2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

2 FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION THEORY

In this chapter a summary of fundamental structural dynamics is given in order to name the basic principles and theorems. For further information there is a wide variation of standard textbooks.

2.1 SYSTEMS WITH A SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM

Systems with a single degree of freedom help to illustrate some fundamental relations. It is considered a concentrated mass on a damped spring element. The spring force is supposed as directly related to the springs deformation (compression or extension), with the spring factor k, which is the springs stiffness. The damping force is supposed as directly related to the velocity, with the damping constant c.

2.1.1 FREE VIBRATION

One speaks of a free vibration if a dynamic system undergoes a transient motion without external excitation. Assuming the relations above described, the movement is described by this differential equation:

& m * && + c * x + k * x = 0 x
where: x: m: c: k: displacement mass damping constant spring stiffness

(2.1)

Figure 21: Point mass with damping and spring under dynamic excitation The terms in Eq. (2.1) represent forces standing in equilibrium: m * && inertial force x

& c*x k*x

viscous damping force elastic restoring (spring) force

The external force F(t) in this specific case is zero, the movement initiates with an impact or its deformation. The differential equation can be solved with an exponential type of solution:

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2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

x(t ) = U * e s*t
& x(t ) = U * s * e s*t &&(t ) = U * s 2 * e s*t & x
X and its derivates are substituted in Eq. 2.1:

(2.2) (2.3) (2.4)

m * s2 + c * s + k = 0
The undamped circular Eigenfrequency and the damping ratio are introduced:

(2.5)

k m c = 2m1

12 =

(2.6) (2.7)

The damping ratio relates the existing damping to the critical damping

ccrit = 2 * m * 1

(2.8)

A damping is called critical when the amplitude decays from the maximum displacement to the rest position without changing the sign without oscillation:
1,5 1,5

0,5 x(t) / Xb x(t) / Xb

0,5

-0,5

-0,5

-1

-1

-1,5 t

-1,5 t

Figure 22: Damping ratio 0 Free oscillation

Figure 23: Damping ratio 0,1

Figure 24: Damping ratio 0,4

Figure 25: Damping ratio 1 critical damping

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2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

In civil engineering the damping ratios are low, with <<1 (usually about 0,05 - 0,10). Thus, when solving Eq. 2.5, the roots are complex:
2 s = * 1 ( * 1 ) 2 1 = 1 * ( 2 1)

(2.9) (2.10)

s = 1 * ( i 1 2 )
When substituting Eq. (2.10) into (2.2), the displacement solution follows as:

u (t ) = e *1*t * (U A * e i*D *t + U B * e i*D *t ) e i*D *t = cos( D * t ) i * sin( D * t )

so that Eq. (2.11) can be written as

(2.11) (2.12)

x(t ) = e *1*t * [U A * (cos( D * t ) + i * sin( D * t ) + U B (cos( D * t ) i * sin( D * t ) )] (2.13) UA = XB i* XA 2

and

UB =

XB +i* XA 2

(2.14) (2.15) (2.16) (2.17) (2.18)

x(t ) = e *1*t * [X A * sin( D * t ) + X B * cos( D * t )]

2 2 X 1 = X A + X B = amplitude constant

1 = arctan

XA = phase angle XB

x(t ) = e *1*t * X 1 * sin( D * t + 1 )

For the initial conditions & x(t = 0) = 1 , x(t = 0) = 0 resulting in constants

X A = 0, X B =1
Eq. (2.18) reduces to

x(t ) = e *1*t * X B * cos( D * t )

(2.19)

2.1.2 FORCED VIBRATION

One speaks of a free vibration if a dynamic system undergoes a transient motion without external excitation. Assuming damping as proportional to the vibration velocity, the movement is described by this differential equation:

& m * && + c * x + k * x = F (t ) x
F (t ) = F0 * sen( 0 * t )

(2.20) (2.21)

F0 = amplitude of the loading

0 = circular frequency of the loading

& m * && + c * x + k * x = F0 * sen( 0 * t ) x
(2.22) (2.23)

x(t ) = X C * sen( 0 * t ) + X D * cos( 0 * t )

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2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

XC =
XD =

F0 1 ( 0 / 1 ) 2 * k 1 ( / ) 2 2 + (2 * * / ) 2 0 1 0 1

(2.24)

F0 2 * * 0 / 1 * k 1 ( / ) 2 2 + (2 * * / ) 2 0 1 0 1

(2.25) (2.26)

x(t ) = X 0 * sen( 0 * t + 0 )
2 2 X0 = XC + X D

0 = arctan

XD XC

(2.27) and

(2.28) (2.29)

x(t ) = e *1*t * X 1 * sen( D * t + 1 ) + X 0 * sen( 0 * t + 0 )

2.2 SYSTEMS WITH MANY DEGREES OF FREEDOM

As well as in SDOF systems, the MDOF system in civil engineering purposes usually is an abstract model of real systems. For example, when modelling a shear building with the aim to calculate the horizontal solicitations at columns, the floors can be simplified as point masses on one column which represents the totality of all columns.

Figure 26: MDOF system This simplification is invalid in the case of vertical vibration within one floor. Now the mass and stiffness distribution play an important role, and the differential equation is written in matrix-form:

~ ~ ~ ~ & * && + C * x + K * x = F x
where M mass matrix K stiffness matrix C viscous damping matrix x displacement vector F forcing function vector

(2.30)

In general purpose with distributed masses and stiffnesses, this equation is to solve by means of finite element methods.

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2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

2.3 MODAL DECOMPOSITION

When to analyze experimental results without a mathematical description, the modal decomposition is used to extract the relevant modes from experimental data. This allows to compare two independent results, the theoretical and the measured one. Usually, just a few dynamic modes are needed to describe civil engineering vibration problems. In linear systems, the homogeneous response may be represented as a weighted superposition of the system modes, where the initial conditions affect the strength of excitation of each mode.

2.4 CLAMPING RATIO AND SPRINGS

Usually, when designing a link between structural members, one chooses or a pinned or a clamped link. In steelworks, a clamped link is realised by welding the flanges of an I or wide flange profile, while in a pinned link typically the web of a profile is welded and the flanges are free. In bolted joints it is similar. Additionally there might occur a force-free movement between the assembled parts because of geometrical differences in the wholes. This can be avoided by using pre-stressed bolts or screws. So when designing a pinned joint, many times the detail solution turns out to impede the free rotation in restraints. For example, a pinned joint with a bolted or welded web acts like a rotationary spring. There are two ways to describe static or dynamic systems which have some kind of partial coactions in its restraints. One is to use the clamping ratio, another way to describe the system is to use springs.

2.4.1 RELATION BETWEEN CLAMPING RATIO AND SPRINGS

Considering a simple Euler-Bernoulli beam under a uniform load q = constant, the beam equation is

(EI * w( x)) = q( x)
with EI = constant and q = constant simplifies to

(3.1) (3.2) (3.3)

EI * w( x) IV = q
integration yields

EI * w( x) = q * x + c1 = Q ( x)
knowing that Q ( x = 0) =

q *l 2

(3.4), gives c1 =

q *l (3.5), so that 2
(3.6)

EI * w( x) = q * x

q *l 2

integration yields

EI * w( x) =

1 q *l q * x2 * x + c2 = M ( x ) 2 2 at x = 0 , (3.7) turns out to EI * w( x = 0) = 0 0 + c2 = M ( x = 0)

and M ( x = 0) = k * w( x = 0) (3.9), so c2 = k * w( x = 0) -9-

(3.7)

(3.8) (3.10)

2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory integration yields

EI * w( x) =

1 q *l 2 q * x3 * x + c2 * x + c3 6 4
(3.12) or w( x = 0) =

(3.11)

so EI * w( x = 0) = c3 integration yields

c3 EI

(3.13)

EI * w( x) =

1 q *l 1 q * x4 * x3 + c2 * x 2 + c3 * x + c4 24 12 2 knowing that w( x = 0) = 0 (3.15) turns out that c4 = 0

(3.14) (3.16)

As we assume two identical springs at the ends of the beam, the middle point has to be a maximum of deflection:

w( x = l / 2) = 0 =

1 l q *l l l q * * + c2 * + c3 6 2 4 2 2

(3.17)

0=

ql 3 3ql 3 ql 3 l l + c2 * + c3 (3.18) or simplified = +c2 * + c3 24 48 48 2 2 c c3 (3.13) follows that: c2 = k * 3 EI EI

(3.22)

(3.19) (3.20)

from c2 = k * w( x = 0) (3.10) and w( x = 0) = when inserting (3.20) into (3.19) follows

c3 =

ql 3 c3 l k* * (3.21) 24 EI 2

kl ql 3 c3 * 1 + = 2 EI 24

c3 =

ql 3 * EI 24 EI + 12kl

(3.23)

by using (3.20) it is possible to transform

c2 =

kql 3 24 EI + 12kl kql 3 24 EI + 12kl

(3.24) (3.26) (3.27) (3.28)

From (3.8) it is known that c2 = M ( x = 0) (3.25), so that M ( x = 0) = As the clamping moment is known as M Cl = the clamping ratio can be quantified as RM

ql 2 12 M = M Cl ql 2 ql 2 / 10 = 12 120
(3.29)

So when pretending a clamping ratio of 0,1 or 10 %, M equals to M = with M given, transforming (3.26) leads to: k =

24 EI * M ql 3 12M * l

With the goal to compare this theoretical relation, and to verify its application in the calculation program SAP2000, a comparison is documented in the following chapter.

2.4.2 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION TO THE CLAMPING RATIO - SPRING RELATION

As described before, the two identical springs at the "pinned" beam ends, can be calculated by pretending clamping ratios. This would permit the modal calculation of a structure in the structural analysis program SAP2000. - 10 -

2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

In order to compare theoretical and numerical Eigen modes, a single-span beam with pinned ends was designed. Its rigidity E*I was defined as 1, the length is 1, and the distributed mass is 1. The clamping ratio is given in 20 steps of 5 %, from 0 equals to pinned ends until 1 which means full clamping. For each step it is calculated the spring rigidity as documented in the prior chapter. The constant mass of the beam causes a deformation and a clamping moment, which is calculated both analytically and numerically. Subsequently it is calculated the frequency of the first and the second Eigenmode. The results are as shown: Clamping (ratio of clamping moment)

SAP centre deformation [mm]

clamping moment analytically

clamping moment SAP2000

error in clamping moment

centre deformation [mm]

Eigenfrecuency [Hz]

spring rigidity [E*I/L]

error deformation

0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35 0,40 0,45 0,50 0,55 0,60 0,65 0,70 0,75 0,80 0,85 0,90 0,95 1,00

0,0 0,105 0,222 0,353 0,500 0,667 0,857 1,077 1,333 1,636 2,000 2,444 3,000 3,714 4,667 6,000 8,000 11,333 18,000 38,000

0 0,004 0,008 0,013 0,017 0,021 0,025 0,029 0,033 0,038 0,042 0,046 0,050 0,054 0,058 0,063 0,067 0,071 0,075 0,079 0,083

0,0E+00 8,0E-10 4,0E-10 1,4E-16 2,0E-09 1,6E-09 1,4E-16 1,1E-09 1,0E-09 0,0E+00 8,0E-10 7,3E-10 1,4E-16 6,2E-10 5,7E-10 2,2E-16 5,0E-10 4,7E-10 3,7E-16 4,2E-10 4,0E-10

0 0,004 0,008 0,013 0,017 0,021 0,025 0,029 0,033 0,038 0,042 0,046 0,050 0,054 0,058 0,063 0,067 0,071 0,075 0,079 0,083

130,21 125,00 119,79 114,58 109,38 104,17 98,96 93,75 88,54 83,33 78,13 72,92 67,71 62,50 57,29 52,08 46,88 41,67 36,46 31,25 26,04

2,5E-04 2,6E-04 2,7E-04 2,8E-04 3,0E-04 3,1E-04 3,3E-04 3,5E-04 3,7E-04 3,9E-04 4,2E-04 4,5E-04 4,8E-04 5,2E-04 5,7E-04 6,2E-04 6,9E-04 7,8E-04 8,9E-04 1,0E-03 1,2E-03

130,24 125,03 119,82 114,62 109,41 104,20 98,99 93,78 88,57 83,37 78,16 72,95 67,74 62,53 57,32 52,12 46,91 41,70 36,49 31,28 26,07

8,76 8,94 9,14 9,34 9,56 9,80 10,05 10,33 10,63 10,95 11,31 11,71 12,15 12,65 13,21 13,86 14,61 15,49 16,56 17,89 19,60

0,64 0,62 0,61 0,60 0,58 0,57 0,55 0,54 0,52 0,51 0,49 0,47 0,46 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,33 0,31 0,28

0,16 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,15 0,15 0,15 0,15 0,15 0,15 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,13 0,13 0,12 0,12 0,11 0,10

4,00 3,94 3,88 3,81 3,75 3,68 3,62 3,55 3,49 3,42 3,35 3,28 3,21 3,14 3,07 3,00 2,93 2,87 2,82 2,77 2,75

Figure 27: Table Data relation springs - clamping ratio Analyzing the results a good accordance is found in terms of deformation and clamping moment:

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Relation T2/T1

T1 [s]

T2 [s]

2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

Figure 28: Spring rigidity as a function of clamping ratio The relation of clamping ratio and spring rigidity is no-lineal, going from a spring rigidity zero until infinite. This is why the first and the last step are not shown in the diagram above.

Figure 29: Relative error in clamping moment Concerning the clamping moment the error is basically caused by rounding. Whenever the value has less decimals than the maximum of decimals shown, the error turns out zero.

Figure 210: Relative error in centre deformation Concerning the centre deformation the error rises with the clamping ratio, still showing a good accordance between analytics and numerical approximation.

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2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

Figure 211: Relation second/first Eigenfrequency over clamping ratio Another conclusion of this parameter study is the relation between the clamping ratio and the relation of the first two Eigenfrequencies, going from 4 in the case of pinned ends to 2,75 in the case of clamped ends. So when analyzing measurement data of a single-span beam, one can determine the clamping ratio as a function of the relation between the first two Eigenfrequencies.

2.5 EIGEN VERSUS RITZ-MODES

The structural analysis program used in this thesis is SAP2000 version 10. This program permits the modal analysis using Eigen or Ritz-vectors. The Ritz method is a finite-element method to compute Eigenvalues. A short comparison was done in order to check the liability of this method. For a singlespan beam with known characteristics (mass and rigidity) the frequencies of the system were determined with both methods:

Figure 212: Comparison Eigen and Ritz-vectors The first 3 modes are determined with great accordance between both methods, for higher modes the differences increase notably. As this thesis refers to analysis and measurements, the exactness is satisfactory. In very little cases the measurement equipment and the general conditions permit to discover more than the two first modes.

2.6 VIBRATION COMFORT

Vibrations in civil engineering applications can be classified under three criteria, structural criteria, psychological criteria and production quality criteria.

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2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

2.6.1 STRUCTURAL CRITERIA

Vibration movements can cause structural damage, depending on vibration characteristics, materials, detail solutions, etc.. In order to establish limits of vibration characteristics, a simple one is the limit of 0,1 g as maximum acceleration. Other limits have in mind a combination of vibration characteristics, see below:

Figure 213: Response spectrum effects on persons and structures [2] This graph is from Britisch Standard 6472, another standard used is german DIN 4150 part 3. Values are established as a function of building use and frequency:

Figure 214: Velocity values for evaluation of short-term vibrations

Figure 215: Velocity values for evaluation of long-term vibrations - 14 -

2 Fundamentals of Vibration Theory

Swiss norm SN 640312 fist categorizes structures and afterwards establishes these limits for each:

Figure 216: Acceptation criteria [5]

2.6.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL CRITERIA

Independently from structural criteria, human perception of vibration may cause a loss of comfort until physical damages. Perception depends on the position (seated, by feet, etc.) and on the activity. The same vibration may cause a loss of comfort to a person laying in bed, but does not affect another person which is dancing. In general, all values are to orientate. German standard DIN 4150 offers to calculate a value called KB which afterwards can be compared to a table of limit values:

Figure 217: KB acceptation values [3] International standard ISO 2631-1 offers a simpler solution, giving maximum accelerations for every step from comfortable until extremely uncomfortable.

2.6.3 PRODUCTIVITY CRITERIA

In the area of industrial or scientific applications, the effects of vibration are classified on how might interfere in the production process. This strongly depends on the production process itself.

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