Shafaqat Rahman Section 1 Notes: An Introduction to Space Exploration

Introduction Development of rockets = possible to send machines and animals and people into space Space exploration = common, enduring theme in literature and art. Neil Armstrong = one step for man etc

Motivations for space activity

Most of latter 20th century = only national governments could afford very high costs of launching people and machines into space. (had to serve very broad interests) Space programs = increased knowledge, indicators of national prestige and power, enhanced national security and military strength, and benefits to public Nikita Khrushev in 1957 said that his country had been first to launch a satellite as evidence of technological prowess of Soviet union and superiority of communism. ^He said this again with Gagarins orbital flight in 1961. Eisenhower didnt want to compete JFK did. Space program = important indicator of national strength. Observing military activities from around from the world through space = asset to national security. Following photoreconnaissance satellites (began in 1960), U.S.A built increasingly complex observation and electronic-intercept intelligence satellites. o o o o o o o Used to verify arms-control agreements Warnings of military threats Identify targets during military operations Improved communications Observation Navigation Position location

The stationing of weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies is prohibited by international law. Satellite telecommunications -> multibillion dollar business and is the one clearly successful area of commercial space activity.

Major Milestones

1st artificial satellite = Sputnik 1, launched on Oct. 4, 1957

1st human in space = Yuri Gagarin one orbit journey , April 12, 1961. American astronauts walk on Moons surface = Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin made the first lunar landing on July 20, 1969. 12 Americans in 6 separate Apollo missions from 69 72. Starting from early 1970s: Soviet space stations , U.S Sky lab station, and etc. International space station = 1990s. 1st ISS crew took up long-duration residence on November 2, 2000. By the start of the 21st century, more than 30 countries had space agencies or other government bodies with substantial space activities.

Science in Space The presence in space of humans and experimenters and , experimental subjects, facilitated studies in biomedical science. Japan, Canada + number of European counties such as U.k, France, Italy, and germany also developed operating scientific aircraft. Scientific research in space = 5 areas Solar and space physics First discovery made with instruments in orbit was the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts, by Explorer 1 (1958) Then investigations on Earths magnetosphere, the surrounding region of space in which the planets magnetic field exerts a controlling effect Interaction of the flux of charged particles emitted by the sun = solar wind, with the magnetosphere Auroras = interaction of magnetosphere + solar wind

Jupiter = strong magnetic field Concept of space weather described changing conditions in the Sun-Earth region of solar system. Variations in space weather -> geomagnetic storms that interfere with satellite operations and even systems on ground ( power grids)

Early studies of the sun were undertaken by a series of Orbiting Solar Observatory satellites (1962-75) and Skylab space station (1973-74), using Apollo telescope Mount. EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY = developed Ulysses mission (199) to explore Suns polar regions. 1980s: NASA, ESA, and japans institute of space and astronautical science undertook a cooperation venture to develop a comprehensive series of space missions, named the International SolarTerrestrial Physics Program, aimed at full investigation of the Sun-Earth connection.

Responsible for : the U.S Wind (1994) and Polar (1996) spacecraft European Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO 1995( Cluster (2000) missions

Japanese Geotail satellite (1992)

Exploration of the planets, moons, asteroids, comets, meteoroids, and dust in solar system First four U.S Pioneer spacecraft, Pioneer 0-3 (1958), were not successful in returning data about moon Fifth mission , Pioneer 4 (1959), first to escape Earths gravitational pull flew by the moon at twice the planned distance Soviet missions, Luna 1-3, explored vicinity of the moon in 1959, confirming that it had no appreciable magnetic field + first ever images of its far side. Luna 1 = first to fly past the moon Luna 2 = first to strike another celestial object Later Luna spacecraft soft landed on moon and gathered samples U.S.A Marinet 2 flew by Venus in 1962 Marinet 4 flew past Mars in 1965. U.S Viking landings on Mars in 1976 Soviet Venera explorations of the atmosphere and surface of Venus from mid 1960s to mid 1980s Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft landed on asteroid Eros and transmitted information from its surface for about 2 weeks Mariner 10 flew by mercury 3 times in 74-75. Pioneer 10 flew by Jupiter Pioneer 11 + voyager 1 and 2 = Jupiter and Saturn. Voyager 2 = went on to travel past Uranus and Neptune. Data confirms that Earth and the rest of the solar system formed at about the same time from the same cloud of gas and dust surrounding the Sun. The U.S sent two Viking spacecraft to land on the surface of Mars in 1976.

Study of the origin, evolution, and current state of objects in the universe beyond solar system Until dawn of spaceflight, astronomers were limited in their ability to observe objects beyond the solar system to those portions of the electromagnetic spectrum that can penetrate Earths atmosphere. U.S orbital facilities (Great Observatories) include

Hubble Space Telescope (1990) observations in the visible and ultraviolet regions Compton Gamma X Ray Observatory (1999) Sptizer Space Telescope (2003)

Cosmic background Explorer satellite, launched in 1989, mapped the microwave background radiation left over from the early universe, providing strong support for the big bang theory.

Microgravity research Orbiting spacecrafts = continental state of free fall Shit in orbit feels weightlessness, or zero gravity because their free all is at the same rate of Earths gravitational field. Experiments in microgravity include Metals, alloys, electronic and photonic materials, composites, colloids , glasses, and ceramics

Research on nonliving and living materials in the very low gravity levels Study of Earth from Space Satellites, space stations, and space shuttle missions have provided a new perspective for collecting data Use of satellites to make various geodetic measurements, allowing precise determinations of Earths shape, internal structure, and rotational motion and the tidal and + periodic motions of the oceans Arthur C. Clare (1945) described a way in which 3 satellites in orbit, called geostationary orbit, could relay communications around the globe. Orbital period = Earths rotational period, and thus appear stationary.

Two general space applications One provides benefits to public goods cannot be easily marketed provided by government via funds Other provides goods services as commercial profit = basis for commercial development of space in private sector

Meteorology Satellites in lower orbits aligned in a north-south direction = polar orbits The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA) operates geostationary and polar orbiting satellites for short and long term forecasting. Dep. Of Def = military use Eumetsat = (1986) to operate Europes meteorological satellites and provide their observations to national weather services

Positioning, Navigaton, and Timing

(1957) Easily plot Sputniks orbit by analyzing Doppler shit in the frequency of its transmitted signal with respect to a fixed location GPS is still operated under the military ^Everyone uses it now

Satellite telecommunications

American telephone and telegraph, recognizing commercial potential of satellite communications, paid NASA in 1962 to launch its first TELSTAR SATELLITE. Syncom 2 = 1963- demonstrated the feasibility of the Hughes concept prior to commercial use. International maritime Satellite organization (Inmarsat) formed to relay messages to ship at (1979)

Remote Sensing Definition: Use of satellites to observe various characteristics of Earths land and water surfaces in order to obtain info on mapping, mineral explorations, land use planning, resource management, and etc Landsat 1 = first remote sensing satellite (Earth Resources Technology Satellite) - 1972

Space Tourism Space shuttle = 1982 After 1986 Challenger accident = the shuttle was prohibited from launching commercial payloads ^This led to utilizing expendable launch vehicles such as the Delta, Atlas, and Titan as commercial launchers for private sector Titan = NOT A COMMERCIAL SUCCESS SpaceShipOne = privately funded spacecraft in 2004 (first of its kind) to carry human beings on a brief suborbital flight, offering them a few minutes of weightlessness SpaceShipOne = just over 3 times the speed of sound, roughly one seventh of the speed required to enter a practical low-Earth orbit

Issues for the Future Only 27 people have traveled beyond Earths orbit, all of them Apollo astronauts, during the race to the Moon. Government funds will set the pace for scientific progress Legal framework for space activities is based on the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and four subsequent UN treaties Outer Space Treaty prohibits deployment of weapons of mass destruction into outer space and on celestial bodies. No general framework regulating military uses of space

Section 2 Notes: Rocket Science and Orbital Mechanics

Space Exploration is complicated because you have to think about. 3 countries have put people on orbit Gasoline engine produced rotational energy to drive the wheels. Rocket engines work because of every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Action and Reaction: The Space Baseball Scenario If you throw the baseball, your body will react by moving in the opposite direction of the ball. To generate thrust, you can Increase the mass Increase the acceleration The vacuum of space Heat management The difficulty of re-entry Orbital Mechanics Micrometeorites and space debris Cosmic and solar radiation The logistics of having restroom facilities BIGGEST PROBLEM HARNESSING ENOUGH ENERGY TO GET SPACESHIP OFF THE GROUDN

Rocket engines = generally throwing mass in the form of a high pressure gas

Thrust Thrust = strength of rocket engine; measured in pounds of thrust in the U.S and in Newtons under metric system (4.45 N = 1 pound of thrust) A pound of thrust is the amount it would take to keep 1 pound of an object stationary against the force of gravity Space Shuttle has 3 parts Orbiter (165,000 lbs) Big External Tank (78,1000 lbs) Two solid rocket boosters (185,000 lbs each)

Solid-Fuel Rockets: Fuel Mixture

1st engines created by man (In China) The rockets glare in the national anthem talks about small military solid-fuel rockets used to deliver bombs or incendiary devices. You want to create something that burns quickly but does not explode Gunpowder explodes 75% nitrate, 15% carbon, 10% sulfur You want the power to release more evenly over time 72% nitrate, 24% carbon, 4% sulfur (for example)

Solid-Fuel Rockets: Channel Configuration Increasing surface area of channel increases burn area and therefore thrust ^Gives high initial thrust and lower thrust in the middle 3 Important advantages Simplicity Low Cost Safety

2 Disadvantages Uncontrolled thrust Once ignited, the engine cannot be stopped or restarted Useful for short-lifetime tasks (like missiles) or for booster systems

Liquid Propellant Rockets 1926 Robbert Goddard tested first liquid propellant rocket engine Fuel and oxidizer are pumped into a combustion chamber. There they burn to create a high pressure and high velocity stream of hot gases. These gases flow through a nozzle that accelerates them further, and then they leave engine There are all kinds of fuel combinations used in liquid propellant rocket engines Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen used in Space Shuttle program Gasoline and liquid oxygen Goddards early rockets Kerosene and liquid oxygen used on first stage of large Saturn V boosters in Apollo program Alcohol and liquid oxygen used in German V2 rockets Nitrogen and tetroxide/monomethyl hydrazine used in the Cassini engines

The Future of Rocket Engines Pressurized nitrogen thrusters simply blow nitrogen gas from a tank through a nozzle ( no fuel) ^Kept skylab in orbit

New engine designs are trying to find ways to accelerate ions or atomic particles to extremely high speeds to create thrust more efficiently. NASAs deep space-1 spacecraft = first to use ion engines for propulsion

Le Fundamentals of Rocketry THRUST = [PROPELLANT MASS FLOW] T = mC X [EXHAUST VELOCITY]

Isp = number of seconds a pound of propellant can be used to deliver a pound of thrust and stated in terms of seconds Exhaust velocity = Specific impulse X Earths gravitational acceleration C = g[Isp]

Velocity (change delta-V) is the fundamental currency of astronautics Rocket Equation

(M + P)/M = e ^ (delta V/C)

where e = 2.71828 increases exponentially in proportion to delta V/ C

(M + P)/ M = Vehicles mass ratio

Rocket scientists want deltaV to decrease and C to increase Mass of tanks , engines , and other structures increases in proportion to propellant load

Dry mass fraction = F = function of system design and the lightness of the materials employed for its construction Example: If F = 0.1, then a ship carrying 90 tonnes of propellant would have a dry mass of 9 tonnes

How Satellites Work What is a Satellite? Basically any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path Moon = Earths Original, natural satellite Orbit = Path Satellite takes. Farthest point = apogee Nearest point = perigee

Artificial satellites are usually not mass produced, except for GPS and iridium satellites

Whose Satellite was First? Soviet Sputnik satellite = first to orbit Earth ( October 4, 1957) Contents of Sputnik Thermometer

Battery Radio transmitter Nitrogen gas

How is a Satellite Launched into Orbit? All Satellites today get into orbit by riding on a rocket or by riding in the cargo bay of the space shuttle The scheduled launch rocket is aimed straight up first, which gets it through the thickest part of the atmosphere, and best minimizes fuel consumption. The inertial guidance system is used to calculate necessary adjustments to the rockets nozzles to tilt the rocket to the course described in the flight plan. Boost is greatest at equator, where distance around earth is greatest and so is rotation

Inertial Guidance Systems IGS makes controlling rocket precisely possible ^Determines a rockets exact location and orientation by precisely measuring all of the accelerations the rocket experiences, using gyroscopes and accelerometers.

Orbital Velocity and Altitude Velocity needed to achieve balance between gravitys pull on the satellite and the inertia of the satellites motion satellites tendency to keep going. Orbital velocity depends on altitude ^Higher the orbit, longer the satellite can stay in orbit Lower altitudes can run into atmosphere and cause drag, which causes the orbit to decay until the satellite falls back into the atmosphere and burns up Satellites usually start out in an elliptical orbit.

Satellite Launch Window? Particular period of time in which it will be easier to place the satellite in the orbit necessary to perform its intended function. And extremely important factor in choosing the launch window is the need to bring down the astronauts safely if something goes wrong.

Types of Satellites Orbits? Geostationary orbits (geosynchronous or synchronous) Satellite is always positioned over the same spot on Earth. Satellite parking strip = area over the equator that is congested with several hundred television, weather and communication satellites.

Asynchronous orbits = they pass overhead at different times of the day (Scheduled Space Shuttles)

Polar orbit = satellite generally flies at a low altitude and passes over the planets poles on each revolution. The orbit remains fixed in space as Earth rotates inside the orbit. As a result , much of Earth passes under a satellite in polar orbit.

Orbital Mechanics Science that defines how a satellite can remain in space. Terminal velocity = the point at which the acceleration force is balanced by the drag of air friction produced by the object at a specific speed. Gravity continues forever theoretically but weakens as u get further away from the surface Once a rocket achieves orbital velocity appropriate to the desired altitude, it shuts down its engine and is essentially in free fall. Because of curvature of Earth and the high speed of the satellite, it falls around Earth Centrifugal force of satellite = gravitational force of the Earth, and the content of satellite becomes weightless When the altitude of a satellite is lowered to a critical value, it will decelerate rapidly and return to Earth within a few orbits. Re-entry =generation of extremely high temperatures on the structure of the satellite caused by energy dissipation due to aerodynamic force of friction Two special orbits based on altitude : Geostationary and mid-earth orbits Mercator maps can distort size relationship of polar regions but position is more important than size, so who gives a damn Five special orbits = Lagrangian or L-points. Result of the gravitational force exerted by two independent bodies on a third mass. L-points allow third object to remain in the same proximity of the two larger bodies L-1 = constant sunlight L-2 = outside of Earths orbit/ ideal for a space telescope L -3 = opposite side of the Sun from the Earth and is the theme for the science fiction shit counter-Earth planet L-4 point = third point of an equilateral triangle where the first two points are the sun and earth. L-5 = Determined like L-4 on the other side of the Sun-Earth base line

Konstatin TSIOLKOVSKY SLEPT HERE DAMN IT The dude was a visionary thinker, standing at the very foundation of Moscows pioneering exploration of Space He struggled to get recognition from the ignorant and indifferent officials of czarist Russia. He first proposed the use of rockets for space #5 of 18 siblings Lost his hearing ability at age 10-11

Fedorovs theory of cosmism had a profound effect on Tsiolokovsky Progress in science would eventually allow humans to achieve immortality and even resurrect longdead ancestors.

From the Earth to the Mooon (1865) inspired a whole generation of spaceflight pioneers. In Borovsk = Tsiolkovsky experimented with physical processes, particularly properties of gases. Svobodnoe Prostranstvo = Free space (Published in 1956) First attempt in his decades-long effort to describe the meaning of the cosmos for humanity and the effects that vacuum and weightlessness would have on future s. travelers 1895 Grazy O Zemle I Nebe (Dreams of the Earth and Sky) Describes mankinds settlement of space, complete with characters who mine asteroids and build orbital greenhouses

1903 The Exploration of the World Space with Jet Propulsion instruments universally recognized as the worlds first scientifically sound proposal to use rockets for exploring space. Liquid oxygen + liquid hydrogen = used in todays shuttle 1926 Plan for Space Exploration 16 step program whereby human civilization could outlive its dying sun and settle the universe. His work influenced people like Valentin Glushko - father of soviet Rocket propulsion Sergei Korolev - other prominent dude who supervised Gagarins launch vehicle

Section 3 MANNED SPACEFLIGHT BEGINS Soon after U.S.S.R and U.S.A successfully launched unmanned artificial satellites into space, they both set up programs to put humans into space Competition spurred space exploration, but scientific inquiry and sense of adventure sustained it. New type of hero: astronaut/cosmonaut o A soviet would be the first to wear the hero label

After launch of first 3 Sputnik satellites, the Soviets conducted a number of unmanned missions to test the worthiness of the capsule needed to carry a person. They also experimented with reentry and recovery.

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West: Missions were known as Sputnik 4, 5 ,6 ,9 and 10. Soviet Union: Missions were known as Korabl-Sputnik 1,2, 3, 4, 5. (SAME MISSIONS, DIFFERENT NAMES

DEPENDING ON REGION) 1st space craft unable to land successful back on Earth, second one was able to do so.

Re entry of 3rd one was too steep, killing two dogs and other animals on board :C Program shut down for 3 months until spacecraft was redesigned

Vostok = Russian for East : Name chosen for first Soviet manned spaceflight program For manned spaceflight mission, they used the same spacecraft used to launch the first 3 Sputnik satellites, with an additional upper stage powered by a single engine. o o Combined stages could launch a payload of 10,355 pounds (4,700 kilograms) into low Earth orbit Large enough to accommodate one astronaut

Bottles of Nitrogen and oxygen were used for life support. Cosmonaut chosen to ride aboard Vostok 1 = Yuri Gagarin (1st human in space; 1934-1968). o Soviet leaders such as Nikita Khrushev believed that Gagarin represented the Soviet ideal of the worker who rose through the ranks on merit alone. He had no control over his space craft; Soviet engineers had decided to lock out the cosmonaut from controls since they didnt know much about space Vostok 1 was guided to a successful re entry by radio signals from Earth. He ejected from the capsule at a height of approximately 23,000 ft. Gagarin landed somewhere southeast of Moscow, about 995 miles from launch site Even though Gagarins flight was labeled a success, it was not until a few decades that the world learned that his spacecraft had spun dangerously out of control when it began to re enter Earth. THE SOVIETS KEPT The SECRET THAT GAGARIN EJECTED FROM HIS CAPSULE, IN ORDER TO GET AWAY FROM THE REGULATIONS SET BY THE INTERNATIONAL AERONAUTICAL FEDERATION (FAI)..

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FAI = international organization founded in 1905 with the basic aim of furthering aeronautical and astronautical activities worldwide o requires the pilot to return in craft in order for the flight to be recognized as a valid world record (THOSE CHEATERS)

Just 6 weeks after success of Vostok 1, Kennedy delivers a speech to the U.S Congress in which he promised that the U.S would land an astronaut on the moon by the end of the decade.

MORE SOVIET FIRSTS:

Four months after the launch of Vostok 1, Vostok 2 lifted off with cosmonaut Gherman Titov (19352000) o Titov = Yuris back up pilot During crafts 3rd orbit, Titov ate food. He then took manual control of the craft, changing altitude, and then tried sleeping. He ended up becoming the first person to feel space motion sickness.

It launched on August 7th, stayed in orbit for twenty five hours and eighteen minutes, far longer than Vostok 1. One of the objectives of the flight was to investigate the ability of humans to work during a prolonged period of weightlessness. Vostok 3 and 4 were launched from the same pad one day apart in 1962. o Their orbits were so accurate that they came within 4 miles of each other.

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Vostok 3s astronaut = Andrian Nikolayev Vostok 4s astronaut = Pavel Popovich 1st ship to ship communication between two space craft ^

They repeated the double launch maneuver with Vostok 5 and 6. o Vostok 5s astronaut = Valery Bykovsky Set a new space endurance record for a solo flight when his craft remained in space for five days, completing 81 orbits

Vostok 6s astronaut = Valentina Tereshkova

1st woman and first civilian into space Total of 5 women were chosen to undergo flight training, with Valentina being one of them Next woman into space would be Svetlana Savitskaya United States sent Sally Ride into space two decades after Tereshkovas flight

PROJECT MERCURY: AMERICAS ANSWER

Only one year and three days after Sputnik 1 opened the space age, the newly formed NASA began Project Mercury, the United States first manned space program. The objectives of this program, which saw six piloted missions between 1961 and 1963, were specific:

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To orbit a manned spacecraft around Earth; To investigate mans ability to function in space; and To recover both man and spacecraft safely.

Mercury flights led to longer, more complex Gemini flights of the mid 1960s an Apollo lunar landings The maximum age for a Mercury astronaut candidate was set at 40, the maximum height at 71 inches (180 centimeters), and the maximum weight at 180 pounds (82 kilograms). o They also needed a college education, which prevented U.S Air Force pilot Chuck Yeager (considered to be Americas premier test pilot, from applying to the program) NASA chose 7 out of 32 candidates from a group of an initial group of 110 military pilots On April 9, 1959, those astronauts selected for Project Mercury were presented to the nation. o Known as the Mercury Seven, they were M. Scott Carpenter (1925 ) L. Gordon Cooper Jr. (19272004) John Glenn Jr. (1921 ), Virgil Gus Grissom (19261967) Walter Schirra Jr. (19352007) Alan Shepard Jr. (19231998) Donald Deke Slayton (19241993). Six of these seven eventually flew Mercury missions (Deke Slayton was removed from flight status due to an irregular heartbeat; he was restored to flight status in 1972). o Mercury capsule was bell shaped, 9.5 meters in height and 6 feet in diameter (could accommodate only 1 astronaut) o o 120 controls, 55 electrical switches, 30 fuses, and 35 mechanical levers

2 Solid fuel retro rockets were fired in quick succession to bring the craft out of orbit and ready for re entry Heat shield acted as an inflated cushion to soften the impact at splashdown.

(Unlike Soviet capsules that parachuted to the ground, U.S. capsules parachuted into the ocean.)

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1st two mercury capsules were carried aloft by modified red stone rockets Red stone = 1st operational U.S ballistic missile Mercury Redstone carried astronauts into space Remaining mercury capsules sat atop Mercury- Atlas rockets, which were modified versions of the powerful Atlas

Initial stage of Project Mercury = 7 suborbital flights, ones that did not reach the height necessary to go into orbit. 5 were successful The two unsuccessful ones either steered off course or exploded Two of these flights carried a monkey to test cabin environment

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Then came four orbital test flights, two of which went as planned Before sending a man into space, NASA wanted to make sure the rocket and capsule were trustworthy, so they conducted a final test in 1961. Aboard was a chimpanzee named Ham. His safe return deemed mercury ready for human space flight MAJOR MILESTONE We were slow compared to the soviets though

THE MERCURY 7s

1st Mercury manned flight = may 5, 1961 by Alan Shephard. o o o o He named his capsule Freedom 7 (duh) All other mercury astronauts named their capsules and added 7 to acknowledge their teamwork Shepherds suborbital flight = 15 minutes, but proved that a U.S astronaut could survive and work comfortably in space. Freedom 7 reached an altitude no higher than 116 miles and traveled a distance of 303 miles away from the launch pad at Cape Canaveral, FL

Next suborbital flight = Gus Grissom on July 24, 1961 o o Named Liberty 7 Had easier to use controllers and an explosive side hatch, which provided an easier escape during emergency situations (improvements over Freedom 7)

1st U.S astronaut to orbit in space = John Glenn , February 20, 1962. o o Friendship 7 Lasted 4 hours and 45 minutes

His launch was considered perfect , clearing him for 7 orbits On his final orbit, Friendship 7s heat shield had come loose, meaning he would burn during re entry. To prevent this, Glenn was instructed not to release the retrorockets at the center of the heat shield.

Scott Carpenter May 24, 1962 his purpose was relevant to science. o o Aurora 7, similar in duration and number of orbits to Glenn He spent most of his time performing scientific experiments such as Counting stars Photographing sites on Earth Recording how fluids react in a weightless environment Also ate an entire meal in space (1st American to do so) After unintentionally bumping his hand against the inside wall of the cabin, he solved a mystery from the previous flight commandeered by Glenn The bright shower of particles outside the capsule (Glenn called them fireflies) were actually ice particles shaken loose from the capsules exterior.

Because he was so busy and because he was distracted by fireflies, he splashed into the Atlantic Ocean and was never selected for another space flight

Wally Shera October 3, 1962 o o o Sigma 7 (Sigma = summation) Lasted 9 hours and 13 minutes She was to to test the mercury capsule

Gordop Cooper may 15, 1963 o o o Faith 7 His flight was a marathon: orbited Earth 22 times He released a six inch sphere with flashing lights (first satellite deployed from a spacecraft

THE SOVIETS FIRST, AGAIN NASA officials recognized that the leap from putting a man in orbit to putting one on the Moon was too great to overcome. The technology and the procedures had yet to be developed and tested. Three issues had to be addressed: o o o the ability of spacecraft to rendezvous (or meet up and dock with each other) in space the ability of astronauts to work in space outside a spacecraft The ability of humans to function over extended periods in space.

Project Gemini = initiated in January 1962.

Features a two man crew Soviets begun developing their own lunar Moon landing project, called Soyuz (Russian for Union) Voskhod capsule included an extendable tunnel for a cosmonaut to attempt a space walk if needed Voskhod 1 = launched on October 12, 1964. 3 people SPACEFLIGHT: FIRST TO CARRY MORE THAN ONE HUMAN INTO SPACE AND FIRST IN WHICH OCCUPANTS ON BOARD DID NOT WEAR SPACESUITS. DETAILS OF MEDICAL TESTS WERE NEVER REVEALED o o o Pilot Vladimir Komarov Physician Boris Yegorov Spacecraft engineer Konstatin Feoktistov

Voskhod 2 March 18, 1965 o Aleksai Leonov BECAME FIRST HUMAN TO ATTEMPT AN EVA, FLOATING 17.5 Feet (5.3 METERS) FROM SPACECRAFT Pavel belyayev Automatic re entry features of Voskhod 2 did not work + inflated space suit = problems of the mission

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GEMINI: THE SECOND PHASE United States adopted a methodical approach for its quest to the moon that DID NOT disregard safety (unlike Soviets) Project Gemini was like Project Mercury , in that its objectives were o o To subject man and equipment to spaceflight up to two weeks in duration; To rendezvous and dock with orbiting vehicles and to maneuver the docked combination by using the target vehicles propulsion system; To perfect methods of entering the atmosphere and landing at a preselected point on land. (The goal of landing on land was cancelled in 1964.)

Gemini was an improvement over Mercury in both size and capability Gemini = first fully maneuverable U.S manned spacecraft Project Gemini saw the launch of 12 spacecrafts between April 1964 to November 1966 o Firs two flights were unpiloted (April 1964 and January 1965) First flight was brief: only checking compatibility of spacecraft and Titan II rocket 2nd flight used to test the spacecrafts launch and re entry systems

1st piloted flight/Gemini 3 = March 23, 1965 Gus Grissom = FIRST MAN TO FLY INTO SPACE TWICE John W. Young Missions objective was to test the new, maneuverable Gemini spacecraft

Gemini 4/ First long-duration U.S spaceflight: June 3, 1965 FIRST MISSION TO BE DIRECTED FROM MISSION CONTROL AT THE JOHNSON SPACE CENTER IN HOUSTON INTEAD OF CAPE CANEVERAL Highly publicized Astronauts: James A. McDivitt Edward H. White: 22 minute EVA, first ever for an American

Purpose was to fly in formation with the spent second stage of the Titan II booster in orbit THEY LEARNED SOMETHING IMPORTANT ABOUT ORBITAL RENDEVOUS Thrusting toward the target only made them move farther away

Just like Gemini 3, it missed its intended landing point

Gemini 5: LONGEST U.S manned spaceflight to date (August 21, 1965) Astronauts: Gordon Cooper

CharlesPete Conrad

Their 8 day flight showed that astronaut could endure weightlessness for roughly the time needed to fly to the moon and back. They took high resolution photos for the U.S department of defense

Gemini 6 (Launched a few days after December 12 1965) Astronauts: Wally Schirra Thomas P. Stafford

Original purpose: to rendezvous with an unmanned vehicle in space, but that vehicle had exploded six minutes after being launched Their mission was then changed to rendezvous with Gemini 7

Gemini 7 December 4, 1964 Astronauts: Frank Borman James A. Lovell

LONGEST GEMINI FLIGHT Borman and Lovell conducted most experiments, twenty, of any Gemini mission, including studies of nutrition in space The astronauts also evaluated a new light weight space suit, which proved to be uncomfortable if worn for a long time in geminis hot, cramped quarters Experiments showed that astronauts can indeed withstand an extended period o time in space without lasting physical shit, satisfying first objective

Gemini 8(March 16, 1966) Astronauts: Neil Armstrong docked spacecraft with prelaunched Agena rocket o FIRST ORBITAL DOCKING EVER

David R. Scott Gemini 8 had a docking problem and ended up emergency landing in the Pacific Ocean. Scott missed out on a planned spacewalk because of the incident

Gemini 9 June 3, 1966 Plagued with problems before lift off

Initial astronauts Elliot See and Charles basset were killed in a plane crash while flying to the spaceship factory 4 months before launch Backup crew Thomas Stafford Eugene A. Cernan

NASA launched an Agena rocket on May 17, 19666, but it exploded during take off Back up plan utilized ATDA (Augmented Target Rcking Adapter) for the rendezvous in spae Computer failure then postponed launch by 2 days 2 shields of ATDA failed to come off when expected Could not dock successfully with ATDA Cernans 1 hour and 46 minute EVA became horrendous, and so he was unable to try out the new jet-powered backpack.

Gemini 10 July 18, 1966 Astronauts: John Young Michael Collins FIRST PERSON TO MEET ANOTHER SPACECRAFT IN ORBIT

Also launched an Agena rocket and docked with Agena, then boosted the combined craft to a higher orbit of 475 miles: NEW RECORD FOR MANNED ALTITUDE Rendezvoused with the left over Agena from the aborted Gemini 8 was done by eyes only, no radar since the 2nd Agena had no electricity.

Geminis 11 flight plan was similar to Gemini 10 except that it had to rendezvous and dock immediately after reaching orbit (September 12, 1966) o Astronauts: o o o Pete Conrad Richard F. Gordon

New manned altitude of 850 miles was not broken until Apollo 8 headed for the moon They conducted a gravity experiment showing that the astronauts were not quite weightless FIRST TOTALLYAUTOMATIC, COMPUTER CONTROLLED RE ENTRY

Gemini 12: November 11, 1966 o o James Lovell Edwin E. Buzz Aldrin: He trained underwater to simulate the effects of weightlessness. NASA also attached improved restraints to the outside of the capsule, and the training + restraints proved priceless. Aldrin showed that a trained astronaut can work easily and efficiently outside of a spacecraft

Five days before the launch of the last Gemini, NASA had sent a probe to scout out landing sites on the Moon.