A Fundamental Course in Fluid Mechanics and

Heat Transfer
Srikanth Vedantam
November 27, 2011
2
Contents
I Fluid Mechanics 5
1 Introduction 7
2 Fundamental concepts 11
2.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Motion and deformation of a uid particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Linear translation of a uid particle . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Rotation of a uid particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.3 Linear strain rate of a uid particle . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.4 Shear strain rate of a uid particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 System and Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.1 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.2 Control volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Balance laws 25
3.1 Balance laws in integral form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.1 Balance laws for a system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.2 Balance laws for a control volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Balance laws in Local Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Mass balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.2 Linear momentum balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 Navier-Stokes equations 37
4.1 Constitutive equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Navier-Stokes equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5 Fluid Statics 41
5.1 Force balance for a static liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Variation of pressure in a static liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2.1 Manometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3 Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3
4 CONTENTS
5.4 Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.1 Planar surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.2 Curved surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.3 Example problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.5 Buoyancy and stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.6 Fluids under rigid body motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6 Dimensional Analysis 47
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.2 Buckingham Pi theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.3 Non-dimensionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4 Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.5 Non-dimensionalization of dierential equations . . . . . . . . . . 50
7 Incompressible inviscid ow 53
8 Incompressible viscous ow 55
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.2 Internal ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.3 External ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9 Fluid machinery 57
10 Heat Transfer 59
10.1 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
10.2 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.3 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.4 Steady state conduction in one dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10.5 Fins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
10.6 Unsteady conduction in one dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10.6.1 Lumped heat capacity system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.7 Transient heat transfer from a semi-innite solid . . . . . . . . . 63
10.8 Finite dierence method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Part I
Fluid Mechanics
5
Chapter 1
Introduction
Suppose you have a glass bottle lled partially with water on a table. You might
recognize that the glass bottle system consists of three states of matter: solid
glass, liquid water and gaseous air. And further, you might classify the water
and air together as uids.
What really makes the uids uid? At an atomic level, the glass will have
atoms arranged in an amorphous manner that is, not crystalline (in fact, from
this point of view, glass is termed supercooled liquid). The amorphous distri-
bution of atoms extends to the liquid water and the gaseous vapour materials as
well. The atoms in the gas are generally quite far apart whereas in water and in
glass they tend to cluster quite close together. In fact, though we classify water
and the air as uids, from an atomic viewpoint, glass and water look more alike.
So why do we classify water and air together as uids?
We dene uids as materials which ow under applied loads. That is, they
take the shape of surrounding material. Dont solids ow? In the presence of a
force (we need some force to be acting for example, even water will form a
spherical drop in the absence of gravity), if we wait really long enough even for
small forces, everything every material ows. It is the timescale which is
dierent for dierent materials. For convenience, we tend to think of materials
which ow in a few seconds as uids. Even a steel wire will ow given a long
enough time (this phenomenon is called creep).
What exactly do we mean by ow? If you compressed a liquid equally from
all directions, the liquid may contract by a certain amount. For a constant
compressive force, the amount of compression will be constant. And this is true
of a solid as well. However, if you sheared a liquid with a constant applied
stress it will continue to deform without stopping, but a solid will only deform
to a certain extent. After some amount of shearing, the stress in the solid
increases and this resists the applied load. In a liquid this does not happen.
This continuous deformation under shear stresses is called ow.
Mechanics is the study of forces and deformations of materials. Even among
uids, the behaviour could be quite dierent among dierent uids. Some uids
tend to resist greater forces when they are stationary than when they are moving.
7
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Other uids do the opposite. Some uid start to ow only after a certain level of
shear stress is applied. Characterising these sorts of behaviour is an important
aspect of Fluid Mechanics.
In fact, it is useful to take a step back and look at the way we characterise
the mechanical behaviour of any material. Why would we want to do this
characterisation in the rst place? We would like to build models of material
behaviour. In the ideal scenario, we would like to develop a model by using
data from experiments in a simple setting (such as a one dimensional test) and
then predict what the material would do in a more complicated setting. This
will allow us to understand the physics better as well as develop more optimal
designs.
How do we develop models of materials which we can then use to describe
the material behaviour? Generally a few specic steps are followed which shall
be described below.
The rst assumption we make is that the material is continuous. This seems
to be an error since we all know that all materials are composed of atoms with
signicant empty spaces between them and matter is thus NOT continuous!
However, the assumption of continuity of matter makes life easy in terms of
developing models and has proved to be quite accurate for most materials, even
for nanomaterials which consist of only a few tens of thousands of atoms. The
assumption of continuity allows us to write dierential equations to describe
materials. Thus the study of mechanics of materials (including solids, liquids
and gases) under this assumption is called continuum mechanics.
The next step is to write down a description of the position and motion of
the body. We can write this down in a very general manner. However, if we
intend to study the material in very specic situations such as one dimensional
or two dimensional motions or small deformations, we can write down more
specic descriptions. This will simplify the model being developed greatly. This
description of the motion of the body is called kinematics.
The third step is to write down the physical laws governing the material.
These are some of the basic universal laws of nature such as the a. conservation
of mass, b. conservation of linear momentum, c. conservation of angular mo-
mentum, d. conservation of energy, e. conservation of charge. All the balance
laws may not be necessary for a particular problem. For example, unless the
electrical charge is expected to aect the forces or deformations of the body un-
der consideration, it may not be necessary to list it. In addition to the balance
laws, we also write down the second law of thermodynamics which is an im-
balance law. The balance laws and second law of thermodynamics are essential
components for developing models of material behaviour.
The balance laws introduce various eld quantities required to describe
the force, temperature, charge which are functions of position in the body
and time. However, it will be seen that the number of balance laws introduced
is always smaller than the number of variables to be solved for. This is because
the balance laws are valid for any material in the universe and the information
describing a particular material has still not been introduced. Unless this specic
information is given, the model does not know which material we are trying
9
to describe. This information is introduced in a continuum model through
constitutive equations. These give specic material relations and depend on
whether the material is a solid, liquid or gas. And even among solids, whether
the material is an elastic solid or inelastic. There are many possible types of
constitutive relations and choosing the appropriate one is the biggest challenge
in developing a material model. Appropriate constitutive equations can only be
written by looking at the experimental behaviour of the material.
We provide enough constitutive equations to complete the system above
(such that there are as many equations as there are unknowns). The next step
is to combine all the above equations and obtain the governing equations.
For a specic geometry we can then provide the boundary conditions appro-
priate to the problem and solve the governing equations to describe the material.
However, the governing equations are usually complicated and we have to resort
to numerical computational techniques to solve the system. The commonly used
numerical methods are nite dierence or nite element methods.
To summarize, the basic steps of continuum mechanics are:
1. Describe the position and motion of the body: Kinematics.
2. Write down the basic conservation laws through: Balance laws and
second law of thermodynamics.
3. Write down equations describing specic material behaviour through: Con-
stitutive equations.
4. Combine all the above equations to obtain the Governing equations.
5. In order to describe a specic problem, specify the Boundary condi-
tions.
6. Solve the governing equations and the boundary conditions, usually using
a Numerical method.
In this text we will restrict our discussion to describing the kinematics of
uid systems, writing down the balance laws of linear and angular momentum
and one simple constitutive equation. This simple equation describes what
is called a Newtonian uid. We will combine this constitutive equation with
the balance laws of linear momentum to obtain the governing equations for
uids called the Navier-Stokes equations. In fully three dimensional form, these
equations are non-linear and complicated to solve. We will solve these equations
in some simple geometries with simplifying assumptions and try to understand
the physics of uid ow in some very specic situations.
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2
Fundamental concepts
In Chapter 1 we noted that the rst steps of continuum mechanics required
the description of the positions and velocities of the uid body which we called
kinematics. In this chapter we will lay out the concepts connected with the
kinematic description of the body. This will be connected to the deformation
of the body and its motion which we will describe in detail. In addition we will
also introduce the concept of stress. It is important to note that all the concepts
in this chapter are quite general are not restricted to uids alone. They apply
to every form of matter.
2.1 Kinematics
Kinematics is the description of deformation and motion of matter. There
are several possible ways of describing the deformation of a material. These
descriptions are very general and not restricted to any one form of matter.
However, some are more convenient than the others for describing uids.
First it is important to consider a particle of matter. A particle (not re-
lated to atoms or molecules) is an innitesimal (vanishingly small) element of
matter. It is continuously connected to the neighbouring particles in accord
with the continuum viewpoint of matter. In order to give the position of a
particle we will rst x a coordinate frame. There are many possible coordinate
systems we can choose and the physical concepts do not depend on this choice.
The form of the equations look dierent depending on the choice but are com-
pletely interchangeable. For simplicity we will make the choice of a rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system. In the Appendix we will also list out the forms of
the equations in other coordinate systems.
In Fig. 2.1, we show a particle located at a point with coordinates (x, y, z)
in a Cartesian coordinate frame with origin at O. The shape of the particle is
chosen according to the coordinate frame with sides oriented along the axes of
the coordinate frame. The extent of the particle is dx in the x direction and
dy, dz along the y and z directions respectively. For convenience we choose
11
12 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
O x
y
z
dx
dy
dz
Figure 2.1: Dierential uid element
the center of the particle at (x, y, z). However, we can alternatively choose one
corner of the cube to be at (x, y, z) and this choice is completely equivalent since
the eventual equations we derive will be for the limit of the particle size tending
to 0.
Before we consider a real material, let us rst consider a special kind of
material composed of students taking this course this semester. The students
are particles of this material. Let us imagine a boundary which encloses all the
students as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 2.2. As the students move about,
the boundary of the body passes through the outermost students. The dashed
line and the crosses show the students in their rst class and the dashed dotted
line and round particles shows the students as they are getting into their second
classroom. Since Mechanics is the study of forces and motions of a body, the
force on this body may be the motivation of the students to get to the next
class. The motion describes how fast they get there. Consider a case where
all the students are in one classroom for one class and have to all go to another
classroom for the next class. We are usually interested in asking two kinds of
questions in describing this motion:
1. How fast was a particular student A able to move from one classroom to
the next? In other words what was the velocity of student A with time,
v
A
(t)?
2. How fast are students able to move through the a particular region along
2.1. KINEMATICS 13
A
A
Classroom 1 Classroom 2
Corridor
Figure 2.2: A student body in two dierent congurations.
the path, say, the doorway of the next classroom? What is the velocity of
the particles at this doorway: v(doorway, t)?
In this example of the students, since we know the names of the students
in the class, we are able to ask the rst question meaningfully. In the case of
uids we cannot label the particles except in special cases and so we generally
ask the second question. The rst question is usually posed in the cases of solids
undergoing small deformations and is actually very convenient in that setting.
As we mentioned earlier, in the context of the above example, the force
is the motivational level of the class and the acceleration is the eagerness of
the students to step into the next classroom. The eagerness of a student at a
particular point such as the doorway to the classroom has two components: the
acceleration of a particular student in the doorway to move into the classroom
(from the innate eagerness for the class) and the rush of her classmates behind
who are almost carrying the student in the doorway into the classroom by
crowding close behind her. We will see that the acceleration of a uid element
has two analogous components.
When we are tracking the velocity of a certain particle (as asked in the rst
question above), we can write the student particles position at any given time
using a vector r
A
= x
A
(t)

i + y
A
(t)

j. Then her velocity and acceleration are

simply v
A
=
dx
A
dt

i +
dy
A
dt

j = v
xA
(t)

i + v
y
A
(t)

j and a
A
=
d
2
x
A
dt
2

i +
d
2
y
A
dt
2

j. This
sort of description of the material is called a Lagrangian description.
On the other hand, describing the velocity of particles at every point in the
domain (such as in the second question above) is called the Eulerian description
of motion of the material. We will look at it in detail next in the context of
uid ow.
In the Eulerian description of uid motion we consider a velocity eld of
the uid. That is we give the velocity of the uid particles at every point
r = x

i +y

j +z

k in the uid as v(x, y, z, t) = v

x

i +v
y

j +v
z

k. The velocity eld

describes the velocities of the particles owing through the various points in the
domain.
14 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
2.2 Motion and deformation of a uid particle
A rigid particle experiences two kinds of motions: linear motion under external
forces and angular motion under external torques. In order to obtain the particle
trajectory we solve the linear and angular momentum balance given by

F = ma, (2.1)

T = I, (2.2)
where a is the linear and the angular acceleration. The total external forces
and torques on the particle are

F and

T respectively.
In the case of particles in a deformable body, in addition to the rigid particle
modes the particles also experience two modes of deformation: stretching and
shearing. Thus a uid particle can experience two types of motions and two
types of deformations in general as shown in Fig 2.3.
We will derive the rates of linear and angular accelerations as well as the
rates of stretching and shearing next. It is important to note that just knowing
the velocity eld, we can obtain all the rates of motion and deformation.
2.2.1 Linear translation of a uid particle
In uids the Lagrangian description can be employed to look at the position of
a drop of tracer dye in the uid. In three dimensions, if the position of the drop
of tracer dye is given by r
p
(t) = x
p
(t)

i + y
p
(t)

j + z
p
(t)

k then the velocity and

acceleration of the tracer dye drop are given by v
p
(t) =
dxp(t)
dt

i+
dyp(t)
dt

j+
dzp(t)
dt

k
and a
p
(t) =
d
2
xp(t)
dt
2

i +
d
2
yp(t)
dt
2

j +
d
2
zp(t)
dt
2

k. These arise from the elementary

denitions of velocity and acceleration of a particle.
When we want to calculate the acceleration from an Eulerian velocity eld,
we cannot just dierentiate the velocity with respect to time. We need to
look at the acceleration of the particles passing through the point of interest
at the moment in time. At the time t let a particle p be at the point (x, y, z).
Since we have the label of the particle at this point, we know that its velocity is
(dx
p
/dt, dy
p
/dt, dz
p
/dt). But this should be the same as the velocity given at the
point p by the velocity eld. Thus the velocity of the particle occupying the point
(x, y, z) is v(x, y, z, t) = v(x
p
(t), y
p
(t), z
p
(t), t) = (v
px
(t), v
py
(t), v
pz
(t)). Then
the acceleration of the particle occupying (x, y, z) at the instant t is obtained by
applying the chain rule of dierentiation on the velocity of the particle owing
through the point
a
p
(x, y, z, t) =
dv
p
dt
=
v
p
t
+
v
p
x
p
dx
p
(t)
dt
+
v
p
y
p
dx
p
(t)
dt
+
v
p
z
p
dx
p
(t)
dt
. (2.3)
But at the instant t, the components of the particle velocity and the ow eld
velocity match (this is the denition of the ow eld velocity as described above).
Thus we can replace the expressions dx
p
(t)/dt by v
x
and dy
p
(t)/dt and dz
p
(t)/dt
2.2. MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF A FLUID PARTICLE 15
O
x
y
O
x
y
O
x
y
O
x
y
Translation
Rotation
Shearing
Stretching
Figure 2.3: The various modes of deformation of a uid particle.
16 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
by v
y
and v
z
respectively. Thus the acceleration in the Eulerian description is
given by
a(x, y, z, t) =
Dv
Dt
=
v
t
+
v
x
p
v
x
+
v
y
p
v
y
+
v
z
p
v
z
. (2.4)
To emphasize the point that the derivative is of the velocities of the underlying
particles in the ow, the special symbol D/Dt is used. It is called the material
derivative in continuum mechanics.
In component form the above equation can be written as
a
x
=
v
x
t
+v
x
v
x
x
+v
y
v
x
y
+v
z
v
x
z
(2.5)
a
y
=
v
y
t
+v
x
v
y
x
+v
y
v
y
y
+v
z
v
y
z
(2.6)
a
z
=
v
z
t
+v
x
v
z
x
+v
y
v
z
y
+v
z
v
z
z
(2.7)
The reason for the presence of the last three terms is that the acceleration
at a point is given by the local acceleration of the uid element as well as the
movement of surrounding uid elements into the location. The movement of the
surrounding uid elements into the location is called the convective component
of the acceleration.
Example Problem 2.2.1. Let the velocity eld in a tube be given by
v(x, y, z, t) = Ux/L

i.
1. Find the acceleration of a particle moving along the x axis.
2. Find the position x
p
(t) of a particle which was initially at x = 0 at t = 0.
Calculate its velocity v
p
(t) and acceleration a
p
(t).
Solution. 1. Substituting the given velocity eld v
x
= Ux/L, v
y
= 0, v
z
= 0
into eqs. (2.5)(2.7), we obtain a
x
= U
2
x/L
2
, a
y
= 0, a
z
= 0.
2. Recall that the denition of the velocity eld at each point in the domain
is nothing but the velocities of particles at those points. Therefore, when
the particle p is at a point x
p
its velocity is dx
p
/dt = v
x
. Thus
dx
p
dt
=
Ux
p
L
Integrating the above equation and using the fact that the particle was
at x = 0 at t = 0, we get x
p
(t) = L(e
Ut/L
1). This is the Lagrangian
description of the uid ow. (Note that the acceleration of the particle
is d
2
x
p
/dt
2
= U
2
x/L
2
which matches with the acceleration eld from the
Eulerian description.)
2.2. MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF A FLUID PARTICLE 17
A
B
C
D
A

vy
v
x
v
x
+
vx
y
y
y
x
v
x
dt
v
y
dt

v
y
+
vy
x
x

dt

v
x

vx
y
y

dt
d
d
At t At t + dt
Figure 2.4: Angular velocity of a uid particle.
2.2.2 Rotation of a uid particle
The rotation of the uid particle and its corresponding angular velocity of the
particle =
x

i +
y

j +
z

k are important in characterizing the ow. The

angular velocity is dened as the average of the angular velocities of two per-
pendicular lines on the uid particles. From Fig 2.4 showing a uid particle at
times t and t + dt, we can see that the average of the angular velocities of the
sides of the uid element oriented along the x and y directions is

z
=
1
2
_
d
dt
+
d
dt
_
=
1
2dt
_

1
y
_
v
x
y
ydt
_
+
1
x
_
v
y
x
xdt
__
=
1
2
_
v
y
x

v
x
y
_
. (2.8)
The negative sign in the term v
x
(v
x
/x)x arises since the line A

is to
the left of AB in order to account for the positive (counter-clockwise) angular
velocity.
You can see for yourself that the other two components of the angular ve-
locity are given by

x
=
1
2
_
v
z
y

v
y
z
_
, (2.9)

y
=
1
2
_
v
x
z

v
z
x
_
. (2.10)
The vorticity is dened to be twice the angular velocity. Thus the vorticity
of a uid particle is the curl of the velocity vector:
= v. (2.11)
18 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
v
x
dt
A B
A

v
x
+
v
x
x
x

dt
x
v
x
+
v
x
x
x v
x
At t At t +dt
Figure 2.5: Linear strain rate.
Example Problem 2.2.2. Let the velocity eld in a two dimensional domain
be given by v(x, y) =
x

x
2
+y
2

i +
y

x
2
+y
2

j. Find the angular velocity of uid

particles in this ow.
Solution. Using Eq. (2.8), we see that the z component of the angular ve-
locity,
z
=
1
2
_

1
2
y
(x
2
+y
2
)
3/2
2x
_

1
2
x
(x
2
+y
2
)
3/2
2y
__
= 0. The x and y
components can easily be veried to be 0 as well. Thus the ow has zero angu-
lar velocity. How is that possible? It can be seen that the ow eld is radial:
that is every particle is moving outward from the centre. In such a ow the
angular velocity is zero.
2.2.3 Linear strain rate of a uid particle
The linear deformation (strain) rate of a uid element is described by the ve-
locity of stretching or contraction of perpendicular lines on the uid element.
As can be seen in Fig. 2.5, A

= AB +BB

AA

. Thus the rate of change

of length per unit length of a uid element along the x axis is
1
x
d
dt
(x) =
1
dt
A

AB
AB
=
1
dt
1
x
_
dx +
v
x
x
xdt x
_
=
v
x
x
. (2.12)
Similar arguments in the y and z directions give the linear strain rates in
those directions as
vy
y
and
vz
z
.
The volumetric strain rate is the rate of change of volume of the uid element
per unit volume of the particle is given by
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
. (2.13)
To see this, note that the volume of the uid particle is V = xyz and
2.2. MOTION AND DEFORMATION OF A FLUID PARTICLE 19
A
B
C
D
A

vy
v
x
v
x
+
vx
y
y
y
x
v
x
dt
v
y
dt

v
y
+
vy
x
x

dt

v
x
+
vx
y
y

dt
d
d
At t At t + dt

Figure 2.6: Derivation of the shear strain rate.

the volumetric strain rate is
1
V
d
dt
(V) =
1
xyz
d
dt
(xyz)
=
1
x
d
dt
(x) +
1
y
d
dt
(y) +
1
z
d
dt
(z), (2.14)
which, from the linear strain rates derived above is the expression given in (2.13).
2.2.4 Shear strain rate of a uid particle
The change in shape of a uid particle is given by the shear strain rate. This
is dened as the rate of decrease of the angle between two initially mutually
perpendicular lines. As seen in the derivation of the angular velocity of the
uid particle, the change in angle in a time dt is clearly equal to (see Fig 2.6)
d
dt
_

2

_
=
d
dt
+
d
dt
=
v
y
x
+
v
x
y
(2.15)
It is important to note that the direction of d is opposite to that in the deriva-
tion of the angular velocity. This is because, for the angular velocity we want
the average counter-clockwise rotation of the particle whereas here we want the
decrease in the angle from the initially perpendicular lines.
20 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Example Problem 2.2.3. Let the velocity eld in a two dimensional domain
be given by v(x, y) =
x

x
2
+y
2

i +
y

x
2
+y
2

j as in Ex. (2.2.2). Find the shear

strain rate for this ow.
Solution. Using Eq. (2.15), we see that the component of the shear strain rate,

xy
=
_

1
2
y
(x
2
+y
2
)
3/2
2x +
_

1
2
x
(x
2
+y
2
)
3/2
2y
__
=
2xy
(x
2
+y
2
)
3/2
. The x and y
components can easily be veried to be 0. The ow has zero angular velocity
but a nite shear rate.
2.3 System and Control Volume
In the last section we described the velocity of a uid at a point. In many cases,
it is very useful to look at an entire volume of uid. In this case we have two
choices, we can follow a xed mass of uid or we can consider a xed region of
space through which uid ows. These will be described in this section.
It is worth emphasizing the dierence between this section and the last once
again. In the last section we looked at innitesimal uid particles and described
the position, velocity and acceleration of such particles. Depending on whether
we followed a particular particle or looked at the overall velocity eld in the
uid domain, the description was called Lagrangian or Eulerian respectively.
Here we are looking at nite volumes of uid domains. Depending on whether
the boundary allows exchange of uid mass or not, we call the domain a system
or control volume respectively. In both cases, the domain itself may have an
overall motion or deformation into a dierent shape.
2.3.1 System
A system is dened a xed, identiable mass of material. That is, we cannot
exchange a part of the mass of the uid with another of equal mass. Such a
situation arises naturally in some situations such as in a mass of helium in a
party balloon. The rubber balloon serves as the system boundary in this case.
As the balloon oats around the system moves but the mass of helium is xed
and identiable. The balloon may be squeezed into dierent shapes and the
system boundaries may deform.
2.3.2 Control volume
Situations in which a well dened system is identiable are few. In most cases
of interest, the mass of material is constantly owing in and out of regions of
space. A region of space into which material is owing in and out is called a
control volume. The boundaries of a control volume called control surfaces
may be mobile as well. These control surfaces may be real surfaces such as
the surface of a solid over which liquid is owing or imaginary.
2.4. STRESS 21
O
x
y
z
f
x
f
y
f
z
Figure 2.7: Two dierential elements showing the resolved forces on the inter-
face.
2.4 Stress
In mechanics we are interested in forces in a body and how they aect the
body. If we want to consider how forces are transmitted within a body, we
will naturally think about a particle such as that in Fig. 2.7 and its adjacent
particle. As shown in the gure let us consider the adjacent particle along the
xaxis rst. In general, the particle on the right applies a force on the particle
on the left on the interface between the two particles. The components of the
vector force can be resolved in the x, y and z directions as seen in the
gure. The x component of the forces aects the adjacent particles dierently
than the y and z component of the forces. The f
x
component is trying to
pull apart (or push together depending on the sign) the surfaces whereas f
y
and
f
z
are trying to slide the surfaces apart (in dierent directions). These forces
are acting on the surface area A
x
= dydz whose normal is in the x direction.
Similarly, on the surface of the particle whose normal is in the y direction with
surface area A
y
= dxdz, f
y
is the force component which pulling the surface
apart whereas f
x
and f
z
are the sliding components. Finally, f
z
is the pulling
apart force on the area A
z
= dxdy with the normal in the z direction whereas
the sliding components are f
x
and f
y
.
When we are looking at the force on an interface and its eect on the particle,
it is not the actual magnitude of the force acting on the surface, but rather the
force per unit area which is important. After all we can have a relatively small
force acting on a very small area which may cause a greater eect than a larger
force on a much larger area. Thus we consider the force per unit area which we
term stress as the important quantity in the mechanics of deformable bodies. As
we saw in the previous paragraph we can identify several important components
of forces for each surface: those that act to pull apart surfaces and those that
act to slide apart surfaces. Thus the stresses acting on the surface with normal
in the x direction has stresses
xx
= f
x
/A
x
and
xy
= f
y
/A
x
,
xz
= f
z
/A
x
of
which
xx
is the normal stress and
xy
,
xz
are the shear stresses. Similarly, on
the surface with normal in the y direction,
yy
= f
y
/A
y
is the normal stress
22 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
and
yx
= f
x
/A
y
,
yz
= f
z
/A
y
are the shear stresses. To complete the full set
of stresses, the surface with normal in the z direction has
zz
= f
z
/A
z
as
the normal stress and
zx
= f
x
/A
z
,
zy
= f
y
/A
z
the shear stresses. These nine
stresses are written in matrix form as
=
_
_

xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

yz

zx

zy

zz
_
_
(2.16)
Depending on the coordinate frame chosen, the values of the stresses may be
dierent but the matrices of stresses in the various frames are related through
a simple transformation rule. Any such matrix object which transforms under
these geometric rules is called a tensor. The nine components of the stress tensor
are shown on the dierential element in Fig. 2.8.
O
x
y
z

yy

xx

zz

yx

yz

xz

xy

zy

zx
Figure 2.8: Dierential element showing the nine stress components.
2.5 Problems
1. Describe an example of a Langrangian description of a material and an
example of an Eulerian description of a material.
2. For a velocity eld given by v = x

i y

j at what time does a particle which

started at x = 1 at t = 0 reach x = 1.5? At what time does a particle
which started at y = 2 at t = 0 reach y = 1.5?
3. For a velocity eld given by v = y

i x

j what is the location of a particle

which started at (1, 1) at t = 0 at time t = 1.5?
4. Consider four particles initially located at the corners of a unit square
(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2) in a ow eld given by
(a) v = x

i +y

j
(b) v = x

i y

j
2.5. PROBLEMS 23
(c) v = y

i +x

j
(d) v = y

i x

j
What are the locations of these particles at t = 1? What is the shape
obtained by joining the particles with straight lines? What is the area
of this shape? What are the angles between the sides of this shape? Do
these answers match with the calculation of the volumetric strain rate and
shearing rate from the given velocity eld?
5. For the following two dimensional ows, nd the acceleration, angular
velocity components, volumetric strain rate and shearing rates.
1
(a) v = (3x +y)

i + (2x 3y)

j
(b) v = t
2
i +t
3
j
(c) v = t(x +y)

i +t(x y)

j
6. For the following three dimensional ows, nd the acceleration, angular
velocity components, volumetric strain rate and shearing rates.
(a) v = (at +bx)

i + (ct +dy)

j + (et +fz)

k
(b) v = axt
2
i +byt
3
j +czt
4
k
(c) v = t(x +y 3z)

i +t(x y +z)

j + (x
2
+y
2
+z
2
)

k
7. A ow eld in the xy plane has a velocity eld given by v(x, y) =

_
y

x
2
+y
2

i
x

x
2
+y
2

j
_
. What is the angular velocity of particles in this
ow? What is the shear rate?
8. If the y component of the velocity in a ow eld is given by v
y
= (xy)
give all the possible steady (i.e. time-independent) x components such
that the ow is irrotational (i.e. angular velocity is zero).
9. What is an incompressible ow? Can an apparently easily compressible
uid (such as a gas) experience incompressible ow?
10. Which of the following ow elds represent two-dimensional incompress-
ible ows?
(a) v = (4x +y)

i + (x 4y)

j
(b) v = (xt
2
+y)

i + (xt
2
+x)

j
(c) v = (x + 2y)t

i + (x 2y)t

j
11. Which of the following ow elds represent three-dimensional incompress-
ible ows?
1
In this and following problems, you must assume that there are unit coecients which
allow each term of the velocity components to have the units of velocity.
24 CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
(a) v = (4x +y)

i + (x 4y)

j +xy

k
(b) v = (x +y +zt)

i + (xt +y +z)

j + (x +yt +z)

k
(c) v = (x + 2y)t

i + (x 2y)t

j
12. The three components of velocity in a ow eld are given by v
x
= Ax +
By + Cz, v
y
= Dx + Ey + Fz and v
z
= Gx + Hy + Jz. Determine a
relationship between the constant coecients A, B, . . . , J such that the
ow eld would represent an incompressible ow.
13. If the x component of the velocity in a ow eld is v
x
= Ax(By), nd a
possible steady y component of the velocity such that the ow is incom-
pressible. How many y components are possible to allow incompressible
ow? Are there unsteady y components for incompressible ow?
14. Would the case of the student body example discussed in Section 2.1,
be a system or control volume?
Chapter 3
Balance laws
The basic balance laws or conservation laws of nature are merely statements
of bookkeeping. They do the job of an accountant for a company who tries to
track income and expenditure. Money is not really conserved due to the ckle
notion of value, but the principle that is followed is that whatever money is
earned minus the money spent must be a part of the companys assets. The
complexity comes from the fact that money comes in dierent forms such as
cash, credit and assets. Similarly, the conservation laws are at their basis very
simple, but careful bookkeeping is required.
As we mentioned in the introduction, the basic quantities which are nei-
ther created nor destroyed in the universe are mass, linear momentum, angular
momentum, energy and charge. In this text we will write down the balance
laws for the rst four quantities. Actually, you may be aware that the general
theory of relativity allows for interchange between mass and energy. So really
we must write a balance law for mass-energy. However, in most applications
that we deal with, these relativistic eects do not play a signicant role and
the mass-energy interchange does not occur. Hence we can write separate equa-
tions for mass and energy. Charge also does not aect the ow for the types of
uids we will be studying in this text. It may be necessary to write the conser-
vation of charge equations in situations where it aects the uid ow such as
magnetohydrodynamics.
In some instances we may recognize that other higher order quantities may
be conserved for the time duration of interest. In such a case it may be more
useful to write down the balance laws for these higher order quantities. For
example, the ushers for a museum recognize that if a certain number of people
went into the museum since it opened, the same number should exit by closing
time. The museum guards do not weigh each person and write down the law of
conservation of mass for the museum.
This bookkeeping can be performed for an entire system or at a particle
level. When done at the system level or control volume level, the balance laws
arise in the form of integrals over the volume and surface areas of the system
or control volume. In this chapter we will derive the equations for the basic
25
26 CHAPTER 3. BALANCE LAWS
conservation laws of nature in integral form.
3.1 Balance laws in integral form
When local variations in uid velocities and accelerations are not important, the
global or integral forms of the balance laws become important. However, eects
such as the inuence of a wall on the neighbouring uid cannot be accounted
for by this approach. There are many important problems that can be solved
using the integral form as we will see in this section.
3.1.1 Balance laws for a system
Recall that a system is a xed, identiable mass of material. It is useful to
understand the balance laws as described in words rst and only then look at
the equations describing these statements.
1. Balance of mass: The rate of change of mass of a system is zero.
dM
dt

system
= 0 (3.1)
where M is the mass of the system
M
system
=
_
M
dm =
_
V
dV. (3.2)
where M is the system mass and V is the system volume. We used the
standard denition of density to relate dm = dV . Thus,
d
dt
_
M
dm =
d
dt
_
V
dV = 0 (3.3)
2. Balance of momentum: The rate of change of momentum of a system is
equal to the sum of all the external forces acting on the system.
dP
dt

system
= F (3.4)
where the linear momentum of a system is dened as
P
system
=
_
M
vdm =
_
V
vdV. (3.5)
Putting these two together, the balance of linear momentum is given by
F =
d
dt
_
M
vdm =
d
dt
_
V
vdV (3.6)
3.1. BALANCE LAWS IN INTEGRAL FORM 27
3. Balance of angular momentum: The rate of change of angular momentum
of a system is equal to the sum of all the external torques acting on the
system.
dH
dt

system
= T (3.7)
where the angular momentum of a system H is dened as
H
system
=
_
M
r vdm =
_
V
r vdV. (3.8)
Thus the balance of angular momentum is
T =
d
dt
_
M
r vdm =
d
dt
_
V
r vdV. (3.9)
4. Balance of energy: The rate of change of energy of a system is equal to
the total heat power supplied to the system minus the work power done by
the system.
dE
dt

system
=

Q

W (3.10)
where the total energy of the system E is the sum of the internal energy,
and kinetic and potential energies
E
system
=
_
M
_
u +
|v|
2
2
+gz
_
dm =
_
V

_
u +
|v|
2
2
+gz
_
dV. (3.11)
Thus the balance of energy is given by

Q

W =
d
dt
_
M
_
u +
|v|
2
2
+gz
_
dm =
d
dt
_
V

_
u +
|v|
2
2
+gz
_
dV.
(3.12)
5. Imbalance of entropy: The rate of increase of entropy of a system is greater
than or equal to the rate of heat supplied divided by absolute temperature.
dS
dt

system

Q
T
(3.13)
where the total entropy of the system is given by
S
system
=
_
M
sdm =
_
V
sdV. (3.14)
Thus the second law of thermodynamics can be written as
d
dt
_
M
sdm =
d
dt
_
V
sdV

Q
T
(3.15)
In most cases in Fluid Mechanics, a system of xed identiable mass cannot
be identied easily. Instead, the control volume is a preferred approach. How-
ever, since mass enters and leaves a control volume, the bookkeeping should
include the ux of the quantity carried in and out by the uid mass. We will
see how this is done next.
28 CHAPTER 3. BALANCE LAWS
3.1.2 Balance laws for a control volume
We rst note that in each of the balance laws for the system we had an extensive
property which was the integral of an intensive property over the system. Thus
we had
N
system
=
_
M
dm =
_
V
dV, (3.16)
where, by comparing with Eqs. (3.2), (3.29), (3.8), (3.11) and (3.14) we see that
if,
N = M, then = 1 (3.17)
N = P, then = v (3.18)
N = H, then = r v (3.19)
N = E, then =
_
u +
|v|
2
2
+gz
_
(3.20)
N = S, then = s (3.21)
The strategy to derive the balance laws for a control volume is to compare
the system and control volume at an instant in which both coincide. The rate
of change of any quantity in a system is related to the change in the quantity
in a corresponding control volume by
dN
dt

system
=

t
_
CV
dV +
_
CS
v da (3.22)
This equation is called the Reynolds Transport Theorem. It is very important
to note that here the velocity v is measured relative to the control surface. We
will now look at the specic forms for each of the balance laws.
Mass balance
Using Eqs. (3.3) and (3.22) and setting = 1 from (3.17) we can obtain the
balance of mass for a control volume

t
_
CV
dV +
_
CS
v da = 0 (3.23)
It should be noted that m =
_
CS
v da is the mass ow rate through the
control surface and q =
_
CS
v da is the volume ow rate through the control
surface.
When the ow is steady there are no time varying terms in the problem and
the mass balance becomes _
CS
v da = 0. (3.24)
When the uid is incompressible, = constant and the mass balance becomes
V
t
+
_
CS
v da = 0 (3.25)
where V =
_
CV
dV is the volume of the control volume.
3.1. BALANCE LAWS IN INTEGRAL FORM 29
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
45

60

Figure 3.1: Problem 3.1.1

Example Problem 3.1.1. Consider the steady ow of water through the mul-
tiport device shown in Fig. 3.1. The areas are A
1
= 20 cm
2
, A
2
= 15 cm
2
,
A
3
= 12 cm
2
, and A
4
= 5 cm
2
. The mass ow rate into the device through A
1
is 2 kg/s and the volume ow rate out of the device through A
3
=0.001 m
3
/s.
The velocity of water through A
2
is v
2
= 4

i m/s. If the velocity of water may be

assumed to be in the direction of the outlet ports, calculate the velocity of water
through A
4
.
Solution. The control volume is shown using a dotted line in the Fig. 3.1. Since
the ow is steady, we can use Eq. (3.24). Since the uid is water, we will also
assume that its density is constant. If, as usual, we assume that the velocity
prole across each inlet/outlet port is constant, the integrals reduce to
v
1
A
1
+v
2
A
2
+v
3
A
3
+v
4
A
4
= 0
The quantity m
1
= v
1
A
1
is the mass ow rate through area A
1
which is
given as 2 kg/s.
Since the velocity through A
2
is given as v
2
= 4

i m/s and the area A

2
= 15

i
cm
2
, the mass ow rate is m
2
= v
2
A
2
= 6 kg/s. (The density of water is
1000 kg/m
3
)
The volume ow rate out of A
3
is q
3
=0.001 m
3
/s (given). Thus the mass ow
rate out of A
3
is q
3
= 1 kg/s.
Substituting all the mass ow rates through Areas 1,2 and 3, we obtain the mass
ow rate through 4 to be m
4
= 5 kg/s into the device. Since the area vector
A
4
= 5(cos 30

i +sin 30

j) cm
2
, the velocity vector is v
4
= 1(cos 30

i +sin 30

j)
m/s.
30 CHAPTER 3. BALANCE LAWS
Linear momentum balance
Using Eqs. (3.6) and (3.22) and setting = v from (3.18) we can obtain the
balance of linear momentum for a control volume

t
_
CV
vdV +
_
CS
vv da = F (3.26)
where F is the total external force acting on the system. The external force
may be composed of a body force F
B
and a surface force F
S
where the body
force can be written as
F
B
=
_
bdm =
_
CV
bdV (3.27)
When the force of gravity is the only body force then b = g.
It is very important to note that the velocity v is measured relative to the
control volume and that Eq. (3.26) holds only for inertial or nonaccelerating
control volumes. In the case of rectilinear acceleration of the control volume,
the derivation must be done with more care. We begin again Newtons second
law for a system
dP
dt

system
= F (3.28)
where the linear momentum is
P
system
=
_
M
vdm =
_
V
vdV. (3.29)
This equation is valid only for velocities measured relative to an inertial reference
frame. If we denote an inertial reference frame by XY Z, then Newtons second
laws is
F =
dP
XY Z
dt

system
=
d
dt
_
M
v
XY Z
dm =
_
M
dv
XY Z
dt
dm (3.30)
The velocities of uid particles measure relative to the inertial reference frame
v
XY Z
and the accelerating CV reference frame v
xyz
can be related by
v
XY Z
= v
xyz
+v
CV
(3.31)
where v
CV
is the velocity of the control volume relative to the XY Z frame.
Dierentiating the above equation with time we get
dv
XY Z
dt
= a
XY Z
=
dv
xyz
dt
+
dv
CV
dt
= a
xyz
+a
CV
(3.32)
Substituting Eq. (3.32) into Eq. (3.30) gives
F =
_
M
dv
CV
dt
dm+
_
M
dv
xyz
dt
dm (3.33)
3.1. BALANCE LAWS IN INTEGRAL FORM 31
or
F
_
M
dv
CV
dt
dm =
dP
xyz
dt

system
(3.34)
Now we can use the Reynolds Transport Theorem for the term on the RHS of
the above equation to obtain
F
_
CV
a
CV
dV =

t
_
CV
v
xyz
dV +
_
CS
v
xyz
v
xyz
da (3.35)
where we have dened a
CV
=
dv
CV
dt
and used the fact that the system and CV
are coinciding at the time of consideration.
Angular momentum balance
Using Eqs. (3.9) and (3.22) and setting = r v from (3.19) we obtain the
balance of angular momentum for a control volume
T =

t
_
CV
r vdV +
_
CS
r vv da (3.36)
where the total external torque on the control volume may be written as
T = r F
s
+
_
CV
r bdV +T
shaft
(3.37)
the rst two terms on the RHS being the torques due to surface and body forces
respectively. Combining the above equations we get the angular momentum
balance for an inertial control volume
r F
s
+
_
CV
r bdV +T
shaft
=

t
_
CV
r vdV +
_
CS
r vv da (3.38)
Again it must be emphasized that this equation is valid only for an inertial
control volume.
We will now present the angular momentum balance for a rotating control
volume. Consider a xed inertial fram XY Z and a rotating and translating
reference frame xyz as shown in Fig. ??. Let the angular velocity of xyz be
and r be the position vector of a uid particle in the rotating control volume.
The balance of angular momentum is in the rotating control volume xyz is
r F
s
+
_
CV
r bdV +T
shaft

_
CV
r [2 v
xyz
+ ( r + r]dV
=

t
_
CV
r v
xyz
dV +
_
CS
r v
xyz
v
xyz
da (3.39)
32 CHAPTER 3. BALANCE LAWS
Energy balance
The rst law of thermodynamics for the system states that

Q

W =
dE
dt

system
(3.40)
where the total energy of the system is given by
E
system
=
_
M
edm =
_
V
edV (3.41)
with
e = u +
|v|
2
2
+gz (3.42)
As usual we use the Reynolds Transport Theorem with N = E and = e to
obtain
dE
dt

system
=

t
_
CV
edV +
_
CS
ev da (3.43)
Thus the rst law of thermodynamics may be stated as

Q

W =

t
_
CV
edV +
_
CS
ev da (3.44)
For convenience of problem solving we write

W =

W
shaft
+

W
normal
+

W
shear
+

W
other
. Here

W
shaft
is the work transferred in and out of the control volume
through a shaft.

W
normal
is the work done by normal stresses acting on the
boundary of the control volume. This can be rewritten as

W
normal
=
_
CS

nn
v a (3.45)
Viscous stresses can make
nn
dierent from the hydrostatic pressure p as we
will see in the constitutive equations. However for most cases of engineering
interest
nn
p. Thus the normal stresses term becomes

W
normal
=
_
CS

nn
v a =
_
CS
p

v a (3.46)
in which we just multiplied and divided by .
Note that if we choose the control surfaces perpendicular to the ow then
the shear work

W
shear
= 0. This is because the shear stresses act tangential to
the control surfaces whereas the uid ow is normal. Thus there will no power
added by the shear stresses. For a general choice of a control surface, there will
be a shear power input term.
Putting everything together we obtain the energy balance for a control vol-
ume

Q

W
shaft

W
shear

W
other
=

t
_
CV
edV +
_
CS
_
u +
|v|
2
2
+gz +
p

_
vda
(3.47)
3.2. BALANCE LAWS IN LOCAL FORM 33
Entropy imbalance
The second law for a system is
dS
dt

CV

1
T

Q (3.48)
where the total entropy of the system is
S
system
=
_
M
sdm =
_
V
sdV (3.49)
The Reynolds Transport Theorem to the system formulation of the second
law to obtain
dS
dt

CV
=

t
_
CV
sdV +
_
CS
sv da (3.50)
Since the system and CV coincide at the time instant under consideration
1
T

system
=
1
T

CV
=
_
CS
1
T
_

Q
A
_
dA (3.51)
Combining all of the above we get the second law of thermodynamics for a
control volume

t
_
CV
sdV +
_
CS
sv da
_
CS
1
T
_

Q
A
_
dA (3.52)
3.2 Balance laws in Local Form
The integral balance laws are useful when we are looking at the overall behaviour
of the interaction of a uid with a control volume. However, we cannot get
detailed information about the uid from point to point. Besides the interaction
with surfaces cannot be treated in a proper fashion. For this we need to look
at the dierential form of the balance laws. In this section we will derive the
balance laws for mass and linear momentum.
3.2.1 Mass balance
Consider the dierential control volume shown in Fig. 3.2. Fluid is entering and
leaving all the surfaces. Using Taylors series expansion about the center of the
cubical element, the density and velocities of the uid on the various surfaces
34 CHAPTER 3. BALANCE LAWS
O x
y
z
dx
dy
dz
Figure 3.2: Dierential control volume
are
(x dx/2) =

x
dx
2
(3.53)
(x +dx/2) = +

x
dx
2
(3.54)
v
x
(x dx/2) = v
x

v
x
x
dx
2
(3.55)
v
x
(x +dx/2) = v
x
+
v
x
x
dx
2
(3.56)
(3.57)
We state the law of conservation of mass as the net rate of mass ux out of
the control volume plus the rate of increase of mass of the control volume equals
zero. The net rate of mass ux out of the control volume can be seen to be
_
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
_
dxdydz (3.58)
The rate of change of mass in the control volume is given by

t
dxdydz (3.59)
Combining these two terms into the word state of the law of conservation of
3.2. BALANCE LAWS IN LOCAL FORM 35
mass we obtain

t
+
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
= 0 (3.60)
which can be written in vector form as v = 0. For an incompressible uid
=constant in space and time and we get
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
= 0 (3.61)
which is v = 0 in vector form.
3.2.2 Linear momentum balance
The balance of linear momentum of the dierential control volume gives

_
v
x
t
+v
x
v
x
x
+v
y
v
x
y
+v
z
v
x
z
_
= g
x
+

xx
x
+

xy
y
+

xz
z
(3.62)

_
v
y
t
+v
x
v
y
x
+v
y
v
y
y
+v
z
v
y
z
_
= g
y
+

yx
x
+

yy
y
+

yz
z
(3.63)

_
v
z
t
+v
x
v
z
x
+v
y
v
z
y
+v
z
v
z
z
_
= g
z
+

zx
x
+

zy
y
+

zz
z
(3.64)
where g
x
, g
y
andg
z
are body force components in the x, y, and z directions re-
spectively.
Angular momentum balance tell us that the stress matrix is symmetric:

xy
=
yx
,
xz
=
zx
,
yz
=
zy
36 CHAPTER 3. BALANCE LAWS
Chapter 4
Navier-Stokes equations
We derived the mass balance and linear momentum balance equations for a
dierential control volume in the previous chapter. We have six unknowns of
the stress components and three unknowns of the velocity components and the
pressure. We have just four equations mass balance and three components of
the linear momentum balance. In order to be able to solve the problems using
this approach we need to apply constitutive equations.
4.1 Constitutive equations
For a Newtonian uid the stresses may be expressed in terms of the velocity
gradients thus:

xy
=
yx
=
_
v
y
x
+
v
x
y
_
(4.1)

xz
=
zx
=
_
v
z
x
+
v
x
z
_
(4.2)

yz
=
zy
=
_
v
y
z
+
v
z
y
_
(4.3)

xx
= p
2
3
v + 2
v
x
x
(4.4)

yy
= p
2
3
v + 2
v
y
y
(4.5)

zz
= p
2
3
v + 2
v
z
z
(4.6)
(4.7)
where is the viscosity and p is the thermodynamic pressure.
37
38 CHAPTER 4. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
4.2 Navier-Stokes equations
Substituting the constitutive equations in the linear momentum balance stated
in the previous chapter, we obtain

_
v
x
t
+v
x
v
x
x
+v
y
v
x
y
+v
z
v
x
z
_
= g
x

p
x
+

x
_

_
2
v
x
x

2
3
v
__
+

y
_

_
v
y
x
+
v
x
y
__
+

z
_

_
v
z
x
+
v
x
z
__
(4.8)

_
v
y
t
+v
x
v
y
x
+v
y
v
y
y
+v
z
v
y
z
_
= g
y

p
y
+

x
_

_
v
y
x
+
v
x
y
__
+

y
_

_
2
v
y
y

2
3
v
__
+

z
_

_
v
y
z
+
v
z
y
__
(4.9)

_
v
z
t
+v
x
v
z
x
+v
y
v
z
y
+v
z
v
z
z
_
= g
z

p
z
+

x
_

_
v
z
x
+
v
x
z
__
+

y
_

_
v
y
z
+
v
z
y
__
+

z
_

_
2
v
z
z

2
3
v
__
(4.10)
In this course we will focus only on the incompressible Navier Stokes equa-
tions:

_
v
x
t
+v
x
v
x
x
+v
y
v
x
y
+v
z
v
x
z
_
= g
x

p
x
+
_

2
v
x
x
2
+

2
v
x
y
2
+

2
v
x
z
2
_
(4.11)

_
v
y
t
+v
x
v
y
x
+v
y
v
y
y
+v
z
v
y
z
_
= g
y

p
y
+
_

2
v
y
x
2
+

2
v
y
y
2
+

2
v
y
z
2
_
(4.12)

_
v
z
t
+v
x
v
z
x
+v
y
v
z
y
+v
z
v
z
z
_
= g
z

p
z
+
_

2
v
z
x
2
+

2
v
z
y
2
+

2
v
z
z
2
_
(4.13)
These equations in addition to the incompressible mass balance equation
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
= 0 (4.14)
constitute the governing equations for incompressible uid ow. In conjunction
with appropriate boundary conditions the velocity and pressure eld in a uid
may be solved.
4.3 Problems
1. Solve for the fully developed, steady, two dimensional velocity eld for
a uid ow between two plane horizontal surfaces. The bottom plane is
at rest whereas the top surface is moving at a constant speed U in the
x-direction. The separation between the plates is h.
(a) Calculate the shear stress at the top and bottom plates.
4.3. PROBLEMS 39
(b) What is the force required to drag the top plate at the constant
velocity U if the total area of the plate is A?
2. Solve for the fully developed, steady, two dimensional velocity eld for a
uid ow down an incline. The incline is at rest and the top surface of
the uid of layer is exposed to vacuum. If the mass ow rate is m what is
the height of the uid layer?
3. Solve for the fully developed, steady, two dimensional velocity eld for a
uid ow between two plane horizontal surfaces. Both the top and bottom
plates are at rest but there is constant pressure gradient p/x driving
the ow. If the outlet is to the atmosphere, what is the power required to
drive the uid at a mass ow rate of m?
40 CHAPTER 4. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
Chapter 5
Fluid Statics
There are many instances in which structures that we design and build will
need to take into account uid pressures. An example would be any under sea
structure on which water exerts tremendous pressure. There are instances where
surface tension driven phenomena need to be accounted for. In this chapter we
will discuss these aspects of uid mechanics.
A note on the notation: vectors will be given in boldface. That is, a vector

a will be written in the text as a.

5.1 Force balance for a static liquid
Consider a uid which is not deforming but which may be in rigid body motion.
In such a motion, if you put a marker dye in any location of the uid, the
dye will not move within the uid. Let us derive the equation governing such
motion.
For a dierential uid element such as in Fig 2.1, the body force is given by
df
B
= gdm = gdV = gdxdydz (5.1)
The pressure in the y-direction on the left face of the dierential element is
p
y
= p +
p
y
_
dy
2
_
= p
p
y
dy
2
(5.2)
Similarly the pressure acting on the right face of the dierential element is
p
y
+ = p +
p
y
_
dy
2
_
= p +
p
y
dy
2
(5.3)
The force due to the pressure on the left face is
df
py
=
_
p
p
y
dy
2
_
dxdz e
y
(5.4)
41
42 CHAPTER 5. FLUID STATICS
and the force due to the pressure on the right face is
df
py
+ =
_
p
p
y
dy
2
_
dxdz (e
y
) (5.5)
Thus the net force due to pressure in the y-direction is given by
df
py
=
p
y
dxdydz e
y
(5.6)
Similarly the other components due to pressure force can be derived and the
total pressure force in vector form is given by
df
p
=
_
p
x
e
x
+
p
y
e
y
+
p
z
e
z
_
dxdydz (5.7)
Recall from Physics that grad p is written as p and given by
p =
_
p
x
e
x
+
p
y
e
y
+
p
z
e
z
_
(5.8)
Thus the balance of forces on the uid element per unit volume can be written
as
p +g = a (5.9)
where a is the acceleration experienced by the uid element and is a rigid body
acceleration. Since we are not considering relative motion between uid elements
a is a constant.
5.2 Variation of pressure in a static liquid
If we neglect all other body forces other than gravity and consider a static liquid,
the variation of pressure in a liquid is given by
dp
dz
= g (5.10)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
This principle is used in measuring the pressure dierence between two uids
in a manometer.
Integrating eq. (5.10) using a presssure p
0
at some reference level z
0
, we can
obtain
p p
0
= g(z z
0
). (5.11)
It is convenient to measure the distance downward from the free surface of
the liquid and thus
p p
0
= gh (5.12)
where h is measured positive down from the free surface into the liquid.
5.2. VARIATION OF PRESSURE IN A STATIC LIQUID 43
5.2.1 Manometers
Consider a simple U-tube manometer shown in g. 5.1. A is connected to
a tank containing liquid with density
A
and B is connected to another tank
containing liquid with density
B
. The manometeric liquid is of density
M
.
The dierence in pressure between A and P is given by p
P
p
A
=
A
ga. The
pressure dierence between P and Q is given by p
P
p
Q
=
M
gb. Finally the
pressure dierence between B and Q is given by p
Q
p
B
=
B
gc. Putting all
these together we get
p
A
p
B
= g(c
B
+b
M
a
A
) (5.13)
The problem with these simple manometers is that the sensitivity is not very
good. That is, small dierence in pressures translates to small changes in height
and this makes it hard to read. In order to increase the sensitivity, inclined tube
reservoir manometers are usually used. How do these work? Consider the
inclined tube manometer shown in g. ??.
A
B
5cm
6cm
a
3.5cm
b
c
P
Q
Figure 5.1: U-tube manometer
44 CHAPTER 5. FLUID STATICS
5.3 Surface tension
When a static liquid comes in contact with a solid surface, it makes an angle
to the surface as shown in Fig. ??. This contact angle is determined by the
relative energies of the liquid-vapour interfaces, solid-liquid interface and the
solid-vapour interface. The drop contact angle is such that it minimizes the
total free energy of the system.
Consider a hemispherical drop on a solid surface with contact angle . The
footprint of the drop is a circle of radius, say, R. The volume of the drop is
given by
V =
1
3
R
3
(2 3 cos + cos
3
)
sin
3

. (5.14)
The liquid vapour surface area of the drop is given by A
LV
= 2R
2
(1
cos )/ sin
2
and the solid-liquid surface area is given by A
SL
= R
2
.
The total gibbs free energy of the system is given by
G = A
SL

SL
+A
LV

LV
+A
SV

SV
. (5.15)
To minimize the Gibbs free energy, we require
dG = dA
SL

SL
+dA
LV

LV
+dA
SV

SV
= 0 (5.16)
Dierentiating the above expressions for A
LV
and A
SL
we get
dA
LV
= 4R
(1 cos )
sin
2

dR + 2R
2
_
1
sin

sin
1 + cos
_
d (5.17)
and
dA
SL
= 2RdR. (5.18)
Note that
dA
SL
= dA
SV
, (5.19)
that is, a change in solid-liquid surface area can only come at the expense of the
change in solid-vapour surface area. Finally by dierentiating the expression for
the volume of the drop (and setting it to 0 since there is no change in volume)
we get,
Rd = 2(sin + sin 2/4)dR. (5.20)
Substituting the above expression into (5.17) we see that
dA
LV
= dA
SL
cos . (5.21)
Using
5.4. HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SUBMERGED SURFACES 45
5.4 Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
5.4.1 Planar surfaces
5.4.2 Curved surfaces
5.4.3 Example problems
5.5 Buoyancy and stability
5.6 Fluids under rigid body motion
46 CHAPTER 5. FLUID STATICS
Chapter 6
Dimensional Analysis
6.1 Introduction
Consider a simple spring mass system shown in Figure ??. From high school
physics we know that the equation governing the system is given by
m
d
2
x
dt
2
+kx = 0, x(0) = x
0
(6.1)
were m is the mass, k is the spring constant and x is the elongation of the
sping from its rest length at any time t and x
0
is its initial extension. Then the
extension of the spring at any time t is given by
x(t) = x
0
sin
_
k
m
t (6.2)
If we want to plot this function we have to choose a mass, a spring constant,
initial extension and the units to express these quantities in. For various choices
of the parameters we will get various curves as seen in Figure ??(a). However,
if we dene x = x/x
0
and

t = t
_
k/m as non-dimensional position and time, we
see that whatever the choice of m, k, x
0
we get the curve given by x(

t) = sin

t
(Figure ??(b)). From this we see the underlying form of the solution much
better.
In fact, we did not need the solution of this equation to be able to obtain the
non-dimensional forms for x and t. We know that the solution of the equation
(6.1) can only depend on m, k, t, x
0
and therefore
x = f(m, k, t, x
0
). (6.3)
Now let us look at the units of the quantities in the above equation.
We know that we need to have the same dimensions for every additive term
of an equation. That is, it makes no sense to say 5 m = 4 s +1 kg or anything
like that. The dimensions of x and x
0
are those of length which we will indicate
47
48 CHAPTER 6. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
as [L]. Similarly the dimensions of m is [M], k has dimensions of [M]/[t]
2
and
t has dimension [t].
Since the left side of (6.3) has dimension [L] so must the overall dimensions
of right side. All other dimensions must somehow cancel out. Since only x
0
has
[L] in it, f must be a linear function of x
0
. Thus f(m, k, t, x
0
) = x
0
g(m, k, t)
where g is itself a dimensionless quantity. We can see that the only way g can
be dimensionless is if g(m, k, t) = h(t
_
k/m). If any other combination comes
up we will be have some dimensional quantities left over. Thus we see that
x/x
0
= h(t
_
k/m). (6.4)
We, of course, wont know what functional form h is from this analysis but now
we can do experiments to nd out.
This analysis gives us a way of reducing our equation to a simpler form whose
nature we can see more clearly, but more importantly it allows us to reduce the
number of experiments we need to perform to get our function.
If we had started out with the original problem and tried to nd out f, we
would need to vary m, k, t, x
0
independently and get the value of x. If we did
10 experiments for each parameter, we will need to do 10
4
experiments. And
we would still not be able to see the underlying form easily. Using (6.4) we need
to do only about 10 experiments to start seeing the form.
Lastly, and perhaps the most important reason for non-dimensionalization,
is the fact that we can perform tests with masses and stinesses which are ex-
perimentally convenient. For example, if we are asked to measure the frequency
of oscillation of a micron sized spring mass oscillator, we can do a scaled up test
with convenient masses of and spring stinesses. If we want to design a new
car with good aerodynamic characteristics, we can build and work with scale
models.
6.2 Buckingham Pi theorem
Suppose for some physical problem we have a dependent variable x
1
which is a
function of n1 independent variables x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
, we can write the functional
form as
x
1
= f(x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
). (6.5)
Alternatively we can write this as
g(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) = 0. (6.6)
The Buckingham Pi theorem states that we can group these dimensional forms
into n m independent dimensionless ratios, or parameters which can be
written in a functional form
G(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
nm
) = 0. (6.7)
The number m is the number of independent dimensions required to specify the
problem. The dimensions mentioned here need not be only the primary dimen-
sions [M], [L], [t], temperature [T] or charge [Q]. They can be combinations of
6.3. NON-DIMENSIONALIZATION 49
the primary dimensions if only those combinations occur. The next section will
explain a systematic process of obtaining the parameters in detail.
6.3 Non-dimensionalization
There are several methods of obtaining the dimensionless parameters. I prefer
the simple and straightforward method described below.
1. List all the dimensional parameters involved.
2. Select a fundamental list of dimensions. Make sure that these dimensions
appear uniquely.
3. List the dimensions of the parameters in terms of the dimensions involved.
4. Select a set of parameters which contain the dimensions involved uniquely.
5. Divide the remaining parameters with the chosen parameters such that
non-dimensional groups are obtained.
The above procedure is demonstrated using two examples. In the rst the
primary dimensions are independent, whereas in the second they are not.
Example Problem 6.3.1. Consider the drag force on sphere moving through
air. The drag force on the sphere can be written as a function of the ball diameter
D, velocity V , density of air and viscosity . What are the dimensionless
groups for this problem?
6.4 Similarity
We mentioned in the introduction that an important reason for nondimensional-
ization is the ability to work with scale models. In order to enforce a correlation
between scale model tests and life sized models, we need to ensure similarity.
The similarity between the scale models and life size prototype models is of
three kinds:
1. Geometric similarity
2. Kinematic similarity
3. Dynamic similarity
Geometric similarity requires that the model and the prototype have similar
shape and dimensions ratios. Kinematic similarity requires that velocities in
corresponding points should be scaled by the same scale factor. Finally, dynamic
similarity requires that the forces at corresponding points should be scaled by
the same ratio. Dynamic similarity ensures kinematic similarity but not the
other way around.
50 CHAPTER 6. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
In actual tests, it may not be possible to achieve complete dynamically
similar cases. However, it may still be useful to perform the scale model tests
since they show qualitative trends about how increasing one parameter aects
other parameters of interest. Sometimes, a correction factor is calculated and
applied to get quantitatively useful results.
6.5 Non-dimensionalization of dierential equa-
tions
So far weve looked at physical problems and tried to guess the important de-
pendent and independent parameters. In describing most common uids, the
governing equations are known: the Navier-Stokes equations. It is possible and
necessary to non-dimensionalize the governing equations even before solving
them. It is then possible to consistently simplify the non-dimensional equa-
tions.
We will non-dimensionalize the Navier Stokes equations now. The conserva-
tion of mass is
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
= 0 (6.8)
and the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations are

_
v
x
t
+v
x
v
x
x
+v
y
v
x
y
+v
z
v
x
z
_
= g
x

p
x
+
_

2
v
x
x
2
+

2
v
x
y
2
+

2
v
x
z
2
_
(6.9)

_
v
y
t
+v
x
v
y
x
+v
y
v
y
y
+v
z
v
y
z
_
= g
y

p
y
+
_

2
v
y
x
2
+

2
v
y
y
2
+

2
v
y
z
2
_
(6.10)

_
v
z
t
+v
x
v
z
x
+v
y
v
z
y
+v
z
v
z
z
_
= g
z

p
z
+
_

2
v
z
x
2
+

2
v
z
y
2
+

2
v
z
z
2
_
(6.11)
To non-dimensionalize these equations we will take a reference length L
and a reference velocity V

. The reference length and velocity could be some

characteristic of the system such as the diameter and inlet velocity into a pipe.
Then the basic quantities can be non-dimensionalized as
x =
x
L
, y =
y
L
, z =
z
L
, v
x
=
v
x
V

, v
y
=
v
y
V

, v
z
=
v
z
V

t =
tL
V

, and, p =
p
V
2

(6.12)
The non-dimensional counterparts to the above equations can clearly be seen
as
v
x
x
+
v
y
y
+
v
z
z
= 0 (6.13)
6.5. NON-DIMENSIONALIZATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 51
and the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations are
v
x

t
+ v
x
v
x
x
+ v
y
v
x
y
+ v
z
v
x
z
=
g
x
L
V
2

p
x
+
1
Re
_

2
v
x
x
2
+

2
v
x
y
2
+

2
v
x
z
2
_
(6.14)
v
y

t
+ v
x
v
y
x
+ v
y
v
y
y
+ v
z
v
y
z
=
g
y
L
V
2

p
y
+
1
Re
_

2
v
y
x
2
+

2
v
y
y
2
+

2
v
y
z
2
_
(6.15)
v
z

t
+ v
x
v
z
x
+ v
y
v
z
y
+ v
z
v
z
z
=
g
z
L
V
2

p
z
+
1
Re
_

2
v
z
x
2
+

2
v
z
y
2
+

2
v
z
z
2
_
(6.16)
where we have set Re =
VL

. Re is an important parameter called the

Reynolds number. We can see that for a model system and a prototype to
be dynamically similar, we only require the non-dimensional parameters, the
Reynolds number and the Froude numbers, Fr = g
i
L/V
2

, for i = x, y, z to be
the same. In situations where the body forces are not important (such situations
are characterised by small values of Fr), only the Reynolds number needs to be
matched.
It should be emphasised that the boundary conditions also need to be similar
in order for the model and prototype ows to be similar. In this process, we
may get some further non-dimensional numbers which need to be matched. For
example, if the boundary condition is given by
v
bc
= V

sin t (6.17)
then the non-dimensional form is
v
bc
=
v
bc
V

= sin
_
L
V

t
_
(6.18)
Thus for the model and prototype to be similar, the Strouhal number St =
L/V

should also match.

52 CHAPTER 6. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Chapter 7
Incompressible inviscid ow
53
54 CHAPTER 7. INCOMPRESSIBLE INVISCID FLOW
Chapter 8
Incompressible viscous ow
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Internal ows
8.3 External ows
55
56 CHAPTER 8. INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW
Chapter 9
Fluid machinery
57
58 CHAPTER 9. FLUID MACHINERY
Chapter 10
Heat Transfer
10.1 Conduction
In a body in which there is a temperature gradient, heat ows from regions of
high temperature to the low temperature regions. This rate of heat transfer
per unit area is empirically determined to be proportional to the temperature
gradient. Thus,
Q = kA
T
x
(10.1)
where k is the thermal conductivity of the body (W/m.K) which always pos-
itive as a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics. Thus when the
temperature gradient is negative, there is heat transfer in the positive direction.
The problem of conduction heat transfer is to determine the temperature
eld in a body given either xed temperatures or heat uxes at the boundaries
of the body. Energy balance in this case gives the heat conduction equation.
Consider a one-dimensional innitesimal element as shown in Fig. ??. The
balance of energy can be stated as:
Energy conducted in left face + heat generated within element
= change in internal energy + energy conducted out right face
These quantities may be represented mathematically as:
Energy conducted in left face = Q
x
= kA
T
x
(10.2)
Heat generated within element = qAdx (10.3)
Change in internal energy = cA
T
t
dx (10.4)
Energy out right face = Q
x+dx
= A
_
k
T
x
+

x
_
k
T
x
_
dx
_
(10.5)
where q is the heat generated per unit volume (W/m
3
), c is the specic heat of
the material, (J/kg.K) and is the density (kg/m
3
).
59
60 CHAPTER 10. HEAT TRANSFER
Combining the above terms and simplifying we get

x
_
k
T
x
_
+ q = c
T
t
(10.6)
If we do a similar calculation for a three-dimensional element we get the
three-dimensional heat conduction equation

x
_
k
T
x
_
+

y
_
k
T
y
_
+

z
_
k
T
z
_
+ q = c
T
t
(10.7)
If the thermal conductivity is constant we can rewrite this equation as

2
T
x
2
+

2
T
y
2
+

2
T
z
2
+
q
k
=
1

T
t
, (10.8)
where = k/c is called the thermal diusivity (m
2
/s). The larger the value
of the faster the heat will diuse through the material. This is because high
can come through high k in which case, the heat will conduct away faster
or through low heat capacity c in which case less energy is used up to store
heat and raise temperature and more energy can be conducted away. Thus a
material with higher feels cooler to touch than a material with a lower even
if the two materials are at the same temperature.
10.2 Convection
The convection heat transfer from a solid surface is given by
Q = hA(T
w
T

) (10.9)
where h is the convection coecient (W/m
2
.K), T
w
is the temperature of the
solid wall and T

is the temperature of the bulk liquid far from the surface.

10.3 Radiation
The net heat exchange between two solid grey surfaces at temperatures T
1
and
T
2
is given by
Q = (T
4
1
T
4
2
) (10.10)
Thus when T
1
> T
2
heat is transferred from high temperature surface to the
low temperature surface.
10.4 Steady state conduction in one dimension
Consider a plane wall of constant thermal conductivity k, area A, width L and
surfaces temperatures T
1
and T
2
. The heat transfer in the wall is
Q =
kA
L
(T
2
T
1
) (10.11)
10.5. FINS 61
If there are n such walls each of width L
i
and thermal conductivity k
i
as in
the gure, the heat transfer is
Q =
k
1
A
L
1
(T
i2
T
1
) =
k
2
A
L
2
(T
i3
T
i2
) = . . . =
k
n
A
L
n
(T
2
T
in
) (10.12)
The intermediate temperatures T
i2
, T
i3
, . . . , T
in
are unknown and have to be
solved from the above equations. If the intermediate temperatures are not
required but only the overall heat transfer rate, then we can use
Q =
T
1
T
2

Li
kiA
. (10.13)

Li
kiA
is the thermal resistance of the system. If the end walls are not at xed
temperature but experience convection with convection coecients h
1
and h
2
with bulk uid temperatures T
1
and T
2
respectively, then the heat transfer
is given by
Q =
T
1
T
2
1
h1A
+

Li
kiA
+
1
h2A
. (10.14)
10.5 Fins
A n is a device which enhances heat transfer by increasing the surface area
available for convection. Fins are only eective when the conduction heat trans-
fer rate is far greater then the convection heat transfer rate. If the opposite is
true (i.e. convection heat transfer is greater then conduction), then ns decrease
the overall heat transfer rate.
Consider a n shown in Fig. ??. The energy balance gives
Energy in left face = energy out right face + energy lost by convection
Noting that the energy lost by convection is hPdx(T T

), where P is the
perimeter of the cross-section and the conduction in left face is kA(dT/dx)
and out right face is kA(dT/dx+dxd
2
T/dx
2
), the n equation can be written
as
d
2
T
dx
2

hP
kA
(T T

) = 0 (10.15)
Letting = T T

and m
2
= hP/kA, the equation becomes
d
2

dx
2
m
2
= 0 (10.16)
The solution of the n equation can be written as
= C
1
exp(mx) +C
2
exp(mx) (10.17)
62 CHAPTER 10. HEAT TRANSFER
At the base of the n, let the temperature be T
o
so that =
o
= T
o
T

.
The boundary conditions at the n tip can be of several types: (1) The n may
be considered long in which case the boundary conditions are
=
o
at x = 0 (10.18)
is bounded at x = (10.19)
The solution to the n equation is

o
= exp(mx) (10.20)
(2) The n tip is insulated and so dT/dx = 0 at x = L so that the boundary
conditions are
=
o
at x = 0 (10.21)
d
dx
= 0 at x = L (10.22)
The solution is

o
=
exp(mx)
1 + exp(2mL)
+
exp(mx)
1 + exp(2mL)
(10.23)
which can be written more conveniently using the hyperbolic functions, cosh x =
(e
x
+e
x
)/2,

o
=
cosh m(L x)
cosh mL
(10.24)
(3) Fin loses heat from the tip through convection so that the boundary condi-
tions are
=
o
at x = 0 (10.25)
k
d
dx

x=L
= h
L
at x = L (10.26)
The solution in this case is

o
=
cosh m(L x) + (h/mk) sinh m(L x)
cosh mL + (h/mk) sinh mL
(10.27)
10.6 Unsteady conduction in one dimension
The partial dierential equation governing unsteady conduction in one dimen-
sion is given by

2
T
x
2
=
1

T
t
(10.28)
10.7. TRANSIENT HEAT TRANSFER FROM A SEMI-INFINITE SOLID63
10.6.1 Lumped heat capacity system
If a solid object is immersed in a uid and if the heat conduction rate is much
higher than the convection from the surface we can assume that the entire body
is at the same temperature T. Then the heat transfer from the body is given
by
Q = hA(T T

) = cV
dT
dt
(10.29)
for which the solution is
T T

T
o
T

= e
[hA/cV ]t
(10.30)
It is common to write this solution as
T T

T
o
T

= e
BiFo
(10.31)
where Bi = hV/kA is the Biot number and Fo = kA
2
t/cV
2
is the Fourier
number.
The lumped capacity of the system is valid when the Biot number is small:
Bi =
h(V/A)
k
< 0.1
10.7 Transient heat transfer from a semi-innite
solid
When the surface of a semi-innite solid at initial temperature T
i
is suddenly
changed to T
o
its temperature is given by
T(x, t) T
o
T
i
T
o
= erf
x
2

t
(10.32)
where erf(y) is the error function dened by
erf(y) =
2

_
y
0
e

2
d (10.33)
10.8 Finite dierence method
The nite dierence method is a useful numerical technique to solve partial
dierential equations whose solutions cannot be obtained in closed form. In
order to establish a dierence solution, we divide the domain into (usually equal)
discrete pieces. We then look to evaluate the solution of the equation only at
the discrete locations. The dierential terms are replaced by dierence terms
using Taylors series expansions such as
dT
dt
=
T
k+1
T
k
t
(10.34)
64 CHAPTER 10. HEAT TRANSFER
where the subscript k represents the time t = kt. Similarly, the second order
time derivative can be represented by
d
2
T
dt
2
=
T
k+1
2T
k
+T
k1
t
2
(10.35)
which can be obtained by using Eq.( 10.36) at two time steps t apart.
Similarly the spatial derivatives
dT
dx
=
T
i+1
T
i
x
(10.36)
where the subscript i represents the point x = ix. The second order derivative
can be represented by
d
2
T
dx
2
=
T
i+1
2T
i
+T
i1
x
2
(10.37)
Convince yourself that the nite dierence form of the equation

2
T
x
2
=
1

T
t
(10.38)
can be written as
T
i+1,k
2T
i,k
+T
i1,k
x
2
=
1

T
i,k+1
T
i,k
t
(10.39)
If the values at a particular time step are known then the above method is
explicit since only one T
i,k+1
is the unknown that needs to be calculated. On
the other hand if the nite dierence form is written as
T
i+1,k+1
2T
i,k+1
+T
i1,k+1
x
2
=
1

T
i,k+1
T
i,k
t
(10.40)
the nite dierence form is called implicit since all the quantities the LHS are
unknown.