Midsummer

UNDERSTANDING SHAKESPEARE: A MIDSUMMER NIGHTS DREAM
UNDERSTANDING SHAKESPEARE: A Midsummer Nights Dream
Robert A. Albano
MERCURYE PRESS
Los Angeles
UNDERSTANDING SHAKESPEARE: A Midsummer Nights Dream
Robert A. Albano
First Printing: May 2011
All Rights Reserved 2011 by Robert A. Albano No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or by any information storage retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher.
MERCURYE PRESS
Los Angeles
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
11 17 41 67 93
Act I ............................................................. Act II ............................................................. Act III ............................................................. Act IV .............................................................
Act V ............................................................. 103 Final Remarks ................................................ 117 Pictures from the 1935 Movie . . 135
Other Books by Robert A. Albano Middle English Historiography Lectures on Early English Literature Lectures on British Neoclassic Literature Understanding Shakespeare's Tragedies Understanding the Poetry of William Wordsworth Understanding Shakespeare (series) 1. The Sonnets 2. Henry IV, Part I 3. Hamlet 4. Macbeth 5. Othello 6. Julius Caesar 7. Antony and Cleopatra 8. Much Ado about Nothing 9. A Midsummer Nights Dream
NOTE: All act and scene divisions and lines numbers referred to in this text are consistent with those found in The Norton Shakespeare (Stephen Greenblatt, editor).
Introduction
A Midsummer Nights Dream is, perhaps, William Shakespeares most charming and endearing dramatic work. Not only is it a marvelous comedy, but the play is also a wonderful fantasy. Shakespeare was never one to shy away from exploring and expanding upon the boundaries of his own imagination, and in A Midsummer Nights Dream the playwright fashioned a new and original work that drew upon the mythology and fantasy of Western culture. Although Shakespeares play is often cited as being one of the first works in English literature to present a fairy tale fantasy, that is not entirely true. Fairy tale literature actually had been in existence for hundreds of years, and the origins of fairy tale literature actually can be found in ancient Greek and Roman mythology as well as in the myths and legends of other lands. The stock figure of the wicked witch, for example, which appears in numerous fairy tales collected and transcribed by the Grimm Brothers (circa 1815), has her roots in Greek mythology. In Homers Odyssey, which dates back to approximately 800 BC, the hero Odysseus encounters a witch named Circe, who has the magical ability to transform people into animals. Mythological characters like Circe thus became the predecessors or prototypes for many of the typical or stock characters of later fairy tale literature. One of the prominent characters appearing in this Shakespearean comedy is a fairy by the name of Puck, who is also called Robin Goodfellow. Puck is 11
Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream
not an original creation by Shakespeare. In fact, the creation and legend of Puck occurred in the AngloSaxon era in England (before 1066 AD). Even in those early times, the idea of a mischievous and troublesome sprite or fairy that would play pranks on people but that also might render them a useful service was a common character of literature in the oral tradition of England. However, the earliest fairies of England were often considered to be dark or sinister supernatural figures that could bring deadly harm to humans. In fact, the words fairy and demon were practically interchangeable. Fairies in England have their roots in medieval Celtic myths. Such fairies were as large or larger as humans, not the tiny or diminutive creatures that appeared in the fairy tales of later times. And these fairies inhabited a forbidden underworld that was dangerous for humans. This Celtic underworld forms the setting for a later medieval story entitled The Turk and Gawain. In that tale the hero, Sir Gawain, enters the underworld to discover that a castle and the lord of that castle have been transformed into dark and sinister forms by a fairy. Sir Gawain breaks the spell of enchantment to free that lord. Such a tale, obviously, suggests an early version of the later fairy tale known as Beauty and the Beast. During the Middle Ages the fairies might also be helpful to the race of humans. In another tale involving the knightly hero Sir Gawain, a fairy disguised as an ugly old hag helps to save King 12
Arthur from death. The story, which is entitled The Wedding of Sir Gawain, ends with the fairy transforming herself into a beautiful wife for Gawain after he successfully passes her test. Just about all of the characters that appear in A Midsummer Nights Dream have appeared before in literature in one form or another. However, Shakespeare develops and refashions these characters in such a way that they vastly transcend the thin and two-dimensional treatment that they had previously been given. Moreover, William Shakespeare takes these older characters and older stories and combines them in a manner that surprised and delighted the audiences of his day. Also contributing to such delight is that the playwright took five completely separate and unrelated tales and wove them together into a splendid fantasy tapestry. The five tales do not seem as if they belong together, but Shakespeare makes it work. Each of the five stories is integral to the whole play. If any one of the five stories is edited out of the play, the play itself would unravel and fall apart. There is nothing extraneous or digressive about any of the parts. All five together form one unified glorious whole dramatic work of literature. The following five stories are interwoven together:
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(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
The primary story concerns four young lovers: Hermia, Lysander, Demetrius, and Helena. Due to plot twists and complications, three love triangles develop or evolve during the course of the story: (a) Hermia / Lysander / Demetrius, (b) Helena / Hermia / Demetrius, and (c) Lysander / Demetrius / Helena. Adding further complications among these lovers is a conflict that develops between Hermia and her father. Hermia wants to marry Lysander, but her father wants her to marry Demetrius. There is also a subplot involving the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta. And there is a conflict between Oberon and Titania, the King and Queen of the fairies. And there is the conflict involving the artisans (or skilled workers) who attempt to produce a play to honor the coming wedding of Duke Theseus. And finally there is the play within a play: Pyramus and Thisbe.
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Thus, Shakespeare mixes five diverse and completely various stories and puts them together into a harmonious whole: (1) Italian romantic comedy, (2) Greek mythology, (3) Celtic myth and fairy tale folklore, (4) broad English country humor, and (5) a Roman myth from Ovids Metamorphoses. Yet, Shakespeares play is strikingly original. The originality of play comes from the interweaving of such diverse elements. Not only has Shakespeare brought together a variety of sources; but he also has invented the lovers plot, which is influenced by but not directly taken from Italian romantic comedy. Oddly, the most interesting character in the play and the character that has attracted the most attention and notice over the centuries is not a protagonist in any of the five plots. The character of Puck (or Robin Goodfellow) is one of the most endearing and popular characters of English literature, and the role of Puck is a highly coveted one by Shakespearean actors around the world. Puck also serves as a structural device. He is directly connected to the first, third, and fourth stories listed above. Puck not only adds humor and interest to the play, then, but he is also integral to the plot of the overall dramatic work. As in all great dramatic comedies, Shakespeare varies the tone of this play. The tone varies from heavy to light. Heavy moments, such as Theseus harsh judgment against Hermia or the disasters caused by the quarrel of the king and queen of the fairies, provide balance to the light and 15
cheerful moments, such as Hermia and Helenas battle or the pranks caused by Puck. The play is never dull, and the audience is entranced and thrilled as one glorious moment follows after another.
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ACT I
Act I, Scene 1: How Slow This Old Moon Wanes The comedy begins with a difference of opinion between Theseus and Hippolyta. Both of these characters are drawn from Greek mythology. Theseus was a great hero and king of the ancient Greeks, and Hippolyta was the Queen of the Amazons (a group of fierce women warriors). According to the myths, Theseus led his army against the Amazons and defeated them. He took Hippolyta as his captive, and later married her. Shakespeare takes this myth as the basis for this part of his story, but he develops the characters beyond the myths so that Hippolyta becomes a character who is emotionally much stronger than Theseus. The story is set in ancient Athens, and Theseus is referred to as the Duke and leader and the land. In ancient times, however, Athens was a separate kingdom (or city-state) and Theseus would thus be its king. Shakespeare thus departs from the myth because his story is a fairy tale. The action occurs once upon a time in a magical land that has no specific geographic identity in the real world. As Shakespeare begins his play, the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta is four days away. But Theseus here is like a vigorous young bridegroom. He is overly anxious for their wedding to occur, and four days to him seems like an awfully long time to wait. He expresses his feelings in a simile that also involves personification: 17
But O, methinks how slow This old moon wanes! She lingers my desires Like to a stepdame or a dowager Long withering out a young mans revenue. (3-6)
The passage of time is signified by the moon. The wedding of Theseus and his bride will occur on the day of a new moon. But the old moon will continue to appear in the night sky for four more nights. Theseus compares the moon in a simile (notice the word like). The moon is like a stepmother of a young man whose father has died. The young man cannot receive his inheritance as long as his stepmother is still alive, and he is unhappy that his stepmother continues to live for so long and spend all of the money that he would have inherited. The young man desires money, but cannot get it. Similarly, Theseus desires Hippolyta, but cannot have her. The passage is, then, about lust. Theseus desire is sexual desire. Four days is just too long for him to have to wait before he can satisfy his desires on his honeymoon. Hippolyta, on the other hand, is not so eager. She explains that half of the time that they need to wait will be night, when they can dream away the time pleasantly (line 8). Shakespeare thus early establishes the importance of dreams in his play. Theseus realizes that he has no choice but to wait, and so he turns his attention to getting ready for the grand celebration that will occur on their wedding day (and which will appear in Act V). The first conflict is thus resolved before it even has a chance to 18
develop.
Act I, Scene 1: Full of Vexation However, a second conflict arises immediately after the first. Egeus, a lord who serves Duke Theseus, enters the palace with his daughter Hermia. With them are two young aristocrats named Lysander and Demetrius. Egeus wants his daughter to marry Demetrius, but Hermia is in love with Lysander and refuses to accept her fathers choice. Although today this type of problem is not so common in most places around the world, centuries ago the problem was quite serious. Daughters were considered to be the property of their fathers and were forced to marry men for political or social reasons. Love was not a factor in these marriages made for convenience or social position. Quite obviously, Shakespeare did not agree with this sort of treatment of women; and his portrayal of Egeus is not a positive one. Thus, his comedy also functions as social criticism. Shakespeare is clearly speaking out against overbearing fathers and the treatment of women as if they were mere property. The seriousness of the situation becomes all too evident when Egeus declares that either his daughter must accept his choice or she will receive a terrible alternative: 19
As she is mine, I may dispose of her, Which shall be either to this gentleman Or to her death. (42-44)
Egeus thus demands that if Hermia does not marry Demetrius, then she should be executed. Egeus would rather see his own daughter dead than to have her alive but act against his wishes or commands. Many fathers were tyrants in their own families, and the law of those early times sided with these dictatorial parents. The frequency that this kind of problem arose in early society is suggested by Shakespeares other plays. More than once, Shakespeare has spoken out against this sort of problem. In the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, Juliet cannot marry Romeo because her parents are in conflict with Romeos parents; and Juliets father wants her to marry a man of his choosing. But Juliet loves Romeo; and, because of her fathers stubbornness and contrary views, the story ends with Juliets death. Only then does Juliets father realize that he behaved horribly and foolishly. An even closer parallel occurs in the tragedy of Othello. Brabanzo complains against his own daughter, Desdemona, when she goes against his wishes and marries a dark-skinned Moor, Othello. There is even a similarity in the language used by Egeus and Brabanzo. Egeus claims that Lysander tricked Hermia into loving him:
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This hath bewitched the bosom of my child. (27) With feigning voice verses of feigning love. (31)
Egeus is claiming that Lysander has cleverly seduced Hermia and that Lysanders love is not genuine. Brabanzo pushes the claim even further.
She is abused, stoln from me, and corrupted By spells and medicines bought of mountebanks. (Othello I, iii: 60-61)
Brabanzo directly claims that Othello used a magic potion to seduce Desdemona into running away with him, and even specifically uses the word witchcraft a few lines later (Othello I, iii: 64). Brabanzo believes that only by the use of magic would Desdemona disobey him. In a manner of speaking, Brabanzo is partially correct. Shakespeare suggests that a type of magic does explain the disobedience of the daughters, but such magic comes not from a potion. It is the magic of love. However, neither Egeus nor Brabanzo seem to understand this kind of magic. If they once had, they have forgotten it. Shakespeare may also be implying that the tyranny of the fathers on a small scale symbolizes the tyranny of kings and rulers on a large scale. Tyranny in any degree is foolish and harmful. Hermia, made bold by her love, asks Duke Theseus what will be the consequences if she disobeys her father by refusing to marry Demetrius 21
(lines 62-64). Although in Greek mythology Theseus was noted for his wisdom and sagacity, in Shakespeares comedy he is a stern autocrat who will not bend or break the laws of his Dukedom. He informs Hermia that if she disobeys her father, she will be punished in one of two ways:
Either to die the death, or to abjure For ever the society of men. (65-66)
In other words, Hermia will either (1) be executed or (2) forced to join a convent and live out her remaining years as a nun. In the Roman Catholic Church a woman who devoted herself to religion as a nun was considered to be married to God. Therefore, she would take a vow of chastity and be forbidden to socialize with men. Theseus then grants Hermia three days to change her mind. Hermias situation thus looks bleak for her; and if this play were a tragedy, like Romeo and Juliet or Othello, Hermia might have had the same destiny as had Juliet a destiny of death. However, this play is a comedy; and Shakespeare reveals that he can take a serious situation that might be found at the start of a tragedy and transform the plot so that all ends happily. And, so, Hermias tragic problem thus becomes the catalyst for the comic events that follow afterwards.
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Act I, Scene 1: Life as a Nun vs. Life as a Married Woman Theseus explains to Hermia that if she disobeys her father, she could be forced to become a nun. The Duke then digresses for a few lines to contrast life as a nun to life as a wife. Theseus asks Hermia to consider whether she
can endure the livery of a nun, For aye to be in shady cloister mewed, To live a barren sister all your life, Chanting faint hymns to the cold fruitless moon. Thrice blessed they that master so their blood To undergo such maiden pilgrimage; But earthlier happy is the rose distilled Than that which, withering on the virgin thorn, Grows, lives, and dies in single blessedness. (70-78)
Theseus does suggest that the nun is three times more blessed than the woman who chooses marriage. After all, the nun is a devoted servant to God; and God will surely reward those who serve him so devoutly and who give up their earthly life to worship Him. However, the language of Theseus (and, thus, the language of Shakespeare) clearly suggests that life as a married woman is far better than that of a nun. Theseus suggests that a nuns life is bleak and desolate. First, he describes the nun as being mewed in a shady cloister. The word mewed indicates being trapped or confined. Theseus is thus indicating that being a nun is like being a prisoner locked away in a small dark cell. Second, Theseus refers to every 23
nun as a barren sister. The word barren literally indicates that the nuns, being unmarried, will not have children. But the word also connotes emptiness and meaninglessness. Theseus is perhaps indicating that such a life is meaningless. And, third, Theseus describes the life of the nun as someone who chants faint hymns to the cold fruitless moon. The hymns or songs are faint or barely heard. Such music brings no pleasure and no joy. The moon becomes a metaphor for the nuns. They are cold and fruitless. They have no emotion and they produce nothing of value to the world. Although the reader of the play cannot hear the tone of voice that an actor might use during this speech, a good actor will use a subtle tone of scorn and disgust when he describes the lifestyle of the nuns. Theseus clearly does not think that life as a nun is a good choice for any woman. The reader, however, should guess this from the lines spoken by Theseus at the start of the play (lines 3-6). Theseus is a man of lust, and the idea of celibacy even a celibacy of four days in length is a horrid thought to him.
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Act I, Scene 1: Star-Crossed Lovers After Theseus, Egeus, and others leave the stage, Hermia and Lysander are left alone for a moment to discuss their situation. Hermia is both shocked and saddened by what Theseus has told her, and she is crying. Lysander then explains to her that their unhappiness is common to a young couple who are truly in love with one another. As Lysander states, The course of true love never did run smooth (134). Rather, there always seems to be some obstacle that prevents the lovers from getting together. The obstacle may be a difference in social status or in the age of the lovers, or the obstacle may be that the woman does not have the freedom to marry the man of her choice (as seems to be the case with Hermia). And even if these obstacles do not exist, then war, death, or sickness may interfere and prevent the lovers from getting together or staying together (line 142). Thus, if the situation seems to favor the lovers, then fate interferes and prevents the lovers from achieving their happiness. The dialogue at this point in the play could just as easily be applied to the main characters of Romeo and Juliet. At the beginning of that tragedy Shakespeare inserts a prologue in which Romeo and Juliet are described as a pair of star-crossed lovers. These two characters cannot achieve happiness. The stars (astrology) indicate otherwise. Their stars or ruling planets are crossed or at odds with one another. Their fate or destiny holds for 25
them only separation from each other and death. Shakespeare thus suggests that finding and keeping true love in the world is difficult or almost impossible. The power of fate always seems to be against it. But A Midsummer Nights Dream is a comedy, not a tragedy. And in a comedy fate is not an insurmountable force. Life may be more like a tragedy than a comedy most of the time, but a comedy suggests the hope in all of us that maybe our problems will sort themselves out that maybe fate will smile upon us and provide us with a happy ending. And William Shakespeare, the dreamer, may have been one who was ever on the search for the happy ending. Hermia also looks for the happy ending:
If then true lovers have ever been crossed, It stands as an edict in destiny. Then let us teach our trial patience, Because it is a customary cross. (150-53)
Hermia is suggesting that their problem is just a trial, a temporary setback or problem that is common or customary to all lovers. If they are patient, then eventually their problem will go away and they will then be able to find their happiness. Lysander, though, suggests that leaving their happiness to fate or destiny may not be enough. Rather, they should take action and affect or change their fate. So, Lysander proposes the idea that they 26
elope. He suggests that they leave the city-state of Athens and go to live with his aunt in a different kingdom (or dukedom) where the laws of Athens cannot affect them. Then, in this other kingdom, Hermia and Lysander can get married and live their lives happily ever after. Lysander then tells Hermia to meet him in the forest just outside of the city the following night (line 165). He specifically tells Hermia to meet him at a spot where they once did observance to a morn of May (167). This is a reference to the celebration on May 1 commonly referred to as May Day. The holiday included a tradition of dancing around the Maypole and crowning of the Queen of the May. It was often a time for young people to meet and fall in love. Thus, the spot is an appropriate location for the two young lovers to meet and start their new life together. Hermia agrees to meet Lysander and makes a solemn vow that she will show up (beginning at line 168). Adhering to the mythological aspect of the setting, Hermia swears by Cupid, the God of Love, and by Venus, the Goddess of Love and Beauty. Further, she swears by Dido, the Queen of Carthage (in northern Africa), whose fidelity was so strong that she committed suicide when the man she loved, Aeneas, abandoned her (the tale of Aeneas and Dido appears in the Roman epic The Aeneid by Virgil). Shakespeare, through the character of Hermia, then takes the opportunity of inserting feminist criticism when Hermia then swears 27
By all the vows that ever men have broke In number more than ever women spoke (175-76)
Hermia directly asserts that men break more vows than the number of vows that women even promise to keep. She is declaring that a woman can be trusted to keep her promise. If anyone is going to break a vow, it is the man. Lysander seems to overlook the criticism, but he knows that he can trust Hermia.
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Act I, Scene 1: O Happy Fair At this point the character of Helena enters, the reader should keep in mind that Shakespeare intends for the character of Hermia to be shorter with dark hair in contrast to Helena, who is taller and has blond hair. The dialogue of this scene and the humor of a later scene depend upon this distinction. HERMIA HELENA shorter taller brunette hair blond hair
After Hermia greets her friend as fair Helena, Helena responds with the following:
Call you me fair? That fair again unsay. Demetrius loves your fair O happy fair! (181-82)
The word fair had a double meaning in the Renaissance: it meant both (1) beautiful and (2) having light-colored features (blond hair, blue eyes, white skin). And according to the traditional Renaissance concept of beauty, a truly beautiful woman would have light-colored features. Of course, there was some debate on this view; for there were dark beauties living in England during the Renaissance. And poets and playwrights enjoyed debating this issue through their fictional works. More importantly, writers like Shakespeare also enjoyed playing on the double meaning of the word fair: sometimes it means beautiful, sometimes it means having light features, and sometimes it means 29
both of these. When Helena first addresses Hermia, the word fair suggests beauty (but not light features). Helena is angry that Demetrius is more attracted to Hermia and wants to marry her. Helena is upset that Demetrius appears to love the beauty of a darkfeatured woman. Helena then proceeds to state that she wishes she looked like Hermia and sounded like Hermia so that Demetrius would turn his attention towards her. Helena is in love with Demetrius. She is, in fact, madly in love with him; and so she speaks and acts irrationally. Hermia tries to explain that she frowns at Demetrius and hates him. She tries to discourage him, but Demetrius is stubborn and persistent. He is so infatuated with Hermia that he, also, cannot think or act rationally. A conflict that appears in nearly every Shakespeare play (as well as many other literary works) is that of Reason vs. Emotion. Shakespeare had much different views regarding emotion than did the Church. Both Catholics and Protestants preached that Reason was a gift that God had given to all mankind. With Reason, all men and women are capable of controlling their emotions and avoiding temptation and sin. A person who does not control his emotions is, then, merely being weak or lazy. Shakespeare did not agree. He realized that there are times in every persons life when a certain emotion (positive or negative) becomes so strong that it becomes impossible to resist. When such a 30
powerful emotion takes over a person, that persons reason abandons him or her. Love, hate, lust, pride, greed, and envy: any of these and many more emotions as well can cause a man to become irrational. Any of these can possibly make a man mad. Knowing that this weakness is common to all men, Shakespeare was thus able to devise many great tragedies and comedies to reveal the influence of emotions over the rational mind. Hermia and Lysander realize that Helena is quite upset over losing Demetrius, so they tell her about their plan to elope. Hermia and Lysander are trying to encourage Helena not to give up. Hermia suggests that once she is gone from Athens, Demetrius will eventually stop thinking about her and return to Helena. Hermia and Lysander are trying to console Helena, but they are not aware of how irrational Helena has become. Because she is not thinking clearly, Helena decides to tell Demetrius about Hermias plan to run away. But then Demetrius will try to stop Hermia. By revealing their secret, Hermia and Lysander thus risk having their plans ruined. They risk their future happiness together. On the other hand, if they had not revealed their plan to Helena, the comic plot that follows would not have been possible.
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Act I, Scene 1: Helenas Soliloquy The first scene ends with a soliloquy spoken by Helena. As with all soliloquies, the lines are not intended to represent actual speech or dialogue. Rather, the soliloquy is a stage convention so that the audience can learn what a character is thinking. The soliloquy in this case, then, represents the irrational thoughts of Helena. Helena begins her speech by complaining about the unfairness of life: some people are happy, some are not. Some people win their love, some do not. Helena then adds that Demetrius is making a mistake in loving Hermia because Helena is just as beautiful (but Helena also loves him in return as well). Although she is irrational, Helena is correct when she makes the following statement:
Things base and vile, holding no quantity, Love can transpose to form and dignity. (232-33)
In the first two lines of this quote, Helena is stating that a person who is in love does not see the object of his love correctly. A woman might be ugly and mean and without virtue, but a man who has madly fallen in love with her will see her as beautiful and kind and full of virtue. In Helenas mind, she is, of course, thinking about Hermia. And, so, she is indirectly suggesting that Demetrius is seeing Hermia incorrectly. Helena is suggesting that Demetrius is blind to Hermias faults. Helena then sums up that 32
concept with a mythological allusion:

Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind, And therefore is winged Cupid painted blind. (234-35)
A man who is in love imagines that the woman he loves is beautiful whether she actually is or not. The beauty is a product of the imagination. The Romans often depicted their God of Love as wearing a blindfold or being literally blind to indicate this same belief. A man (or woman) in love cannot see the truth. He cannot see the woman the way others see her. He is blind to her defects and vices. Helena also hints at the Reason vs. Emotion conflict when she asserts, Nor hath loves mind of any judgement taste (236). The word judgment during the Renaissance was frequently used as a synonym for the word reason. And, of course, love is a powerful emotion. A person in love lacks judgment. A person overpowered by his emotions lacks reason. Helena adds that Cupid is also frequently depicted as a child (in line 238). The choices one makes when in love are frequently childish and foolish. The soliloquy ends with Helena stating her intention to tell Demetrius about Hermias elopement with Lysander. Even though she is breaking the confidence that her friend Hermia has in her (making it a dear or costly act), Helena hopes to get Demetrius thanks in return (line 249). She wants at least a little attention from him, but she is hoping for more. Helena is hoping that Demetrius will stop 33
looking at Hermia and start looking at herself. Helena is not thinking clearly and does not realize that Demetrius could possibly prevent Hermia from running away. And if Hermia remains in Athens, then Demetrius can continue to pursue her.
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Act I, Scene 2: The Most Lamentable Comedy In addition to the comedy resulting from the irrational behavior of the lovers, Shakespeare adds some obvious clowning from a group of actors who play the role of artisans. During the Renaissance an artisan was a skilled worker, such as a tailor or a carpenter. Many of these skilled workers could not read or write at all, and most lacked much education beyond that which was needed to function in their choice of occupations. Many artisans were criticized and ridiculed especially by writers of comedy. And Shakespeare joins in this type of humor by having all of the artisans played by clowns. Unlike a circus clown, the clowns in Renaissance comedy were usually portrayed as rustic figures men from the country who understood English imprecisely and who spoke English badly. The word play of clowns usually resulted from using a word incorrectly or by saying the opposite of what was intended. Some of these clowns, then, mangle the English language beyond understanding. Part of the humor in the artisan scenes, though, is that the artisans understand one another perfectly despite the blunders in speech. In Shakespeares comedy there are six artisans. These six craftsmen have heard about the upcoming wedding of Duke Theseus; and they decide to honor their duke by preparing a play that, they hope, will be selected as entertainment on the dukes wedding day. The artisans, however, have no real knowledge about drama or performance; and, so, the 35
play that they will present will not be very good. Shakespeare, then, presents a play within a play the artisans short performance is played within the larger play of A Midsummer Nights Dream. The shorter inner play offers more opportunity for humor and broad comedy to complement the irrational humor of the lovers. Moreover, the inner play offers Shakespeare the opportunity to present criticism (through metatheater) about bad acting and bad performances. The inner play thus serves as a parody of some of the inferior theatrical productions that were sometimes performed during Shakespeares own time. Although the character of Quince the carpenter serves as the director of the play within a play, the character of Bottom the weaver is clearly the most prominent of these characters and the leader of the group. Moreover, he is also the biggest buffoon of the group. Thus, the best of the clowns in Shakespeares troupe would take on the role of Bottom. Quince informs the other artisans that the title of the play that they will perform is The Most Lamentable Comedy and Most Cruel Death of Pyramus and Thisbe. This title itself is a parody of overblown or wordy titles that often appeared in the Renaissance. But the title also shows the artisans incorrect use of English. The word lamentable means sad, sorrowful, or mournful. But a comedy is not sad or sorrowful. Quince should have said tragedy, not comedy. Such a basic blunder reveals 36
the incompetence of the artisans. Of course, the story of Pyramus and Thisbe is a tragedy. Not unlike Romeo and Juliet, Pyramus and Thisbe are young lovers whose parents forbid them from being together. Their attempt to get together results in their own tragic deaths. The story of Pyramus and Thisbe was first written by the Classical Roman writer Ovid in his book entitled Metamorphoses. Bottom responds to the title by asserting that the play is a very good piece of work (11). However, as the following lines indicate, Bottom has never read the story and knows nothing about it. Bottom is always ready to express an opinion on a topic that he knows nothing about. In short, he is an ass (a vain or conceited person). Shakespeare plays on this quality of the character, for later in the play Bottom is magically transformed into an ass (an animal similar to a donkey). Yet, although Bottom is an ass, he is a likeable one. He provides a great deal of humor in the play and keeps the audience laughing. Bottoms lack of knowledge about the Pyramus and Thisbe story becomes evident when he states that it is a merry or joyous story (line 11) and when he asks Quince whether Pyramus is a lover or a tyrant (17). After Quince tells Bottom that Pyramus is a tragic lover, Bottom asserts that he will move the audience to tears when he performs the role because he is such a fine actor. Actually, Bottom is partially right: he will move the audience to tears, but they will be tears of laughter. 37
Bottom goes on to state that he would rather play the role of a tyrannical character, like Hercules (who was often portrayed as a loud, ranting character in some early plays). Bottom follows his assertion by then badly repeating some lines of bad poetry to show his acting skills (or, to be more precise, his lack of acting skills). Apparently there were more than a few bad actors in Shakespeares time, and such performers overacted their parts and ruined the lines that they were given. Bottom is a parody of such bad actors. Years later, in his tragedy of Hamlet, Shakespeares protagonist, Prince Hamlet of Denmark, advises an actor not to exaggerate his lines:
O, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious, periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb shows and noise. I would have such a fellow whipped for oerdoing Termagant. It out-Herods Herod. Pray you avoid it. (Hamlet III, 2: 7-13)
The Biblical character of Herod was a tyrant who was usually portrayed as a loud, obnoxious, raging character on stage. Shakespeare speaks through the character of Prince Hamlet to criticize and condemn such bad actors. Probably more than once in his career Shakespeare dreamt of whipping the bad actors who so badly messed up his lines. 38
With the character of Bottom, though, the bad acting is all part of the fun. Most of Shakespeares audience would have recognized that Bottom represents bad actors (or perhaps one particular bad actor of the time) and would have found his role all the more humorous because of that. During the rest of the scene, Quince assigns the other parts of the play to the other artisans. However, each time he does so, Bottom interrupts him and declares that he should play that other part as well. Bottom truly is a conceited ass who truly believes that only he is capable of acting all of the parts in the play. After Quince assigns the parts to the various artisans, he tells them to meet the following night in the forest outside Athens so that they can practice in secret. But, of course, Quince does not know that Hermia and Lysander will also be out that same night in the same part of the forest. The artisans will not just be involved in a subplot of the comedy. Rather, they will also become involved in the main plot as well.
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ACT II
Act II, Scene 1: The Playful Puck A significant change of locale occurs in the second act. The location is moved from Athens to the forest just outside of Athens. But this change is more than just a change from city to country. It is also a change from the world of humans to the world of fairies. It is a change to a world of magic. Two fairies enter from opposite sides of the stage. From one side of the stage comes an unnamed fairy who serves Titania, the Fairy Queen. The unnamed fairy is sprinkling dew on the fairy rings (rings formed in the grass when the fairies dance there). The fairy also comments that the cowslips (yellow flowers) are the pensioners or bodyguards of the queen and that the red spots that appear on these flowers are rubies placed by the fairies to create the pleasant scent of those flowers. Besides sprinkling dew, the fairy also has another task: to decorate the flowers by placing pearls (or perhaps drops of dew) within each one. The fairy is, apparently, getting the place ready for the coming of her queen. The fairy who enters from the other side of the stage is Robin Goodfellow, who is also called Puck. Puck is not a graceful or beautiful fairy as the first one is. The unnamed fairy calls Puck a lob of spirits (16). This term suggests that he is an awkward country bumpkin. According to Elizabethan folklore, a puck was a troublesome or 41
mischievous fairy or elf or imp (the three terms were synonymous) who liked to play pranks on humans. Robin Goodfellow, specifically, was one such elf who would also help humans when the humans were nice to him. Robin, then would not be unlike the elves in the fairy tale The Shoemaker and the Elves (a story that appears in the collection by the Grimm Brothers). In that tale a group of elves help out a poor shoemaker by making shoes for him during the night. Shakespeares Robin Goodfellow, then, is more complex than just a simple elf figure. He can be both troublesome and helpful and sometimes he is both at once. Robin tells the other fairy that she and the Queen ought to be careful and think twice about coming to this particular part of the forest because Oberon, the Fairy King, is also planning to be there that night. King Oberon, as Robin explains, is extremely angry with Queen Titania because Titania has just acquired a beautiful young boy a changeling, as Robin calls him. Oberon wants the child to be his own servant, but Titania refuses to give him the boy. Their disagreement or fight has caused the two to separate. Incidentally, a changeling is an attractive human child that has been stolen by the fairies. According to folklore, whenever a fairy sees an extremely beautiful baby, the fairy will take the child and substitute (or exchange) a little monster or ogre in its place. This explains why so many boys turn out to be so ugly and horrible and troublesome as they 42
get older. Actually, the word changeling can actually refer either to the beautiful child that is stolen by the fairies or to the horrid little ogre that the fairies leave in its place. As it turns out, the little boy that Titania has in her possession is not a changeling at all. The boy is actually the son of a votaress (or nun), a woman who dedicated herself to the service of Titania (mentioned in line 123). That votaress died giving birth to the child, and Titania therefore is taking care of it to show her appreciation to the woman who had served her so well. But Oberon does not care about where the boy had come from. As Puck so directly states
jealous Oberon would have the child. (24)
And now that Oberon and Titania are always fighting over this child
all their elves for fear Creep into acorn cups, and hide them there. (30-31)
This line raises an interesting question: just how big are the fairies? Although in later fairy tale literature fairies are often described as being tiny or diminutive small enough even to hide inside an acorn that was not always the case. In medieval Celtic tales the fairies came from the underworld and were just as large as humans. In England, the idea of fairies being rather small creatures was a later development. Shakespeare, however, seems to slide between the 43
two possibilities. The actors playing the fairies are, of course, full-size humans, yet the acorn reference here and other references later suggest that the fairies are extremely small. Yet both Puck and Titania have no problem interacting with humans and mingling with them at their level or height. In Shakespeares magical world, both possibilities can exist at the same time. This is a world of imagination, not a world of reality. The fairy that serves Titania recognizes Puck and asks him if he is indeed Robin Goodfellow. The fairy then describes Robin by the pranks he plays or the mischief he causes: 1. He frightens maidens in the village. (line 35) 2. He puts a charm or spell on the butter churns of housewives so that no matter how long or how hard they churn their milk, it produces no butter. (lines 36-38) 3. He misleads people who get lost at night so that they get even more lost. (line 39) The fairy then adds that mischievous Robin is also called hobgoblin (40). Yet she also adds that Robin is also sometimes positively referred to as sweet puck because he sometimes does work for humans or causes them to have good luck (lines 40-41). Shakespeares Robin Goodfellow, then, appears to be a composite figure that combines both the mischievous elf qualities of the puck or imp and the 44
helpful qualities of the good elf or goodfellow. Robin tells Titanias fairy that she has guessed correctly he is Robin Goodfellow. Robin then explains that he serves King Oberon as his court jester and that his job is to amuse the king (line 44). Robin then proceeds to list more of his pranks that, he claims, are done to entertain King Oberon: 1. He pretends to neigh like a female horse to trick a fat male horse and drive that male horse crazy with desire. (lines 4546) 2. He magically assumes the shape of (or transfigures into) a crab and will go inside a cup of an old woman so that, when she takes a drink of ale, she becomes frightened and spills her ale all over herself. (lines 47-50) 3. He transfigures himself into a stool or chair; but when a serious old woman tries to sit down on the stool, he disappears and thus causes the old woman to fall on her bum or rear end. (lines 51-53) The six pranks mentioned here are just some of the problems that were blamed on the puck or mischievous elf. Most people are too proud to admit that they themselves are responsible for their own silly behavior and foolish mistakes. It is much easier to blame a supernatural force. Nobody wants to admit that they sometimes behave rather carelessly or 45
foolishly.
Act II, Scene 1: The King and Queen of the Fairies The quarrelling King and the Queen of the fairies also enter from opposite sides of the stage. As soon as Titania sees Oberon, she tells her fairies to move away (line 61). She does not want to be anywhere near him. But Oberon tells her to wait, for he is her lord (line 63). Titania responds that she may be his lady, but then he as her lord should not be seeing other women. She is asserting that Oberon likes to flirt around with human women. She claims that Oberon sometimes assumes the disguise of a shepherd (referred to as Corin, a common shepherd name) so that he can woo or court a shepherdess (referred to as Phillida, a common shepherdess name). Shakespeare at this juncture in the play is mixing fairy tale tradition with Greek mythology. The King and Queen of the Greek gods in Mount Olympus were Zeus and Hera. Zeus often transfigured himself into various shapes so that he could pursue attractive girls or maidens, and Hera often found out and became jealous and angry. Oberon and Titania become thus indistinguishable from Zeus and Hera. Since Shakespeare is setting his play in Athens but is also drawing upon English folklore tradition, he sees no problem in combining 46
the two traditions. In this manner, Shakespeare thus creates an entirely new magical world; and the magical characters in that world do not specifically adhere to any one particular tradition. Titania continues in her complaint against Oberon that he was also once the lover of Hippolyta (referred to as the bouncing Amazon in line 70). She asserts that the only reason that Oberon is now in Athens is to bless Hippolytas wedding to Theseus. Oberon gives as good as he gets, for he accuses Titania of having once been Theseus lover and claims that she helped him to kill the minotaur (a half-man and half-bull creature) and to escape from a prison known as the labyrinth. According to Oberon, Theseus gave up his other mistresses to be with Titania. The story of Theseus and the minotaur is a well-known tale in Greek mythology. Of course, in the Greek version, Titania does not play a role. Once again, Shakespeare creates as well as borrows to develop the characters and plot of his play. Titania denies Oberons accusation. But more important than her denial is the concept that the fairies play a role in the affairs of humans. The magical world of the fairies is connected to or intertwined with the world of the humans. In this sense, then, the fairies could be said to symbolize fate. Fate is a supernatural force that many people believe affects their daily lives. In this play, the fairies collectively are a supernatural force that affects the lives of the major characters in the tale. Titania also announces at this point in the play 47
that the quarrel between her and Oberon is affecting all of the nearby lands in numerous negative ways:
Therefore the winds, piping to us in vain, As in revenge have sucked up from the sea Contagious fogs which, falling on the land, Hath every pelting river made so proud That they have overborne their continents. (88-92)
Titania is describing a relationship between the fairies and nature. The negative feelings between her and Oberon have caused nature to turn negative and violent. Deadly fogs full of disease are spreading across the land and harming people. In addition, rivers have become full and fierce and are bringing floods to towns and farmlands, causing ruin and destruction. Titania then adds that there are even more problems caused by turbulent nature: corn and grains are rotting, sheep and other animals are dying, and grassy pastures have turned into swamps (lines 94-100). And even the seasons are acting in unnatural ways: the summer is cold and icy and the winter is hot and sultry. Many people, many humans, become sick because of these odd changes (line 105). Titania concludes by declaring that the fight between herself and Oberon is the reason why nature is acting so violently:
And this same progeny of evils comes From our debate, from our dissension. (115-16)
Titania does not want these problems to affect the humans, but the problems are a direct result of the 48
negative emotions that she and Oberon are feeling. An extremely old myth that Shakespeare is alluding to here is the myth of the fisher king. The story, which has many versions, usually depicts a king who is sick and dying. Because the king is sick, his entire kingdom is sick as well: the state of the king reflects the state of the state. If a king is good, virtuous, strong, and healthy, then his entire kingdom will also be good and strong and healthy. But if the king is bad or sick or evil, then his entire kingdom suffers from many problems not unlike the ones mentioned by Titania. The king therefore needs a champion to find the remedy or solution to the problem and restore both the king and kingdom. The myth of the fisher king has reappeared in numerous stories from ancient times to the Middle Ages. The idea appears in the ancient Babylonian epic entitled Gilgamesh; it appears in Oedipus the King; it appears in Beowulf; and it appears in the tales of King Arthur and becomes combined with the story of the search for the Holy Grail. People in times past often believed that all aspects of their lives were dependent on their king. They believed that there was a connection between their king and God (or the gods). If God blessed the king, then God would bless his kingdom. But if God cursed a king, then God would curse his kingdom. Oberon responds to Titania by saying that all she has to do to stop their quarrel is to give him the changeling boy (120). But Titania refuses because the boy is not a changeling a stolen child but is 49
rather the child of her votaress (line 123: votary, servant, or nun). Titania then goes on to explain the close relationship that she had with her votaress and how that votaress died when she gave birth to the child. The child is precious to Titania, and she refuses to give him up. The fight thus continues, and Oberon warns Titania to stay away from him while he is in the woods. Both Oberon and Titania intend to bless the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta, and so both will be staying in the woods outside of Athens until then.
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Act II, Scene 1: The Love Potion Oberon is not pleased that Titania will not give him the boy, so he decides to get revenge. Oberon decides to make a love potion from the juice of a special magical flower to play a trick on Titania, and Oberon calls his servant Puck to get that flower for him. Oberon describes the origin of the flower to Puck:
I saw Flying between the cold moon and the earth Cupid, all armed. A certain aim he took At a fair vestal thrond by the west, And loosed his love shaft smartly from his bow As it should pierce a hundred thousand hearts. But I might see young Cupids fiery shaft Quenched in the chaste beams of the watry moon, And the imperial votress passd on In maiden meditation, fancy-free. (155-64)
Shakespeare actually accomplishes two purposes with this passage: (1) he explains the origin of the love flower, and (2) he praises Queen Elizabeth. Cupid is the Roman god of love, and he traditionally carries a bow and arrows. His arrows, tipped with gold, have the magical ability to cause the person who is hit by one to fall madly and hopelessly in love. No one, not even the other gods, can resist the power of Cupids arrows. In other words, love is too strong to resist. In Oberons tale, Cupid took a powerful shot at Queen Elizabeth (referred to as the fair vestal and the imperial votress); but Cupid 51
missed. And Oberon saw, by the rays of the moon, where Cupids arrow fell. Queen Elizabeth was sometimes referred to as the Virgin Queen. She never had a husband. In a clever manner, Shakespeare explains that the reason his Queen never married was due to Cupid missing her with his arrow. Oberon then finishes his tale by telling Puck that Cupids arrow struck a little white flower, which turned purple when the arrow wounded it (lines 16668). This flower, the pansy, is also called love-inidleness because its perfume supposedly has the powers of a love potion. Shakespeare creates this tale about the origin of the pansy, but his story is similar to one from Greek mythology. In the story of Pyramus and Thisbe the mulberry turned purple from being covered with Pyramus blood. Very cleverly, Shakespeare thus connects his fairy story with the Pyramus tale in an extraordinarily indirect way. Oberon directs Puck, then, to get the pansies for him. Puck responds with the following:
Ill put a girdle round about the earth In forty minutes. (175-76)
Pucks response also reveals the extent of the fairy power. They can move so quickly that they can circle the earth in less than an hour. After Puck exits, Oberon has a brief soliloquy (a speech or monologue revealing his innermost thoughts) in which he explains his intentions. The 52
King of the Fairies intends to put some of the sleeping potion in Titanias eyes while she is sleeping. Then, when she wakes up, the first person or animal she opens her eyes upon
Be it on lion, bear, or wolf, or bull, On meddling monkey, or on busy ape She shall pursue it with the soul of love. (180-82)
And, while Titania thus pursues some animal out of love, Oberon will steal the boy from her. Titania will be too obsessed over some animal to stop Oberon.
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Act II, Scene 1: The Magnet and the Iron Oberons thoughts are interrupted by the arrival of Helena and Demetrius. Demetrius is in the woods to stop Hermia from eloping with Lysander, and Helena is chasing after Demetrius because she is irrationally in love with him. Helena is not acting sensibly, but she cannot help herself. The power of love is too strong. Helena and Demetrius do not see Oberon, who is invisible to them. But Oberon is able to see and hear them quite well. In Demetrius first line in this scene, he tells Helena that he does not love her and that he wants her to stop following him (line 188). Despite the fact that Demetrius is both worried and anxious, his dialogue has some good wordplay and puns. He declares that he wants to slay or kill Lysander, but that Hermia slays (slayeth) him (line 190). Demetrius is metaphorically dying for love. Demetrius also adds that he is wood within this wood (192). The word wood could mean crazy (as well as refer to the forest or woods). Demetrius thus describes himself as being a crazy man in the woods or forest. Demetrius is crazy in love as well. Therefore, the audience should not expect him to act rationally either. Yet Helena cannot act rationally either. She uses a metaphor of a magnet (with the word adamant in line 195) and iron to describe her situation. To her Demetrius is a magnet, and she is a 54
piece of iron. The iron cannot resist being attracted to the magnet. It has no will of its own. Similarly, Helena cannot resist being drawn to Demetrius. She cannot control herself. An even stronger metaphor is that of the small dog:
I am your spaniel, and Demetrius, The more you beat me I will fawn on you. (203-04)
Helena likens herself to a poor abused animal that remains loyal to its master even though the master mistreats it. The word fawn means to show affection. Helena is declaring that she will continue to have affection for Demetrius even though he treats her cruelly. To Helena, not being near Demetrius is an act of cruelty; but she cannot stop loving him anyway. Demetrius then warns Helena that she is being foolish a young girl out alone in the forest at night could be a victim of rape or other violence (lines 21419). But Helena responds that she knows that Demetrius is a virtuous gentleman who would never harm her. Then Helena adds two metaphors common to lovers: (1) she does not fear the night because Demetrius is her light (line 221), and (2) she is not alone because Demetrius is all the world to her (line 224). Demetrius realizes that arguing with Helena will not accomplish anything. She is too irrational to listen to sense. So, Demetrius attempts to run away from her. Helena realizes that a woman chasing after a 55
man is unnatural, and she describes the oddity of the act with four metaphors (lines 231-34): a. Daphne chasing Apollo b. The peaceful dove chasing the griffin (a monster which is half lion and half eagle) c. The gentle hind or doe (a female deer) chasing a tiger d. Cowardice (personified) chasing after Valor (or Bravery personified) In Greek mythology Apollo, the powerful sun god, once became attracted to a beautiful nymph (a minor nature goddess) named Daphne and chased after her. To escape his attentions from being forced upon her, Daphne was transformed into a laurel tree. Helena thus realizes that her chasing after Demetrius is dangerous and foolish, but she cannot stop herself from acting irrationally because her love is so strong. After Demetrius and Helena exit the stage, Puck returns with the magical flower that could be used to make a love potion. Oberon tells Puck that he knows about the secret place in the woods where Titania sleeps. He plans to go there that night and place the love potion on her:
And with the juice of this Ill streak her eyes, And make her full of hateful fantasies. (257-58)
The word fantasies, in this line, means that Titania will imagine that she is in love with some fierce animal. When that happens, Oberon will then be able 56
to take the little boy. Oberon also tells Puck about Demetrius and Helena. Oberon orders Puck to find Demetrius and put some of the love potion on his eyes. Then, when Demetrius wakes up and sees Helena, he will fall in love with her and forget all about Hermia. Oberon once again represents a supernatural force interfering in the lives of men. He becomes indistinguishable from fate or even from Cupid in this instance. Because Puck was not there earlier and did not see Demetrius, he does not know what Demetrius looks like. Oberon tells him that he will be able to recognize Demetrius because he is wearing Athenian garments (clothes unique to individuals from Athens: line 264). However, what Oberon does not know (but what the audience does know) is that Demetrius is not the only gentleman from Athens out in the forest that night. Lysander is also an Athenian gentleman in the same area. Shakespeare thus sets up the situation for a case of mistaken identity and its comic consequences.
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Act II, Scene 2: The Fairy Song Before Titania goes to sleep, she asks her fairy attendants to sing her a lullaby. Music was often an integral part of Renaissance comedies: although the actors could sing the song without musical accompaniment, more often than not a small band of musicians would be off-stage to provide background music. The song also involves a dance, for Titania also requests a roundel (a dance in which the dancers form a circle). According to popular legends, fairies are associated with fairy rings. Superstitious folk claimed that the mysterious circles that appeared on grassy lands in the forest at night were caused by fairies that were dancing there during the night. Thus, a roundel is an appropriate dance for the fairies. Although the song in the text is only twentyone lines long, the dance and the song could last for many minutes in a Renaissance production. Titania also orders her fairies to attend to their other various duties, which will keep them busy for twenty seconds, the third part of a minute (2). The magical power of the fairies is thus implied by this statement. Humans would need many hours to accomplish their tasks, but the fairies can do theirs in a mere matter of seconds. Titania mentions three of these tasks specifically: (1) to prevent the caterpillars from eating musk roses, white flowers that have a rich perfume; (2) to battle with the bats in order to take their leathery wings to make the fairy coats; and 58
(3) and to keep the noisy owls quiet. The fairies have other tasks as well. The small list here is just to spark the thoughts of the audience, who will have to imagine what else the fairies might do with their time. The song and dance then begins. In the lyrics of the song the fairies warn the spiders and lizards and snakes to stay away from their Fairy Queen while she slumbers. The reference to Philomel (in line 13) simply indicates the nightingale, the singing bird of the night: its sweet chirping is to provide the music for their dance (perhaps a musician with a pipe plays a chirping melody at this point). The name of Philomel also complements the Greek mythology that forms part of this play. According to the myth, Philomel was a woman who was raped and then transformed into a nightingale so that she would not have to face her shame in human society. The myth also connects to the references to lust elsewhere in the play. The words of the song, though, are actually less important than the pleasant music and dancing that is taking place. This is spectacle. This is entertainment for the audience. After all, people do not often have a chance to see fairies singing and dancing. After the fairies complete their song and dance, they leave the stage to let their queen sleep in peace. But then Oberon appears and puts the magical love potion on Titanias eyes (line 33). Then the Fairy King exits as well. 59
Act II, Scene 2: Pucks Mistake While Titania sleeps soundly on one side of the stage, Hermia and Lysander enter on the other side. They do not see Titania, who is invisible to them. As they had planned earlier, Hermia and Lysander are eloping. They are running away from Athens so that they can get married and live together. However, the journey through the woods is a long one; and they have become tired. They decide to stop and rest; and Hermia, in maiden modesty, asks Lysander to sleep some distance away from her. She states that they should not sleep together until after they are married. Lysander complies and moves respectfully a little distance away from Hermia. Then the two of them fall asleep. Meanwhile, Puck (or Robin Goodfellow) has been dutifully trying to fulfill King Oberons request to put the love potion on the eyes of Demetrius so that Demetrius will fall in love with Helena. As Robin enters the stage, he says the following:
Through the forest I have gone, But Athenian found I none On whose eyes I might approve This flowers force in stirring love. Night and silence. (72-76)
The reader should note that Robin speaks in couplets and in lines of seven syllables. His words are charming, light, and airy. There is a playfulness in 60
his voice even though he is bothered that he has not yet found Demetrius. But then he sees Lysander sleeping a small distance away from Hermia.
Who is here? Weeds of Athens he doth wear. This is he my master said Despisd the Athenian maid And here the maiden, sleeping sound On the dank and dirty ground. (76-81)
The word weeds in this passage refers to clothes. Puck believes that Lysander is Demetrius because Lysander is the only man wearing Athenian clothing that Puck has seen. Although Puck usually enjoys making mischief, he is not doing so here. Puck is just trying to obey King Oberons orders. So, he puts the love potion on Lysanders eyes. Puck makes an honest mistake, but that mistake will cause much confusion and comedy as the play proceeds.
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Act II, Scene 2: The Mischief Begins After Puck exits the stage, Demetrius and Helena enter. They see neither Queen Titania nor Hermia and Lysander when they first arrive at this part of the forest. Helena is still chasing after Demetrius, and Demetrius is still running away from Helena (as well as looking for Hermia). Demetrius then runs off stage, leaving Helena alone. Helena is crying because Demetrius seems to hate her, and Helena even engages in some self-pity: I am as ugly as a bear (100). But then Helena sees Lysander lying on the ground. Since it is night and rather dark (although this Renaissance comedy would actually be performed outside in the afternoon in broad daylight), Helena cannot see too clearly. She wonders if Lysander is dead or hurt. So, she tries to revive him. Of course, Helena does not know that a love potion has just been placed on Lysanders eyes. The love potion works. Lysander awakens and sees Helena staring at him. And Lysander falls madly in love with Helena.
And run through fire I will for thy sweet sake. Transparent Helena, nature shows art That through thy bosom makes me see thy heart. Where is Demetrius? O, how fit a word Is that vile name to perish on my sword! (109-13)
Lysander is not only in love with Helena, but he now wishes to kill Demetrius because Lysander now sees 62
Demetrius as his rival for Helena. Helena, not quite realizing everything that Lysander is saying, does understand that Lysander is making a threat against Demetrius. But she thinks that Lysander is worried that Demetrius is still trying to steal Hermia from him. So, she tells Lysander
Yet Hermia still loves you; then be content. (116)
But since he is under the spell of the love potion, Lysander no longer cares about Hermia. And, so, he cannot be content or happy with her. In a well-crafted comical speech, Lysander then attempts to explain his newly discovered love for Helena:
Content with Hermia? No, I do repent The tedious minutes I have with her spent Not Hermia but Helena I love. Who will not change a raven for a dove? The will of man is by his reason swayed, And reason says you are the worthier maid. Things growing are not ripe until their season, So I, being young, till now ripe not to reason. And touching now the point of human skill, Reason becomes the marshal to my will, And leads me to your eyes, where I oer look Loves stories written in loves richest book. (117-28)
The reader should note the raven and dove metaphors (in line 120). This is another reference to Hermias dark features and brunette hair (dark like a raven) and to Helenas light features and blond hair (light like a dove). The raven also has negative 63
connotations whereas the dove is positive, a bird of peace. Lysander now sees Hermia in a negative way and Helena in a positive one. More important than the bird imagery, though, are the several references to reason. The speech is comical because Lysander is trying to justify his fickle change of heart. However, even he does not know that the cause of his fickleness is Oberons love potion. The audience, though, does know about the love potion and can readily see the flaws in Lysanders argument. Lysander declares that reason sways (or alters) the will of man (in line 121). The word will in this line refers to desire or emotions. Shakespeare is thus once again bringing up the conflict of Reason vs. Emotion. The religious authorities of the time asserted that Reason was a gift from God that allows all people the ability to control their emotions. But as Shakespeare time and again relates in his plays, occasionally man experiences an emotion that is so powerful that his reason disappears entirely. Love can be one such powerful emotion. Lysanders line is humorous because he says the opposite of what Shakespeare usually reveals in his drama. Reason does not sway the emotions; rather, the emotions sway reason. Lysander then proceeds to explain that it is reasonable to love Helena over Hermia. But love is an emotion. Reason has nothing to do with it. Lysander argues that his love for Hermia was immature and unreasonable. But now that he is older, he has become reasonable and therefore loves 64
Helena. Lysander, of course, is just trying to woo Helena. His words, like the words of most lovers, are foolish and meaningless. And, thus, they are also humorous. The metaphor of the book at the end of this passage is traditional, but still charming. Lysander declares that Helenas eyes are the richest or best book of love stories. He reads love in her eyes. The line is also funny, though, because the declaration has nothing to do with reason. It is, rather, an irrational statement made by an irrational lover. The metaphor, then, is a startling contrast to Lysanders earlier declaration of how he is now being so reasonable.
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Act II, Scene 2: Hermias Dream Act II ends with Hermia waking up only to discover that she is alone in the forest. She is frightened, and her fear has two sources: (1) being abandoned in the forest and (2) having a nightmare. Since the play is entitled A Midsummer Nights Dream, Hermias nightmare is a dream within a dream. So, the reader should not be so surprised that her dream is linked to the main plot. In a brief soliloquy Hermia describes that in her dream a serpent was eating her heart while Lysander stood by watching and smiling (lines 15556). The serpent could symbolize the love potion or perhaps even Puck himself. In any event, Hermias dream symbolizes that her love is being eaten away. And, of course, Lysander smiles without stopping the serpent because he has changed. He is under the spell of the love potion. He no longer cares about Hermia. Shakespeare thus depicts that fate sometimes interferes in the lives of mankind with negative and inexplicable results. People are often fickle. One day a man may like a girl with brunette hair, but the next day he prefers a blonde. The ancient Greeks explained such fickleness by depicting an immature god of love who wielded a bow and arrow that could change a persons emotions. Shakespeare does the same by depicting a mischievous fairy who is wielding a love potion. 66
ACT III
Act III, Scene 1: Play Production and the Artisans In addition to the lovers and the fairies meeting in the woods that night, the reader should not forget the artisans. Bottom and his companions meet in the woods to prepare their play. They want to do so in secret because they mistakenly feel that they are going to present such a great play, and they do not wish any other group to steal their ideas. One of the foolish notions of these homespun actors is that their acting will be so realistic and believable that it will frighten the ladies in the audience. Bottom informs his companions that the violent scene where Pyramus commits suicide by stabbing himself with his sword will most assuredly be too frightening (lines 9-10). Bottoms solution is that a prologue should be written in which they first tell the audience that Pyramus is just a fictional character played by an actor Bottom the weaver. He says they also need to explain in the prologue that Pyramus does not really kill himself and that he is just pretending to do so. The prologue, of course, is completely unnecessary. The ladies who see the performance (such as Hippolyta, Hermia, and Helena) would not be frightened at all even if the artisans did their utmost to make the play realistic. With this scene Shakespeare thus parodies the foolish notions of incompetent play producers during the Renaissance. Perhaps Shakespeare even had a particular producer or theater in mind when he 67
created this scene. Another of the artisans suggests that having an actor portray a lion in the story will also frighten the ladies in the audience. Bottoms solution is to have the lion wear only half a mask so that his face will be partially visible. In addition, Bottom suggests that the lion speak to the ladies and explain that he is not a real lion at all. The absurdity of this is wonderfully funny. The lion stops in the middle of a performance and politely addresses the women in the audience. Todays audiences must wonder whether any of the serious performances of Shakespeares time could have been so ludicrous. In producing a play, there are always a number of technical difficulties that the producer and his crew must find a way to solve. Shakespeare makes delightful fun of the way some producers handle these difficulties. Two of the difficulties that Bottom and his crew face concern the scene where Pyramus and Thisbe talk to each other through a hole in the wall at night. They are able to see at night because the moon is full. A professional acting company of the time would simply suggest through dialogue that the moon is full and might use a simple prop a small section of a wall to overcome these difficulties. But the artisans complicate the situation because they decide to have one actor play the part of the moon and another actor play the part of the wall. The actor playing the wall will hold his thumb and index finger together to suggest the hole in the wall. The choices that the artisans make are ridiculous, but 68
they are ridiculously funny as well.
Act III, Scene 1: Transformation into a Monster As the artisans continue to work on their play, Puck wanders by and decides to eavesdrop on their practice. The mischievous fairy declares
Ill be an auditor An actor, too, perhaps, if I see cause. (67-68)
Of course, Puck does not mean that he wants to be an actor in the artisans silly play. Rather, Puck means that he will take action he will play a mischievous prank or joke on the artisans. And Puck does exactly that. Puck quickly perceives that Bottom is behaving like an ass (a vain or silly person). So, when Bottom briefly hides behind a bush off-stage, Puck transforms his head into that of an ass (a donkey). When Bottom then goes back to his companions, they think he is a monster, become frightened, and run off. Greek mythology was full of half-human and half-animal monsters. The minotaur was half man and half bull. The violent centaurs were half man and half horse. Edmund Spenser also played on the notion of half-human monsters in The Faerie Queen. In that modern epic the allegorical figure of Error is described as half-woman and half-snake. Bottom thus becomes a half-human monster following a fine 69
literary tradition. But unlike these other monsters, Bottom is a gentle one. Moreover, he is also a rather funny monster. As the other artisans run away, Puck decides to transform himself into various shapes (a hound, a headless bear, or even fire: lines 96-97) and chase after the artisans to scare them even more. Puck thus exits the stage at this point in the scene. When Quince, still frightened, runs past Bottom, he stops for a second and tells Bottom that he has been transformed. Quince then runs off. Bottom thinks Quince and the other artisans are just teasing him:
I see their knavery. This is to make an ass of me. (106)
In this line, the word ass means fool. Bottom does not know that his head has been transformed, and he stubbornly refuses to believe Quince.
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Act III, Scene 1: The Odd Couple As he waits for his companions to return, Bottom decides to sing a song. His song is about birds and nature, so it is appropriate for the woods at night. But the last three lines of the song may be especially appropriate:
The plainsong Cuckoo grey, Whose note full many a man doth mark, And dares not answer Nay (116-18)
The singing of the cuckoo bird sounds very much like the medieval word cuckold. A cuckold was a married man whose wife was cheating on him by having a sexual relationship with someone else. Medieval men ridiculed cuckolds and called them fools. In Bottoms song, the lines suggest that men are warned about becoming cuckolds, but most men are too foolish to prevent it from happening they do not say no or nay to the warning of the cuckoo bird. Since Bottom does not appear to be married in this play, he is not a cuckold in that sense. But he is a fool. Bottoms loud, raucous, donkey-braying voice awakens Queen Titania, who is sleeping nearby. But rather than getting angry at the person who awakens her, Titania falls in love with him. Bottom is the first person she sees after Oberon had put the love potion on her eyes. Even the Queen of the Fairies cannot control the power of love. In Greek mythology, Zeus and the other gods 71
were less powerful than fate. The three Fates were powerful female supernatural entities, and the gods had no power over them. Shakespeares fairies are similar to the Greek gods here. Although the fairies interfere and affect the destiny of mankind, there are greater forces than the fairies. Shakespeare thus suggests that the mysterious force of fate is allpowerful. Nothing can change it or affect it. When Bottom tells Titania that he wishes to leave the woods, she proclaims her love to him and begs him not to go. She even bribes Bottom so that he will stay:
Ill give thee fairies to attend on thee, And they shall fetch thee jewels from the deep, And sing while thou on pressd flowers dost sleep; And I will purge thy mortal grossness so That thou shalt like an airy spirit go. (139-43)
Titania is offering servants, wealth, entertainment, and comfort to Bottom. In a way, she is offering him paradise. Titania is essentially offering Bottom everything that man desires, everything that man wishes for. Of course, she is also offering love and not just with any ordinary woman, but with the extraordinarily beautiful Queen of the Fairies. Finally, by offering to purge his mortality, Titania is indicating that she will make Bottom immortal. He will become a fairy. He will become a god. This is an offer that few men could resist. Titania then calls four of her fairy servants to attend on Bottom. The fairies are named Cobweb, 72
Mustardseed, Peaseblossom, and Mote. The word peaseblossom suggests a small white flower on a pea plant or vine. The word mote in Renaissance usage could mean either a moth or a tiny speck. The names of all four fairies suggests being small or tiny in size. Of course, all four fairies would actually be full-sized humans; but a production could use children or small adults to play these roles. The fairies introduce themselves to Bottom, and Bottom pokes gentle fun at their names. For example, when Bottom hears the name Mustardseed, he responds with the following:
I know your patience well. That same cowardly giantlike ox-beef hath devoured many a Gentleman of your house. (173-75)
The word patience in this context suggests suffering. Bottom is humorously suggesting that the fairy is actually a seed of mustard. By comparison to such a seed, a beef roast would appear like a giant. Mustard was traditionally put on beef in England, and so the mustard gets devoured by the giant. Bottom is jokingly offering Mustardseed his sympathy as he suggests that Mustardseeds relatives have been killed in order to make a delicious roast beef dinner. The scene ends with Titania asking her fairy attendants to lead Bottom to her bower (her bedchamber).
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Act III, Scene 2: Pucks Report The second scene of this act begins with Puck making a report to King Oberon about what he accomplished during the night. Puck begins by declaring, probably with a loud laugh, the following:
My mistress with a monster is in love. (6)
As already noted, in Greek mythology a monster was usually a creature that was half man and half animal. Puck proceeds to tell Oberon about the Athenian artisans and how they were practicing the play of Pyramus and Thisbe. He then tells Oberon about how he transformed Bottom by giving him the head of an ass and how he scared the other artisans out of the woods. Puck concludes his speech by telling Oberon how Titania then, by chance, woke up and fell in love with the monstrous Bottom. King Oberon is pleased with the results:
This falls out better than I could devise. (35)
Fate here seems to be on the side of Oberon. Titanias being in love with a monster is even better (for him) than her being in love with a wild beast. Oberon now believes that he will easily be able to take the child from her. Oberon then asks Puck about the Athenian (Demetrius). The King asks Puck if he had put the love potion on his eyes to make him fall in love with Helena. Puck states that he did accomplish that deed 74
as well. Puck is not lying. He did not know that the Athenian he put the love potion on was not the man that Oberon had spoken of.
Act III, Scene 2: Demetrius, the Unrequited Lover Before Oberon can respond to Puck, Demetrius and Hermia enter (after line 40). Oberon recognizes the man that he had seen before, but not the woman. Yet Robin recognizes the woman, but not the man. Demetrius (who did not receive the love potion as Oberon intended) is still in love with Hermia and is chasing after her. Hermia, as before, is still in love with Lysander and is trying to prevent Demetrius from pursuing her. Hermia worries that perhaps Demetrius had killed Lysander (which would explain why she did not find Lysander when she woke up). She accuses Demetrius and asserts that he has a murderous look on his face: so dead, so grim (57). Demetrius responds with the words of an unrequited lover:
So should the murdered look, and so should I, Pierced through the heart with your stern cruelty. Yet you, the murderer, look as bright, as clear As yonder Venus in her glimmering sphere. (58-61)
In Renaissance love poetry many men are depicted as being in love with women who do not return that 75
love. Demetrius is like these men, declaring that Hermias cruel looks, her looks that refuse to return any love to him, are murdering him. He is dying for love. He will die if Hermia does not love him. But also like traditional love poetry, Demetrius praises the beauty of Hermia at the same time. He compares Hermia to Venus, the gorgeous Roman Goddess of Love and Beauty, who, of course, resides on the planet (sphere) Venus. The words, though, have no effect on Hermia. Hermia wants to get rid of Deemtrius, and she strongly tells him to leave: Out dog; out cur (65). The dog metaphor is appropriate here. It reveals that Hermia thinks Demetrius is just a meddlesome, mangy mutt; but it also connects Demetrius to Helena when she used the spaniel metaphor earlier in the play (in II, 1: 203). The dog metaphors very subtly connect Demetrius to Helena. Still thinking that he killed Lysander, Hermia also calls Demetrius a serpent or snake (another metaphor). Not only has Demetrius killed Lysander (so Hermia believes) with his poisonous bite, but Hermia also declares that Demetrius speaks with a double tongue (line 73). She is referring to the forked tongue of a snake, which symbolizes duplicity (lying, deceptiveness, or double-dealing). Hermia is referring to the fact that if Demetrius really loved her, then he would not have harmed the man she loves (Lysander) because that would cause her great pain. However, Hermia could also be referring to the fact that Demetrius was deceptive towards Helena. 76
Demetrius was once in love with Helena (see lines 106-08 in Act I, Scene 1); but, being fickle, he dropped Helena to pursue Hermia. Demetrius realizes that he is causing anguish to Hermia, so he tells her that Lysander is still alive (lines 75-76). Hermia, still angry with Demetrius, exits. And Demetrius, realizing that he is getting nowhere with her, decides to stop chasing her. Instead, he lies down and goes to sleep.
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Act III, Scene 2: Fate Overrules The wise King Oberon immediate realizes the mistake that Puck had made and explains it to the mischievous fairy. Puck responds with the following:
Then fate oerrules, that, one man holding troth, A million fail, confounding oath on oath. (92-93)
Puck is declaring that only one man out of a million is faithful in love, but fate interferes with that true lover and prevents the love from occurring. The lines here complement the earlier dialogue between Lysander and Hermia when they discuss how the course of true love never did run smooth (Act I, 1: 134). Fate thus confounds (confuses or mixes up) one oath with another. Fate often aids or supports men who make false oaths or promises in love but often brings trouble or harm to the man who makes a true promise or pledge to the woman he loves. Fate cannot be trusted. Oberon decides to correct Pucks mistake. He thus becomes another force (like fate), but he is benevolent: he wishes to benefit the true lover (Helena) and to remedy the misguided lover (Demetrius). Oberon commands Puck to go and find Helena and to bring her back to that part of the woods. After Puck exits (at line 101), Oberon puts some of the love potion on the eyes of Demetrius so that he will fall in love with Helena when he awakens. Puck returns (at line 109). He tells Oberon 78
that not only has Helena come, but Lysander has also followed after her. Lysander, who is still affected by the love potion, is still chasing after Helena. And Helena is still trying to run away from Lysander. Puck finds that his mistake has extremely funny results, and he asks his king the following:
Shall we their fond pageant see? Lord, what fools these mortals be! (114-15)
These are perhaps the most memorable lines from the play. The word fond means foolish. The word pageant refers to a show involving spectacle (elaborate actions or flashy costumes) but often with little plot or meaning. Thus, Puck is declaring that the affairs and actions of mankind are nothing more than foolish and meaningless shows. Puck is suggesting that not only are the four Athenians foolish, but all humans are just as foolish. Puck is certainly correct when it comes to love, for that is one of the occasions when mankind acts irrationally and foolishly. Oberon tells Puck to move aside now because the noise will soon awaken Demetrius. Puck realizes that when Demetrius awakens, both he and Lysander will be in love with Helena and both of them will fight each other in order to have Helena. Puck predicts that this fighting will be quite amusing, and he looks forward to the sport (119). The word sport here means entertainment. Before he moves aside with Oberon, Puck asserts 79
And those things do best please me That befall prepostrously. (120-21)
The word preposterous means ridiculous or absurd. To befall means to happen. Puck likes a good joke or comical entertainment. Fate and Pucks honest mistake have caused events to take a ridiculous turn, and the result (for both Puck and the Renaissance audience) is wonderful, hysterical comedy.
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Act III, Scene 2: The Fond Pageant The fond pageant the highest point of tension (the climax) as well as the highest point of hilarity begins after Puck announces that preposterous events are forthcoming. Helena enters the stage with Lysander (still under the influence of the magic love potion) in close pursuit (at line 122). Helena thinks that Lysander is just mocking her or making fun of her, but Lysander declares that his tears are his badge of faith (127). He is implying that if he were just joking or teasing her, he would not be crying. Lysander is begging Helena to take him seriously, but she obviously cannot. Helena believes that Lysanders tears are just his cunning way to fool her, for she knows that he truly loves Hermia. Yet, Lysander boldly declares that his words to Hermia were spoken rashly:
I had no judgement when to her I swore. (134)
Actually, Lysander is not entirely incorrect in his statement. His promises to Hermia were spoken because he felt love (an emotion) for her. Reason or judgment had nothing to do with it. On the other hand, Lysander has even less judgment now because of the effects of the love potion. At this point Demetrius awakens, and the first person he sees is Helena. Because Oberon had put the love potion on his eyes, he no longer loves Hermia but is, instead, immediately in love with 81
Helena. As traditional with renaissance lovers, Demetrius begins using nature similes or comparisons to describe the beauty of Helena: her eyes are more radiant than crystal, her lips are like red cherries, and her skin is whiter than the white snow on a high mountain and even makes that mountain snow look black (like a crow) by comparison (lines 139-44). Demetrius means what he says to her, but Helena does not believe him any more than she believes Lysander. In fact, Helena even believes that Demetrius and Lysander have formed a conspiracy for the sole purpose of making fun of her:
O spite! O hell! I see you all are bent To set against me for your merriment. (146-47)
Of course, Helena does not know about the effects of the love potion; and she does not know what to believe. What makes the scene even more humorous, though, is the hidden truth that underlies it. Even without the use of any love potions, most young people find it hard or difficult to know when someone is being sincere when he (or she) declares his feelings of love. And such false declarations could make anyone irrational. Lysander and Demetrius are both in earnest, though, and the two of them start quarrelling. Each of them declares that the other is in love with Hermia, and each of them relinquishes his claim to her. The confusion becomes even greater when Hermia enters. Although it is dark and difficult to see 82
in the forest, Hermia has heard Lysanders voice. But when she asks Lysander why he left her alone in the woods, he responds that his love for Helena drew him away. Lysander even adds that he now hates Hermia (line 191). Hermia cannot believe what she has just heard Lysander say:
You speak not as you think. It cannot be. (192)
When Helena hears Hermia say this, she thinks that Hermia too is playing a joke on her. Helena believes that Hermia has joined forces with both Lysander and Demetrius to play a cruel scornful prank against her:
Lo, she is one of the confederacy. (193)
Helena then asks Hermia directly how she could take part in such a joke, especially since up to this point Hermia and Helena have always been the closest of friends, closer than even most sisters. Helena implores Hermia to think about their past, about the close times that they often shared together. Helena uses several similes to describe their closeness. In the first of these similes, Helena describes their relationship as being
like two artificial gods Having with our needles created both one flower. Both on one sampler, sitting on one cushion, Both warbling of one song, both in one key, As if our hands, our sides, voices, and minds Had been incorporate. (204-09)
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Here Shakespeare describes the best and closest of all relationships. Not only had Hermia and Helena acted so harmoniously together that they moved and sounded like one person, but they are also like two creation goddesses joining forces to create the best and most beautiful objects in nature. The act of creating something with somebody else requires a sympathetic understanding and likeness of thought in order to make the end product truly remarkable. And that is true whether the creators are nature goddesses or two painters or two girls knitting a flower image or two poets collaborating on a play. Simply said, Helena is declaring that she and Hermia once thought and acted in identical ways. Two friends could not be any closer. And this is why now Helena becomes even angrier and crazier than she was earlier. Of course, Hermia is just as confused as Helena. She asks Lysander to stop scorning or making fun of Helena (line 248). But before Lysander can answer, Demetrius interrupts and threatens that he can make Lysander stop paying attention to Helena. Heated words are then exchanged between the two men, and both of them prepare to fight each other. The bewildered Hermia pulls Lysander by the arm and tries to ask him what is going on. But Lysander pulls away from her and rudely replies, Away, you Ethiope (258). The word Ethiope (for Ethiopian) was used simply to mean a black African. Of course, Hermia is not black, but Lysander exaggeratingly criticizes her dark features to indicate 84
that he no longer is in love with her. Hermia is both shocked and bewildered, but Lysander once again directly states that he hates her (line 282). Hermia finally realizes that Lysander is speaking in earnest. Hermia now believes that Lysander is in love with Helena. To make the fond pageant even fonder (more foolish), Hermia begins to blame Helena for making this change in Lysander. Hermia accuses Helena of stealing Lysander away from her. The two young women start to argue and yell while, perhaps, Lysander and Demetrius are at the back of the stage pushing and shoving each other. Hermia and Helena also begin to call each other names. Hermia calls Helena a canker blossom (283). A canker is a worm that eats and destroys a flower. The expression is metaphorical. The flower here is the flower of love, and Helena is the destroyer of that flower. Helena still thinks Hermia is making fun of her. Helena does not believe that Hermia is speaking sincerely. So, Helena calls Hermia a puppet (289). A puppet is not a real person, and thus Helena is suggesting that Hermia is not acting in a real or sincere way. However, when Hermia hears the word puppet, she thinks that Helena is making fun of her small size (Hermia is much smaller than Helena) since puppets are rather small. So, Hermia then criticizes Helena (who is tall and thin) by calling her a maypole (297). The maypole was a long pole with ribbons hanging from the top which young 85
lovers danced around during May Day celebrations. The irony here is that the maypole traditionally is used to bring lovers together. But in this instance the maypole (meaning Helena) is tearing the lovers apart. And not only is Helena a maypole, but she is a painted maypole. In Hermias metaphor, paint symbolizes cosmetics. Hermia is thus declaring that Helena is not naturally beautiful. Rather, she has to use make-up to cover her plain or unattractive looks. The arguing between Hermia and Helena continues as does the fighting between Lysander and Demetrius. None of them can think or act rationally. Eventually, Lysander and Demetrius leave the setting to find a suitable place to fight (line 339). Helena, in order to avoid a fight with the shorter but fiercer Hermia, runs off. And Hermia, not knowing what else to do, follows after her (line 345). The fond pageant is now over.
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Act III, Scene 2: Oberons Response Oberon and Puck have been hidden on the side of the stage all during the time that the four lovers are quarreling. Oberon is angry and blames Puck. He rails that Puck is always causing trouble, either accidentally or on purpose. But Puck defends himself and reasserts that he had put the love-potion drops on Lysanders eyes by mistake. Nevertheless, Puck is happy that he made this mistake; for he tells Oberon that he found the lovers fight to be sport (354). The word sport means entertainment. Puck is stating that the lovers quarrelling is amusing and entertaining. Puck thinks it is funny, and few people in Shakespeares theater would have disagreed with the little fairy. Oberon orders Puck to follow Lysander and Demetrius into the woods and prevent them from hurting each other. He also orders Puck to make them tired and weary; and, once Lysander has fallen asleep, Puck is to put the antidote to the love potion in his eyes. Oberon also casts a magic spell on the lovers so that
When they next awake, all this derision Shall seem a dream and fruitless vision. (371-72)
In other words, the lovers will think that their activities during the night were just part of a dream that has no meaning (fruitless). They will not think that the dream is worth any consideration, and they 87
will be able to go on with their lives. In a way, Shakespeare may also be modestly referring to his own Dream the Midsummer Nights Dream as an amusing inconsequential comedy. Oberon also informs Puck that he will also go to Titania, take the Indian boy, and remove the spell from her eyes. Oberon (like the playwright who arranges the material in his drama) is thus in full control of the situation. He is like a force of fate that wishes to bring all troubles and vexations to an end. He wishes to bring peace (line 378). He is a benevolent force in the universe. In Pucks reply to Oberon, the mischievous fairy alludes to another supernatural creature ghosts. Puck explains that he and Oberon must act quickly because the sun will rise soon, and the many ghosts who have been up for the night will be marching to the churchyards and graveyards to return to their places of burial (lines 379-88). Puck concludes that these spirits that walk the night must hide from the daylight because of their many shames. The ghosts that walk the night, then, are creatures that when they were human had committed horrible acts that caused them to feel guilt and shame in their post-mortal forms. Oberon notes, though, that fairies are far different from ghosts: we are spirits of another sort (389). And the King of the Fairies even adds that he has often been out at dawn and been active in the early hours of the morning. However, Oberon agrees with Puck that they should act quickly and 88
finish before sunrise. The fairies do not wish to be seen by humans. The scene concludes with Puck carrying out the orders that Oberon had given him. The fairy leads the two Athenians through the fields, having each one think he is chasing the other when they are actually both chasing after Puck. Thus, neither Lysander nor Demetrius is hurt in the chase.
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Act III, Scene 3: Jacks and Jills The action continues in the final scene of Act III. Lysander and Demetrius both become weary after chasing Puck around in the forest, and separately each of them finds a resting spot in the woods to go to sleep. Helena and Hermia, each of whom has also been wandering around in the dark woods alone, also become exhausted and find places to go to sleep. Once all of the Athenians are asleep, Puck puts the antidote on Lysanders eyes so that, when he awakens, he will once again love Hermia. As Puck places the antidote in Lysanders eye, he recites a little song which ends with the following:
And the country proverb known, That every man should take his own, In your waking shall be shown. Jack shall have his Jill, Naught shall go ill, The man shall have his mare again, and all shall be well. (42-47)
The rhyme indicates that for each man there is one woman, and life runs well as long as each man stays with the woman who is appropriate (or destined) for him. The problem that begins this play occurs when Demetrius begins to pursue a woman (Hermia) who is not suited for or destined to him. Although the modern reader may argue that Demetrius only agrees to accept Helena because he is affected by the love potion, that is not entirely true. Shakespeare earlier 90
had specifically noted that Demetrius had been a suitor to Helena before he became infatuated with Hermia. Shakespeare implies that his infatuation was a mistake: his infatuation for Hermia was just a whim or casual desire that did not really consist of any true love. Thus, Oberons love potion does not really force Demetrius to love Helena. Rather, the love potion allows him to forget his infatuation so that he can see where the affections of his heart truly belong. Jack shall have his Jill, and Demetrius shall have his Helena. Demetrius and Helena belong together as much as do Jack and Jill.
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ACT IV
Act IV, Scene 1: The False Head and the False Love The complication involving the four lovers actually reaches its climax and resolution at the end of Act III. Yet, because this play involves several stories or plots that are intertwined together, Shakespeare still needs two more acts to bring suitable and happy resolutions to each and every one of them. At the beginning of Act IV, two more conflicts are still present: Bottom still has the head of an ass, and Titania is still in love with Bottom. However, quickly after Titania and Bottom go to sleep, Oberon and Puck arrive to resolve both of these difficulties. Oberon explains to Puck (and to the audience) how he had obtained the Indian boy from Titania (lines 56-58). Now that Oberon has the boy, he no longer wishes to see his queen acting so foolishly. He even tells Puck that he now has pity for her (line 44). So, Oberon is ready to remove the effects of the love potion from Titania. And he does so (at line 67). Oberon also orders Puck to remove the ass head from Bottom. Further, Oberon will cast a magic spell on Bottom so that Bottom will think that all of the nights activities were just a dream (lines 63-66). This is the same sort of spell that Oberon had also cast on the four lovers. Shakespeare, in these lines, provokes the 93
imaginations of his audience. Dreams are often real, the lines imply; but all of us are cast under a magic spell so that we do not realize it when we wake up. Shakespeares notion is both quaint and charming. After Titania awakens, she and Oberon no longer quarrel. As Oberon explains to Titania, they can now go about their business of performing benevolent magic for mankind:
Now thou and I are new in amity, And will tomorrow midnight solemnly Dance in Duke Theseus house, triumphantly, And bless it to all fair prosperity. (84-87)
The lines are a double-foreshadowing. The play will end with a fairy dance, which is their magical way of blessing the bride and groom; and in their future years Duke Theseus and his wife Hippolyta will have a fair prosperity or a beautiful future together. As the morning sun is about to appear, the fairies exit the stage.
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Act IV, Scene 1: Fortunately Met As the fairies exit one side of the stage, Duke Theseus, along with Egeus, Hippolyta, and others, enters from the other side. The Duke and the others are hunting out in the woods. But before they get too far, they come to the spot where the four lovers are fast asleep. Theseus then recalls that this very day is also the one in which Hermia must make her decision about marrying Demetrius (lines 132-33). Theseus commands his men to awaken the four lovers, and then he specifically asks Lysander and Demetrius how two men who are rivals can be sleeping peacefully next to each other. Both Lysander and Demetrius are rather confused about that point as well, but Lysander attempts to explain that he and Hermia had planned to elope (lines 148-50). As soon as Egeus hears this about his daughter, he interrupts Lysander and asks Duke Theseus to have Lysander arrested. Fortunately, Demetrius defends Lysander before Duke Theseus has a chance to respond. Demetrius explains that he had followed Hermia in the woods in order to stop the elopement. Yet, for reasons which he does not quite understand, he has had a change of heart:
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But, my lord, I wot not by what power But by some power it is my love to Hermia, Melted as the snow, seems to me now As the remembrance of an idle gaud Which in my childhood I did dote upon, And all the faith, the virtue of my heart, The object and pleasure of mine eye Is only Helena. To her, my lord, Was I betrothed ere I saw Hermia. But like in sickness did I loathe this food; But as in health come to my natural taste, Now I do wish it, love it, long for it, And will forever more be true to it. (161-73)
Demetrius does not know (the word wot means know) why he has changed his mind, but he realizes that the change is for the best. Demetrius, in a simile, compares his feelings for Hermia to a childs feelings for a favorite toy (suggested by the word gaud). The child may devote all of his feelings to the toy; but when he grows up, the toy is no longer important to him. Thus, Demetrius suggests that his love for Hermia was immature. He has now grown past those immature feelings of infatuation. Demetrius admits that he was engaged to Helena before he started pursuing Hermia; and he uses another simile to explain his feelings about Helena. Demetrius explains that a person who is feeling sick may not like the taste of his favorite food. But after he becomes well, that person will then go back to eating and enjoying his favorite food once again. Demetrius is implying that he was experiencing a sort of illness when he turned away 96
from Helena (his favorite dish). But now he is well again, and once more desires Helena. The power of Oberons magic thus cured Demetrius. Duke Theseus quickly renders a decision in the matter regarding Hermia. He realizes that all has worked out among the lovers without the need of his interference, and his own joyous feelings because of his own upcoming wedding wisely move him to share that joy with the four lovers. So, the Duke advises Egeus to drop his complaint against Lysander. Moreover, the Duke commands that instead of just one wedding on that day, there shall be three. The Duke and his group then exit. The four lovers are left on the stage happy but still confused. The four lovers are still in a daze and wonder if even the Dukes appearance was real. Lysander is fairly certain that the Dukes appearance was not part of the dream, and the four lovers return to Athens.
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Act IV, Scene 1: Bottoms Dream The first scene of Act IV ends with a short soliloquy by Bottom. Oberons magic has worked. When Bottom awakens, he believes that all of the events of the night have been just a dream. Bottom is naturally confused when he awakens, and he thinks that his fellow artisans have left him alone in the forest. Bottom then begins to think about the nights activities. Shakespeare includes some wonderful comic lines in the speech. For example, Bottom states, Man is but an ass if he go about to expound this dream (201-02). This means that a man is foolish or silly if he tries to explain the dream. Of course, not only is there the pun on the word ass which contributes to the humor but then Bottom tries to explain his dream anyway. Bottom is so much charmed by his dream that he will ask Peter Quince to make a song or ballad out of it. And Bottom decides the ballad shall be called Bottoms Dream because it hath no bottom (208-09). There is a triple-pun with the word bottom: (1) The name of the character, Bottom the weaver (2) Support or Foundation (3) Meaning or Understanding Of course, the dream does have a Bottom in it, namely Bottom the Weaver; but it does seem to be 98
without any meaning. Bottom cannot understand it. But since Bottom cannot understand it, he will not be able to give his ballad any structure or support. Thus, the ballad will also become meaningless. Bottom concludes his soliloquy with the thought that the best time for him to sing his ballad will be immediately after the death of Thisbe at the close of the artisans performance before Duke Theseus. Thus Bottom hopes that, following the tragic demise of Thisbe, the artisans performance will conclude with the meaningless ballad performed by Bottom himself.
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Act IV, Scene 2: Our Play is Preferred The fourth act concludes with a short scene where the artisans express their worry about Bottom. They do not know where he is, and they worry that they will not be able to perform before the Duke without their star performer. But, fortunately, Bottom then appears to them and announces that their play is preferred (33). He is telling them that their play has been selected to be performed on Duke Theseus wedding day. Thus, they need to get ready. Bottom advises the actor who is playing the lion not to trim his fingernails, for they will need to serve as the lions claws. And then Bottom adds
And, most dear actors, eat No onions or garlic, for we are to utter sweet breath. (35-36)
With the expression sweet breath, a poet or playwright implies beautiful poetry or elevated language. But the simpleton Bottom takes the phrase literally. Bottom concludes by expressing his hope that their performance will be a sweet comedy (37). Of course, as noted earlier, Pyramus and Thisbe is a tragedy, not a comedy. However, the way that the artisans will perform it, it will become a comedy; and that comedy will be sweet or pleasing to the audience but not because it is so well performed. Rather, it will please Duke Theseus and the others because it is 100
so bad that it is funny.
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ACT V
Act V, Scene 1: The Lunatic, the Lover, and the Poet The final act begins with a short debate between Hippolyta and Theseus regarding the truth of dreams. Hippolyta begins the debate by commenting that the dreams of the four lovers are strange (curious or, perhaps, even marvelous). But then Theseus immediately asserts his opinion such dreams cannot hold any truth. Rather, they are, in his opinion, just mere trifles or foolish notions. Theseus then explains his opinion with the following:
Lovers and madmen have such seething brains, Such shaping fantasies, that apprehend More than cool reason ever comprehends. (4-6)
Theseus, following the Greek portrayal of him as a man of great wisdom, takes the side of reason in the debate. He compares the lover to a madman. Both the lover and the madman see things that do not exist. The madman may see a pink elephant in his bedroom, and the lover may see the goddess of beauty when he looks upon his plain-looking girlfriend. Both men, as Theseus explains, have lost their reason. What they see does not really exist. Theseus explains his position even further with a third comparison: 103
The lunatic, the lover, and the poet Are of imagination all compact. (7-8)
This is one of Shakespeares greatest lines. Theseus now compares the lover and the madman to a poet or playwright. Of course, Shakespeare himself was a poet. And, so, Shakespeare may be admitting that he shares at least one quality with madmen. Theseus is suggesting that lunatics, lovers, and poets all have great imaginations. All three kinds of men see things that are not really there. The poet-playwright imagines numerous characters and adventures about people who never existed. The playwright goes even further into his imagination than the madman because the playwright gives names and lines of dialogue to his characters. The playwrights fantasy is more involved and more intricate and more developed than the fantasies of the madman. But, what Theseus believes to be a fault, Shakespeare sees as an advantage. And where Theseus firmly believes that there is no truth in dreams, Shakespeare knows that truth does exist in dreams; for his dreams take the shape of plays, and those plays contain universal truths. Theseus supplies somewhat specific examples to justify his opinion: he explains that the madman may see hundreds of devils dancing all around him and the lover may see Helens beauty in a brow of Egypt (11). Theseus is suggesting that the lover will see the beauty of Helen of Troy (depicted as the most beautiful woman ever in Homers Iliad) in a 104
common gypsy girl (the word gypsy was derived from the word Egypt, and so the two words were nearly synonymous in Renaissance usage). Theseus description of the poets imagination is even more detailed:
The poets eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven, And as imagination bodies forth The form of things unknown, the poets pen Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name. (12-17)
Although Theseus intends to be critical of the poet in these lines, the description is actually quite magical and positive. Although Theseus suggests that the poet is crazy (in a frenzy) with visions that extend from the stars to the earth, Shakespeare is simultaneously suggesting the poet is able to see into the heavens and envision the glories within. The word heaven also connotes God. And, like a god, a poet is a creator. God created the stars and the earth out of an airy nothing. Poets also create people and places out of the same substance. Theseus concludes his side of the debate by expressing the view that the imagination is triggered or turned on by the emotions. If a man feels joy, such as the joy of being in love, he needs a source of that joy. Such a source cannot be plain or ordinary. Rather it must be extraordinary or marvelous. The source must be a Helen or a Venus. Theseus adds that a negative emotion, like fear, can also trigger the 105
imagination. Such a negative emotion would explain the lunatic seeing a multitude of devils. Theseus thus argues that reasonable men do not see the wild images of the emotional man because such images do not really exist outside the minds of the lover or lunatic or poet. However, Hippolyta argues that in the stories of the four lovers there is too much constancy (26). She is arguing that the stories are too consistent or too similar. She is suggesting that since the four young lovers all have had the same dream, it could not be just a product of the imagination. Lovers may dream strange things, but one mans dream is never identical to that of another. That is too strange or wonderful. Hippolyta does not believe it can be mere coincidence. Before Theseus can respond, he and his bride are interrupted by the entrance of the four lovers. The debate thus ends without a real winner. Theseus continues to disbelieve in fairies, but Hippolyta is not so certain. Shakespeare, however, leaves it up to the members of his audience to form their own opinions.
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Act V, Scene 1: A Choice of Entertainment The wedding celebration includes entertainment. Theseus asks Egeus for a list of the diversions that the citizens of Athens have prepared to perform before their Duke. Egeus briefly describes three possibilities: 1. An Athenian eunuch playing a harp and singing a song about a mythological battle with the centaurs 2. A performance of the bacchanals and their murder of Orpheus 3. An allegorical play where the nine Muses mourn the death of Learning Theseus rejects the first one because it is a story he is too familiar with the story. According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, Theseus fought against ands killed Eurytus, the most dangerous of all the centaurs (wild half-horse, half-man creatures). Moreover, the appearance of a eunuch (a male singer who has been castrated as a young boy in order to preserve his high-pitched singing voice) would be in too sharp a contrast to the lustful desires of Theseus. The Duke also rejects the second performance. The bacchanals were drunken women who served Bacchus (called Dionysus by the Greeks), the Roman God of Wine. They killed Orpheus, a musician of tremendous skill, because he would not have sex with them. This story also appears in Ovids work. Theseus rejects the play 107
because it is an old device (50). Theseus is commenting that the play has become tiresome because it has been performed too many times. Shakespeare himself may be commenting that the play has been performed too many times during the Renaissance. Theseus rejects the third item on the list as well because it is too serious, and he wants his wedding day to be light and happy. Egeus then reads, somewhat reluctantly, the fourth item on his list:
A tedious brief scene of young Pyramus And his love Thisbe: very tragical mirth. (56-57)
Egeus reads the title as the artisans had written it. The artisans do not understand drama very well, but they wanted their title to sound important. The title contains two oxymorons (describing a word by its opposite): tedious brief and tragical mirth. A play cannot be both tedious (long and boring) and brief (short). Nor can a play be both tragic and mirthful (comical). Theseus wonders about these oxymorons and lays emphasis on their strangeness by using two more oxymorons: hot ice and black snow. Theseus finds the word choice amusing. Egeus, however, explains that the play is both brief and tedious. It is an extremely short play Egeus exaggerates the shortness of it by commenting that it is some ten words long (61). It is actually longer than that, but the play is extremely short according to Renaissance standards. Yet, since all of the words are awkwardly and foolishly written, 108
Egeus also finds the play to be extremely tedious. He cannot tolerate watching such a bad performance. Egeus also explains that the play is both tragic and comical. Although the subject matter the death of young lovers is tragic, the performance of it by the artisans is so awkward and ridiculous that the play becomes funny. Despite the negative comments by Egeus, Duke Theseus decides that he would like to see the artisans perform their comic tragedy. Theseus defends his choice by explaining
never anything can be amiss When simpleness and duty tender it. (82-83)
Theseus is implying that although the performers may not be very good, their intentions are good. The artisans are attempting to pay their respect to their Duke (a sense of duty), and they are doing it to the best of their abilities. Hippolyta is not so sure. She believes that if the play is too wretched, too incompetently performed, that the respect or sense of duty in it will be absent (lines 85-86). But Theseus argues that their respect and duty will be evident despite the incompetence of the actors. Theseus then explains his point with a metaphor. The Duke relates how often, when he goes to visit the courts of kings in other lands, he is greeted by a clerk or minor court official who has prepared a special speech to welcome the Duke. However, the clerk or official is extremely nervous upon meeting the great hero 109
Theseus. And because he is nervous, the clerk or official turns pale and reads his speech awkwardly, making many mistakes along the way or perhaps not even finishing the speech. Theseus, however, is gracious and does not let the mistakes bother him. He realizes that the intentions of the clerk are good, and he accepts the speech as if it were recited perfectly.
Love, therefore, and tongue-tied simplicity In least speak most, to my capacity. (104-05)
The word love refers to the feelings the intentions of the speaker. Theseus finds respect in the intentions of the speaker even though the words of respect are never spoken. The speech by Theseus here also serves the function of meta-theater (when the playwright comments upon drama or acting through his characters). Shakespeare seems to be implying that he would rather see a play performed poorly by actors who were trying their best than to see a more polished performance by actors who did not take their roles or themselves seriously. In Shakespeares time there may have been more than a few actors who were too conceited or too full of themselves to perform a role properly. Although such actors may have spoken all of their lines correctly, Shakespeare would not have enjoyed their pompous performances.
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Act V, Scene 1: The Artisans Perform The artisans then perform the play of Pyramus and Thisbe with all of the expected mistakes and silliness. Quince mangles the prologue (or introduction) of the play, the wall and lion speak, and Bottom after he as Pyramus has committed suicide gets up and speaks directly to the audience. Another comical blunder is having the artisan Starveling, who plays the man in the moon, speak. Starveling explains that the lantern he is holding represents the moon and that he represents the man in the moon. But if Starveling is the man in the moon, then he should be inside the lantern. Theseus and the other aristocrats comment upon the dialogue and action as the play proceeds, but they enjoy the play-within-a-play nevertheless. After the wall speaks, for example, two members of the audience make the following remarks:
THESEUS Would you desire lime and hair to speak better? DEMETRIUS It is the wittiest partition that ever I heard discourse, my lord. (164-66)
Both Theseus and Demetrius find it quite comical and amusing that a wall can speak, but they add to the fun (and humor) of the situation by contributing jokes. Lime and hair (or straw), the ingredients used in making a wall, could not speak better since lime and 111
hair cannot speak at all. And even though the artisan Snout, who plays the wall, is actually lacking in wit, he is still the wittiest wall in Athens (or London) since he is the only wall with the power of speech. Hippolyta, though, may not be enjoying the play as much as her husband:
HIPPOLYTA This is the silliest stuff that ever I heard. THESEUS The best in this kind are but shadows, and the worst are no worse if imagination mend them. (207-09)
Theseus is commenting that all actors are shadows or reflections of real people. Even the best actors require the imagination of the audience to make their characters transform into something real and believable. And since the imagination of the audience is mandatory to make a play believable, Theseus argues that the people in the audience just need to use their imaginations somewhat more in order to make even a bad performance into something believable and delightful. Theseus enjoys the play more than does Hippolyta because he uses his imagination more in order to envision the play as it should be performed. At the end of the play, Bottom offers the aristocrats the choice of hearing an epilogue (or closing speech) or seeing a bergamask dance. Even the extremely tolerant Theseus can no longer tolerate any more bad speeches, so he asks for the dance. 112
Then Bottom and Flute (who played Thisbe and would thus still be wearing a dress) dance for their Duke. The bergamask dance was named after its place of origin Bergamo, Italy. It was a simple country dance that the people of London would find unsophisticated and perhaps a bit awkward. With the awkward artisans dancing it, the performance would most assuredly be silly and ridiculous. The director most likely called for the dancers to step on each others feet and perhaps even to fall down once or twice during the performance. Clownish dances at the end of comedies were not uncommon during the Renaissance. And although Pyramus and Thisbe was not a comedy, A Midsummer Nights Dream is.
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Act V, Scene 2: The Blessing by the Fairies A much better, more professional or classical dance ends the play. The song and dance could last for many minutes, depending on the choice made by the plays director. The Renaissance audience would enjoy this kind of spectacle, and they would thus leave the theater with the music still dancing in their heads. The scene begins with Puck entering the stage. Theseus and all of the other humans have already made their exits. They have retired to their rooms, for it is late in the night. Puck carries a broom. His job is to sweep the palace of all obstacles and to make sure it is empty so that the other fairies can safely enter. Then Oberon, Titania, and all of their fairy attendants enter. They are there to sing and dance, but they also have a purpose related to the plot: they are also there to bless this place (30). In the lyrics of the song, Oberon explains that they are blessing the inhabitants of the palace so that they ever shall be fortunate (36). The King of Fairies is thus controlling the destiny or fate of Theseus and the others so that their lives will be forever happy and peaceful. The fairies are blessing the humans so that they will live happily ever after (as all good fairy tales should end). The fairies also bless the future children of the aristocrats so that they will be healthy and beautiful and happy in their lifetimes as well. The fairies, then, symbolize the power of fate. 114
Earlier in the play when Oberon and Titania were quarrelling the force of fate was negative for mankind: plague, diseases, flood, famine, and more. Yet, at the end of the play, fate is a constructive force that brings forth positive results. Shakespeare well knew that fate could be both positive and negative, but he also knew well that a comedy should end with the positive.
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Act V, Epilogue: Just a Dream After the fairy song and dance are over and after the fairies have left the stage, one fairy remains alone in the palace: Puck. Puck speaks directly to the audience in a short speech and requests their applause. Puck also reminds the audience of the importance of dreams and dreaming. He suggests to the audience that they should think
That you have but slumbered here, While these visions did appear; And this weak and idle theme, No more yielding but a dream. (3-6)
Shakespeare thus once again brings the ideas of drama and dreaming together. Both plays and dreams are products of the imagination. Although Puck is making a humble request in his epilogue for the audience to show their appreciation, the fairy is also subtly hinting that the production of A Midsummer Nights Dream was like a pleasant and marvelous dream. As Oberon had suggested earlier, the power of the imagination can make even the worst of plays seem great. And the power of Shakespeares imagination via this comedy has allowed his audiences to forget momentarily their troubles and woes and instead engage in a pleasant mental journey through fairyland.
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FINAL REMARKS
PLOT As noted earlier, Shakespeare has woven together five separate and distinct stories into one cohesive whole: (a) the tale of the four lovers and the three love triangles they form: i. Hermia / Lysander / Demetrius ii. Helena / Hermia / Demetrius iii. Lysander / Demetrius / Helena (b) the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta (c) the quarrel between Oberon & Titania (d) the artisans attempt to produce a play (e) Pyramus and Thisbe The originality of play comes not only from the imaginary contributions that Shakespeare gives to each separate tale but even more so from the interweaving of such diverse elements. The playwright brings together a variety of diverse sources. Moreover, the lovers plot is an entirely new and original creation. The character of Puck, although he is not the protagonist of the comedy, is a structural device that connects almost all of the plots above: (a) he becomes involved with the irrational lovers when he applies the love potion to the men; (b) he is one of the fairies that blesses the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta, (c) he is the messenger for Oberon and 117
helps the Fairy King to steal the changeling child, and (d) he plays a prank on Bottom and the other artisans as they attempt to rehearse the play. Puck thus becomes the central figure of the play and the most memorable. He is a fun-loving spirit that brings joy and zest to the comedy. If Puck is not the protagonist, the reader may wonder who is. Actually, there is not just one. Each of the five stories has its own protagonist (or protagonists). The tale of the four lovers, of the five stories, perhaps can rightly be viewed as the main plot; and the other four tales can then be categorized as subplots. But even in the tale of the four lovers, the question regarding the protagonist is problematic. At first, Hermia is in conflict with her father and with society (the laws of Athens). Moreover, Lysander is in conflict with Demetrius over Hermia. Then, when Hermia runs away with Lysander, the pair of them become in conflict with society and with Demetrius. Later, after the love potion has been misapplied, not only is Lysander in conflict with Demetrius, but Hermia is in conflict with Helena. And Helena, early on in the story, is in conflict both with Demetrius (as she attempts to regain his love) and with herself (as she attempts to control her passion for Demetrius). Finally, all four lovers are in conflict with the supernatural force of fate (which is assisted by the magical power of the fairies). Love thus creates a tangled mess of conflicts that only the supernatural power of fate or the powerful imagination of a master 118
playwright can put in order. The climax to the main plot occurs with the restoration of Lysander to his love for Hermia (in Act III, Scene 3). Oddly, though, in this imaginative and complicated play, the climax comes early. In typical comedies, the main climax usually occurs in Act IV (or possibly Act V). But Shakespeare was not one to let rules and conventions stop him from creating a work of imagination. The playwright has so much going on in this work that he needs two additional acts to bring the entire dramatic work to a rich and satisfying conclusion. The resolution or, more rightly, resolutions of the play come in Act IV, Scene 1: (a) Oberon gets the changeling and ends his quarrel with Titania (b) Theseus reverses his judgment regarding Hermia and gets Egeus to agree (c) Bottom is restored to normal The denouement, the frosting on the cake, so to speak, comprises all of Act V. The last act is filled with humor and merriment. It is song and dance. It is a marvelous spectacle, perhaps not too unlike a finale in a Broadway musical. The tone of play is a mixture of heavy and light. The judgment against Hermia when she decides to disobey her father, is severe and extreme. Threats of death loom in the air. In addition, when Oberon and Titania quarrel, disasters plague the land 119
and affect all of the citizens of Athens. Shakespeare, like many other great playwrights, was well aware that fine comedy can arise out of dark beginnings. And the lighter moments are all the more welcome as they bring relief to the heavy and serious scenes. Of course, Shakespeare provides numerous light moments in the play: Theseus and his lustful complaints, the artisans foolish attempts to produce a great play, the bickering of the four lovers, the transformation of Bottom and his love for Titania, and, most importantly, the comments and actions of the manic and childish fairy prankster, Puck. Upon leaving the theater, the members of the audience have almost already completely forgotten the darker scenes of the play. The joyous and humorous scenes overwhelm the heavy ones.
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SOURCES The Two Gentlemen of Verona by William Shakespeare This earlier comedy also contains cross-wooing and the confused allegiance by two pairs of lovers. Two Gentleman, in turn, was derived from an Italian comedy. The Knights Tale by Geoffrey Chaucer Chaucers story has a reference to a great feast at the wedding of Theseus and Hippolyta. The Life of Theseus Written in 1579, this was an English translation of Plutarchs Lives. Metamorphoses by Ovid Ovid includes the tale of Pyramus and Thisbe. Oral Tradition: Contained stories of fairies Midsummer Day Holiday (June 23) This was a day of celebration in England during the Renaissance. Midsummer Night was similar to Halloween: superstitious people believed it was a time for the gathering of witches, fairies, and spirits.
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Names for Oberon & Titania

a. Titania is another name for Circe in Ovid b. Oberon is called King of the Fairies in Robert Greenes James IV (1591) c. both names appear in the French romance Huon of Bordeaux, translated into English in 1534
Name of Puck a. a mischievous sprite dating back to Anglo-Saxon times b. Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) Author Reginald Scot provides names and a description of Puck (Robin Goodfellow) Names of Artisans are related to their professions: Bottom the core (spool) upon which weavers yarn was wound Quince a block of wood used by carpenters Snout the nozzle of a kettle, which was mended by tinkers Snug means close-fitting appropriate for a joiner (cabinet-maker) Flute stops of church organs had fluted tops that were repaired by a bellows-mender Starveling stereotype of tailors depicted as small and skinny
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The Golden Ass by Lucius Apuleius (2nd Century AD) This story, translated into English in 1566, concerns a Greek youth who is transformed into an ass by a witch and who makes love to a lascivious matron.
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THEMES As in any of Shakespeares works, the playwright explores numerous topics and ideas. Most notable in A Midsummer Nights Dream are the following: Love Marriage Fate Magic Magic and Fate Human Behavior Male-Female Relationships Dreams Imagination Art / Poetry Celebration and Blessing Reality and Illusion Death and Destruction Social Rules In addition to these concepts, the reader should also consider the following:
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1. Kinds of Love (Love Theme) 1. Young True Love Hermia & Lysander 2. Misguided Love Demetrius for Hermia 3. Faded Love Demetrius for Helena 4. Anxious Love (Lust) Theseus for Hippolyta 5. Patient Love Hippolyta for Theseus 6. Envious Love Oberon & Titania 7. Parody of Love Artisans performing Pyramus and Thisbe 2. Fate Oberon and Fairies are a supernatural force that assist fate or symbolize fate. Sometimes (usually often) fate causes difficulties for mankind. An example of this in the play occurs with Pucks misapplication of the love potion on Lysanders eyes. Through the dialogue of Lysander and Hermia (in Act I, Scene 1) Shakespeare provides a commentary on star-crossed love (love affected adversely by fate). However, in this play, all turns out well. Fate may not be a positive force in most peoples lives, but in this comedy fate is largely a positive and benevolent force.
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3. The Symbolism of the Fairies and the Connection to Nature The names of many of the fairies (Peaseblossom, Cobweb, Moth, Mustardseed) are taken from nature, the names of herbs, flowers, or insects. The play begins with social conventions: the courtroom scene in which Hermia is on trial. Hermia faces serious consequences: death or life in convent. Society initially is a negative force that runs contrary to nature. Shakespeare presents a conflict of Society vs. Nature: Athens (city) vs. Woods (nature) Idea of Escape Lysander & Hermia need to escape the city in order to behave naturally (the city is unnatural) This is sometimes referred to as the Two Worlds Theme: the world of society vs. the world of nature. Such plays usually involve a journey from society to nature and then back again to society. And the characters in society improve and become more natural as a result of their visit to nature.
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4. Dreams and Imagination Theme The title of play sets up the dream connection. Shakespeare draws a connection between the lunatic, the lover, and the poet in Theseus speech in Act V, Scene 1. Yet Theseus dismisses the idea of fantasy as being the product of an overworked imagination in the same speech (Act V, Scene 1). Demetrius comments, It seems to me that yet we sleep, we dream (Act IV, Scene 1). Dreams and reality blend in the play. Midsummer Night (celebration of Summer Solstice on June 23): see Sources (page 121). Shakespeare conflates Midsummer Night with The Rite of May (IV, 1: 130). English country festivals occurred during May Day (May 1) celebrations: it was a time of holiday, merriment, an atmosphere of madness and magic, herb lore, and stories about supernatural figures.
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5. Meta-Theater (compare to Hamlet) Shakespeare provides a parody of bad acting and bad plays with the tragedy performed by the artisans. Many bad plays were performed in Elizabethan England. The productions by the childrens companies (a production in which all of the actors are children, mentioned in Hamlet) might have been similar to the performance given by artisans.
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6. Theme of Transformation At the end of the play, there is the establishment of a New Social Order (sensitive and hopeful). The transformation of society is symbolized indirectly by the transformations of Bottom and Demetrius. Theseus in Act I is Strict, Rational [although he is irrational in his lust for Hippolyta], and Officious in regards to the Law. Yet, in Act V, he (a) reverses his decision on Hermia. (b) accepts the intent of the artisan-actors over their actual performance. The negative comments made by the aristocrats during the performance of the artisans are whispers, not to be heard by artisans. The aristocrats also make courteous comments out loud: for example, Well-roared, Lion.
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COMMENTS BY THE CRITICS
Joseph Rosenblum A Readers Guide to Shakespeare (1999) A Midsummer Nights Dream marks the maturation of William Shakespeares comic form beyond situation and young romantic love. One plot focuses on finding young love and on overcoming obstacles to that love. Shakespeare adds to the richness of comic structure by interweaving the love plot with a cast of rustic guildsmen, who are out of their element as they strive to entertain the ruler with a classic play of their own. The play also features a substructure of fairy forces, whose unseen antics influence the world of humans. With this invisible substructure of dream and chaos, A Midsummer Nights Dream not only explores the capriciousness and changeability of love (as the young men switch their affections from woman to woman in the blinking of an eye) but also introduces the question of the psychology of the subconscious. (pages 218-19)
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Anne Barton The Riverside Shakespeare (1974) Athens, at the beginning of the play, is partly classical and partly Chaucers somewhat quaint medieval dukedom. When the lovers return to it at the end, it seems to have transformed itself almost entirely into an Elizabethan great house. Like Athens the wood nearby where most of the action takes place is both mythological and intensely English, alien and familiar. It is a compelling invention precisely because its true nature remains mysterious. (page 218) In the Pyramus and Thisby interlude Shakespeare was remembering, and mocking, actual plays which had formed part of the repertory of the childrens companies and of the travelling groups of adult players when he was a boy. Some of Bottoms most grotesque speeches as Pyramus are surprisingly close to lines intended to be spoken in all seriousness in Appius and Virginia (1564) or in Prestons Cambises (1561). The mechanicals themselves are deeply confused about the nature of theatrical illusion. (page 218)
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Stephen Greenblatt The Norton Shakespeare (1997) Indeed, if Puck takes mischievous delight in the discord he has helped to sow among the four young lovers he is not the originator of that discord, and he is the indispensable agent for setting things right. In his role as both mischief maker and matchmaker, Puck resembles the crafty slave in comedies by Latin playwrights Plautus and Terence, a stock character who sometimes seems to enjoy and contribute to the plots tangles but who manages in the end to remove the obstacles that stand in the way of the young lovers. (page 808)
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Harold Bloom Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human (1998) I have much to say on behalf of Bottom, Shakespeares most engaging character before Falstaff. Bottom, as the plays text comically makes clear, has considerably less sexual interest in Titania than she does in him, or than many recent critics and directors have in her. Shakespeare, here and elsewhere, is bawdy but not prurient; Bottom is amicably innocent, and not very bawdy. What we do have is a gentle, mild, good-natured Bottom, who is rather more inclined to the company of the elves Peaseblossom, Cobweb, Moth, and Mustardseed than to the madly infatuated Titania. (pages 148-49) Like Dogberry after him, Bottom is an ancestor of Sheridans Mrs. Malaprop, and uses certain words without knowing what they signify. Though he is sometimes inaccurate at the circumference, he is always sound at the core, which is what Bottom the Weavers name means, the center of the skein upon which the weavers wool is wound. There are folkloric magical associations attendant upon weaving, and Pucks choice of Bottom for enchantment is therefore not as arbitrary as first it seems. Whether or not Bottom (very briefly) becomes the carnal lover of the Fairy Queen, Shakespeare leaves ambiguous or elliptical, probably because it is unimportant compared with Bottoms uniqueness in the Dream: he alone sees and 133
converses with fairy folk. The childlike fourfold of Peaseblossom, Moth, Cobweb, and Mustardseed are as charmed by Bottom as he is by them. Bottom the natural man is also the transcendental Bottom, who is just as happily at home with Cobweb and Peaseblossom as he is with Snug and Peter Quince. For him there is no musical discord or confusion in the overlapping realms of the Dream. It is absurd to condescend to Bottom: he is at once a sublime clown and a great visionary. (pages 150-51)
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Pictures from
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935)

Directed by William Dieterle and Max Reinhardt Starring James Cagney as Bottom, the Weaver Joe E. Brown as Flute, the Bellows-mender Mickey Rooney as Puck or Robin Goodfellow, a Fairy
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UNDERSTANDING SHAKESPEARE: A MIDSUMMER NIGHTS DREAM

UNDERSTANDING SHAKESPEARE: A Midsummer Nights Dream

UNDERSTANDING SHAKESPEARE: A Midsummer Nights Dream

First Printing: May 2011

Act I ............................................................. Act II ............................................................. Act III ............................................................. Act IV .............................................................

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

concept with a mythological allusion:

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream

Understanding Shakespeare: A Midsummer Nights Dream