Introduction to Biomechanics

Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. define the terms of biomechanics, statics, dynamics, kinematics, kinetics, and kinesiology 2. understand the development of Biomechanics 3. identify the scope of biomechanical studies and their application 4. describe the common used physical quantities and their symbols About Biomechanics Definition of Biomechanics Development of Biomechanics Scope of Biomechanics Physical Quantity

1. 2. 3. 4.

Hall, 2003Chap 1 Chaffin & Andersson, 1999 Chap 1 Luttgens, K. & Hamilton, N., 2002 Chap 1 Nig & Herzog, 1999: Chap 1

About Biomechanics Applications of Biomechanics

physical therapy occupational therapy medicine o orthopedics o sports medicine o rehabilitation medicine o occupational medicine o forensic medicine engineering o ergonomics (industrial medicine) o bioengineering kinesiology o movement science o physical education arts

o o o

performance arts fine arts entertainment arts

Who should take biomechanics class?

physical therapist/ occupational therapist orthopedic/ occupational medicine/ rehabilitation medicine physician or nurse industrial/ production/ manufacturing/ process engineer ergonomist/ biomechanist/ kinesiologist coach/ athlete/ sports manager industrial hygienist/ safety manager/ labor relations manager forensic medicine physician, scientist, staff, spy..... entertainment specialist/ actor or actress dancer/ painter

Definition of Biomechanics Broad Definition of Biomechanics the application of the principles and technology of the physics and mechanics in the study of the living systems, which is a multidisciplinary study including

physical properties of biological materials biological signals and their measurements biomechanical modeling and simulation applications of biomechanics

Limited Definition of Biomechanics the science that examines forces acting upon and within a biological structure and effects produced by such forces (Hay, 1973)

forces external and internal forces effects 1. movements of segments of interest 2. deformation of biological materials 3. biological changes in the tissues

Knowledge Needed in Biomechanical Studies

Mathematics Physics Mechanics o statics o dynamics o fluid mechanics Biology and Medicine Neurophysiology Behavior science

Development of Biomechanics *** Please read Chaffin's book chapter 1 ***

Galioleo Galilei William Harvey Stephen Hales YC Fung WT Dempster Don B Chaffin David Winter Frankel and Nordin

Scope of Biomechanical Research of Human Movement Some research directions *** Please read Hall's book chapter 1 ***

structure and/or physical properties of muscle, tendon, ligament, capsule, cartilage, and bone effect of load and under-load of specific structures factors influencing performance

Subjects for biomechanical studies of human movement

elderly vs. young kids vs. adults women vs. men disable vs. able people

athletes vs. sedentary people workers vs. non-workers

Methodology in Biomechanical Studies

anthropometric method performance limit evaluation kinesiological analysis o kinematic analysis o kinetic analysis biomechanical modeling method task analysis method

Physical Quantity
Definition Dimension system Unit conversion Standard prefix

Definition of Physical Quantity

Definition

the quantity that can be used in the mathematical equations of science and technology When you can measure what you are speaking out and express it in numbers, you know something about it!! -- Lord Kelvin Physical quantity is objective and measurable.

Dimension System Seven Fundamental Quantities Length (L) Mass (m) Time (T) Electric Current Temperature Luminous Intensity Unit Name meter kilogram second ampere degree of Klevin candela Unit Symbol m kg s A cd

Amount of Substance Derived Quantities

mole

mol

displacement (d) velocity (v) = dx / dt acceleration (a) = dv / dt angular velocity () =d / dt force (F) = ma moment of force (M): torque = Fd work (W) = Fd power (P) = W / t energy (E)=mc2 momentum = mv area (A) volume (V) density (D) = m / V pressure (P) = F / A

Dimensionless Quantities

percentage percentile

the 5th percentile the 25th percentile = 1st quartetile the 50th percentile = 2nd quartertile (median) the 75th percentile = 3rd quartetile the 95th percentile the 99th percentile the 100th percentile = 4th quartetile

Unit Conversion System of Unit

metric system

CGS system MKS system

SI system (Systeme International d'Unites; the International System of Units) for details: http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/index.html English System

Unit conversion of mass 1 lb = 0.454 kg 1 kg = 2.205 lb 1 ounce = 28.350 g = 1/16 lb Unit conversion of length Metric 1m 1 km 10 km 50 km Standard Prefix Name Symbol Value yotta Y 1024 tera T 1012 giga G 109 Name Symbol Value deci d 10-1 centi c 10-2 milli m 10-3 micro 10-6 naro n 10-9 pico p 10-12 yocto y 10-24 mega M 106 kilo k 103 hecto h 102 deka da 101 in 1093 yd 1 ft 10 in 6 miles 376 yd 0 ft 4 in 31 miles 119 yd 2 ft 10 in English 3 ft 3.5 Decimal miles 0.621 6.214 31.069

Review of Mathematics and Mechanics Plane Geometry Plane Trigonometry Vector Basic Statistics Basic Dynamics Plane Geometry

angles, sides, and area of a triangle

where

angles, sides, and area of a polygon radius, diameter, circumference, and area of a circle arc length and area of a sector of a circle

Plane Trigonometry

define an angle between 2 lines units used to measure angles o degree (deg) o radius (rad) = 57.9 orthogonal projections of a line segment onto two perpendicular axes defintion of sine (sin) definition of cosine (cos) definition of tangent (tan) inverse trigonometric relationship o if sin = a then = sin-1 a o if cos = a then = cos-1 a o if tan = a then = tan-1 a law of sine:

law of cosine:

solution of an arbitrary triangle knowing 3 sides to determine the angles knowing 2 sides and 1 angle to find the rest of the angles and sides knowing 2 angles and 1 side to find the rest of the angles and sides area of an arbitrary triangle
o o
where

Vector

scalar vs. vector scalar quantities quantities with magnitude only, e.g. speed of 5 m/s vector quantities quantities with magnitude and direction, e.g. velocity of 5 m/s to right vector addition or subtraction vector decomposition expressed by unit vectors

Review of Basic Statics External Forces Internal Forces Mechanical Advantage Centroid Equilibrium of the Force System Free Body Diagram Force Couple External Forces Gravitational force (Force of Gravity)

g= 9.81 m/s2 W = mg 1 kg = 9.81 N

Ground reaction forces

force exerted on a body by the ground Fx Fy Fz Mx My Mz

Friction force

resistance of two moving objects Fs = ms N where ms = coefficient of static friction Fk = mk N where mk = coefficient of kinetic friction

Air or Water resistance Fa = Av2c Internal Forces 1. muscle force 2. forces from tendon, ligament, and other connective tissues Mechanical Advantage (MA) of the Lever Definition

the ratio between the length of the force arm and the length of weight arm

Types of Lever 1. first-class lever 2. second-class lever: force advantage 3. third-class lever: advantage for speed or distance; most in open-kinematic chain motion Centroid Definition

the point that defines the geometric center of an object If the material composing a body is homogeneous, the weight can be neglected.

Equilibrium of the Force System Definition

a condition in which an object is at rest if originally at rest, or has a constant velocity if originally in motion

Newtons Laws of Motion

Only used for a particle with a mass and negligible size moving in a nonaccelerating reference frame first law (law of inertia) o A particle originally at rest, or moving in a straight line with a constant velocity, will remain in this state provided the particle is not subjected to an unbalanced force. o If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, then the particle is in equilibrium. ie. If FR = 0 then v= constant second law (law of acceleration) o A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force experiences an acceleration that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force o F= k (dmv/dt) = ma third law (law of action and reaction) o the mutual forces of action and reaction between two particles are equal, opposite, and colinear o Faction= -Freaction

Equation of equilibrium

requires both a balance of forces, to prevent the body from translating with accelerated motion, AND a balance of moments, to prevent the body from rotating FR = 0 and MR = 0

Free Body Diagram (FBD) Definition

a sketch of the outlined shape of the body which represents it as being isolated from its surroundings and all forces and couple moments that the surroundings exert on the body

Review of Basic Dynamics Definition of Dynamics Law of Acceleration Mechanical Analysis Methods Used in Dynamics Definition of Dynamics Dynamics the study of the motion of bodies and the unbalanced forces that produce motion Law of Acceleration

Newton's 2nd Law (Law of Acceleration) A particle acting upon by an unbalanced force experiences an acceleration that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force F = m a for a single particle only valid on an inertial frame of reference

Mechanical Analysis Methods Used in Dynamics

direct dynamics (forward dynamics)mechanical analysis of a system that determines movement from forces F known acceleration displacement e.g. using force plate to record forces inverse dynamicsmechanical analysis of a system that determines forces from movement displacement acceleration F e.g. using video-based motion analysis relationship between forces and movement o A defined set of forces results in a specific movement. o A specific movement can be the result of an infinite number of combinations of individual forces acting on a system

Properties of Biological Materials Objectives: After studying this series, the students will be able to 1. identify the functions of the musculoskeletal system and its relationship to mechanical properties

2. describe the mechanical properties of different viscoelastic materials in the musculoskeletal system 3. describe the adaptive response of the viscoelastic materials under different loading conditions 4. identify the factors that affect the mechanical properties of the viscoelastic materials in the musculoskeltal system Biomechanics of Bone About Skeletal System and Bone Mechanical Properties of the Bone Adaptive Response of the Bone Under Different Loading Degenerative Changes in Bone Failure of the Bone Biomechanics of Collagenous Tissues About Collagenous Tissues Collagen Fiber Strength of Tendons and Ligaments Factors Affecting the Strength of Tendons and Ligaments Biomechanics of Cartilage About Cartilage Mechanical Properties of the Articular Cartilage Lubrication Mechanism Failure of the Cartilage Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscles About Skeletal Muscle Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle Factors Affecting Muscle Strength Other Properties of Skeletal Muscle Muscle Remodeling

Biomechanics of Bone
About Skeletal System and Bone Mechanical Properties of the Bone Adaptive Response of the Bone Under Different Loading Degenerative Changes in Bone Failure of the Bone

1. Frankel V.H. & Nordin M (2001): Biomechanics of Bone. In Nordin M. & Frankel VH (eds): Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System. Philadelphia, PS, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.26-58. 2. Hall SJ, 2003. Basic Biomechanics, 4th ed. Boston, MA, McGraw-Hill. pp. 87116. 3. Whiting W.C. & Zernicke R.F. (1998): Biomechanics of Musculoskeletal Injury. Champaign, IL, USA: Human Kinetics. pp.87-100. 4. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999. About Skeletal System and Bone Functions of the Skeletal System

mechanical functions o to protect vital organs o to provide rigid kinematic links o to provide attachments sites for muscle o to facilitate muscle action and bone movement physiological functions o to produce blood cells (hematopioesis) o to maintain calcium metabolism (mineral hemeostasis)

Unique Characteristics of the Bone

the hardest structure in the body o high content (60-70% of dry weight) of mineral materials e.g. calcium and phosphate metabolically active throughout life o excellent capacity for self-repair o changes in properties and configuration in response to changes in mechanical loads, systemic hormones, and serum calcium levels

Structure of the Long Bone

structures based on position o diaphysis o epiphysis o metaphysis

types of bone tissue based on porosity o cortical bone (compact bone) 5-30% of porosity o cancellous bone (trabecular bone or spongy bone) 30-90% of porosity

Composition of the Bone Tissue

cells

osteoblast located on bone surface osteocyte located in lacuna osteoclast located on bone surface extracellular matrix o mineralized type I collagen fibers 90% of the extracellular matrix and 25-30% of dry weight o ground substance glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) o water 25% of total weight and 85% in the organic matrix
o o o

Fundamental Unit Osteon (Haversian System)

size ~200 in diameter component o Haversian canal a canal, in the center of the osteon, containing blood vessels and nerves o interstitial lamellae concentric rings of mineralized matrix surrounding the Haversian canal o lacunae the interface between lamellae, containing osteocyte and canaliculi o cement line boundary of the osteon

Bone Modeling and Remodeling

bone modeling the process by which bone mass increased to alter the size, shape, and structure of the bone (new bone formation) bone remodeling the process through which bone mass adapts, with altering its size, shape, and structure, to the mechanical demands placed upon it (activationresorption-formation process of bone) o step I activation of osteoclasts o step II resorption the existing bone by osteoclasts o step II new bone deposit by osteoblasts differences between modeling and remodeling

process stimulus for activation coupling of formation and resorption Wolff's Law (1892) o static stress model o Bone is deposited where needed and resorbed where not needed. o current concept Bone modeling and remodeling occurs in response to the mechanical demands placed upon it. Mechanical Properties of the Bone Bone Strength

Modeling continuous not required system?

Remodeling cyclical required local

As the load increases, load and deformation increase in a relatively linear relationship, obeying Hooke's law and, after the yield point, smaller and smaller increases in load produce greater and greater deformation ultimate stress the bone can sustain before failure o failure point in the stress-strain curve ultimate strain the bone can sustain before failure energy the bone can store before failure o size of the area under the entire curve If the applied load is at the plastic region and removed later, the bone does not return to its original configuration (hysteresis)

Bone Stiffness

elastic modulus the slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region metal >> glass > bone

Anisotropic Behavior of the Bone

anisotropy the property of a material which exhibits different mechanical properties when loaded in different direction Stiffness with respect to tension is maximal for axial loads and minimal for perpendicular loads. for ultimate stress of cortical bone: compression > tension > shear

Adapted from Nordin M & Frankel VH (2001). Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System.(p.54)

Bone Geometry

In tensile or compressive load, the load to failure and the stiffness are proportional to the cross-sectional area of the bone moment of inertia o in a rectangular beam I = BH3/12 o in a tube-like bone I = mr2

Adaptive Response of the Bone Under Different Loading Factors that affect the structure, composition, and quality of bone

external factors o mechanical loads gravity, physical activity, or immobilization internal factors o systemic calcium level nutrition o hormone level gender, growth, menopause, or degeneration

Gravity

positive correlation between body weight and bone mass fast loss of bone mass in the weight-bearing joints of astronauts

Muscle Activity

contraction of muscle alters the stress distribution in the bone

contraction of the gluteus medius muscle produces great compressive stress on the superior cortex of the neck of the femur, neutralizing the tensile stress and thereby allowing the femoral neck sustain more load

Strain Rate Dependency

The stiffness of a bone changes with the rate of loading

when loads are applied at higher rate within the physiological limit, the bone o becomes stiffer o sustains a higher load to failure o stores more energy before failure when a bone fractures, the stored energy is released. o single bone crack for a low-energy fracture o comminuted fracture of bone for a higher-energy fracture o severe destruction of bone before failure

Fatigue of Bone Under Repetitive Loading

Stress fracture may occur when a load of lower magnitude is applied repetitively. o march fracture
o

spondylolithesis

Physical Activity

relationship between physical activity and bone mass o growing bone responds to low or moderate exercise through significant increase in new cortical and trabecular bone o a threshold of physical activity exists above which some bone respond negatively o moderate to intense physical training can generate modest increase in bone density (1-3%) in men and premenopause women o the long-term effect of exercise are retained only by continuing to exercise o individuals with extremely low initial bone mass may have more to gain from exercise than those with moderately reduced bone mass effects
o o o

increase bone mass increase cortical thickness increase bone mineral content

Immobilization or Implantation

bed rest ~ 1% of loss of bone mass per week immobilization in body cast a threefold decrease in load to failure and energy storage capacity in the vertebrae that have been immobilized in body cast for 60 days immobilization with metal implant o decrease in bone Adapted from Nordin M & Frankel VH (2001). Basic diameter Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System.(p.54) and bone strength due to resorption

of the bone under the metal plate

o

increase in bone deposit at the bonescrew interface

Artificial Defects

stress raiser defect length < bone diameter

o o o

the stresses concentrate around the defect the weakening effect is marked under torsion loading (60% of decrease) example compression hip screw only the shear stresses at the periphery of the bone resist the torsion the shear stresses at the interior of the bone run in the same direction of the torsion.

open section defect defect length > bone diameter

o o

example bone graft

Degenerative Changes of the Bone

progressive loss of bone density (osteoporosis) with normal aging process structural changes with aging o marked reduction in amount of the cancellous bone o decrease in the diameter and thickness of the cortical bone due to resorbed longitudinal trabeculae changes in mechanical properties o decrease in strength, deformation ability, and energy storage capacity o the ultimate stress was approximately the same for the young and the old bones Adapted from Nordin M & Frankel VH (2001). o the old bone can withstand only 1/2 of Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System.(p.54) the strain that the young bone can aggravating factors o gender Both men and women lose cortical bone at the same rate but women lose trabecular bone more rapidly than men o age o post-menopause 1.53% of loss per year after menopause o endocrine abnormality o inactivity o disuse
o

calcium deficiency

Failure of the Bone

Failure of bone may occur when the applied stresses exceed the ultimate strength limit, which may result from excessive stresses, or weak material, or both. possible causes of bone failure

o o o o

excessive acting forces unfavorable acting moments small bone dimension excessive repetition of load application

osteoporosis o a disease or phenomenon marked by reduced bone mineral mass and then changes in bone geometry o a function of normal aging process o the amount of bone mass at one site is not necessarily correlated to that at the other sites

Procedure for drawing a free body diagram 1. imagine the body to be isolated from its surroundings and sketch its outlined shape

2. identify all the external forces and couple moments that act on the body, including applied loads, reaction occurring at the supports or at points of contact with other bodies, and the weight of the body 3. label all forces and couple moments with proper magnitudes and directions Force Couple

two parallel forces that have the same magnitude, opposite directions, and are separated by a perpendicular distance FR = 0 but

The only effect of a couple is to produce a rotation or a tendency of rotation in a specific direction A couple moment is a free factor which act at any point since the couple moment depends only on the position vector directed between the forces and not the position vectors directed from the point O to the force

Biomechanical Measurements Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. identify the commonly used biomechanical instruments 2. describe the parameters used in biomechanical studies 3. compare the differences among different instruments that have the same function Measurements of Stress and Strain Relationship Between Force and Body Stress Strain Stress-Strain Curve Measurements of Stress and Strain Measurements of Muscle Strength

Evaluation of Muscle Strength Muscle Strength Measurement System Measurement of Muscle Activity Kinematic Analysis Rigid Body Kinematics Measurement of Kinematic Variables Processing of Raw Kinematic Data Derived Kinematic Variables Anthropometric Measurements Application of Anthropometry in Biomechanics Measurement of Body Segment Length Measurement of Body Segment Mass Measurement of Center of Mass Measurement of Moment of Inertia Kinetic Analysis About Kinetics Measurement of Kinetic Data Biomechanical Models Derived Kinetic Variables Measurements of Stress and Strain Relationship between force and body Stress Strain Application of Stress-Strain Curve Measurements of Stress and Strain

1. Frankel V.H. & Nordin M (2001): Biomechanics of Bone. In Nordin M. & Frankel VH (eds): Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System. Philadelphia, PS, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.26-58. 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999: 101-124, 146-158, 167-170 Relationship Between Force and Body Force

an action that changes the state of rest or motion to which it is applied external force vs. internal force strength maximum force that a body can be loaded stress load per unit

Body

an object that may be real or imaginary but represents a definite quantity of matter (mass), with certain dimensions, occupying a definite position in space rigid vs. deformable body o rigid body no relative displacement can occur between the particles when forces are applied to the body o deformable body the adjacent particles can be displaced relative to one another when the forces are applied to the body

Effect of forces on a body

in dynamic sense o linear motion (translation) in the direction of net force o rotary motion (rotation) in the direction of net moment in static sense o static equilibrium if the body is rigid or if the stress is low or if the duration is short o deformation (shape and size changes) if the body is deformable long-term biological changes o growth o injuries o degeneration

Mechanics of Materials

a branch of applied mechanics that develops relationship between the external loads applied to a deformable body and the internal forces acting within the body o deformation of the body o body's stability when it is subjected to external loads

Stress Definition of stress

the intensity of force per unit area of the tissue o normal stress the intensity of internal force acting perpendicular to a plane =F/A assumptions

1. the material is homogeneous 2. the cross-sectional area at each point is the same 3. the strain is even 4. the resultant load is passing through its centroid shear stress the intensity of internal force acting tangent to a plane =V/A

SI unit Pa (Pascal) = N/m2 USCS unit psi = lb/in2 tensile stress is positive while compressive stress is negative

Types of stress

tensile stress (tension) o one kind of normal stress that is applied perpendicular to the body and taks it apart o the body tends to be elongated in the direction of the applied forces

compressive stress (compression) o one kind of normal stress that is applied perpendicular to the body and puts it together o the body tends to be shrink in the direction of the applied forces shear stress o the force acting in directions tangent to the area resisting the force o also named as tangential force

bending stress

failure under bending stress three point bending: failure at the point of the middle force four point bending: failure at the weakest point

torsion stress loads parallel to the surface of the structure and in the same direction, resulting in the tensile stresses and strains at one side and compressive stresses and strains at the other side of the structure; there are no stresses and

strains along the neutral axis

combined stress

Strain Definition of stain

the extent of deformation relative to its initial condition o normal strain the ratio of the change in length to the original length = L / L o shear strain the intensity of internal force acting tangent to a plane =d/h

unit normal strain = % (dimensionless quantity) or mm/m shear strain = rad tensile strain is positive while compressive strain is negative

Factors affecting the extent of deformation

mechanical properties size of the body shape of the body temperature humidity magnitude, direction, and duration of applied forces

Application of Stress-Strain Curve Stress-Strain curve

elastic region When the magnitude of the stress is small, the elastic force can be represented by the relation for an ideal spring (Hooke's law), i.e., the elastic force exerted by the viscoelastic material is proportional to the amount of deformation o F=kx where F = elastic force k = spring stiffness which is a constant x = amount of deformation plastic region yield point failure point

Strength

maximum stress that a body can be loaded (ultimate stress) maximum strain that a body can be deformed (ultimate strain) maximum energy stored

Stiffness

modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) for both tensile and compression stress o the ratio of the stress to strain in the elastic region of the stress-strain curve E= /
o o o

named after Thomas Young (1773-1829, English scientist) SI unit Pascal USCS psi

Hooke's law only for tensile stress o for an elastic material, the strain is a linear function of the stress applied o named after Robert Hooke (1653-1703, English scientist) modulus of rigidity (shear modulus of elasticity) G= / where = d / h

SI unit Pascal USCS psi

 Poisson's ratio

When a material is under a tensile stress, the tensile strain and the lateral contraction is proportional. = lateral / longitudinal
o

assumptions the material is homogeneous the material is isotropic named after Simeon Denis Poisson (1781-1840)

unit dimensionless 0 relationship between the modulus of elasticity and that of rigidity G = E / 2(1 + )

Brittle vs. Ductile materials brittle material the material whose failure occurs at a very low strain, e.g. ceramic or glass ductile material the material that is able to resist a very high strain before failure, e.g. aluminum alloys Creep Phenomenon () progressive deformation of a material with time as the amount of load remains constant

 Load Relaxation Phenomenon () progressive decrease in load with time as the deformation of the structure remains constant

Hysteresis () Energy stored in a viscoelastic material when a load is given and then relaxed.

aged heel pad poor ability to absorb the shock

Elastic vs. Plastic materials elasticity the ability of a body to resume its original size and shape on removal of the applied loads NOTE the elastic material is not necessary to have a linear relationship on the stress-strain curve plasticity When a tissue is stretched to the plastic region and then released, the tissue will assume a new resting length that is longer than the initial length because of plastic changes in its structure. clinical application flexibility exercise or joint mobilization

Allowable stress When a structural member or mechanical element is designed, the stress must be restricted in a material to a level that will be safe. This is the allowable stress. factor of safety (F.S.) the ratio of a theoretical maximum load that can be carried by the member until it fails in a particular manner divided by an allowable load F.S. = Ffail / Fallow

 the factor of safety is chosen to be greater than 1 to 10 in order to avoid the potential for failure Measurements of Stress and Strain Tension test to apply a tensile load on the material to be tested and measure the strain using extensometer nominal strain L / initial L natural strain L / final L Compression test to apply a compressive load on the material to be tested and measure the strain using extensometer ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

Biomechanics of Collagenous Tissues

About Collagenous Tissues Collagen Fiber Strength of Tendons and Ligaments Factors Affecting the Strength of Tendons and Ligaments

1. Nordin M, Lorenz T, Campello M (2001): Biomechanics of tendons and ligaments. In Nordin M & Frankel VH (eds): Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.102-125.

About Collagenous Tissues

Classification of collagenous tissues

dense connective tissue

ligament withstanding tensile stress to augment capsule function for joint stability to guide joint motions to check excessive motion (static restraint) tendon withstanding tensile stress to attach muscles to bone to transit tensile loads from muscle to bone (dynamic restraint)

loose connective tissues o capsule withstanding tensile stress to augment joint stability to check excessive motion o skin withstanding tensile stress to protect internal structures to check excessive motion o heel pad withstanding shear stress to provide shock absorption due to abundant adipose tissue inside to resist shear stress cartilage o articular cartilage withstanding compressive/ shear stress to absorb the compressive loads to allow motions between joint surfaces with minimal friction to resist shear stress o fibrocartilage withstanding compressive/ shear stress to link two bony structure to resist the compressive and/or shear loads

Components of Collagenous Tissues

cell ~20% of total volume o fibrobalst o chondrocyte extracellular matrix ~80% of total volume o fiber collagen fiber for strength elastin fiber for flexibility retin fiber for mass o ground substance PGs GAG bonded to a core protein, bind to a long hyaluronic acid (HA) chain o water ~70% of extracellular matrix

Collagen Fibers Structure of collagen fiber

the most abundant protein in the body (~1/3 of total protein in the body) tropocollagen 3 procollagen polypeptide chains ( chains) coiled about each other into a left-handed triple helixes

collagen molecule length: ~280 nm diameter: ~1.5 nm collagen fibril parallel packing of several collagen molecules with cross-links diameter110120 nm in young adults Types of collagen fiber Type I found in bone, tendon, ligament, and skin Type II found in articular cartilage, nasal septum, and sternal cartilage Type III found in loose connective tissues, the dermis of the skin, and blood vessel walls Tensile strength of collagen fiber

closely associated with the number and quality of the cross-links within and between the collagen molecules stress-strain curve for an ideal collagen fiber o When the magnitude of the tensile strength is relatively small, a toe region is present because the relaxed, wavy collagen fiber is straightened o When the magnitude of the tensile strength is small, the elastic behavior of the collagen fiber follows Hooke's law o rupture as the tendon of the extensor digitorum longus is stretched by about 15% of its initial length or as the medial collateral ligament is stretched by about 20%

sources of tensile stress o for ligament distraction of articular surfaces from mechanical actions o for tendon passive increasing joint angle active shortening of muscle fibers

Compressive Strength only able to resist low compression loads buckle under compression load slenderness ratio ratio of length to thickness Strength of Ligaments and Tendons Components of Connective Tissue

cell 20% o fibroblast matrix 80% o water 60-70% for ligaments o collagen 70-80% of dry weight; molecular cross-link

Components of Connective Tissue

cell 20% o fibroblast matrix 80%

o o

water 60-70% for ligaments collagen 70-80% of dry weight; molecular cross-link

Factors Affecting Strength of Tendons and Ligaments Age-Related changes

before adolescent ligament strength < bone strength maturation o increase in # and quality of cross-links o increase in diameter of collagen fibril o increase in tensile strength and stiffness aging o decrease in # of collagen fibers o collagen fibril concentration in the collagen fibers controversial o decrease in tensile strength and stiffness

Pregnancy and the postpartum period

increase in laxity of the tendons and ligaments in pubic area decrease in tensile strength of tendons and ligaments during later stages of pregnancy and the postpartum period decrease in stiffness during the early stage of postpartum period

Mobilization vs. immobilization

remodeling in response to the mechanical demands placed upon it physical activity o mechanical strength becomes stronger and stiffer o the diameters of the collagen fibers increase immobilization o mechanical strength weaker and less stiff o the diameters of the collagen fibers controversial reconditioning after immobilization o do not return to normal at one year after injury

adapted from Noyes FR (1997). Clin Orthop 123, 210-242. Steroids vs. nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID)

steroid inhibit collagen synthesis decrease in stiffness, ultimate stress, and energy absorption ability time- and dosage-dependent NSAID o increase tensile strength o increase cross-linkage of collagen molecules
o o o

Reconstruction surgery

tendon graft not the same as normal in mechanical properties

Pathological conditions

diabetes mellitus pathology tendon contracture tenosynovitis joint stiffness capsulitis proportion in DM 29% 59% 40% 16%

hemodialysis

pathology tendon rupture hyperlaxity of tendons or ligaments patellar tendon elongation articular hypermobility

proportion in hemodialysis 36% 74% 49% 51%

Biomechanics of Cartilage
About Cartilage Mechanical Properties of the Articular Cartilage Lubrication Mechanism Failure of the Cartilage

1. Mow VC & Hung CT (2001). Biomechanics of articular cartilage. In Nordin M & Frankel VH (eds): Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.60-100 2. Chaffin DB, Andersson GBJ, Martin BJ (1999). Occupational Biomechaincs, 3rd ed. New York, John Wiley & Sons. About Cartilage Types of the Cartilage

hyaline cartilage (articular cartilage) fibrocartilage

Characteristics of articular cartilage

1-5 mm hyaline cartilage dense connective tissue translucent no blood vessels, lymphatic channel, or nerve innervation How does the cartilage obtain nutrition and remove metabolites? components low cellular density o condrocyte < 10%

extracellular matrix collagen fibers ground substance proteoglycans water 65-80% interstitial fluid movement is important in mechanical property and joint lubrication

Functions of articular cartilage

spread load over a wide area allow movement of two articulating bones with minimal friction and wear deformed under loading, exuding synovial fluid

Collagen fibers in articular cartilage

biological unit tropocollagen mechanical properties: tensile stiffness and strength distribution of collagen in articular cartilage o superficial tangential zone parallel to the articular surface o middle zone randomly distributed o deep zone perpendicular to cartilage-calcified cartilage interface (tidemark)

Proteoglycans in articular cartilage

basic unit glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) mutually repelled between neighboring GAGs proteoglycan o hyaluronic acid o link protein
o

GAG chains 200-400 nm in length

protein core chondroitin sulfate chains (CS) decrease with aging keratan sulfate chains (KS) increase with development and aging CS/KS ratio 101 at birth and 21 in adult

Mechanical Properties of the Articular Cartilage Biphasic creep response

exudation of fluid up to 50% of the fluid can be squeezed out creep phenomenon of the collagen fiber

Biphasic load relaxion phenomeon

stress increased as fluid exudation stress decreased as fluid redistribution

Non-linear permeability

Rate dependency of the material behavior

rapid loading like elastic material slow loading like viscoelastic

Lubrication Mechanism Boundary lubrication

the chemical adsorption of a monolayer of lubricant molecules onto the articular surfaces depends on the chemical property of lubricants

Fluid film lubrication

a much thicker film of lubricant causing a relatively large separation of the two bearing surface

Elastohydrodynamic fluid films of both the sliding and the squeeze type probably play an important role in lubricating the joint With high load and low speeds of relative motion, the fluid film will decrease in thickness as the fluid is squeezed our from between the surfaces. Under very high loading conditions, the fluid film may be eliminated, allowing surface-to-surface contact

Failure of the Cartilage

mechanical loading and unloading prevent cartilage degeneration limited ability to remodel itself if articular cartilage is damaged types of failure interfacial wear wear resulting from the direct interaction of bearing surfaces adhesion or abrasion wear only takes place in an impaired or degenerated joint traumatic arthritis fatigue wear wear resulting from bearing deformation under repetitive loads failure of collagen-PG matrix + loss of PG e.g. chondromalacia patella damage from a high impact

loads leading to wear

acute injury active loading or impact loading chronic injury interfacial or fatigue loads

Biomechanics of Skeletal Muscle

About Skeletal Muscle Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle Factors Affecting Muscle Strength Other Properties of Skeletal Muscle Muscle Remodeling Objectives: After studying this topic, the student will be able to 1. explain the relationships of fiber types and fiber architecture to muscle function 2. describe the effects of the length-tension and force-velocity relationships 3. identify the factors affecting the mechanical properties of the skeletal muscles

1. Hall SJ, 2003. Basic Biomechanics, 4th ed. Boston, MA, McGraw-Hill. Chapter 6, pp.145-182 2. Lorenz T & Campello M: Biomechanics of skeletal muscle. In Nordin M & Frankel VH, 2000. Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. Chapter 6 3. Chaffin, D.B., Andersson, G. B., Martin, D.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. About Skeletal Muscle Please review the basic concepts of muscle in Kinesiology class. Functions of skeletal muscle To move the body limb by creating motion To provide strength by generating active force To protect joints by absorbing shock specific functions of connective tissues within muscle To provide gross structure to muscle To generate passive tension against stretch To transmit force to the bone and across the joint

Basic behaviors of skeletal muscle muscle fiber extensibility the ability to be stretched or to increase in length elasticity the ability to return to the original length after a stretch irritability the ability to respond to a stimulus e.g. action potential or mechanical force

 contractility the ability to develop tension * NOTE Increase in tension does not imply decrease in muscle length. tendon, fascia, or aponeurosis viscoelasticity non-contractility NOTE Contractile tissue described by J. Cyriax indicates muscle fibers and tendons although tendons do not have any contractibility. Mechanical model of a muscle The musculotendinous unit behaves as a contractile component in parallel with one elastic component and in series with another elastic component contractile component muscle fiber series elastic component (SEC) tendon parallel elastic component (PEC) muscle membrane or fascia The viscoelasticity of skeletal muscle is primarily from SEC

Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle Muscle fiber Motor unit Types of muscle fibers Fiber architecture parallel fiber arrangement parallel to the longitudinal axis of the muscle longitudinal sartorius quadrate or quadralateral rhomboid triangular or fan-shaped pectoralis major fusiform or spindle-shapedbiceps brachii pennate fiber arrangement at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the muscle, unipenniform extnesor digitorum longous bipenniform flexor hallucis longus

 multipenniform middle deltoid effect of the angle of pennation the greater the angle of pennation, the smaller the amount of effective force transmitted to the tendon the angle of the pennation increases as tension progressively increases in the muscle fibers The pennate arrangement will allow the packing of more fibers given the same space. Factors Affecting Muscle Strength Muscle strength the force generation capability of an entire muscle group at a joint torque = the production of force and the moment arm stabilization component vs. distraction component

dependent on cross-sectional area and training state Length-Tension Relationship Force-Velocity Relationship Force-Time Relationship Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC)

 a pattern of muscle contraction which is characterized by eccentric contraction followed immediately by concentric contraction When a muscle is stretched just prior to contraction, the resulting contraction is more forceful than in the absence of the pre-stretch. possible contributors to forceful tension development elastic recoil effect of the series elastic component of the actively stretched muscle stretch reflex of the forced lengthening muscle example: wind-up during baseball pitching or jumping Electromechanical Delay (EMD) time interval between arrival of neural stimulus and tension development by the muscle, usually approximately 20-100 ms EMD in FT fibers < that in ST fibers EMD in kids > that in adults EMD in a resting muscle > that in an activated muscle not related to muscle length, contraction type, contraction velocity, and fatigue is needed for the contractile component of the muscle to stretch the SEC compared with anticipatory postural adjustment

Body Temperature Muscle function is most efficient at 38.5C (101F). elevated muscle temperature shift in force-velocity curve increased maximum isometric tension

 nerve conduction velocity frequency of stimulation muscle force enzyme activity efficiency of muscle contraction elasticity of collagen extensibility of muscle muscle force increased maximum velocity of muscle shortening requiring less motor unit to sustain a given load body temperature too high heat exhaustion or heat stroke

Other Properties of Skeletal Muscle Muscle power the product of muscle force and contraction velocity maximum power at ~1/3 of maximum velocity and ~1/3 maximum concentric force peak power production type IIb type IIa type I = 10 5 1

Muscle endurance

 the ability of the muscle to exert tension over a period of time the longer the time tension is exerted, the greater the endurance Muscle fatigue reduction of muscle force production capability and contraction velocity, as well as prolonged relaxation of motor units between recruitment dependent on muscle itself, exercise duration, fiber type composition, and/or pattern of motor unit activation for a single muscle fiber, fatigue indicates an inability to develop tension when it is stimulated Causes reduction in the rate of intracellular calcium release and uptake by sacroplasmic reticulum Muscle Remodeling Muscle Hypertrophy by physical training cross-sectional area of muscle fibers number of muscle fibers change in proportion of muscle fiber types by electric stimulation Muscle Atrophy cross-sectional area of fibers number of muscle fibers aerobic capacity by changing the proportion of muscle fiber types sedentary people# of type I fibers athletes fiber type affected by that sport

Measurements of Muscle Strength

Evaluation of Muscle Strength Muscle Strength Measurement System Measurement of Muscle Activity

1. Chaffin, D.B., Andersson, G. B., Martin, D.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed. New York, John Wiley & Sons. pp. 101-124, 146-158

2. Nigg B.M. & Herzog W., 1999. Biomechanics of the Musculo-Skeletal System. New York, John Wiley & Sons. pp.349-371 Evaluation of Muscle Strength Force generated by human body muscle force the active force generated by muscle contraction in response to resist the external forces or other internal forces connective tissue tension the passive forces generated from the tension of the connective tissues, such as tendons, ligaments, fasciae, capsule, or skin Related terminology

muscle strength the force generation capability of an entire muscle group at a joint tnesile strength maximum force that a body can be loaded to resist a tensile stress muslce power the product of muscle force and contraction velocity NOTE This term is also used by clinicians to indicate muscle strength muscle endurance the ability of the muscle to exert tension over a period of time

Types of muscle exertion Classification of Muscle Strength Type of Muscle Contraction Definition muscle contraction without changing its length muscle contraction with a constant tension (??) muscle contraction in a constant speed muscle contraction in response to a constant, external load

static strength e.g. isometric contraction holding or carrying isotonic contraction dynamic strength e.g. lifting or push- isokinetic strength and-pull isoinertial strength Variables used to represent muscle strength

peak force at maximum isometric contraction static strength to maintain 6 sec and average the middle 3-sec data at least > 2 min resting interval between contractions in order to prevent fatigue

closely related to verbal commands and/or visual feedback

peak torque at isokinetic or isoinertial contraction dynamic strength closely related to type and velocity of contraction rate of tension development static strength o slope of force-time curve before the maximum strength reaches o ~ 3 times faster for the maximum contraction compared to the 25% submaximum contraction

closely related to verbal command o maximum and hold o as fast as possible

muscle activity at maximum voluntary exertion level static strength

Muscle Strength Measurement System Localized static strength measurement systems

hand-held dynamometer o electronic strain gauges o measuring peak force during isometric contraction o advantages safe, reliable, and practical seated strength tester

Localized dynamic strength measurement systems

Cybex isokinetic system measured by dynamometer measuring muscle moment (torque) Kin-Com isokinetic system measured by load cell

measuring muscle force

Whole-body static strength measurement systems

position of load cell can be adjusted to different heights position of load cell can be adjusted to different directions load cell can be attached with different handles

Whole-body dynamic strength measurement systems

isokinetic lift strength tester o Using simple electromechanical measuring system for performing a lifting task o components of the system o electronic load cell and velocity transducer connected to a readout device o constant-velocity motor with adjustable speed control Isoinertial strength test (Liftest test) o lifting loads with different weights until ones psychophysiological limit is reached o used for personnel selection in US military department

Factors affecting muscle strength

gender

static strength: female = 65-85% of male knee isokinetic strength: 70-75% of male

age greatest around late 20s at 40 y/o, 5% loss of young at 60 y/o, 20% loss of young anthropometric data body height lean body weight cross-sectional area of muscle pain physical training immobilization or bed-ridden

Measurement of Muscle Activity Muscle activities and EMG signals

EMG signal changes in electrical potential across the muscle fiber membrane resting membrane potential of a muscle fiber = -90mV action potential of a muscle fiber = 30-40 mV motor unit action potential (MUAP) electric potential from the depolarization of a motor unit

Electromyography

types of EMG o surface electrode o needle electrode indwelling electrode o wire electrode indwelling electrode

variables obtained from EMG raw EMG firing pattern integrated EMG (IEMG) o amplitude: RMS (root mean square) o frequency analysis

Relationship between EMG activity and muscle force

an increase in tension results from an increase in myoelectric activity not a linear relationship EMG records the recruitment of motor unit

Relationship between EMG signals and muscle fatigue

increase in amplitude but decrease in frequency with fatigue mean frequency of EMG activity when the muscle is at rest is twice that found when the muscle is fatigue

Kinematic Analysis
Rigid Body Kinematics Measurement of Kinematic Variables Processing of Raw Kinematic Data Derived Kinematic Variables

1. Winter, D.A., 1990. Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement, 2nd ed. New York, Wiley & Sons. pp. 11-50 2. Chaffin, D.B., Andersson, G. B., Martin, D.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed. New York, John Wiley & Sons. pp. 131-146. 3. Hall, 2003Chapter 2, 10 (pp.318-329), and 11 Rigid Body Kinematics Application of Rigid Body Kinematics rigid body kinematics the study of motion of a rigid body without concerning its causes (e.g. forces) using 2D or 3D markers to determine limb segment positions and orientation assumptions 1. 2. 3. body segment acts like a rigid body the human body is a system of mechanical links each link has known physical size, mass, and form

examples reach forward movement can be regarded as a 3-segment movement

contributors

 Marrey Eadweard Muybridge a British landscape photographer Reviews of kinematics terminology types of motion linear vs. angular motion reference system relative vs. absolute reference system plane of motion3 cardinal planes axis of motion3 axes

Kinematic variables variable position displacement velocity acceleration linear kinematics r (x, y, z) s = r v = dr /dt a = dv /dt angular kinematics

= d /dt = d /dt

Total description of a body segment in space position (x, y, z) of segment COM or center of rotation of the joint linear velocity ( ) of segment COM or center of rotation of a joint linear acceleration ( ) of segment COM or center of rotation of the joint angle of segment in two planes (xy, yz) angular velocity of segment un two planes ( xy, yz) angular acceleration of segment un two planes (xy, yz)

Source of errors in application of rigid body kinematics not always represent true skeletal locations relative errors the relative movement of two markers with respect to each other resources skin movement and movement of underlying bony structure error reduction invasive marker placement mathematical algorithms: smoothing techniques marker attachment system absolute errors the movement of one specific marker with respect to specific bony landmarks of a segment errors from inadequate placement of markers Measurement of Kinematic Variables

Direct measurement techniques universal goniometer a protractor with two long arms source of errors the location of the goniometer, the palpation of landmarks, and the estimation during reading electric goniometer (elgon) first developed by Karpovich in the late 1950's a goniometer with an electrical potentiometer at its axis continuous graphic recording of relative joint angle advantages inexpensive immediate output planar rotation is recorded independent of the plane of movement of the joint disadvantages relative data time consuming to fit and align too many straps and cables if a large number are fitted most joints do not move as a hinge cost for recorder or analog-to-digital converter inclinometer a gravity-based goniometer source of errors the location of the inclinometer the different shape of muscles accelerometer a continuous recording of segment acceleration advantages inexpensive immediate output disadvantages relative data cost for recorder or analog-to-digital converter too many straps and cables if a large number are fitted sensitive to shock and easily broken noises increase during rapid movement or movement involving impact system combining photocells, light beams, and timer two or more records of time when each photocell is intercepted by the light beam and then the motion velocity can be calculated as the distance between two photocells divided by the recorded time.

 Optoelectric Image Measurement Techniques types of marker LED (light-emitting diode) reflective markers sampling frequency of camera 60 Hz 120 Hz 240 Hz 1000 Hz advantages both absolute and relative reference system data unlimited markers minimal movement encumbrance able to be re-played frame by frame saving storage

 disadvantages expensive need well-trained persons time consuming laboratory used only considerations the clarity of the captured image the number of cameras used more than 2 cameras are needed for a 3-D image the placement of cameras

commercialized video spot locator system ViconTM, Peak PerformanceTM, Motion Analysis SystemTM, Visual3DTM, MacReflexTM, etc. selection criterion the time required to accurately track sequences of markers from multiple cameras Other image measurement techniques cinematography 8/ 16 mm movie camera television-based video system 50/ 60Hz video camera advantages widespread availability, durability, and easy in use photogrammetric system multiple exposure ultrasound-based image system Zebris advantages relatively inexpensive good reliability limitations low sampling frequency encumbrance of control wires to the motion electromagnetic-based image system Flock of Birds (144 Hz) advantages

 no marker occlusion acquisition of position and orientation (6 dimensions) accuracy 1.8 mm for position and 0.5 for orientation limitations sensitive to ferrous and conductive metals in the environment more variability in angular displacement (~ 6) and velocity encumbrance of control wires to the motion electromechanical body suits Processing of Raw Kinematic Data Source of noises electronic noise in optoelectric devices spatial precision of the TV scan or film digitization system human error in film digitizing Time-domain analysis the signals are expressed as a time-dependent waveform an alternating signal is one that is continuously changing with time types of alternating signal (AC component) periodic random a combination of periodic and random

Frequency-domain analysis the signals are expressed as a frequency-dependent waveform, which can be the sum of a number of sine and cosine wave V(t) = VDC + V1sin( 0t + 1) + V2sin(2 0t + 2) + + Vnsin(n 0t + n) where 0 = 2 f0 n = the phase angle of the nth harmonic

Fourier series the sum of the proper amplitudes of the harmonics

 Harmonic analysis (Fourier Transformation) the mathematic process to transform given time-varying data to their frequency components

Digitization Why needs digitalization? Continuous signal measurement is the most desirable because no data are lost. However, computer-based systems require periodic measurements since by their nature, computers can only accept discrete numbers at discrete intervals of time analog to digital converter Analog signals are continuous in time and amplitude. Digital signals are discrete in time and amplitude.

Sampling Theorem

 the process signal must be sampled at a frequency at least twice as high as the highest frequency present in the signal itself If the signal is sampled at a too-low frequency, the aliasing error are obtained.

Data Smoothing assumption: the trajectory signal has a predetermined shape equation:

Data Filtering Most of the signals from daily human movements are contained in the lower 12-14 harmonics. source of noises electronic noise in optoelectric devices spatial precision of the TV scan or film digitization system error in film digitizing purposes of filtering to remove the high-frequency noises choice of cutoff frequency residual analysis

Derived Kinematic Variables Displacement the change of position that an object moves from one place to another a vector quantity that represents the straight-line distance and direction from point A to point B displacement vs. distance distance magnitude of displacement, why? distance may be equal or greater than the magnitude of displacement Velocity change in position divided by change in time the first derivative of linear displacement

 assumptions the raw displacement data have been smoothed by digital filtering the line joining xi+1 to xi-1 has the same slope as the line drown tangent to the curve at xi velocity vs. speed Acceleration the rate of change in velocity i.e. the change in velocity in a given time interval the second derivative of linear displacement

or assumptions the raw displacement data have been smoothed by digital filtering the line joining xi+1 to xi-1 has the same slope as the line drown tangent to the curve at xi Angle a vector quantity that is composed of two sides which intersect at a vertex segment angle (absolute angle) the angle of one body segment which is measured in a counter-clockwise direction starting with the horizontal plane equal to 0

the absolute angle in space joint angle (relative angle) the angle between longitudinal axes of two adjacent segments joint angle at the anatomical position is

defined as zero How to calculate angular velocity or angular acceleration?? What is the relationship between linear and angular kinematic variables? Anthropometric Measurements Application of Anthropometry in Biomechanics Measurement of Body Segment Length Measurement of Body Segment Mass Measurement of Center of Mass Measurement of Moment of Inertia Measurement of Physiological Cross-sectional Area

1. Winter, D.A., 1990. Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement, 2nd ed. New York, Wiley & Sons. pp. 11-50 2. Chaffin, D.B., Andersson, G. B., Martin, D.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed. New York, John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 3, pp. 65-130. 3. Hall, 2003Chapter 3 Definition of anthropometry the study investigating the physical dimensions or other properties of the human body to determine the differences in the individuals and groups the science that deals with the measure of size, mass, shape, and inertia properties of the human body (Chaffin & Andersson, 1999, p.65) Examples in movement science length of body segment trajectory of joint center of rotation angle of pull of tendons length and cross-sectional area of muscles

Knowledge needed in anthropometry mathematics physics biomechanics biostatistics

Materials used in anthropometric research

 living body cadaver fresh or frozen fossil Measurement of One Body Segment Length of body segment link assumption in motion analysis the human body is a system of mechanical links, with each link of known physical size and form the center of rotation of each joint can be easily identified by bone landmark determination of link the line draw along the longitudinal axis of the segment determination of center of rotation the intersection of two segment links during motion link length = the distance between two centers of rotation error < 5% Estimation of link length using bony landmark Dempster, 1955 identification of bony landmark located near the joint center of rotation link length = the distance between two bony landmarks R2 >0.9 link-to-length ratio segment link (%) humerus acromion to laterl humeral epicondyle 89.0% lateral humeral epicondyle to ulnar styloid radius 107.0% process ulnar styloid process to knuckle of 3nd metatarsal hand 20.6% head femur greater trochanter to lateral femoral condyle 91.4% tibia lateral femoral condyle to lateral melleolus 110.0% foot lateral malleolus to 2nd metatarsal head 30.6% Expressed segment length as a percentage of body height Drillis and Contini, 1966 grouped link % of BH

single link

% of BH

total arm

44%

total leg at stance

53.0%

upper arm 18.6% forearm 14.6% hand 10.8% thigh 28.5% low leg 24.6% foot 3.9% Note: real foot length=15.2%

Measurement of Body Segment Mass Definition of mass a physical quantity of matter composing a body symbol m unit kg (kilogram) in SI unit Can you distinguish mass from weight ?

Measurement of whole body density The human body consists of many types of tissue, each with a different density cortical bone > 1.8 muscle = ~1.0 fat < 1.0 average whole body density a function of somatotype d = 0.69 + 0.9 (h / w 1/3) Measurement of segment density density of distal segment > density of proximal density immersion techniques Di = mi / Vi Measurement of segment mass If the location of the center of mass of the segment is known, then the weight of each segment can easily be calculated. Please see the next section segment mass expressed by the percentage of the total mass (%M) where the unit = kg/ l

grouped segment head and neck

torso

total arm

total leg

% of total body individual segment weight head 8.4% neck thorax 50.0% lumbar pelvis upper 5.1% forearm hand thigh 15.7% shank foot

% of grouped segment 73.8% 26.2% 43.8% 29.4% 26.8% 54.9% 33.3% 11.8% 63.7% 27.4% 8.9%

Measurement of Center of Mass Definition of Center of Mass (COM) the point where the entire weight of the body is concentrated the point in a body about which all the parts exactly balance each other NoteCan you distinguish the center of mass from the center of gravity (COG) or from the center of pressure (COP)? its precise location depending on individual's anatomical structure habitual standing posture current position external support NOTE Location of COM remains fixed as long as the body does NOT change the shape methods to estimate the COM of an object suspension method moment subtraction method segment zone approach weighed average of every segment of the entire body kinetic method double integration of shear forces from the force platform clinical method measurement of the PSIS (posterior superior iliac spine) level in the sagittal plane Suspension Technique

 A body segment is suspended in a frame from only one point and then the point where the gravity effect is equaled is the location of the center of mass

Moment Subtraction Method developed by Williams & Lissner, 1977 example I to measure the location of COM of a segment composed of the low leg and foot given segment weight W 1. have the subject lie prone on a scale 2. measure the length from head to scale, L 3. measure the weight on the scale S 4. then have the subject bend one leg 5. measure the length from head to knee, X' 6. read the value on the scale, S' 7. the location of the COM of the low leg and foot is equal to (X-X') from the knee joint

example II to measure the mass of the segment composed of the low leg and foot given location of the COM of the segment composed of the low leg and foot the mass of the low leg and foot is

Kinetic Analysis
About Kinetics Measurement of kinetic data Biomechanical Models Derived Kinetic Variables

1. Nigg B.M. & Herzog W., 1999. Biomechanics of the Musculo-Skeletal System. New York, John Wiley & Sons. pp.349-371 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999 Chapter 5-2 About Kinetics Application of kinetics kinetics the study that concerns with forces that produce, arrest, and modify motions of bodies force an action that changes the state of rest or motion to which it is applied external force force generated by something outside the body internal force 2 definitions force generated by the human body itself reaction force effect of forces on a rigid body in dynamic sense linear motion (translation) in the direction of net force rotary motion (rotation) in the direction of net moment in static sense static equilibrium Types of external force gravitational force g = 9.81 m/s2 W = mg 1 kg = 9.81 N ground reaction force friction force the resistance of two moving objects, e.g. friction force between feet and ground

 Fs = s N where s = coefficient of static friction Fs = k N where k = coefficient of kinetic friction air or water resistance Fa = Av2c Types of internal force force generated by the human body muscle force connective tissue tension reaction force Newton's Law of Motion first described by Newton including Law of inertia A body continues in its states of rest or of uniform motion unless an unbalanced force acts on it. Law of acceleration The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force causing it, is in the same direction as the force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object (F = ma) Law of action and reaction For any action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Kinetic variables variable name force linear moment angular moment formula F = ma M = Fd M = I SI unit

Measurement of Kinetic Variables Force transducer a force measuring device that gives an electric signal proportional to the applied force types of force transducer capacitive sensor F 1/Q conductor sensor F 1/R

 strain gauze electrical resistant transducer wire piezoelectic sensor non-conducting crystal that exhibits the property of generating an electrical charge when subjected to mechanical strain, e.g. quartz

selection of force transducer capacitive or conductor sensors for measuring forces on soft or uneven surfaces or pressure distribution less accurate (20% of error) strain gauze or piezoelectic sensor for measuring forces on rigid body more accurate (5% of error)

Force plate system four-corner type force plate a rectangular flat plate with 4-triaxial force transducers mounted at each corner Fx-total = Fx1 + Fx2 + Fx3 + Fx4 Fy-total = Fy1 + Fy2 + Fy3 + Fy4 Fz-total = Fz1 + Fz2 + Fz3 + Fz4 Mx-total = Mx1 + Mx2 + Mx3 + Mx4 My-total = My1 + My2 + My3 + My4 Mz-total = Mz1 + Mz2 + Mz3 + Mz4

central-support type force plate one centrally instrumented pillar which supports an upper flat plate

quiet stance vs. forward bending

 given an individual stands on a force place, what happens if leaning backward leaning to the right rotating to the right jumping vertically Electromyography muscle force connective tissue tension Mechanical analysis methods from Kinematic analysis

 direct dynamics (forward dynamics) mechanical analysis of a system that determines movement from forces inverse dynamics mechanical analysis of a system that determines forces from movement relationship between forces and movement F = ma A defined set of forces results in a specific movement A specific movement can be the result of an infinite number of combinations of individual forces acting on a system Biomechanical Models Definition of modeling an attempt to represent reality, which is used for actual or theoretical situations

Purposes of modeling to facilitate understanding of knowledge and insights of reality to estimate and predict variable of interest Importance of making a scientific model

 an attempt to represent reality, which is used for actual or theoretical situations conflicts all important aspects must be included all unimportant aspects must be neglected Making assumptions and simplifications lead to a simple model What to include, what to neglect, and what assumptions to be made should be decided. Evidence and reasons why these assumption are reasonable must be applied. Types of model analytical models based on knowledge and insight advantages to have a unique solution independent of the selected mathematical procedures critical points selection of assumptions and simplification semi-analytical model based on knowledge and insight, but more unknowns than equations in it mathematical description need more assumptions black box model A set of mathematical functions are used to determine the input-output relations advantages to estimate quantities that cannot be measured to provide insight into possible functional relationships between input and output conceptual model consisting of hypotheses and procedures capable of accepting or rejecting the tested hypothesis advantage larger concepts smaller steps disadvantage a hypothesis can never be proved several pieces of evidences must be accumulated to provide enough support for a concept Steps of modeling mechanical system of interest assumptions free body diagram equation of motion mathematic solution

Example of a 2D kinematic model

Following Newtons 2nd law, the following equation of motion must be satisfied Fx = m ax Fy = m ay MG = IG Derived Kinetic Variables

Center of pressure (COP) the point where the resultant of all ground reaction forces act

Fz-total = Foo + Fxo +Fxy + Foy If all forces are equal, then COP = (x/2, y/2) unit mm

Mechanical energy a measure of the state of a body at an instant in time as to its ability to do work unit joules the segment energy at every instant is composed of potential (translational) and kinetic (rotational) energy M.E. = P.E. + K.E. potential energy (P.E.) the potential of doing work due to the position or configuration of a rigid body P.E. = mgh for a rigid body which is elevated to a height of h P.E. = k x2 for a spring which is stretched x length beyond its neutral position kinetic energy (K.E.) the work required to stop a moving body at velocity v or to move a body from rest to the velocity v K.E. = mv2-- product of the force along the direction of displacement and the displacement of a rigid body in motion e.g. a body which has 200 J potential energy and 300 J kinetic energy is capable of doing 500 J of work on another body

 Law of conservation of energy the total energy of a body at position 1 is equal to that of position 2 energy balance the sum of all the flows of energy into and out of the segment equals the energy change of that segment power balance the sum of all the rate of flow of energy into and out of the segment equals the rate of change of energy of that segment the only source of mechanical energy generation in the human body is muscles energy absorption by muscle energy dissipation into heat as a result of joint friction and viscoelasity of connective tissues Work a measure of energy flow from one body to another (Winter, 1990) product of the force along the direction of displacement and the displacement of a rigid body in motion W=Fd unit joules e.g. muscle A can do work on segment B if energy flows from the muscle to the segment Power the work done per unit of time P = W / t = Fd / t unit joules / s Momentum product of the mass and its velocity of a rigid body in motion L = mv unit kgm / sec Impulsive force (Impulse) a large force applied to a rigid body through a small period of time (impact) the product of impulse force and the time period impulse = F t unit Ns

Moment of inertia physical property of matter, which resists any change in the state of motion (e.g. rotation or translation) depends on magnitude of the mass and its geometrical distribution

 I = M / I = I0 + mr2 developed by Miller & Nelson, 1976 Please check Chaffin's book for details

For a multisegment in 3D expression

Ratios of Location of COM to Segment Length Different values have been reported form different studies due to variations in the definition of segment length and different measurement techniques. Please check Chaffin's book for details segment % from proximal end upper arm 43.6% forearm 43.0%% hand 49.4% thigh 43.3%% shank 43.3% foot 42.9%% Measurement of Moment of Inertia Definition of moment of inertia physical quantity that an object resists to change or to action in response to angular velocity or

where mi = mass of the ith segment ri = perpendicular distance that the mass is located from a given axis of rotation of the ith segment Calculaiton of moment of inertia moment of inertia acting around the axis of a joint

moment of inertia acting around the COM

Radius of gyration definition: the radial distance from the axis of rotation at which the mass of the segment can be concentrated without altering the moment of inertia of the segment

 I = m 2 moment of inertial around a joint axis

where I0 = moment of inertia about COM x = distance between COM and center of rotation m = mass of segment

Physiological Cross-Sectional Area Physiological cross-sectional area of a paralleled muscle

where m = mass of muscle fibers (g) d = density of muscle (g/cm3) = ~1.056g/cm3 l = length of muscle fibers (cm) Physiological cross-sectional area of a pwnnate muscle definition of pennation angle: the angle between the long axis of the muscle and the fiber angle of a pennate muscle

where m = mass of muscle fibers (g) d = density of muscle (g/cm3) = ~1.056g/cm3 l = length of muscle fibers (cm) = pennation angle

Clinical Biomechanics
Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to identify the center of mass, center of gravity, and center of pressure of human body and distinguish their differences

 identify different types of locomotion and a typical gait cycle understand ground reaction forces and how it works on the body during different types of stance and level walking describe methods to measure limit of stability, gait pattern, and the factors that affect them explain the changes in center of mass and center of pressure at quiet stance, different perturbed tasks, and level walking Stance and Stability Stability and Balance Quiet Stance Externally-Perturbed Stance Self-Perturbed Stance Level Walking Review of Locomotion and Gait Kinematics of Level Walking Kinetics of Level Walking Sit to Stand Wheelchair Propelling

Stance and Stability

Posture and Balance Quiet Stance Externally-Perturbed Stance Self-Perturbed Stance

1. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K. 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 14, pp. 371-394 and Chapter 15, pp. 399-411 2. Chaffin & Andersson, 1999 Chapter 17 3. Hall, 2003Chapter 13 Posture and Balance

Terminology posture a term to describe the orientation of any body segment relative to the gravitational vector balance a term to describe the dynamics of body posture to prevent falling center of mass (COM) the point where the entire mass of the body is concentrated center of gravity (COG) the vertical projection of the center of mass to the ground center of pressure (COP) the point where the resultant of all ground reaction forces act centroid the point that defines the geometric center of a body base of support (BOS) the area underneath and between both feet Location of center of pressure (COP) COP parameters absolute position of the COP in the AP and ML directions excursion of the COP (COPE) safety margin measurement of the position of the COP single-force-platform method

two-force-platform method measurement the COP with one foot standing on one force plate and the other foot on the second force plate

Location of center of mass at erect posture methods to estimate the COM at quiet stance segment zone approach weighed average of every segment of the entire body kinetic method double integration of shear forces from the force platform clinical method measurement of the PSIS (posterior superior iliac spine) level in the sagittal plane COM parameters absolute position of the COM in the AP and ML positions excursion of the COM linear acceleration of the COM equals to the difference between the COP and COM COP - dCOM = ka where k = constant a = linear acceleration of the COM since get so and

Classification of equilibrium stable equilibrium occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would raise its COM tend to fall back its original position, e.g. BOS or COM unstable equilibrium occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would lower its COM tend to fall into a more stable position neutral equilibrium occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would not change the level of its COM tend to fall into a more stable position

Major sensory systems involved in posture and balance sensory input visual vestibular system proprioception other somatosensory system Factors affecting stability size and shape of base of support (BOS) wide-base stance tandem stance: standing with one foot ahead the other

 stance with crutches

height of COM relationship of COG to BOS Pai et al., 1997 effects of velocity and position of COM on base of support mass of body friction segmental alignment psychological or mental status muscle activities postural muscle the muscle that acts to prevent collapse of the skeleton slow twitch fatigue resistant phasic muscle fast muscle physiological and pathological factors Tasks used to study the stability of erect posture quiet stance stand still with both feet apart naturally necessary to maintain static stability perturbed stabce

 self-perturbed stance necessary to maintain dynamic stability externally-perturbed stance necessary to regain dynamic stability Quiet Stance Postural sway the body sways back and forth like an inverted pendulum, pivoting about the ankle, at quiet stance AP sway (anteroposterior sway) sway in the sagittal plane ~ 5-7 mm at quiet stance in young adults ML sway (mediolateral sway) sway in the frontal plane ~ 3-4 mm at quiet stance in young adults inverted pendulum model the trunk sways around the ankle joint like an inverted pendulum (GRF) (dCOP) = (BW) (dCOG) + I assumptions 1. 2. BW = GRF body sway around ankle only

3. ankle acts as a hinge joint postural sway at quiet stance In the case if the COP ahead the COG (see the sketch below), a counter-clockwise moment (I) is present at the ankle joint, resulting in backward rotation of the trunk and the balance is regained. In the case if the COP behind the COG, a clockwise moment is present at the ankle joint, resulting in forward rotation of the trunk and the balance may be lost and possibly fall forward.

 postural sway strategy strategy the timing and amplitude of the coordinated motor patterns at many joints in order to adjust (reactive or proactive) posture and balance ankle strategy vs. hip strategy no matter what kind of the strategy is used, the dynamic range of the COP must be somewhat greater than that of the COG for preventing falling CNS regulates COG by controlling the net ankle moment the difference between the COP and COM is proportional to the horizontal linear acceleration of the COM dCOP - dCOM = ka where k = constant and a = linear acceleration of the COM factors affecting postural sway strategy age highly correlated to falls in the elderly fatigue injury bracing obesity stability of the external environment Externally-Perturbed Stance

Definition externally-perturbed stance a stance posture that an individual is subject to a perturbation from the external environment, such as a moving force plate stability during externally-perturbed stance one kind of dynamic balance the ability that the body regains balance at the moment of giving any externally-perturbed situation Methods of external perturbation changes in direction of perturbation by standing on a moving platform horizontal translation sagittal plane translation changes in surrounding environment Horizontal translation on a moving platform Nashner (1977) first researcher to study the effect of a moving platform COM sways backwards when the platform moves backwards NOTE Actually, what he did is to measure the COP rather than the COM. bottom-up sequence of activities of the participating muscles Platform tilting up and down Nashner 1982 tilting-upward both gastrocnemius and hamstring muscles are strectched backward sway of the COM titling downward stretched muscles? COM motion ? Self-Perturbed Stance Definition self-perturbed stance a stance posture that an individual is subject to a perturbation from his/her changing posture

 stability during self-perturbed stance one kind of dynamic balance the ability that the body maintains balance during a functional task Methods of self perturbation stance with external support using crutches using canes change in base of support wide-base stance tandem stance one-leg stance moving one of body parts fast arm raise reach leaning closing eyes Relationship of COG and COP during forward reach movement

CNS regulates COG by controlling the net ankle moment that is expressed by COP (Fung and Winter, 1996)

Biomechanics of Level Walking

Review of Locomotion and Gait Kinematics of Level Walking Kinetics of Level Walking

1. Simoneau G.G., 2002. Kinesiology of Walkign. In: Neumann, D.A. (ed). Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System: Foundations for Physical Rehabilitation. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby. pp. 523-569. 2. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K., 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Madison, WI, Brown & Benchmark. Chapter 19, pp. 467-494. Review of Locomotion and Gait Locomotion the act or power of moving from place to place by means of ones own mechanisms or power the result of the action of the body levers propelling the body Please review more details in Kinesiology web page Typical gait cycle the duration that occurs from the time when the heel of one leg strikes the ground to the time at which the same leg contacts the ground again 2 phases stance phase (62%) initial contact, midstance, and propulsive periods swing phase (38%) acceleration, midswing, and deceleration periods Please review more details in Kinesiology web page Gait parameters during level walking time variables stance time, single support time, double support time, swing time, stride or step time, etc. distance variables stride length, step length, wide of base, degree of toe-out, etc. velocity variables cadence, walking speed, walking velocity, etc. kinematic variables center of mass linear or angular change of displacement and/or velocity, etc each joint angle change, linear displacement of joint center, etc each body segment linear or angular displacement and/or velocity, linear or angular acceleration, etc. kinetic variables ground reaction forces displacement, anteroposterior and/or mediolateral excursion, etc. COP anteroposterior and/or mediolateral excursion, path, displacement and velocity, etc.

 impulse muscle activity Recording the gait cycle pneumatic switch (Marey, 1873) 1st person to record the duration of sole contact electric switch (Scherb, 1927) using 3 separate switches interrupted-light photography (Murray et al., 1964) pressure transducer (Andriachi et al., 1977) motion analysis system Kinematics of Level Walking Displacement of body COM Walking is a translatory motion of the body that is accomplished by the alternating rotary motions of both lower extremities COM moves forward COM beyond anterior edge of BOS the other foot moves forward to BOS Vertical displacement of body COM path 2 sinosoid curves during 1 gait cycle amplitude ~5 cm at the average walking speed highest point: immediately after COM passes over the WB leg (30% and 80% of gait cycle) lowest point: at the termination of the swing phase of the other leg (5% and 55% of gait cycle)

Lateral displacement of body COM path a sinosoid curve amplitude ~4 cm at the average walking speed to keep the COM over the weight-bearing foot Transverse rotation of lower extremity Eberhart et al, 1947 pelvis rotation < femur rotation < tibia rotation internal rotation of the pelvis, femur, and tibia as well as foot pronation in the initial contact period of stance phase external rotation of the pelvis, femur, and tibia as well as foot supination in the propulsive period of stance phase various largely between individuals

Kinetics of Level Walking Forces that control walking gravity (body weight) air resistance internal muscle forces ground reaction forces normal component vertical forces shear component anterior-posterior and medial-lateral friction forces

Ground reaction forces definition the forces applied to the body by the ground, as opposed to those applied to the ground, when an individual takes a step

in Cartesian ayatem Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz vertical component

o

o o o

double peaks 1st peak at heel strike the action of body momentum 2nd peak at pushoff contraction of calf muscle amplitude 100-120% BW peak value = 120% BW lower than BW during midstance as a result of balancing the upward momentum of the COM

anterior-posterior component (fore-and-aft shear) o the magnitude and direction of the anterior-posterior shear force depends on the position of the COM relative to the location of the foot in the posterior direction at heel strike for slowing the forward progression of the body in the anterior direction at toe off for propelling the body forward

the larger the step length, the greater the shear forces because of the greater angle of between the lower extremity and the floor

o o

peak value = 20% BW sufficient friction force between foot and ground is necessary for preventing slipping down the propulsive force of one limb is applied simultaneously to the braking force of the other limb when the weight is transferred from one limb to the other the magnitude of the medial-lateral shear force depends on the position of the COM relative to the foot in the lateral direction at heel strike in the medial direction at the rest of stance phase

medial-lateral component
o

the larger the step width, the greater the shear forces because of the greater angle of between the lower extremity and the floor

o o

peak value = ~5% BW wide variety depending on different foot types

Trajectory of center of pressure At heel strike, the COP is located lateral to the midpoint of the heel At midstance, the COP moves more laterally From heel off to toe off, the COP moves medially from the metatarsal heads to the big toe

Joint moment At heel strike, the line of action of the ground reaction forces passes posterior to the ankle joint, posterior to the knee joint, and anterior to the hip joint, leading to promote ankle plantarflexion, knee flexion, and hip flexion. To prevent collapse of the lower extremity, these external moments are counterbalanced by internal joint reaction moments that are created by ankle dorsiflexors, the knee extensors, and the hip extensors. net moment the summation of the external and internal moments do NOT indicate the direction of motion e.g. cocontraction of agonists and antagonists e.g. quadriceps avoidance Joint power definition the rate of work performed by controlling muscles

 the product of the net joint moment and the joint angular velocity significance indicating the net rate of generating or absorbing energy by all muscles and other connective tissues crossing the joint positive value indicates power generation, reflecting a concentric contraction negative value indicates power absorption, reflecting an eccentric contraction

Sports Biomechanics
Running Characteristics of Running Cycle Biomechanical Analysis of Running Special Considerations in Sprinting Special Considerations in Jogging Throwing, Striking, and Kicking Sequential Movements of the Body Segments Biomechanics of Throwing Biomechanics of Striking Swimming

Biomechanics of Running
Characteristics of Running Cycle Biomechanical Analysis of Running Special Considerations in Sprinting Special Considerations in Jogging

1. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K. 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 19, pp. 480-484. 2. Adelaar, R.S. 1986. The practical biomechanics of running. American Journal of Sports Medicine 14:497-500. 3. Cavanagh P.R. 1987. The biomechanics of the lower extremity action in distance running. Foot and Ankle 7:197-217.

Characteristics of Running Cycle Running cycle contact phase (support phase; drive phase) one foot is in contact with the ground, i.e., from foot strike to toe-off foot strike midsupport take off

swing phase the lower extremity is swinging through the air, i.e., from toeoff to foot strike follow through forward swing foot descent

Characteristics of running stride length and frequency tend to increase with increased running speed stride length depends on leg length, range of motion of hip, and strength of leg extensors stride frequency depends on speed of muscle contraction and the skill of running for speeds over 7 m/s, a increment in stride length is small but the stride frequency is significantly greater Both feet tend to fall on the same line along the path of progression. With increasing running speed, duration of contact period decreases but that of swing phase increases. As the foot strikes on the ground, the foot is in front of the COM of the body but the distance from foot contact to the COG is shorter in running as compared to walking. This distance becomes shorter with the increase of the speed.

 In barefoot running, the degree and duration of maximum foot pronation are increased as compared to that in running with shoes and/or foot orthoses. Comparisons of running with walking to distinguish walking from running a double swing phase during running while a double support phase during walking the body is totally airborne for a period of time during running whereas at least one part of the body (usually indicating foot) contact the ground for the whole gait cycle during walking comparisons of kinematic and kinetic parameters of running with those of walking running walking entire cycle swing phase longer stance phase longer duration of stance phase shorter longer double support period absent present duration of swing phase longer shorter floating period present absent stride length longer shorter stride freqency higher lower position of body COM lower higher vertical oscillation of body less more COM linear and angular velocity faster slower of lower extremity required ROM greater less muscle activities greater less leg drive during swing muscular momentum (pendulum)

phase foot progression line ground reaction force

1 line along midline of body 2.5~3 times body weight

2 parallel lines ~90% of body weight

Biomechanical Analysis of Running Foot strike patterns of foot strike heel strike better for long-distance running because the heel pad has a better ability to absorb high impact force midfoot strike or whole-foot strike forefoot strike only can be used in sprinting metatarsalgia or stress fracture of the central metatarsal bones commonly occurs in the jogger with forefoot strike because of repetitive large loads onto the central metatarsal heads

At the moment of foot strike, the foot is slight supinated with the tibia in some external rotation. The most important event during foot strike is to absorb the initial impact of the foot striking the ground through rapid extension of the hip flexion of the knee internal rotation of the tibia pronation of the subtalar joint shoes and/or orthoses initial impact (impulse) impulse = F t initial ground reaction force = 2.5~3 times body weight, depending on the running speed

 heel pad has better ability to absorb initial impact than other adipose tissues in human body improvement in materials of shoes (e.g. air-cushioned shoes) or ground surface (e.g. PU or wooden surface) may decrease the initial impact effect of lateral flare common used in jogging shoes because the heel flare increases base of support of the heel, resulting in decreased impact force per unit area at the moment of initial contact Heel flare shifts the initial contact point laterally, which increases length of the moment arm (lever arm) and then increase amount of ankle moment. This increase in ankle moment facilitates rapid pronation of the subtalar joint at the moment of landing, decrease the possibility of lateral ankle sprain

Takeoff the greater the power of the leg drive, the greater the acceleration of the runner (F = ma) to make the foot act as a rigid lever to propel the body forward through supination of the subtalar joint locking of the midtarsal joint dorsiflexion (extension) of the MP joint of the big toe impulse = F t = m a t = m v = momentum since running is a forward motion of the entire body, the horizontal component of the momentum is much more important than the vertical component momentum a product of mass and velocity momentum = mv

 impulse-momentum relationship any changes in momentum equals to the impulse that produced it concentric contraction of the gastrocnemius muscle the moment arm of the Achilles tendon increases during takeoff

moment of inertia is greatest at take-off during the entire running cycle the larger distance the body will move during swing phase depends on less angle of takeoff higher speed of body projection at takeoff less difference in the height of COM at the moment of takeoff and landing Swing phase reduce the moment of inertia by lifting the knee and the hip close to the body

 increase ROM of the lower extremity to bring the mass of the swing leg close to the hip and increase the angular velocity of the swinging leg moment of inertia definition the property of an object that causes it to remain in its state of either rest or motion (Hamilton & Luttgens, 2002) I = I0 + Ar2 where I0 = I about centroid axis A = area r = distance moment of intertia about centroid axis at different fixed-shape objects circular area: I0 = (1/4) r2 rectangular areaI0 = (1/12) b h3 traingular area I0 = (1/36) bh3 example determine moment of inertia around centroid axis of a Tshaped beam I = I0 + Ar2 = [(1/12)(2)(10)3(2)(10)(8.55-5)2] + [(1/12)(8)(3)3(8)(3)(4.45-1.5)2] =645.6

According to Newton's first law of motion, force is needed to change the velocity (amplitude and direction) of an object. moment of inertia is greatest at take-off and least after acceleration has ceased clearance of the foot from the ground is completed by ankle dorsiflexion knee flexion hip flexion distance of a body moving in the air depends on the angle of take-off i.e. ths distance of the body COG ahead of takeoff point the speed of the body projection at take-off the height of the COM at take-off and landing muscle activities of the lower extremity during swing phase joint motion hip knee flexion force for movement muscle muscle used iliopsoas + rectus femoris (concentric) first 2/3 --

first 2/3 flexion first 2/3

last 1/3 extension ankle dorsiflexion

momentum last 1/3 muscle muscle

last 1/3 hamstrings (eccentric) tibialis anterior + toe extensors (concentric)

Special Considerations in Sprinting Definition running distance < 400 m stance phase of sprinting is only 22% of the running cycle Efficiency of running -- to get maximum horizontal velocity without falling increase in stride length speed = stirde length stride frequency stride length is dependent on leg length, angle of hip raising, and strength of the leg extensors stride frequency is dependent on speed of muscle contraction and the skill of runner During the acceleration phase of the race, the trunk is more erect so that the length of the stride increase dependent on the angle that the hip joint raises decrease in vertical displacement of the COM Given the same ground reaction force, the smaller the vertical component of the leg drive, the the greater the horizontal component of running velocity foot strike close to center of gravity better to use midfoot or forefoot strike in order to have line of gravity passing through the ankle joint If the foot strikes ahead the line of gravity, the ground reaction force creates a upward and backward moment that will retard forward motion. Therefore, as the running speed increases, the distance between the contact point of foot strike and the center of gravity decreases in order to reduce the stance and facilitate propulsion.

 If the foot strikes behind the line of gravity, the ground reaction force create a upward and forward moment that will make the body fall forward decease in lateral movements motions occurring in the entire lower extremity should be in the sagittal plane the arm movement is used to counterbalance rotation of the pelvis only shortening of swing leg the shortening of swing leg shortens the moment arm to decreases moment of inertia and increase forward velocity the higher the knee lifts, the greater the velocity is created. decrease internal resistance from the viscosity of the soft tissues warm-up and stretching exercises can reduce the viscosity of the soft tissues of the participating limbs Sprint start crouching start () the greater the power of the leg drive, the greater the acceleration of the runner (F = ma) assistance of starting block () make it possible that trunk inclines forward without overstretching the Achilles tendon provides a tilting surface against which the foot pushes horizontally while using total hip, knee, and ankle extension the horizontal push-off force (impulse) results in an increased horizontal velocity (momentum)

Biomechanics of Jogging Definition running > 1500 m classification of long-distance runners (Brody, 1980) jogger run 3-20 miles per week at a rate of 9-12 minutes per mile sports runner run 20-40 miles per week and participate in "fun runs" or races of 3-6 miles long-distance runner run 40-70 miles a week at a pace of 7-8 minutes per mile and may compete in 10,000 m races or marathons elite marathoner run 70-200 miles a week with a pace of 5-7 minutes per mile Characteristics of jogging stance phase decreases to 31% should prevent repetitive impact stresses heel strike or midfoot strike medial and lateral flares better material for heel pad

Throwing and Striking

Sequential Movements of Body Segments Biomechanics of Throwing Biomechanics of Striking

1. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K. 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Chapter 18, pp. 450-466. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to identify the sequential movement and give examples classify sports activities involving sequential movements according to the nature of force application identify the mechanical factors that affecting to throwing, striking, or kicking Sequential Movements of Body Segments Definition of sequential movement the movement that involves a sequential action of a chain of body segments, leading to a high-velocity motion of external objects (Hamilton & Luttgens, 2002, p.451) results in the production of a summated velocity at the end of the chain of segment used the path of the external object motion is curvilinear in nature examples a pitcher throws a baseball a young adult spikes a volleyball a batter hits a baseball an elderly drives a golf ball a tennis player serves a tennis Modification of sequential movement objectives of sequential movements skill speed accuracy distance components that are used to modify movement according to different objectives numbers of body segment used range of motion (ROM) used lever length used Classification by nature of force application momentary contact force imparted to an object through temporally contact with that object by a moving part of the body segment or by implement held or attached on the body segment

 the object may be either stationary or moving examples on moving object baseball striking, soccer heading or kicking, volleyball set, or tennis driving on stationary object golf projection force imparted to an object through the end of a chain of body segments in order to develop kinetic energy, followed by a high-velocity motion of that object the object may be held in one hand or hands examples for distance shot put, javelin, or volleyball serving for accuracy baseball pitching or dart throw continuous application force imparted to an object with the force continuously applying to that object examples against large resistance pushing a desk or lifting weight maintain a position while waiting for a release archery Biomechanics of Baseball Throwing Patterns of throwing overarm (overhead) sidearm underarm

Kinematics of Overarm Throwing

 windup (cocking) phase shoulder horizontal abduction and fully external rotation (closedpacked position) trunk left rotation prone to have shoulder impingement syndrome acceleration phase shoulder internal rotation deceleration phase checked by shoulder external rotators follow-through phase trunk rotation

Kinematics of sidearm throwing preparation phase shoulder horizontal abduction only trunk right rotation acceleration phase shoulder horizontal adduction deceleration phase checked by deltoid posterior

 follow-through phase opposite hip internal rotation Kinematics of underarm throwing preparation phase shoulder extension elbow extension acceleration phase shoulder flexion (arm flexion) deceleration phase checked by shoulder extensors follow-through phase trunk rotation Mechanical Factors of Throwing ballistic movement of one segment imparting force must overcome the inertial of an object mass of object internal resistance friction between object and supporting surface resistance to surrounding medium force needed dependent on speed of object distance of throwing accuracy of target related to direction of the object after its release direction of the object after release dependent on direction of the object at the moment of release path tangential to the arc of motion gravity air or water resistance spin of the object timing pattern of movement part The slowest or heaviest part must start to move first, and the quickest and lightestone last

 to facilitate use of stretch reflex Biomechanics of Striking Forehand drive in tennis action the player takes the racket to hit the ball and send it into the opponent's court type of movement ballistic movement participating lever racket, racket-side arm, and trunk location fulcrum the hip joint at non-racket side skill requirement high speed and moderate accuracy motion description back swing phase the player pivots his body to have the non-racket side face forward the racket is taken back at the shoulder level the body weight is over the foot of the racket side the head of the racket is kept above the wrist forward swing phase the player lowers down his body by flexing the knee to have the racket below the intended contact point the trunk rotates forward to shift the weight to the foot of the non-racket side the racket is perpendicular to the ground at the moment of impact follow-through phase the body continues forward the racket arm swings across the body and up toward the chin the effect of body spinning mechanical factors contributing the impact to the ball the greater impart force will impart more momentum to the ball, leading to speed up the ball on its return flight increase the lever-arm length by using a long-arm racket, keeping the arm straight firmness of grip depends on muscle strength of wrist and finger flexors

 the angle of the racket face at ball hitting because the angle of rebound is highly correlated to the angle of incidence actually, the ball is not a rigid body so that the angle of rebound is slightly less than the angle of incidence

Occupational Biomechanics
Occupational Biomechanics the study of the physical interaction of workers with their tools, machines, and materials so as to enhance the workers performance while minimizing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders (Chaffin, 1994) applications to improve working performance and efficiency to prevent occupational injuries to make industrial robots for high-risk or high-structured or repetitive works Pushing and Pulling Push-and-Pull Motions Force Impart Biomechanics of Pushing a Cart Load Lifting NIOSH Manual Materials Handling Limits Multi-Segment Biomechanical Model Biomechanics of Symmetrical Load Lifting Seated Work Sitting Posture Anthropometric Dimensions of Seated Workers Seated Work Place and Layout Video Display Terminal Users Application of Biostatistics Hazard Levels Normal Distribution Inferences from Sampling Distribution Design of Hand Tools

Vibration Environment

Pushing and Pulling

Push-and-Pull Motions Force Imparting Biomechanics of Pushing a Cart

1. Hamilton, N., & Luttgens, K. 2002. Kinesiology, Scientific Basis of Human Motion, 10thed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 17, pp. 435-449. 2. Chaffin, D.B, & Andersson G.B.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 2nd ed. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. define push and pull patterns of motion 2. identify the the activities that involves push and pull patterns and give examples 3. analyze mechanical factors that affecting to push-and-pull activities Push-and-Pull Motions Definition broad definition a segment motion that involves moving an object, either directly by part of the body or by means of implement, in pushing and pulling pattern (Hamilton & Luttgens 2002, p.436) a pitcher throws a baseball a tennis player serves a tennis a worker lifts a box from the floor onto an overhead rack an archer shoots an arrow from a bow limited definition a segmental motion that all forces are continuously applied onto an external object (continuous application pattern of sequential movement) an individual pushes a desk across the room a traveler pulls his suitcase Joint action patterns simultaneous and opposite movement pattern in the upper extremity flexion in elbow with extension in shoulder

 extension in elbow with flexion in shoulder

simultaneous movement pattern in the lower extremity simultaneous extension in the hip, knee, and ankle joints simultaneous flexion in the hip, knee, and ankle joints

at the distal end of the movement chain, a rectilinear path of motion is present. All forces produced by segmental motion are applied directly to the object and applied in the direction of motion. (Hamilton & Luttgens 2002, p.436) results maximum forces and/or maximum accuracy but no tangential forces

 trade-off in velocity and accuracy

Force Imparting Mechanical factors to be considered source of force by hand by foot by head by trunk by implement force magnitude of force direction of force point of force application stability of the body at the moment of giving motion the interaction between the body and the surface that supports it characteristics of the moving object Magnitude of force The force to move an object must be greater enough to overcome the resultant of the following forces internal resistance (moment of inertia) friction between the object and the supporting surface resistance of the surrounding medium, such as air or water For maximum force production, the maximum number of segments should be used through the largest safe range of motion. For maximum force accuracy, the minimum number of segments should be used through the smallest possible range of motion.

Direction of force The direction the object moves is determined by the direction of the resultant of all forces imparting on it For maximum force production, the segments involved should be aligned with the intended direction. If the object is subject to move along a preset path (e.g. a sliding door), any component of force not in this direction will be wasted and may act to increase resistance. If that force is greater enough, then some destructions will occur. Point of force application Force applied in line with the COM of an object will result in linear motion of that object, provided the object is freely movable; otherwise, it will result in rotary motion. Biomechanics of Pushing a Cart Economy of effort use lower extremities ( friction) force applied in line with the objects COM and in desired direction

Load Lifting
NIOSH Manual Materials Handling Limits Multi-Segment Biomechanical Model Biomechanics of Symmetrical Load Lifting

1. Chaffin, D.B, & Andersson G.B.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 2nd ed. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. understand the NIOSH standards 2. identify the the activities that involves lifting patterns 3. analyze mechanical factors that affecting to lifting activities NIOSH Manual Materials Handling Limits About NIOSH full name National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health reported statistics of overexertion injuries ~ 1/4 of all reported occupational injuries is overexertion injuries < 1/3 of the patients with low back pain returned to their previous work ~ 2/3 of overexertion injury claims involves lifting loads and ~ 1/5 involves pushing or pulling loads Manual material handling (MMH) types of manual materials handling lifting to move a load from a lower place to a higher place press down to press a load in a downward direction pushing/ pulling to move a material with continuous force application carrying to move a material horizontally from one place to another holding to hold a material without any motion characteristics of major components affecting manual materials handling system (Herrin et al., 1974) worker physical measures, sensory processing capacities, motor capacities, psychomotor (interface for mental and motor processing), personality, training/ experience, health status, and leisure time activities material/ container characteristics load weight, pushing/pulling force requirements, and mass moment of inertia dimensions size of unit workload, e.g. height, width, breadth, and form distribution of load location of COM of the unit workload respect to the worker couplings simple devices used to aid in grasping and manually manipulating the unit load, e.g. texture, handle size, shape, and location stability of load consistency of COM location, especially for handling liquids or bulk material

 task/ workplace workplace geometry, time dimension of the task (frequency, duration, and pace), complexity of the load, and environmental factors work practices operating practices under the control of the individual worker, work organization, and administration of operating practices 1981 NIOSH Lifting Guide for evaluation and control of symmetric, sagittal plane lifting includes both biomechanical spinal compression force limits and psychological limits in order to predict incidence and severity of overexertion injuries factors would lead to a hazardous lift weight of object lift (L) location of object COM horizontally from the ankle (H) location of object's COM at the beginning of lift (V) vertical traveling distance of hands from origin to destination of object (D) frequency of lifting duration of the period which lifting takes place Lifting hazard levels Action Limit (AL) epidemiological data indicates that some workers would be at increased risk of injury on jobs exceeding the AL biomechanical studies indicates that L5/S1 disc compression forces can be tolerated by most people, but not all, at about 3400 N level, which would be created by conditions at AL physiological studies indicates that the average metabolic energy requirement would be 3.5 kcal/min for jobs performed at the AL Psychological studies indicates that > 75% of women and 99% of men could lift the load at the AL Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL) = 3AL epidemiological data indicates that musculoskeletal injury rates and severity reates are significantly higher for most workers placed on jobs exceeding the MPL biomechanical studies indicates that L5/S1 disc compression forces cannot be tolerated over the 6400 N level in most people, which would be created by conditions at AL physiological studies indicates that the average metabolic energy requirement would exceed 5.0 kcal/min for most workers frequently lifting loads at the MPL Psychological studies indicates that only <1% of women and ~25% of men could lift the load above the MPL categories of lifting hazard level above MPL unacceptable between AL and MPL unacceptable without administrative or engineering controls below AL appropriate for most workers

Multi-Segment Biomechanical Model Biomechanical Model definition model is a representation of a system, based on some simplifications and assumptions, to make it easily understand (Chaffin & Andersson, 1999) purposes of biomechanical modeling to understand easily about a complex system e.g. beam model of the plantar fascia to explore each component of a complex system and their interactions to simulate some conditions that are rare, dangerous (e.g. ultimate strength of biological tissues), hard to be measured (e.g. intradiscal pressure), or time- and/or cost-consuming tasks (e.g. zero-g conditions) to predict some outcomes or potential hazards without real practice, e.g. prediction of maximum allowable load Single body segment static model The force to move an object must be greater enough to overcome the resultant of the following forces internal resistance (moment of inertia) friction between the object and the supporting surface resistance of the surrounding medium, such as air or water Example An anthropometrically averaged-sized worker holds a even-distributed load in both hands, with forearm in the horizontal position, at waist height in front of his body. Question What rotation moments and forces are acting on his elbow? Model used static model since the task is only holding Answer Single segment dynamic model As a body segment is rotated about a joint center, inertial forces act at the COM of the segment o tangential force force tangent to the arc of motion

contrifugal force force along the radius of the arc of motion to pull away from the center of rotation

centripetal force the reaction force of centrifugal force to hold the structures together

moment at the joint is equal to the sum of the moment from the weight of the segment (the static gravity effect), the instantaneous acceleration effect due to the tangential force, and the rotation acceleration effect due to the mass distribution

Biomechanics of Load Lifting Joint reaction forces and moments -- Static model load lifting can be simplified and regarded as a 5-link static model if the velocity is minimum.

 For each joint, the resultant force and moment should be equal to zero. force component weight of each limb, load, and reaction force of the adjacent joint

moment component the moment produced by the weight of each segment, the moment produced by the load, and the moment produced by the reaction force of adjacent joint

 what would happen about the reaction forces and moments if the posture is changed? when the lifting is completed with both knees keeping straight when the lifting is completed with both elbows keeping straight Reaction forces are only affected by the load. for each joint, reaction force Rloaded = Rload=0 + load Reaction moments are largely affected by both the load and lifting postures, e.g. arm reaching out trunk leaning forward knee bending for each joint, reaction moment Mloaded = Mload=0 + (load)(disanceload-to-joint) exercise please try to set up a 3D model for lifting Dynamic lifting strength highly correlated to the posture as the lifting task is performed major errors in earlier lifting research using static strength to measure the capacity for a dynamic task basic assumption to move a maximum load in a very slow speed can be regarded as a static task may be under-predicted by as much as 54% because the effect of acceleration is not considered using vertical lift type of test instead of actual lift pathway in reality, when a load is lifted, the path of motion is a combination of vertical lift and toward body pulling

Multi-segment dynamic model of load lifting highly correlated to the acceleration of lifting first peak at first 200-400 ms 2nd peak for accuracy

larger moment are present at th hip joint as compared to the moments at upper extemity

Low back biomechanical model use the load moment at lumbosacral disc (L5/S1) as the basis for settig limits for lifting and carrying loads since 85-95% of disc herniation occurs at the L5/S1 and L4/L5 levels Morris, Lucas, and Bressler (1961) using static sagittal-plane model extensor errector spinae exerting force at 5 cm posterior to the center of L5/S1 IVD (intervertebral disc) abdominal pressure in front of the L5/S1 IVD resulting on large disc compression force that was confirmed by Machemson and Elfstrom (1970) Chaffin 1975 using add hip-sacral link and lumbar-thoracic link to refine the above model length of the hip-sacral link is approximately 20% of that of the shoulder-hip link pelvic angle from the horizontal is approximately 45 deg. estimation of compression force estimation of force of erector spinae at the L5/S1 level

estimation of abdominal muscle force Fabd = PabdAdiagram where average Adiagram = 465 cm2 estimation of moment at the L5/S1 level

Asymmetrical lifting

 isometric lifting strength decreases 20% for the task requiring left/ right trunk rotation and decreases 26% for the task requiring trunk backward rotation

Seated Work
Sitting Posture Anthropometric Dimensions of Seated Workers Seated Work Place and Layout Video Display Terminal Users

1. Chaffin, D.B, & Andersson G.B.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp.355-392. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. 2. 3. 4. understand the biomechanics of sitting posture identify the anthropometric measurements for the seated workers understand the guideline for seated work place design and layout understand the common problems and solutions for VDT users

Sitting Posture Definition a body position in which the weight of the body is transferred to a supporting area, mainly by the ischial tuberosities of the pelvis and their surrounding tissues (Schoberth, 1962)

 body weight transferring through the ischial tuberosity to the seat and then to the floor the foot directly to the floor the forearm to the armrest and then to the floor the back and pelvis to backrest and then to the floor comparisons of sitting posture with standing posture Sitting posture provides stability required on tasks with high visual and motor control. Sitting posture is less energy consuming than standing posture. Sitting posture places less stresses on lower extremities than standing posture. Sitting posture lowers hydrostatic pressure on lower extremity circulation. The pelvis rotates backward and the lumbar spine flattens when standing to sitting. Advantages of seated work sitting posture provides stability required in the tasks that involve high visual and motor control sitting posture is less energy consumption than standing sitting posture places less stresses on the lower extremities sitting posture lowers the hydrostatic pressure on the lower extremity circulation Although seated work provides some advantages for the workers, it is obvious that the work place should be assessed carefully so as not to introduce musculoskeletal problems. Types of sitting posture

 middle sitting COM of the upper body directly above ischial tuberosity floor support ~25% subtypes relaxed middle sitting with the lumbar spine straight or slight kyphosis supported middle sitting with the lumbar spine straight or slight lordosis forward sitting (forward leaning sitting) COM of the upper body in front of ischial tuberosity floor support >25% subtypes forward rotation of the pelvis with the lumbar spine straight or slight kyphosis little rotation of the pelvis but with large kyphosis of the lumbar spine sitting on a chair with a forward sloping seat with the lumbar spine slight lordosis backward sitting (backward leaning sitting) COM of the upper body behind ischial tuberosity floor support <25% subtypes backward sitting without lumbar support backward rotation of the pelvis and kyphosis of the lumbar spine backward sitting with a lumbar roll support backward rotation of the pelvis and lordosis of the lumbar spine

Standard sitting posture

chin in neck flexion 5-10 keep lumbar lordosis hip 85-100 tibia perpendicular to the floor foot flat on the floor

Sitting on a high chair should have a foot support without foot support, the weight of leg will form a moment at the hip joint to create anterior tilt of the pelvis, and then increase lumbar lordosis that might result in low back pain

Semi-sitting posture good for active worker e.g. grocery check-out person to encourage mobility to allow rapid changes between sitting and standing to preserve lumbar lordosis inclination of the seat starts just in front of the ischial tuberosity to have full support of the trunk and the thigh

Anthropometric Dimensions of Seated Workers Vertical anthropometric measurements All of the anthropometric measurements are based on the position when an individual sits with the popliteal fold 3-5 cm above the seat, with knee flexion of 90, and with the foot flat on the floor. sitting height the vertical distance from the floor to the posterior aspect of the mid-point of the thigh shoulder height the vertical distance from the sitting height to the superior aspect of the acromion elbow height the vertical distance from the sitting height to the tip of the olecranon with the elbow being flexed to 90 and the upper arm being vertical thigh height the vertical distance from the floor to the highest point of the thigh patellar height the vertical distance from the floor to the superior aspect of the patella orbital height the vertical distance from the floor to the orbit

Sagittal anthropometric measurements abdominal depth the sagittal distance from the posterior aspect of the buttocks to the anterior aspect of the abdomen external sitting depth the sagittal distance from the posterior aspect of the buttocks to anterior aspect of the patella internal sitting depth the sagittal distance from the posterior aspect of the buttocks to the posterior aspect of the popliteal fold

Transverse anthropometric measurements shoulder width the transverse distance between the tips of both acromion processes buttocks width the maximum transverse distance at the buttocks external elbow width the transverse distance between the tips of both olecrani when the arms are placed at shoulder abduction of 90

Seated Work Place and Layout Dimensions of the seat seat height = sitting height 3-5 cm below the knee fold when the low leg is vertical; otherwise it will cause compression of the posterior aspect of the thighs 3-5 cm above popliteal level if the chair is tiltable or the seat slope is forward (Bendix, 1987) seat width seat depth (length) 10 cm less than the internal sitting depth in order to facilitate rising from the chair seat slope backward slope of 5 adjustable seat slope better used in the office forward slope of 20 shape of the seat Front part of seat should be contoured so that the edges of the seat should not be detectable during seated work.

friction properties softness pressure should be avoided on the posterior aspect of lower thigh adjustability climatic comfort

Dimension of the backrest Either with backrest or with lumbar support will decrease the pressure under the ischial tuberosity. Backrest should not restrict trunk or arm movements backrest top height = backrest bottom height + backrest height backrest bottom height backrest center height backrest height backrest width

backrest horizontal radius concave from side to side to conform the body contour backrest vertical radius convex from the top to the bottom to conform to the lumbar lordosis backrest-seat angle pivoting and recline possibility softness adjustability adjustable in the vertical and/ or horizontal planes climatic comfort Dimension of the Armrest Armrest can reduce the loading on the spine and facilitate the rising from the chair armrest length armrest width

 armrest height = elbow height shoulders shrug if the armrests are too high trunk slumps or leans to one side if the armrests are too low armrest-to-armrest width distance from armrest front to seat front

Dimension of the chair base number of feet base diameter use of caster or wheel Dimension of the Workbench Not necessarily the same for all types of work factors affecting workbench dimensions size of the workpiece motions required by the task performer overall work layout workbench top height 3-4cm above the elbow level (Bendix, 1987) Key board height = workbench top height if the computer is used workbench bottom height greater than the thigh height in order to ensure sufficient space for the thigh workbench surface size large enough to accommodate work objects but not too far to reach

 friction high enough to prevent sliding of work inclination of workbench surface The influence on lumbar posture from inclined table surfaces was actually greater than the influence of the seat slope. (Bendix, 1987) for reading a slope of 45 for writing: a flat desk field of vision VDT must be placed to prevent forward head or trunk flexion of the user focal distance: 20-40 cm Video Display Terminal Users Definition maintaining the same posture > 2 hours for one specific computer work repeated using the same key(s) or mouse NOTE In most developed countries, approximately of labors is sedentary workers (Reinecke et al. 1992) Cumulative traumatic syndromes in VDT users Hultgren & Knave1st, 1974 1streporter about soft tissue problems among VDT users Muscle fatigue, soreness, stiffness, cramps, numbness, and/or pain were frequently found in VDT users associated with the frequency of key strikes More than half of computer users have reported local pain. (1991 US statistics) location of pain neck and shoulder pain: 67% low back pain: 40% wrist pain: 29% resulting in increase in medical expenditure Increase in work compensation decrease in productivity Possible causes physiological factors Endurance time decreases significantly when the posture required more than 30% of the strength of back muscles (Jorgensen, 1970)

 intradiscal pressure changed during various sitting postures

If the trunk leans forward, the moment loaded on the lumbar disc increased as the sine of . For example, if the trunk leans forward at an angle of 30, then the moment is Wd(sine30), i.e., 0.5 Wd.

 flextion of the neck depends on the visual demand and the height of work surface. environmental or task factors malposture or maintaining the same posture for a long period of time improper workplace repetitive motions

psychological factor work stress time stress social factors

prevention of cumulative traumatic syndromes to decrease the sustained duration muscle cannot sustain contractions over ~15-20% of their maximum strength without fatigue to decrease the frequency to increase muscle strength in the posture where the task requires Biomechanical considerations in VDT workplace design chair chair with armrest

seat slope

 chair base better to have 5foot support radius = 3035cm use of casters or wheels

computer desk to provide sufficient space for the legs i.e. work bench bottom height thigh height If the desk is too low, an individual tends to lean forward and lower and protract the shoulder joints. If the desk is too high, an individual tends to elevate and shrug the shoulder joint which is susceptible to muscle fatigue. keyboard keyboard height (from middle row to floor): 70-85 cm keyboard distance (from middle row to table edge): 10-26 cm in the position to have minimum wrist extension, flexion, and ulnar deviation

 screen screen height (from center of screen to floor): 90-115 cm screen inclination: 88-105 screen distance (screen to table edge): 50-75 cm body posture visual distance (from eyes to center of screen) viewing angle (from eyes to center of screen) < 20 trunk-seat angle most people uses the backward leaning posture that causes in a decrease in lumbar lordosis and is susceptable to herniation of the intervertebral disc. elbow angle ~ 90 shoulder flexion angle as small as possible

Application of Biostatistics
Hazard Levels Normal Distribution Inferences from Sampling Distribution

1. Chaffin, D.B, & Andersson G.B.J., 1999. Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Objectives: After studying this topic, the students will be able to 1. understand the classification of hazard levels 2. identify the normal distribution and its related statistics 3. understand the sampling distribution and its applications Hazard Levels Action Limit (AL) epidemiological data indicates that some workers would be at increased risk of injury on jobs exceeding the AL biomechanical studies indicates that L5/S1 disc compression forces can be tolerated by most people, but not all, at about 3400 N level, which would be created by conditions at AL physiological studies indicates that the average metabolic energy requirement would be 3.5 kcal/min for jobs performed at the AL psychological studies indicates that > 75% of women and 99% of men could lift the load at the AL

Maximum Permissible Limit (MPL) = 3AL epidemiological data indicates that musculoskeletal injury rates and severity rates are significantly higher for most workers placed on jobs exceeding the MPL biomechanical studies indicates that L5/S1 disc compression forces cannot be tolerated over the 6400 N level in most people, which would be created by conditions at AL physiological studies indicates that the average metabolic energy requirement would exceed 5.0 kcal/min for most workers frequently lifting loads at the MPL psychological studies indicates that only <1% of women and ~25% of men could lift the load above the MPL Categories of lifting hazard level above MPL unacceptable between AL and MPL unacceptable without administrative or engineering controls below AL appropriate for most workers Normal Distribution Definition of normal distribution (Gaussian distribution) a distribution followed the curve of

a symmetrical bell-shaped curve with the mean value of and the standard deviation of standardized normal distribution given = 0 and =1

68.3% of population fall within 1 standard deviation from the mean

95.0% of population fall within 1.96 standard deviation from the mean 95.4% of population fall within 2 standard deviations from the mean 99.0% of population fall within 2.58 standard deviation from the mean 99.7% of population fall within 3 standard deviations from the mean

Central tendency of a distribution mean () the average value of all observations in a population

for example a population of 18 observations as follows observation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 value 6.8 5.3 6.1 4.3 5.0 7.1 5.5 3.8 4.6 6.0 7.2 6.4 6.0 5.5 5.8 8.8 mean = (6.8 + 5.3 + 6.1 + ... + 5.9)/ 16 = 94.2 / 16 = 5.89 median (Md) the middle observation in a population in the above example, the values in rank-order are observation 8 4 9 5 2 7 14 15 10 13 3 12 1 6 11 16 value 3.8 4.3 4.6 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.8 6.0 6.0 6.1 6.4 6.8 7.1 7.2 8.8 the middle observation is somewhere between #14 and #15, so median = 0.5 (5.5 + 5.8) = 5.65 mode the value that occurs most frequently in a distribution in the above example, mode = 5.5 and 6.0. Variability of a distribution range = maximum - minimum in the above example, range = 8.8-3.8 = 5 variance ()

 standard deviation ()

Percentiles definition a number that indicates the percentage of a distribution that is equal to or below that number method 1. 2. 3. to rank all observations in an ascending order to divide them into 100 subgroups, and then to assign one subgroup as a percentile

mean = median = 50th percentile for a normal distribution In occupational Biomechanics, we usually report 1st percentile = - 2.326 5th percentile = - 1.645 25th percentile = - 0.67 50th percentile = 75th percentile = + 0.67 95th percentile = + 1.645 99th percentile = + 2.326 Inferences from Sampling Distribution Central limit theorem sampling distribution select many samples from the target population, compute the mean in each sample, and then the distribution of all these means is the sampling distribution the mean of the sampling distribution of means is equal to the population mean the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of means is called as standard error of the mean (SEM)

 If the population distribution is normal, then the sampling distribution is normal, too.