June 2002
rf`=OMMOW=SupplemenLary SLaLisLics Lo LLe InLernaLional Railway SLaLisLics, 1999-2000, IC
- SLaLisLics CenLre, Irilingual publicaLion (nglisL, 0erman, IrencL), Paris, SepLember
2002
rf`=OMMPW=InLernaLional Railway SLaLisLics 2001, IC - SLaLisLics CenLre, Irilingual publica-
Lion (nglisL, 0erman, IrencL), Paris, Hay 2003
rkfqb=OMMM~W InLerim ReporL 9.2: AccounLs ApproacL for nvironmenLal CosLs, PeLer
Bickel, SLepLan ScLmid, Rainer IriedricL (IR), Harkus HaibacL (IuIRAS), Claus Poll
(IUU), JuLa Iervonen (lecLrowaLL-kono), Riccardo nei (ISIS), Version 0.6, 6 0cLober
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rkfqb=OMMM: AccounLs HeLLodology for ser CosLs and BenefiLs. InLerim ReporL IR7.2 of
LLe projecL uII (nificaLion of AccounLs and Harginal CosLs for IransporL fficiency)
financed by LLe 5LL framework program of LLe uropean Commission. Ieeds (L), 2002.
rkfqb=OMMO~W Peliverable 5, Appendix 2: ILe piloL accounLs for SwiLzerland, SLefan SuLer,
Beini Sommer, HicLael HarLi, Harcel UickarL (coplan), CLrisLopL ScLreyer, HarLin Pe-
Ler, Sonja 0eLrig, Harkus HaibacL, PLilipp ULricL (IuIRAS), PeLer Bickel, SLepLan
ScLmid (IR), 28 January 2002 Version 2.0, Ieeds (L), 2002
rkfqb=OMMOW Peliverable 5, Appendix 1: ILe piloL accounLs for 0ermany Beike Iink,
Iouise Belen SLewarL (PIU), Claus Poll (IUU), PeLer Bickel, SLepLan ScLmid, Rainer
IriedricL, Roland Lrger, BerL ProsLe-Iranke, Uolfgang LrewiLz (IR), 27 HarcL 2002
Version 2.5, Ieeds (L), 2002
rkfqb=OMMOW ser cosLs and BenefiLs Case SLudies. Peliverable P7 of LLe projecL uII
(nificaLion of AccounLs and Harginal CosLs for IransporL fficiency) financed by LLe
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168j
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Printed by
International Railway Union
16, rue Jean Rey 75015 Paris - France
October 2004
Dpt lgal October 2004
ISBN 2-7461-0891-7

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