Energy Efficient Buildings Pump Systems

Introduction
Pumps move fluids in a wide variety of applications. In the manufacturing sector, pumps consume about 27% of all electricity moving product, transferring heat and producing useful power in hydraulic systems. In the buildings sector, pumps move water throughout buildings for heating and cooling, and between chillers and cooling towers. Thus, pump systems are widely used. Moreover, careful analysis can improve the energy efficiency of most pump systems. This chapter discusses fundamentals of pump systems, with an emphasis on energy-efficient design, retrofit and operation of pump systems. This chapter includes: Derivation of the fluid work equation Methods to calculate pressure loss through pipes and fittings Introduction to piping system design Key principles for designing low-energy piping systems Pump systems Key principles for low-energy pumping systems

Fluid Work Equation

The work required to move a fluid through a pipe or duct can be derived from an energy balance on the system. Assuming steady state conditions, an energy balance on the system in Figure 1 gives: Q 2 1

Wf
Figure 1. Control-volume diagram of pumping system.

Wf + m1(h + V2/2 + gz)1 - m2(h + V2/2 + gz)2 Q = 0 Wf = m2(h + V2/2 + gz)2 m1(h + V2/2 + gz)1 + Q

[1]

where Wf is the rate of work transmitted to the fluid, m is the mass flow rate, h is the specific enthalpy, V is the velocity, g is the acceleration of gravity, z is the height above a

Pump Systems

fixed reference and Q is the rate of heat loss from the system. From conservation of mass and from the definition of enthalpy: m1 = m2 = m h = u + Pv. Substituting m1 = m2 = m and h = u + Pv into Equation 1 gives: Wf = m [ (u + Pv + V2/2 + gz)2 (u + Pv + V2/2 + gz)1 + q ] Wf = m [ (Pv + V2/2 + gz)2 (Pv + V2/2 + gz)1 + (q + u2 u1) ] Wf = m [ (Pv + V2/2 + gz)2 (Pv + V2/2 + gz)1 ] + (Q + U2 U1) where u is the specific internal energy, U is the internal energy, P is the pressure and v is the specific volume. Assuming the density of the fluid does not change, 1 = 2 = . Substituting 1 = 2 = , m = V and v = 1/ gives: Wf = V [ (P/ + V2/2 + gz)2 (P/ + V2/2 + gz)1 ] + (Q + U2 U1) Wf = V [ (P + V2/2 + gz)2 (P + V2/2 + gz)1 ] + (Q + U2 U1) Wf = V [ (P2 P1) + /2(V22- V12) + g(z2 z1) ] + (Q + U2 U1) where V is the volume flow rate. The term (Q + U2 U1) represents the net energy added to the fluid from friction with the pipe/duct walls. To be consistent with the other terms, it is useful to write (Q + U2 U1) in terms of pressure drop. Thus: (Q + U2 U1) = m (q + u2 u1) = V (q + u2 u1) = V (hl) where hl is the headloss in units of specific energy (Btu/lb or J/kG) due to friction between the fluid and pipes, ducts and fittings. Substituting (Q + U2 U1) = V (hl) gives: Wf = V [ (P2 P1) + /2(V22- V12) + g(z2 z1) + (hl) ] [2]

A number of interesting observations can be made about Equation 2. First, each of the terms (P2 P1), /2(V22- V21), g(z2 z1) and (hl) have units of pressure. Thus, the fluid work necessary to propel the fluid can be written in terms of W = V P. The term (P2 P1) represents the static pressure difference between the inlet and outlet. The term /2(V22- V12) represents the velocity pressure difference between the inlet and outlet. The term g(z2 z1) represents the elevation pressure difference between the inlet and outlet. The term (hl) represents the friction pressure drop as the fluid flows through the pipes or ducts. Thus, the equation for the energy required to move an incompressible fluid through pipes or ducts, Wf, can be written as: Wf = V [ Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation + Pfriction ] = V Ptotal [3]

Pump Systems

The first three components of the total pressure loss (Pstatic , Pvelocity , Pelevation) refer to differences between the inlet and outlet of the system. The forth component of the total pressure loss, Pfriction, refers to irreversible friction losses in the pipes and ducts and is always present (non-zero) in all real pump/fan applications. Thus, the total pressure drop can also be written as: Ptotal = (Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation )inlet-outlet + Pfricition And the equation for Wf can be written as: Wf = V [(Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation )inlet-outlet + Pfricition]

Pressure and Head

Historically, pressure was often measured using a manometer, and the pressure difference between a fluid and the atmosphere was expressed in terms of the difference in height between levels of liquid in the manometer. Using a manometer, pressure difference is: P = g h [4]

where g is the acceleration of gravity, is the density of the fluid in the manometer, and h is the height of the fluid column. When a pressure difference is characterized in terms of h, it is frequently called head. Thus, when pressure loss due to friction in pipes or ducts measured in terms of h, it is often called friction head or head loss. Similarly, when the pressure required to lift a fluid against the force of gravity is measured in terms of h, it is often called elevation head. When the fluid in the manometer is water, the relationship between pressure and head is: h = P / (g H20) In pump systems, head is often expressed as the difference in height, h, between levels of a water-filled manometer in units of feet of water, ft-H20 or, equivalently, ft-wg. In fan systems, h is typically measured in inches of water, in-H20, or, equivalently, in-wg. Common conversions between pressure and manometer height are: 1 lb/in2 = 27.7 in-H20 = 2.31 ft-H20

Dimensional Equation for Fluid Work in Pump Systems

In U.S. units, a useful dimensional equation to calculate the fluid work, in horsepower, to move water at standard conditions (P = 1 atm, T = 60 F) through pipes is: Wf = V Ptotal = V (g h) Wf (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp)

[5]

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The volume flow rate in this equation is the product of the mass flow rate and density of the fluid. Thus, this equation is easily modified for any fluid with a density different than water at standard conditions by including term for the specific gravity of the fluid, SGf. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at standard conditions. SGf = f / H20 Wf (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) SGf / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp) Example Calculate the work added to the fluid (hp) by a pump pumping 100 gpm of water at standard conditions if the pressure rise across a pump was 30 psi. h = P / (g ) = 30 psi x 2.31 ft-H20 / psi = 69.3 ft-H20 Wf (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) SGf / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp) Wf (hp) = 100 gpm x 69.3 (ft-H20) 1.0 / 3,960 (gpm-ft-H20/hp) = 1.75 hp

[6]

Inlet/Outlet Pressure Changes

The total pressure rise that a pump must generate to move a fluid through a pipe system is the sum of the pressure rise required to meet inlet and outlet conditions and the pressure rise to overcome friction in the pipe system. The pump must generate a pressure rise to meet inlet and outlet conditions whenever the pressures, fluid velocities or elevations are different between the inlet and outlet of the pipe system. The total pressure rise required to compensate for different inlet and outlet conditions is the sum of Pstatic , Pvelocity and Pelevation,. If the inlet and outlet pressures, velocities and/or elevations are the same, the corresponding term will evaluate to zero. If the inlet and outlet fluid pressures, velocities and/or elevations are different, the corresponding terms must be evaluated. Closed Loop Systems In closed-loop systems, such as the one shown below, fluid is pumped through a continuous loop. Thus, the inlet and outlet of the system are at the same location. Hence the pressure, velocity and elevation of the inlet and outlet are identical, and the changes in static, velocity and elevation pressures are zero.

Figure 2. Closed loop piping system

Pump Systems

Open Systems In open systems, such as the one shown below, fluid is pumped from one location to a different location. In open systems the change between static, elevation and velocity pressures between the inlet and outlet to the system must be considered; however, careful definition of the inlet and outlet locations can minimize the complexity of the calculations.

Open Tank 2

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Open Tank 1

Figure 3. Open piping system.

Static Pressure and Head: In an open system, it is frequently possible to define the inlet and outlet locations so that the inlet, 1, and outlet, 2, of the system are surfaces of open tanks. If so, both the inlet and outlet pressures, P1 and P2, are equal to atmospheric pressure, and the change in static pressure is zero. Pstatic = P2 P1 = Patm Patm = 0 In some cases, however, the inlet and outlet pressures are different. In these cases, the required static pressure or static head must be calculated. Example If a fluid is pumped from an open tank to a pressurized tank at 10 psig, then the required static head is: Pstatic = P2 P1 = Ppres tank Patm = (10 + 14.7) psia 14.7 psia = 10 psi hstatic = 10 psi x 2.31 ft-H20/psi = 23.1 ft-H20 Velocity Pressure and Head: For internal incompressible flow, such as the flow of water through a pipe, fluid velocity is inversely proportional to the square of the pipe diameter. Thus, if the pipe diameter remains constant, the inlet and outlet velocities are equal, and the change in velocity pressure is zero. Pvelocity = /2(V22- V12) = 0

Pump Systems

When the inlet and outlet velocities are different, the change in velocity pressure must be calculated. A useful dimensional relationship to calculate velocity V from volume flow rate, V, and pipe diameter, d, is: V (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2 A useful dimensional relation to calculate the velocity head associated with a velocity, V, for water at standard conditions is: hvelocity = Pvelocity / H20 g = fluid / [2 V2 H20 g] h velocity (ft-H20) = 0.0155 [V (ft/s)]2 Example If 100 gpm of water is pumped through a pipe with an inlet diameter of 4 inches and discharged from a pipe with an outlet diameter of 2 inches, the required velocity head is: V1 (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2 = 0.4085 100 (gpm) / [4 (in)]2 = 2.55 ft/s V2 (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2 = 0.4085 100 (gpm) / [2 (in)]2 = 10.2 ft/s h velocity1 (ft-H20) = 0.0155 [V1 (ft/s)]2 = 0.0155 [2.55 (ft/s)]2 = 0.10 ft-H20 h velocity2 (ft-H20) = 0.0155 [V2 (ft/s)]2 = 0.0155 [10.2 (ft/s)]2 = 1.61 ft-H20 h velocity = h velocity2 - h velocity1 = 1.61 ft-H20 - 0.10 ft-H20 = 1.51 ft-H20 Elevation Pressure and Head: The change in elevation pressure is: Pelevation = fluid g (z2 z1) The change in elevation head, in terms of water filled manometer height, for water at standard conditions is: helevation (ft-H20) = Pelevation / (H20 g ) = fluid g (z2 z1) / (H20 g ) = (z2 z1) ft Example If water at standard conditions is pumped from one open tank to another open tank with a surface 10 feet higher than the first open tank, then the required elevation head is: helevation = 10 ft 0 ft = 10 ft-H20

Pump Systems

Pressure Loss Due to Friction

Total pressure loss due to friction, Pfriction, is the sum of the total pressure loss from friction with the pipes, Pp, and the total pressure loss from friction through the fittings, Pf. Pfriction = Pp + Pf Similarly, the total friction loss, hfriction, as fluid flows through pipes is the sum of the head loss from friction with the pipes, hp, and the head loss from friction through the fittings, hf. hfriction = hp + hf The next two sections describe how to calculate pressure loss due to friction through pipes and fittings.

Pressure Loss Due to Friction through Pipes

Friction Factor Method The total pressure loss from friction with the pipes and ducts, Pp, can be calculated from Pp = (f L fluid V2) / (2 D) where f is the friction factor, L is the pipe/duct length, is the fluid density and D is the pipe/duct diameter. The friction factor f can be calculated from various relations or determined from charts such as the Moody Diagram.

Pump Systems

Figure 4. Moody Diagram (Incropera and DeWitt, 1985).

Use of the Moody diagram requires calculation of the Reynolds number and ratio of the tube roughness to tube diameter. The Reynolds number is: Re = V D / = fluid V D / where is the kinematic viscosity (air at 60 F = 0.572 ft2/h and water at 60 F = 0.044 ft2/h), and is the dynamic viscosity (air at 60 F = 0.043 lbm/h-ft and water at 60 F = 2.71 lbm/h-ft). Typical values for pipe roughness factors, e, are shown in the figures below.

Figure 5. Pipe roughness. (Mott, 2000).

Pump Systems

Example Calculate the friction head loss (ft-H20) to pump 100 gpm of water through 100 ft of 3in diameter steel pipe using the friction-factor method and Moody Diagram. A = D2 / 4 = 3.14159 x (3/12)2 / 4 = 0.049087 ft2 V = V / A = (100 gal/min / 7.481 gal/ft3) / 0.049087 ft2 = 272.316 ft/min Re = V D / = 272.316 ft/min x 60 min/hr x (3/12) ft / 0.044 ft2/hr = 92,835 e/D(steel pipe) = (1.5 x 10-4) ft / (3/12) ft = .000600 f = 0.021 (from Moody) P = (f L V2) / (2 D) = 0.021 x 100 ft x 62.27 lbm/ft3 x (272.316 ft/min)2 / (2 x 3/12 ft x (60 s/min)2) = 5,387 lbm/ft-s2 h = P / (g ) = 5,387 lbm/ft-s2 / (32.2 ft/s2 x 62.27 lbm/ft3) h = 2.69 ft-H20 (per 100-ft pipe) An explicit algebraic expression for friction factor, f, was developed by Churchill. This relationship is valid for all ranges of Reynolds numbers, and is more accurate than reading the Moody diagram:

Source: ASHRAE, 2005, pg 2.7.

Pump Systems

Example Calculate the friction head loss (ft-H20) to pump 100 gpm of water through 100 ft of 3in diameter steel pipe using the friction-factor method and Churchill relation. A = D2 / 4 = 3.14159 x (3/12)2 / 4 = 0.049087 ft2 V = V / A = (100 gal/min / 7.481 gal/ft3) / 0.049087 ft2 = 272.316 ft/min Re = V D / = 272.316 ft/min x 60 min/hr x (3/12) ft / 0.044 ft2/hr = 92,835 e/D(steel pipe) = (1.5 x 10-4) ft / (3/12) ft = .000600 A = [2.457 ln(((7/Re)^0.9 + (0.27e/D))^-1)]^16 = 4.3862E+20 B = [37,530/Re]^16 = 5.08943E-07 f = 8[(8/Re)^12 + (A+B)^-1.5]^(1/12) = 0.0210 (from Churchill) P = (f L V2) / (2 D) = 0.021 x 100 ft x 62.27 lbm/ft3 x (272.316 ft/min)2 / (2 x 3/12 ft x (60 s/min)2) = 5,387 lbm/ft-s2 h = P / (g ) = 5,387 lbm/ft-s2 / (32.2 ft/s2 x 62.27 lbm/ft3) h = 2.69 ft-H20 (per 100-ft pipe)

Monograph Method Alternately, head loss due to friction for water flow through pipes, hp, can be determined from monographs such as shown below.

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Figure 6. Pipe friction loss (ASHRAE, 2005)

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Example Calculate the friction head loss in ft-H20 for pumping 100 gpm of water through 200 ft of 3-in diameter steel pipe using the ASHRAE monographs. From the monograph in Figure 6, the head loss for a flow rate of 100 gpm through a 3in diameter steel pipe is 2.5 ft-H20 per 100-ft pipe. Thus, the head loss through 200 ft of pipe is: h = 2.5 ft-H20 per 100-ft pipe x 200 ft-pipe = 5.0 ft-H20 Schedule refers to wall thickness, with schedule 80 being thicker than schedule 40. Thus, the schedule 80 plastic pipe in the preceding monograph has a smaller interior diameter than the schedule 40 steel pipe. Thus, even though the plastic pipe is smoother, the reduced diameter increases friction loss, hence, the pressure drop for a given nominal diameter plastic pipe is greater than for the same nominal diameter steel pipe. The same is true for the copper pipe, where K,L,M refers to pipe thickness and affects the interior diameter. Thus to achieve energy savings from reducing friction, it would be necessary to use the next largest size of schedule 80 plastic pipe compared to schedule 40 steel pipe.

Pressure Loss Due to Friction through Fittings

The total pressure loss from friction through the fittings, Pf, is proportional to the velocity pressure. The constant of proportionality depends on the fitting. Thus, total pressure loss from friction through a fitting is calculated as: Pf = kf fluid V2 / 2 where V is velocity and kf is measured empirically and reported by fitting manufacturers. The head loss from friction through the fittings, hf, can be calculated from: hf = Pf / (20 g ) = kf fluid V2 / (2 20 g) In US units, this height is commonly measured in ft-H20 for pumping systems. For water flow through pipe fittings, a useful dimensional relationship is: hf (ft-H20) = kf V2 / (2 g) = kf [V (ft/s)]2 / 64.4 ft/s2 = kf 0.0155 [V (ft/s)]2 A useful dimensional relationship to calculate velocity, V, from volume flow rate, V, and pipe diameter, d, is: V (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2
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Loss coefficient data, kf, for pipe fittings are shown in the figures below.

Figure 7. Loss Coefficients (Kreider and Rabl, 1994)

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Source: ASHRAE Fundamentals 2005, Pg 36.2. Example Find the fluid work, Wf, required to move 100 gpm of water through 200 ft of 3-in diameter steel pipe with for four flanged welded 90-degree standard elbows assuming that 1 and 2 are open to the atmosphere and at the same elevation.

1 Wf P2 = P1 because 1 and 2 are open the atmosphere.

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V2= V1 because the area of duct at 1 and 2 are the same. z2 = z1 because 1 and 2 are at the same elevation. Thus: hpres = hvel = helev = 0 htotal = hpres + hvel + helev + hp + hf = hp + hf From monograph in Figure 6 at 100 gpm and 3-in diameter steel pipe, the friction head loss through the pipe is: hp = 2.5 ft-H20 per 100-ft pipe x 200 ft-pipe = 5.0 ft-H20 The velocity is: V (ft/s) = 0.4085 V (gpm) / [d (in)]2 = 0.4085 100 (gpm) / [3 (in)]2 = 4.54 ft/s From the ASHRAE table, kf = 0.34 for a 3-inch flanged welded 90-degree standard elbow. The friction head loss through four elbow fittings is: hf (ft-H20) = nf x kf x 0.0155 [V (ft/s)]2 hf (ft-H20) = 4 x 0.34 x 0.0155 [4.54 (ft/s)]2 = 0.43 ft-H20 The total head loss through ducts and fittings is: htotal = hp + hf = 4.54 ft-H20 + 0.43 ft-H20 = 4.97 ft-H20 The work added to the fluid is: Wf (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) SGf / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp) Wf (hp) = 100 gpm x 4.97 (ft-H20) 1.0 / 3,960 (gal-ft-H20/min-hp) = 0.125 hp

Piping System Design

When designing a piping system, flow requirements and piping distances are typically known. Based on this information, the engineer must then must select pipe diameter, select fittings, determine a piping configuration that results in sufficient flow to the end uses, and determine the total pressure drop caused by the piping system. Initial Selection of Pipe Diameter The selection of pipe diameter generally involves a tradeoff between the first cost of the pipe and pumping energy costs of the lifetime of the system, both of which are highly dependent on pipe diameter. Large diameter pipes have a higher initial cost, but result in

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reduced friction losses and pumping costs. A rule of thumb that is often used as a starting place for selecting pipe diameters is to select the pipe diameter such that: hfriction ~ 4.0 to 2.5 ft-H20 / 100 ft-pipe This design guideline insures that the fluid velocity is low enough to avoid pipe erosion and excess noise, and provide a reasonable balance between the cost of the pipes and pumping energy costs. Using this as a starting place, subsequent design iterations can identify economically optimum pipe diameters. In many cases, the economically optimum pipe diameter will be larger than that suggested by the design guideline. Serial Flow In serial flow systems, such as the one shown below, the total friction pressure drop is the sum of the friction pressure losses in the pipes and fittings. The total pressure drop for sizing the pump and energy calculations is the total pressure loss due to friction plus the sum of the elevation, velocity and static pressure differences between the inlet and outlet. For closed piping systems, the inlet and outlet are at the same location and the elevation, velocity and static pressure differences are all zero.

Figure 8. Closed loop, serial flow piping system.

Parallel Flow Many piping designs employ parallel flow. In parallel flow designs, the total pressure drop for sizing the pump and calculating pump energy costs is the total pressure drop for the path with the highest pressure drop. The figure below shows two common piping configurations that employ parallel flow.

Figure 9. Parallel flow piping systems. a) Direct return. b) Indirect return.

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The configuration on the left is called direct return. In this configuration, the total pressure drop for flow through leg A is less than the total pressure drop for flow through leg D. Thus, if no balancing valves were installed, more fluid would flow through leg A than D, and the total pressure drop across the pump would be set by the pressure drop through leg D. The configuration on the right is called indirect return. In this configuration, the pressure drop and flow through all legs are equal. Thus, indirect return guarantees equal flow through all legs in the absence of balancing or flow control valves.

Whole-System Inside-Out Approach to Low-Energy Piping Systems

The most effective approach for designing low-energy fluid flow systems and for identifying energy savings opportunities in existing fluid flow systems is the wholesystem, inside-out approach. The whole-system part of this approach emphasizes the importance of considering the entire conversion, delivery and end-use system. The inside-out part of the approach describes the preferred sequence of analysis, which begins at the point of the energys final use inside of the process, followed by an analysis of the energy distribution system, and finally an analysis of the primary energy conversion system on the outside. In our experience, use of this approach results in systems with lower operating costs and lower initial costs. Reduce Elevation Difference Many pumping applications involve lifting fluids from lower to higher elevations. The total pressure difference through the piping system must include this elevation pressure difference. In some applications, it may be possible to reduce the elevation pressure difference by increasing the height of the fluid in the supply tank or reducing the height of the fluid in the outlet tank. Doing so reduces the total system pressure difference and pump energy use. Reduce System Pressure Drop: Increase Pipe Diameter Friction head loss in internal flow is strongly related to the diameter of the pipe/duct. Small pipes and ducts dramatically increase the velocity of the fluid and friction head loss. The friction pressure loss through pipes and ducts is: Pp = (f L V2) / (2 D) The velocity V is the quotient of volume flow rate V and area A. Substitution gives: Pp = f L (V / A)2 / (2 D) = f L (V / D2 )2 / (2 D) = f L V2 / (2 2 D5 ) Thus, friction loss through pipes is inversely proportional to the fifth power of the diameter Pp ~ C / D5

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This means that doubling the pipe/duct diameter reduces friction pressure loss by about 97%! Example Calculate the percentage reduction in friction head loss if pumping 4 gpm of water through 0.5-inch and 1-inch diameter schedule 40 steel pipes. From the monogram: h 0.5-inch = 1.3 ft-H20/100 ft h1-inch = 17 ft-H20/100 ft The percent reduction in friction head loss from doubling the diameter of the pipe would be about: (17 1.3) / 17 = 92% Optimum pipe diameter is often calculated based on the net present value of the cost of the pipe plus pumping energy costs. Using this method in the figure below (Larson and Nilsson, 1991) optimum pipe diameter was found to be 200 mm. When the cost of the pump was also included in the analysis, the optimum diameter was found to be 250 mm and energy use was reduced by 50%. This illustrates the importance of considering the whole system.

Figure 10. Optimum pipe diameter (Larson and Nilsson, 1991).

Reduce System Pressure Drop: Use Smooth Pipes Smooth pipes result in less friction head loss than rough pipes. Example

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Consider pumping water with Re = 100,000 through 3-inch plastic (smooth) and schedule 40 steel pipe. From the previous table of surface roughness, = 0.00015 ft. Thus, /Dsteel = 0.00015 ft / (3/12) ft = 0.00060 From the Moody Diagram, fsteel = 0.021 and fplastic = 0.018. The percent reduction in friction headloss from the use of plastic pipe would be about: (0.021 0.018) / 0.018 = 17%

Reduce System Pressure Drop: Use Low Pressure-Drop Fittings Minimizing fittings, including turns, and the use of low-pressure drop fittings can significantly reduce friction head loss. Consider for example, the table below. The use of fully-open gate valves instead of globe valves reduces the friction head loss through the valve by 98%. Similarly, the use of swing type check valves instead of butterfly valves reduces the friction head loss through the valve by 33%, and long radius elbows reduce the friction head loss by 50% compared to standard radius elbows.

where kf = (Le/D) ft

Steel Pipe Diameter (inches) ft 0.027 1 0.023 2 0.019 4 0.017 6 0.015 8-10 0.014 12-16 0.013 18-24 0.012 Source: Applied Fluid Mechanics, Mott, 2000

Pump Types
Pumping applications can generally be divided into two categories: low flow at high pressure and high flow at low pressure. Low flow at high pressure applications include hydraulic power systems and typically employ positive-displacement pumps. The majority of fluid-flow applications are high flow at low pressure and use centrifugal pumps.

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In centrifugal pumps, the fluid enters along the centerline of the pump, is pushed outward by the rotation of the impeller blades, and exits along the outside of the pump. A schematic of a centrifugal pump is shown below.

Figure 11. Centrifugal pump

Pump Curve
Pumps can generate high volume flow rates when pumping against low pressure or low volume flow rates when pumping against high pressure. The possible combinations of total pressure and volume flow rate for a specific pump can be plotted to create a pump curve. The curve defines the range of possible operating conditions for the pump. If a pump is offered with multiple impellers with different diameters, manufacturers typically plot a separate pump curve for each size of impellor on the same pump performance chart. Smaller impellors produce less pressure at lower flow rates. Typical pump performance charts with multiple pump curves are shown below.

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Figure 12.Typical pump performance charts. (McQuiston and Parker, 1994)

The power required to push the fluid through the pipe, Wfluid, is the product of the volume flow rate and system pressure drop. Wfluid = V Ptotal Graphically, fluid work is represented by the area under the rectangle defined by the operating point on a pump performance chart. Typically, the efficiency of the pump at converting the power supplied to the pump into kinetic energy of the fluid is also plotted on the pump performance chart. Pump efficiencies typically range from about 50% to 80%. Power that is not converted into kinetic energy is lost as heat. The power required by the pump, which is called the shaft
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work or brake horsepower. Pump efficiency is the ratio of fluid work to shaft work. , can be calculated from the flow rate, total pressure, and efficiency values from the pump curve, using the following equation. Wpump = Wfluid / Effpump = V Ptotal / Effpump A useful dimensional version of this equation for pumping water at standard conditions is: Wpump (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) / [3,960 (gal-ft/min-hp) x Effpump] Many pump performance graphs, including those shown above, also plot curves showing the work required by the pump to produce a specific flow and pressure. Note that these curves show work required by the pump including the efficiency of the pump. Calculating the work supplied to the pump using the preceding equation and comparing it to the value indicated on a pump performance graph is a useful exercise.

System Curve
The total pressure that the pump must produce to move the fluid is determined by the piping system. This total pressure of the piping system is the sum of the pressure due to inlet and outlet conditions and the pressure loss due to friction. In a piping system, pressure loss due to friction increases with increasing fluid flow; thus, system curves have positive slopes on pump performance charts. The operating point of a pump is determined by the intersection of the pump and system curves. To determine the form of a system curve, consider the equation for total pressure in a piping system. The total pressure caused by a piping system is the sum of the pressure due to inlet and outlet conditions and the pressure required to overcome friction through the pipes and fittings. Ptotal = (Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation )inlet-outlet + Pfricition Inlet/Outlet Pressure The inlet/outlet pressure that the pump must overcome is the sum of the static, velocity and elevation pressures between the inlet and outlet of the piping system. For closed loop piping systems, the inlet and outlet are at the same location; hence, the static, velocity and elevation pressure differences are all zero. For open systems, the differences in static, velocity and elevation pressures must be calculated. In many pumping applications, the velocity pressure difference between the inlet and outlet is zero or negligible, and inlet/outlet pressure is simply the sum of the static and elevation heads. In these cases, the inlet/outlet pressure is independent of flow and is represented on a pump performance chart as the pressure at zero flow.

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Friction Pressure Drop The equations for pressure loss from friction through pipes and through fittings are: Pp = (f L fluid V2) / (2 D) Pf = kf fluid V2 / 2 These equations clearly show that for a given pipe system, the pressure drop is proportional to the square of the velocity, and hence the square of the volume flow rate. Pfriction = C1 V2 = C2 V2 This quadratic relationship can be plotted on the pump curve to show the system curve.

Plotting System Curves As the preceding discussion showed, system curves have a flow-independent component (of inlet/outlet pressure) and a flow-dependent component that varies with the square of flow rate (of friction pressure). A system curve for a closed-loop piping system with no inlet/outlet pressure difference is shown below. The curve is a parabola of the form hheadloss = C2 V2. The curve passes through the origin because the inlet/outlet pressure difference, sometimes called the static head, is zero. The coefficient C2 can be determined if the operating point is known by substituting the known pressure drop and flow rate into the equation and solving for C2. The fluid work required to push the fluid through the pipe is the product of the volume flow rate and system pressure drop and is represented graphically by the area under the rectangle defined by the operating point.

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Figure 13.System curve for closed-loop piping system with no inlet/outlet pressure difference. Source of original pump curve: Kreider and Rabl, 1996.

A system curve for an open-loop piping system with a static or inlet/outlet pressure of 40 ft is shown below. This system curve is of the form hheadloss = A + C2 V2; where A is the static or inlet/outlet pressure drop. As before, the coefficient C2 can be determined if the operating point and inlet/outlet pressure are known by substituting the known values into the equation and solving for C2.

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Figure 14. System curve for open-loop piping system with 40 ft-H20 inlet/outlet pressure difference Source of original pump curve: Kreider and Rabl, 1996.

Multiple Pumps Operating In Parallel

Many pumping systems employ multiple pumps in parallel rather a single large pump. One advantage of specifying multiple pumps in a parallel configuration is redundancy in case of failure. For example, it is common to design a pumping system with three pumps in parallel configuration, even though no more than two pumps would ever run simultaneously. The third pump provides redundancy in case of failure, and allows the system to function at full capacity even when one pump is being serviced. Another advantage of parallel pumping configuration is the ability to vary flow by turning one or more of the pumps on and off. Finally, in many applications, it is more energy efficient to operate multiple smaller pumps in parallel rather than operating a single large pump. When two pumps are operated in parallel, they perform like a single pump with twice the flow rate at the same pressure drop. The figure below shows the pump curve of a single pump A, two pumps operating in parallel B, and the system curve C.

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180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 2,000

Head ft-H20

4,000

6,000

8,000 V gpm

10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000

A (One pump)

B (Two pumps in parallel)

C (System)

Figure 15.Pump and systems curves for secondary chilled water loop.

The system curve C describes the relationship of pressure drop and flow rate for the given piping system with no static head. Because head loss varies with the square of flow rate, the equation of the system curve can be estimated by fitting a quadratic equation through the origin and the design operating point: h (ft H20) = (2.4 x 10-6) x V2 1)

where V is the flow rate in gpm. The equation for curve B can be estimated by the fitting a regression equation through the data points on the curve: h (ft H20) = 149 + 0.00106 x V + (3.65 x 10-7) x V2 (2)

The operating point of curve B for two pumps in parallel can be found from Equations 1 and 2 to be about: h = 135 ft H20 V = 7,500 gpm

Note that the total volume flow rate of two pumps operating in parallel is less than twice the flow rate of a single pump operating alone (at the intersection of C and A).

Pump Motor Work

Pumps and fans are typically driven by electrical motors. The power required by the motor is greater than the fluid work because the pump/fan, power transmission and motor all incur losses. Thus, fluid work must be divided by the product of the efficiencies of all components of the pump energy-delivery system to determine the electricity required by the motor.

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Welec = Wf / ( Efficiencypump.fan x Efficiencydrive x Efficiencymotor) A dimensional version of this equation, using U.S. units for pumping water at standard conditions, is: Welec (hp) = V (gal/min) htotal (ft-H20) / (3,960 (gal-ft/min-hp) x Effpump x Effdrive x Effmotor)

Qloss =10

Qloss = 8

Qloss = 25

Wmotor 100

Wdrive 90

Wpump 83

Wfluid
58

motor = 90%

drive = 92%

pump = 70%

Figure 16 Pump system efficiency.

For example, if the efficiency of the motor at converting electrical energy to motor shaft work is 90%, the efficiency of belt drives at transferring motor shaft work to pump is 92%, and the efficiency of a pump at converting pump shaft work to fluid work is 75%, the electrical energy use required by the motor would be 73% greater than the required fluid work. Welec = Wf / ( 90% x 92% x 70%) = 1.73 Wf

Pump Affinity Laws

The fundamental fluid mechanic relationships developed thus far can be modified to generate other useful relations between fan parameters. These relationships are known as fan affinity laws. The two most important relationships are derived below. As shown in the section of system curves, friction head loss is proportional to the square of the volume flow rate. Pfriction = C1 V2 = C2 V2 By substitution, fluid work is proportional to the cube of volume flow rate Wf = V Pfriction = V C2 V2 = C2 V3 Since Wf / V3 is constant, it follows that: (Wf / V3)1 = C = (Wf / V3)2
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Wf2 = Wf1 (V2 / V1)3 This relation shows that a small reduction in the volume flow rate results in a large reduction in the fluid work. For example, reducing the volume flow rate by one half reduces fluid work by 88%! Wf2 = Wf1 (1/2)3 == Wf1 (1/8) (Wf1 Wf2) / Wf1 = [Wf1 - Wf1 (1 /8)] / Wf1 = 1 (1/8) = 88% Another useful relation can be derived from the relationship between volume flow rate V and the rotational speed of the pump fan. In centrifugal pumps and fans, the volume flow rate is proportional to the rotational speed of the pump fan. V = C RPM Since V/RPM is constant, it follows that: (V / RPM)1 = C = (V / RPM)2 V2 = V1 (RPM2 / RPM1) Thus, volume flow rate varies in proportion to pump/fan speed.

Flow Control
Most pump systems are designed for peak conditions. Because peak conditions occur infrequently, many pump systems operate a less than peak flow. Because pumping energy use is highly dependent on the type of flow control, it is important to select the best method of flow control for a given application. In pump systems, flow is typically controlled by one of four methods: Bypass Flow-control valves Impellor size Pump speed

Bypass diverts fluid around a process and then returns the fluid to the piping system so that the pump always pumps a constant volume of fluid. This is the least energy-efficient method of flow control. Flow-control valves increase system pressure drop, reduce flow, and causes the operating point on the pump curve to move to the left. Although pump energy decreases as flow decreases, this method does not produce significant energy savings at reduced flow.

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When the flow requirement does not vary over time, the pump impellor diameter can be increased or decreased to generate the required flow rate. This is a very efficient method of flow control. When the flow requirement does not vary over time, the most energy efficient method of flow control is to vary the rotational speed of the pump by installing a variable speed drive (VSD) in the power supply to the pump motor.

Variable Speed Drives

Electronic variable speed drives (VSDs) control the speed of AC motors by converting the frequency and voltage of the AC line supply from fixed to variable values. VSDs are used in both constant and variable torque applications. In variable torque applications, such as pumping and fan systems, slowing the motor speed reduces the torque on the motor and can result in significant energy savings. These savings can be estimated using the Pump/Fan Affinity Laws. VSDs subject motors to voltage spikes and fast voltage rise and fall times. These voltage spikes can punch through traditional winding insulation. Because of this, VSDs should only be coupled to motors that the manufacturer specifies as suitable for PWM VSDs. If a motor is to be rewound, be sure to specify rewinding characteristics for PWM VSD motors. Most energy-efficient motors are suitable PWM VSDs. In some applications, it may be possible to simply reduce the flow to a fixed rate rather than vary it continuously. In these cases, slowing the pump by increasing the diameter of the pump pulley or decreasing the diameter or the motor pulley would generate the same savings. Because VSDs work best with premium efficiency motors, the motor may need to be upgraded if it is not a premium efficiency motor. Typical installed costs of VSDs are shown below.

Cost with 25% contractor markup on drive Horsepower 5 10 15 20 25 50 100 w/bypass $1,653 $2,008 $2,233 $2,458 $2,772 $4,344 $7,021 w/o bypass $1,515 $1,771 $2,028 $2,332 $3,854 $6,049 Wiring $500 $579 $658 $737 $816 $1,211 $2,000 Installation $400 $463 $526 $589 $653 $968 $1,600 Controls $2,000 $2,000 $2,000 $2,000 $2,000 $2,000 $2,000

Total Cost w/bypass $4,553 $5,050 $5,417 $5,784 $6,240 $8,523 $12,621 w/o bypass $4,557 $4,955 $5,354 $5,800 $8,033 $11,649

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Note: 2006 costs assuming existing motor is suitable for inverter use.

VSD, Motor and Pump Efficiencies at Reduced Speed Slowing pump speed reduces flow rate and friction losses, which in turn reduces the work supplied to the fluid, Wf, according to the cube of the reduction in flow rate: Wf2 = Wf1 (V2 / V1)3 However, when a pump runs at a slower speed, the efficiency of the pump, the efficiency of the electric motor and the efficiency of the VFD may decline. Similarly, pump efficiency usually declines when a smaller impellor is used in the same pump volute. Thus, electrical energy savings from trimming pump impellors or slowing pump speed may not be reduced as much as the pump affinity law suggests. For example, pump efficiency is greatest when the largest possible impeller is installed in a pump casing. Pump efficiency decreases when smaller impellers are installed in a pump because of the increased amount of fluid that slips through the space between the tips of the impeller blades and the pump casing. The pump performance charts shown above show the decrease in pump efficiency with smaller impellers. The magnitude of the decrease in efficiency depends on the operating points, as defined by the intersection of the system and pump curves. Close inspection of the pump performance charts above reveals that in most cases, the decrease in pump efficiency with decreasing impeller size is small since the lines of constant pump efficiency are nearly parallel to the system curves. Pump efficiency also decreases as the rotational speed of a pump is reduced. As with decreasing impeller size, the magnitude of the decrease in pump efficiency depends on the individual pump. For example, in the pump performance chart shown below, pump efficiency declines from about 75% at full speed to about 55% at half speed while following the system curve with zero static head.

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Figure 17. Typical chilled water pump/piping configurations (Source: Nadel et al., 1991)

For other pumps, the magnitude of the decrease in pump efficiency may be negligible. The Pumping Systems Field Monitoring and Application of the Pumping System Assessment Tool PSAT (U.S. Department of Energy, 2002) states that in general pump efficiency at variable speeds remains approximately constant for pumping systems following a system curve with zero static head. Typical motor and VSD efficiency curves at part load are shown below. Using these relationships, motor and VSD efficiency can be approximated as: motor = 94.187(1 e-0.0904 pl) VSD = 50.87 + 1.283 pl 0.0142 pl2 + (5.834 x 10-5) pl3

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Figure 18. Motor and VSD Efficiency as a Function of Percent of Motor Nameplate Load (Bernier and Bourret, 1999)

A common method to account for the effects of reduced pump, motor and VFD efficiency at reduced flow is to use an exponent of about 2.5 rather than 3.0 in the pump affinity law as shown below. Welec2 = Welec1 (V2 / V1)2.5 VSD Pump Retrofits VSD pump retrofits typically require making three changes to the existing pumping system: 1) Install a VSD on power supply to the pump motor. In parallel pumping configurations, one VSD is generally needed for each operational pump, but not for the backup pump. 2) Close valves all by-pass pipes. 3) Install a differential-pressure sensor between the supply and return headers at the process load located the farthest distance from the pump. Determine the pressure drop needed to guarantee sufficient flow through the farthest process load at this point. Control the speed of the VSD to maintain this differential pressure. VSD Pumping: Industrial Example For example, the Figure 18 A shows a typical industrial cooling configuration using a constant speed pump. Figure 18 B shows the system after a VSD retrofit. With the retrofit, the by-pass pressure relief valve would be closed, flow through each process load would be controlled at the load, and the VSD would modulate pump speed based on the differential pressure between the supply and return headers. The device marked dP is a differential-pressure sensor which would control the speed of the VSD.

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cooling tower

bypass / pressure relief valve

dP

7.5 hp pump

cooling water to process loads

city water make-up reservoir warm water cool water

25 hp pump

VSD

process water return

Figure 19. A) constant volume and B) variable volume pumping system

VSD Pumping: Commercial Building Example Another common application for variable volume pumping is on the loop supplying chilled water to air handlers. Figure 19 shows a schematic of the typical piping configuration at the air handler cooling coils in a constant-volume chilled-water supply system. The three-way valves direct chilled water either through the cooling coil or around the cooling coil via the bypass loop. The flow of chilled water through the cooling coils is varied to maintain the temperature of the air leaving the cooling coils at a constant temperature. In a VSD retrofit, the bypass valves would be closed, and a differential-pressure sensor would be installed between the supply and return headers at the air handler located farthest from the pump. In some cases, it may be necessary to replace the three-way valves with two-way valves if the three-way valves were not designed to handle larger pressure drops in a VSD situation.

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C C

C C

Chilled Water Return

Chilled Water Supply

Figure20. Piping configuration at air handling untis.

Figure 21 shows typical chilled water pump/piping configurations in commercial buildings. Conventionally, buildings with multiple chillers used a primary-secondary configuration to guarantee constant flow through each chiller, while allowing variable flow in the secondary loop to the air handlers. Recently, however, more systems are using a primary-only design with a flow control and bypass valve to guarantee minimum flow to the chillers.

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Figure 21. Typical chilled water pump/piping configurations in commercial buildings (Taylor, 2002)

Whole-System Inside-Out Approach to Energy-Efficient Pump Systems

We have found that the most effective approach for designing energy efficient pump/fan systems and for identifying energy savings opportunities in existing fluid flow systems is the whole-system, inside-out approach. The whole-system part of this approach emphasizes the importance of considering the entire conversion, delivery and end-use system. The inside-out part of the approach describes the preferred sequence of analysis, which begins at the point of the energys final use inside of the process, followed by sequential investigations the energy distribution and primary energy conversion systems. This approach can tends to multiply savings and result in smaller, more efficient and less costly systems. The fluid work equation shows that energy required by fan/pump systems is a function of the volume flow rate, inlet/outlet conditions, and system friction. Wf = V [(Pstatic + Pvelocity + Pelevation )inlet-outlet + Pfricition] This provides a useful guide for characterizing energy efficiency opportunities.
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Energy Savings from Reducing Inlet/Outlet Pressure Differences

Inlet outlet pressure difference in open pump systems can be reduced by reducing the increase in static pressure, fluid velocity or elevation between the inlet and outlet of the pump system. For example, tank levels or tank position can sometimes be maintained to reduce the elevation gain between the inlet and outlet tanks.

Energy Savings from Reducing Friction

The primary methods to reduce friction in a pipe system are: Increasing pipe diameter Using smooth pipes Using low pressure-drop fittings

Friction head loss in internal flow is strongly related to the diameter of the duct. Small ducts dramatically increase the velocity of the fluid and friction pressure loss. The friction pressure loss through pipes and ducts is: Pp = f L V2 / (2 D) The velocity V is the quotient of volume flow rate V and area A, thus Pp = f L (V / A)2 / (2 D) = f L (V / D2 )2 / (2 D) = f L V2 / (2 2 D5 ) Thus, friction pressure loss through pipes is inversely proportional to the fifth power of the diameter Pp ~ C / D5 This means that doubling the duct diameter reduces friction pressure loss by about 97%! Similarly, use of the smoothest pipe possible for a given application reduces pipe friction losses. The progression from smoothest to roughest pipe is: plastic, copper, steel, concrete. Finally, minimizing fittings, including turns, and the use of low-pressure drop fittings can significantly reduce head loss through fittings. Reduce Pump Speed to Realize Savings from Reducing Friction It may seem that reducing friction losses in a piping system would automatically reduce pump energy use. However, reducing system pressure drop without modifying the pump causes the pump to pump more fluid. This increased volume flow rate actually increases pump energy consumption. Thus, it is important to reduce the diameter of the pump impellor or slow the pump so that the volume flow rate remains the same as it was in the high friction in order to realize energy savings. The following example demonstrates this

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importance of modifying the pump to realize savings from reducing piping system pressure drop. The figure below shows a set of pump curves with two system curves. The pump originally operates at point A, and the system curve for the original piping systems extends from the origin to A. The friction pressure drop through the piping system is then reduced by 40 psi by increasing pipe diameter, using low-flow fixtures or using smoother pipe. Reducing the system pressure drop from 180 ft-H20 at point A to 140 ftH20, without altering the pump impellor or speed, would cause the pump to operate at point B. The power required to pump a fluid is the product of the volume flow rate and pressure drop; hence, the areas enclosed by the rectangles defined by each operating point represent the fluid power requirements, WfA and WfB, at the different system pressure drops.

Source: Nadel et al., 1991 WfA = 235 gpm x 180 ft-H20 / 3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp = 10.7 hp WfB = 330 gpm x 140 ft-H20 / 3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp = 11.7 hp The power, P, required by the pump is the fluid power requirements divided by the pump efficiency. PA = 10.7 hp / .74 = 14.5 hp PB = 11.7 hp / .70 = 16.7 hp Thus, decreasing system pressure drop without altering the pump impellor or speed would cause the pump to consume more energy, not less. Savings = PA PB = 14.5 hp 16.7 hp = -2.2 hp

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To realize energy savings from reducing pressure drop, it is necessary to slow the pump speed or decrease the size of the impellor. To determine the pump speed required to deliver the initial flow of 235 gpm with the new low-pressure drop pipe system, it is necessary to develop a system curve for the new pipe system. Pressure drop through piping systems varies with the square of flow rate. Thus, the equation for a system curve that passes through the origin can be written as: h = C V2 The coefficient, C, for the new system curve can be found by substituting the values of pressure drop and volume flow rate for point B. C = h / V2 = 140 / 3302 = 0.001286 Thus, the pressure drop through the new duct system at 235 gpm would be about: h = C V2 = 0.001286 2352 = 71 ft-H20 The flow rate of 235 gpm and 71 ft-H20 defines point C, which would be the operating point of the pump with a 5.5-in impeller. At this operating point, the pump would be about 65% efficient, and the pump power draw would be about: WC = 235 gpm x 71 ft-H20 / (3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp x 0.65) = 6.5 hp Thus, the savings from reducing the pressure drop in the pipe system, if the pump impeller diameter were reduced, would be about: Savings = PA PC = 14.5 hp 6.5 hp = 8.0 hp This example demonstrates the importance of modifying the pump to realize savings from reducing system friction loss.

Energy Savings from Energy-Efficient Flow Control

Most pump systems are designed to handle peak conditions. Since peak conditions typically occur infrequently, substantial energy savings are possible by controlling fluid flow rate to match actual demand. The inside-out approach to low-energy pump systems recommends reviewing all end-use applications to determine the required flow, before proceeding upstream with the analyses of the piping and pumping systems. Once the required flow is determined, it is necessary to determine how the flow is currently controlled and consider more energy-efficient options. Inefficient methods of flow control, in order of worst to better, are: Bypass Throttling Intermittent pump operation
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Efficient methods of flow control are: Reducing impellors diameter Slowing pump speed Continuous pump operation with smaller impeller or at lower speed. We recommend switching from inefficient method of flow control to efficient methods whenever possible. The following examples demonstrate savings for each case. Bypass and throttling are energy inefficient compared to the other methods and immediately signal the potential for cost-effectively reducing energy costs. Intermittent and multiple pump operation are relatively energy efficient; however, pumping energy use can sometimes be reduced by pumping at low flow rates for longer periods rather than pumping at high flow rates for shorter periods of time. When the required flow rate is constant and less than the current capacity of the pump, trimming pump impellers and slowing pump rotational speed by changing pulley sizes are typically highly costeffective due to their relatively low implementation costs. Energy use in variable flow applications can frequently be substantially and cost-effectively reduced through use of variable speed drives. Bypass: Many processes use constant speed pumps with variable process loads. Valves are opened or closed to direct water through the process or through a bypass loop. Thus, the flow of water through the pumps remains nearly constant even as the flow of water through the process varies. Bypass is the least efficient method of flow control, since pump power remains nearly constant even as the load varies. Throttling: Controlling flow by closing a flow-control valve downstream of the pump increases pressure drop and causes the operating point to move up and left on the pump curve.

Source: Gould Pumps, GPM 7-CD, Technical Information. This results in relatively small energy savings, since

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Wf2 = V2 P2

where

V2 < V1

but

P2 > P1

Thus, throttling is an energy inefficient method of flow control. Intermittent Pump Operation (Pump Long, Pump Slow): In some applications, pumps may operate at a relative high flow rate for part of the time and then be turned off until needed again. Because friction losses are proportional to the square of flow, it is more energy-efficient to pump a lower volume flow rate for a longer period of time. We call this the Pump Long, Pump Slow principle. Pump long, pump slow opportunities may exist whenever pumps run intermittently. If a single pump operates intermittently, then application of the pump long, pump slow principal would require installing a smaller pump, trimming the impeller or slowing the pump rotational speed. If multiple pumps operate in parallel, it may be possible to simply run fewer pumps more continuously. Slowing pump rotational speed by increasing pulley diameter: Reducing flow by installing a smaller diameter impeller or slowing pump speed results in relatively large energy savings, since: Wf2 = Wf2 (V2 / V1)3 The following example compares energy savings from reducing flow with a flow-control valve to energy savings from reducing flow by slowing pump speed. If the transmission between the pump and motor uses belts and pulleys, pump speed can be slowed by changing the increasing the diameter of the pump pulley. Alternately, pump speed can be slowed and varied with a variable speed drive (VSD), which alters the frequency of current to the motor. The savings from reducing impellor diameter are similar to the savings from reducing pump speed. The figure below shows pump performance at various speeds and a system curve. Assume the original operating point, A, is 1,200 gpm at 55 ft-H20. According to the chart, the required power to the pump at this operating point is about 23 hp. Alternately, pump power could be calculated as: WA = 1,200 gpm x 55 ft-H20 / (3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp x 0.74) = 22.6 hp If the flow were reduced to 900 gpm with a flow control valve, the operating point would move along the pump curve to 900 gpm at 62 ft-H20. According to the chart, the required power to the pump at this operating point is about 20 hp. Alternately, pump power could be calculated as: W = 900 gpm x 62 ft-H20 / (3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp x 0.70) = 20.1 hp

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Thus, the pump power savings from reducing flow from 1,200 gpm to 900 gpm with a flow-control valve would be about: 22.6 hp 20.1 hp = 2.5 hp Alternately, the flow could be reduced from 1,200 gpm to 900 gpm by slowing the pump speed with a VSD. Reducing the pump speed from 1,200 rpm at point A to 900 rpm at point B would reduce the volume flow rate from 1,200 gpm to 900 gpm. The reduced volume flow rate would also generate less friction, and the system pressure drop would be reduced from 55 ft-H20 to 30 ft-H20. The power required to pump a fluid is the product of the volume flow rate and pressure drop; hence, the areas enclosed by the rectangles defined by each operating point represent the fluid power requirements, WA and WB, at the different flow rates.

Source: Nadel et al., 1991 WA = 1,200 gpm x 55 ft-H20 / 3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp = 16.7 hp WB = 900 gpm x 30 ft-H20 / 3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp = 6.8 hp The power, WB, required by the pump at point B can be read from the chart to be about 10 hp. Alternately, the power could be calculated as: WB = 900 gpm x 30 ft-H20 / (3,960 gpm-ft-H20/hp x 0.67) = 10.1 hp Pump power savings would be the difference between PA and PB.

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Savings = PA PB = 22.6 hp 10.1 hp = 11.5 hp When estimating power savings from reducing the volume flow rate, engineers frequently rely on pump affinity laws. Theoretically, pump work varies with the cube of volume flow rate. Use of the cubic relationship would predict: PB = PA (VB/VA)3 = 22.6 hp x (900 gpm / 1200 gpm) 3 = 9.5 hp The 9.5 hp predicted by the pump-affinity law is less than the 10.1 hp predicted by the pump curve. This example demonstrates how use of the cubic relationship typically exaggerates savings. In practice, the efficiencies of the VSD, pump and motor typically decline as flow rate decreases, resulting in slightly less savings than would be predicted using this cubic relationship. Thus, we conservatively estimate that pump/fan work varies with the square of flow rather than the cube of flow. Using this relationship, if we measured PA to be 22.6 hp at 1,200 gpm, we would estimate PB for 900 gpm to be about: PB = PA (VB/VA)2 = 22.6 hp x (900 gpm / 1200 gpm) 2 = 12.7 hp This would give a slightly conservative estimate of savings.

References
ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, 1977, 1985, 2005, ASHRAE. Bernier and Bourret, 1999, Pumping Energy and Variable Frequency Drives, ASHRAE Journal, December. Gould Pumps, GPM 7-CD, Technical Information. Incropera and DeWitt, 1985, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley and Sons. Kreider and Rabl, 1994, Heating and Cooling of Buildings, McGraw-Hill Inc. Larson, E.D. and Nilsson, L.J., 1991, Electricity Use and Efficiency in Pumping and Air Handling Systems, ASHRAE Transactions, pgs. 363-377. McQuiston and Parker, 1994, Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Mott, R. L, 2000, Applied Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, Inc. Nadel, S., Shepard, M., Greenberg, S., Katz, G., and Almeida, A., 1991, Energy Efficient Motor Systems, American Counsel for an Energy Efficient Economy, Washington D.C.

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Taylor, S., 2002, Primary-Only vs. Primary Secondary Variable Flow Systems, ASHRAE Journal, February, 2002, pgs 25-29. U.S. Department of Energy, 2002m Pumping Systems Field Monitoring and Application of the Pumping System Assessment Tool PSAT,

The energy imparted to a fluid by a pump is measured as the head (in meters) per unit weight of fluid.

dH = (Z2 - Z1) + ( P2 -P1 )/ ( g ) - (v2^2 -v1^2)/ (2 g )

dH = Fluid Head developed across pump ..m Z1 = Fluid Supply Level..m Z2 = Fluid Discharge Level..m P1 =Pressure over Supply Fluid..N/m2 P2 =Pressure into which fluid is discharged ..N/m2 = Fluid Density...Kg/m3) g = Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m / s2 v12 Fluid velocity at pump inlet m/s v22 Fluid velocity at pump discharge m/s

Normally the velocity head and the height head is ignored for initial selection of the pump.

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The head developed is therefore approximated to the static pressure difference expressed as a column of the liquid pumped in meters of fluid.

Note: For accurate calculations the difference in height of the pump suction and out discharge flanges and the difference in velocity head should be considered.

To convert the differential head developed to pressure difference in N/m^2

p (N/m^2 ) = dH * g

V = sq rt [2*g*h ] V = sq rt [2*9.81*30 ] V = 24.26 meter /second.

Q = 45000 Liters = 45 m^3 = 45/3 m^3 = 15 m^3 / Day / pump = 15/3600=0.00417m^3 /sec/ pump Q = Area x Velocity Q = 3.14 * r^2 * 24.26 m^3/sec 0.00417 = 76.1764 *r^2 r = 0.0074 m Diameter = r *2 = 0.015 m

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Head lost due to friction : A rule of thumb that is often used as a starting place for selecting pipe diameters is to select the pipe diameter such that:

H_friction ~ 1.2 m -H20 / 34 m-pipe

Total H_friction ~ 7.75 m -H20 / 220 m-pipe

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