1 Purpouse

The main objective of this presentation is to describe a couple of forces that

light exerts to the matter in the semiclassic regim. The dipole force and de
pressure force. To be consistent and explain this two phenomena rigorously we
rst introduce some mathemathical topics to deduce this force onto a simple case
like the two-level atom and stablish the physical limits in which our treatmen
is a good aproximation of Nature. After that we explain one experimantal
application of each force.
2 Statement of the problem
2.1 The Hamiltonian of a free atom
Before we entry to explain the interaction between matter and light we rst
have to describe matter single. The Hamiltonian of a free atom is described by
the energy of the levels of the atom, that is:
H
0
=

2

z
We know which function fulls the Schrodinger equation for this Hamiltonia
H
0
:
| = c
e
|e + c
g
|g
Now we consider the Hamiltonian due to the electric dipole interaction be-
tween the atom and the electromagnetic eld.
V = E(r, t)
Where with E(r, t) = E
0
(r)cos(t) is the electric eld.
We drop out the term

kr using the electric dipole aproximation, which take
into acount that the lenth of the atom is much smaller than the wavelenth of the
electric eld and we can consider that the atom only feels the time-dependence
of the eld.
Now that is the atomic dielectric dipol is an operator. To know how it
looks like in the basis of the eigen functions of the hamiltonian H
0
all that we
have to do is to calculate the expected value of the operator for the kets |e and
|g, to obtain its matrix coeciets. We know that = er, here e is the charge
of the electron and is the distance between the proton and the eletron.
e| |e =
ee
g| |g =
gg
e| |g =
eg
=

eg
This expectation values are already integrals over all space. As consecuence
being r an odd functio, this ntegrals will be diferent from zero only if |i and
1
|j have diferent parity, in this case this only occurs when i. So in the energy
eigen basis the operator is of the form:
=
_
0
0

0
0
_
Finally, V has the form:
V = E(r, t) =
_
0 (r)cos(t)
(r)cos(t) 0
_
Where we have dened (r)

0
E
0
(r)

, to be real.
Finally the full Hamltonian have the form:
H =
_

0
2
(r)cos(t)
(r)cos(t)

0
2
_
3 Density Matrix
The next step is to describe how the population of the energy levels evolve in
time due to the external eld. This can ve achieven in two diferent ways. We
can calculate the time variation of the probability amplitudes, c
g
, c
e
if we think
that the external eld is a perturbation that force te coecients to change in
time or we can use de density matrix formalism. We will explain and use this
second way.
As we say before, for a two-level system, in particular for a two-level atom,
we can writhe the wave equation as:
|(t) = c
e
|e + c
g
|g
We can now create the corresponding density matrix operator, = | |
with the matrix elements
ij
given by i| |j. Which are dened by the prod-
ucts:

ee
= c
e
c
e
.Probability of being in the excited level

eg
= c
e
c
g
=
ge
.Atomic coherence between the two levels

ee
= c
e
c
e
.Probability of being in the ground level
Once the Hamiltonian is stablished we can know how the elements of the
density matrix evolve in time using the quantum Liovilles equation:

t
=
i

[H, ]
Now, instead to put phenomenologically the spontaneos emision in the prob-
ability amplituds we put it in this equation, resulting:
d
dt
=
i

[H, ] +
_
d
dt
_
se
For a two level atoms this expression
_
d
dt
_
se
can be used to express the
variotion of time of the coecients due to the spontaneus emition.
2
_
d
ee
dt
_
se
=
se

ee
_
d
gg
dt
_
se
=
se

ee
_
d
eg
dt
_
se
=

se
2

ee
Now we can write the general expression for the time evolution of the coe-
cients of the density matrix
d
ee
dt
=
i

e| [H, ] |e
se

ee
d
gg
dt
=
i

g| [H, ] |g +
se

ee
d
eg
dt
=
i

e| [H, ] |g

se
2

eg
After computing the commutator and takeing the expected value:
d
ee
dt
= i(r)cos(t)(
eg

ge
)
se

ee
d
gg
dt
= i(r)cos(t)(
eg

ge
) +
se

ee
d
eg
dt
= i
0

ge
i(r)cos(t)(
ee

gg
)

se
2

eg
We see that
d
ee
dt
=
d
gg
dt
, this this a consecuence of the system being close,
that means
aa
+
bb
= 1. Furthermore near the resonance, we can apply to
this equation the rotating wave aproximation, which is valid when
0
. In
that regime que se from the last equation that que can say that
eg
(t) can be
expressed like
eg
(t) =
eg
exp i
0
t. As consecuences this equatons becomes:
d
ee
dt
=
i(r)
2
(
eg
e
it

ge
e
it
)
se

ee
d
ee
dt
=
i(r)
2
(
eg
e
it

ge
e
it
) +
se

ee
d
eg
dt
= i
0

ge
i
(r)
2
e
it
(
ee

gg
)

se
2

eg
3
3.1 Bloch Vector
Now we can go to an interaction picture by multiplying the las equation by e
it
and using the relation
d
dt
(
eg
e
it
) =
d
dt
(
eg
)e
it
+
eg
(i)e
it
. We obtain:
d
dt
(
eg
e
it
) = [

se
2
+ i(
0
)]
eg
e
it
i

2
(
ee

gg
)
We now dene the real quantities that are the three components of the Bloch
vector:
U =
eg
e
it
+
ge
e
it
= Re
_

eg
e
it
_
V = i
eg
e
it
i
ge
e
it
= Im
_

eg
e
it
_
W =
ee

gg
From the rst and the second equalities we can express
eg
=
1
2
(U iV )e
it
.
4 Return to the statement of the problem
Now we are ready to describe the forces that the light procuse onto the matter,
now the hamiltonian for the matter is:
H
0
=
p
2
2m
+

2

z
Where the rst term, now is the kinetics energy center of mass of the atom.
In the following discussion we will work with products of (r)cos(t) and
eg
and we could use the rotating wave aproximatin. Instead of this we will use the
rotating wave aproximation onto our eld and keep only one of the exponencials.
Furthermor, we wont keep the electric dipole aproximation because now the
atom we feel a change on its momentum due to de eld and it will feel the space
dependence of our eld. All in all, our electromagnetic eld take the form:
V =
1
2
(r)[e
i(t

kr)
|e g| + e
i(t

kr)
|g e|]
Hence our total Hamiltonian take the form:
H =
p
2
2m
+

2

z
+
1
2
(r)[e
i(t

kr)
|e g| + e
i(t

kr)
|g e|]
To develope the force associated to this hamiltonian, all we have to do is use
the Heisenberg equation of motion:

F(t) =
d p
dt
=
i

[H, p]
Obviously, p commutes with H
0
, so we have to compute

F(t) =
i

[
1
2
(r)[e
i(t

kr)
|e g| + e
i(t

kr)
|g e|], p]
Before following our purpose we want to state the limits of this expression
being valid. Our force

F(t) depends on the of our electric eld as it does the
4
phase (r) =

kr. It will therefore be wrong to treat the atom as a classical point
particle if the extend of the center of mass wavepacket is the orde of . Hence, a
necessary condition for the semiclassical description to be a good aproximation
is that the atom wavepakcet be much less than the optical wavelenth .
Now, returning to the the previous expression and taking the mean value of

F(t) for the state vector | = c

e
|e + c
g
|g, dened before, we obtain:
|

F | =
1
2
r[U(r, t)(r, t) + V (r, t)

k]
Where U(r, t) = Re
_

eg
e
it
_
and V (r, t) = Im
_

eg
e
it
_
are two compo-
nents of the Bloch vector and (r, t)
(r)
(r)
.
It can be show that the components of the Bloch vector (U,V ,W), satisfy
the following equations of motion, for upper level to lower level decay,
_
_

W
_
_
=
_
_
-/2 - +

(r) 0


(r) /2 -(r)
0 (r) -
_
_
_
_
U
V
W
_
_
+
_
_
0
0
-
_
_
Where =
0
is the detuning and (r) in our particular case is

kr.The
steady-state solution to this equations is:
_
_
U
st
V
st
W
st
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
2
(r)
_
s
1+s
_

(r)
_
s
1+s
_
_
1
1+s
_
_
_
_
_
_
Where we have introduced the saturation parameter
s =
1
2
_

2
(r)

2
+ (/2)
2
_
We think that now it is a good point to explain the pjysical interpretation
of U an V ; The rst one, U, is responsible for disperisve efects. On the other
hand, V is response of amplication and absorption of light. This provides a
interpretetion of the two terms that consitute that force:
F(r) = F
rad
+ F
dip
With the denitions F
rad
=
1
2
(r)V
st

k, F
dip
=
1
2
(r)U
st
(r, t)
By the denitions of these two forces we se that the F
rad
is diferent from
zero when we have a running wave, and it is zero when we hace a estationary
wave. With a running monochromatic wave E
0
cos (kz t), we nd:
F
rad
=
1
2
K
_

2
(r)/2

2
+ (/2)
2
+
2
(r)/2
_
Which has the usal Lorentzian shape associated with absorption phenomena
like in the Lorentz model.
On the other hand F
dip
is equal to zero in the case of a running wave because
this type of wave does not exhibit a eld gradient, (r) = 0, but we can obtain
5
a ed gradient with a stationary wave. In general, from the steady state solution,
we nd:
F
dip
=

4
_

2
(r)

2
(/2)
2
+
2
/2
_
From this expression we can see that the dipole force is proportional to
the sign of the detuning between the atomic transition frequency and the light
frequency.
For > 0, which is called red deruning, F
dip
forces the atom towards
regions of higher laser intensity. For blue detuning < 0, the force is repulsive
and forces the atom towards regions of weak laser intensity. Finally, since F
dip
is proportional to the U component of the Bloch vector, it does not involve
the absorption of energy from the eld. Instead of this, it is due only to the
exchange of momentu between atoms and elds.
5 Aplication
5.1 Doppler Cooling
We now can go in to the situation in which the atom is moving and we want to
show that the F
rad
may be aproximated by a friction force which can be aplied
to cool atoms using the Doppler efect.
Consider an atom moving at constant velocity v
0
along the axis of a monochro-
matic wave. If we consider the atom as a puntual particle, that it can be done
if we are in the semiclassical regime, the atom sees a eld of the form:
E(z, t) = E
0
cos(t kvt)
So the atom experiences a time-dependet phase (t), whence
d
dt
= kv
0
,
that is the Doppler Shift. Now the F
rad
have the same form but changing

D
= + kv
0
t. For small velocities, we can expand this force to lowest
order in the atomic velocity. Under this conditions the F
rad
, gains a component
with the form of a friction force proportional to v
0
. If the laser an the atom
beam are counter-propagating, we obtain:
F
rad
(v
0
)

= F
rad
(v
0
= 0) v
0
With
= k
2
_
s
(1 + s)
2
_ _

2
+ (/2)
2
_
The friction coecient is positive for positive atom-eld detuning, and in
thus case leads to a deceleration of the atoms moving towards the running
wave.
6