Engineering Bulletin: Basics

Introduction This technical article addresses many of the topics regarding space air diffusion as it relates to the use of Tuttle & Bailey air outlets (supply registers and diffusers) and air inlets (return grilles and louvers). Basic principles of human comfort, space air diffusion, selection and location of air outlets and inlets, and sound are all discussed in sufficient detail for the purpose of educating customers.

Basics of Space Air Diffusion

Human Comfort The primary goal in designing commercial heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems is achieving human (occupant) comfort. The factors that determine human comfort are numerous and complex, but by controlling certain key parameters, the occupied space can be made quite comfortable. These parameters include thermal comfort (space temperature, relative humidity, thermal radiation, and local air velocity), indoor air quality (air change rate and fresh air delivered to the breathing zone), and acoustic quality (Noise Criteria or Room Criteria). The activity and clothing level of the occupants are also parameters but will be ignored because the design engineer has no control over these factors. The focus of this article will be on the parameters that are influenced by air outlets (supply registers and diffusers) and air inlets (return grilles and louvers), specifically space temperature, local air velocity, and acoustic quality. Be aware that there are instances where human comfort may not be the primary focus of the HVAC system, such as industrial facilities, animal rooms, or clean rooms. Space Air Diffusion Where human comfort is the primary concern, the purpose of space air diffusion is to introduce conditioned air into a building space without making the occupants feel uncomfortable. This can be accomplished by designing the space with the correct number, type, and location of air outlets and air inlets. According to ASHRAE Standard 55-92 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupants, the comfort limits for an occupied space (relative to space air diffusion) are: Dry bulb temperature between 73 and 77 F.

Methods of Space Air Diffusion The most common type of space air diffusion is called a mixing system. A mixing system is one in which conditioned air is discharged at velocities much greater than those allowed in the occupied zone. The occupied zone is the region within a space, normally occupied by people, generally considered to be between the floor and six feet above the floor and more than two feet from walls or fixed air conditioning equipment. The supply air temperature in a mixing system can be significantly above the occupied zone temperature for heating (typically +15 F), below the occupied zone temperature for cooling (typically -15 F), or equal to the occupied zone temperature for ventilation. The supply air jet is delivered by the air outlet and mixes with room air by entrainment (induction), which helps to reduce the jet velocity and equalize the supply air temperature as it enters the occupied zone. The mixing system is the predominant method of space air diffusion in the United States and is widely used with variable air volume (VAV) systems. Tuttle & Bailey ceiling diffusers, high and low sidewall supply grilles, and floor registers provide excellent mixing air patterns, which ensures that the cold or warm supply air is sufficiently tempered before entering the occupied zone. See Figure 1.

Displacement ventilation systems are those in

Maximum local air velocity in the occupied zone of 50 fpm for cooling and 30 fpm for heating. (50 fpm is a little more than 1/2 mph). A maximum vertical temperature gradient of 6 F from the floor to six feet above the floor.

which conditioned air is delivered directly into the occupied zone. This is possible because the supply air temperature is slightly lower than the room air temperature (~65 F)

and air outlet face velocities are relatively low (less than 100 fpm), resulting in acceptable occupied zone conditions. Air outlets are usually located low on the sidewall, resulting in a flow of conditioned air across the floor. The air then naturally rises as it absorbs heat from plumes. Heat and contaminants from the occupied zone are removed from the space through air inlets located in the ceiling or high sidewall. Also, a stratification zone with little or no air motion is developed just above the occupied zone. Displacement ventilation systems are popular in Scandinavia, where cooling loads are rather low. See Figure 2.

air distribution plenum underneath the floor. Underfloor systems are often found in computer rooms or spaces where office layotus are frequently changed. The topics discussed below are primarily directed toward mixing systems but much of the information can be applied to the other systems as well.

As mentioned previously, certain parameters can be controlled to ensure a relatively comfortable environment. The question is how does one evaluate the sytem to make sure that the actual parameters are within the allowable range? Standard methods exist to evaluate these parameters in real or simulated spaces to determine if the conditions are being met. The first evaluation concept is called the effective draft temperature , which uses the local air temperature and velocity in a single equation to determine a relative feeling of coolness. The equation is:

Evaluating Comfort

Certain applications require an environment with a unidirectional air pattern (a.k.a. laminar flow), such as a clean room or hospital operating room. The unidirectional pattern can either be supplied from the ceiling and returned through the floor or supplied through the floor and returned through the ceiling (vertical), or supplied from one wall and returned through an opposing wall (horizontal). The air outlets are typically distributed evenly throughout the supply surface (ceiling, floor, or wall) and produce a laminar flow pattern to remove contaminants by minimizing mixing. See Figure 3.

The effective draft temperature is evaluated at many locations throughout the space and comfort studies have shown that the effects of temperature and velocity on comfort will be acceptable if is kept between -3 and +2 F. The Air Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI) of a space is the percentage of locations in a space in which the limits of the effective draft temperature are met. In other words, an ADPI of 80 means that 80%; of the locations in the space have an effective draft temperature of -3 to +2 F. Obviously, an ADPI of 100%; would be the ultimate condition, but the efforts required to achive this condition would often cost much more than the added benefit. Studies have shown that an ADPI of 80%; or more results in satisfactory comfort. However, there are some limitations to the use of ADPI, which include: ADPI is valid only for a cool air supply. Heating conditions should be evaluated using ASHRAE Standard 55. ADPI is based on effective draft temperature and air velocity only. Relative humidity and the remaining comfort parameters should be evaluated in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 55. ADPI is not to be used as a rating method for a single air outlet. It is to be used only

Another method of space air diffusion is called localized ventilation or task-ambient conditioning. As with displacement ventilation systems, localized ventilation systems supply conditioned air directly into the occupied zone at temperatures slightly below room temperature (above 63 F). the difference is that the occupant often has local control of the airflow rate and

direction of the air jet through the use of special air outlets (similar to those found in automobiles and commercial airplanes). Air outlets are typically located in the floor, furniture, or workstations. Air inlets (returns) are usually located in the ceiling because the air has a natural tendency to rise similar to the displacement ventilation system. Localized ventilation systems are also used in raised floor applications where air is supplied throughout an

for the evaluation of comfort in a space that utilizes a SYSTEM of air outlets.

Air outlets possess certain basic characteristics that allow for the introduction of air into a space whether it is a mixing system or any of the other systems. As air is conveyed through an air outlet or air inlet, the following characteristics are important factors in achieving the desired space air diffusion:

Air Distribution and Diffusion Properties of Air Outlets and Air Inlets

The speed of the air (face velocity) leaving the air outlet or entering the air inlet. The direction of the air emanating from an air outlet (1-way pattern, 2-way pattern, 3way pattern, 4-way pattern, radial pattern, etc.) The effective area of an air outlet or air inlet. The distance the air travels away from an air outlet (throw, spread, and drop). The pressure resistance of an air outlet or air inlet (static and total pressure). The quantity of the air (airflow rate). The above characteristics of an air outlet or air inlet are measured in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 70-1991 Method of Testing for Rating the Performance of Air Outlets and Inlets and are often found in manufacturer's literature. These characteristics are defined as follows: Airflow Rate (Q) - The unit volume displacement of air per unit time. The common unit of measure is cubic feet per minute (cfm). Throw (T) - The maximum horizontal distance from the center of the air outlet to a point in the airstream where the air velocity has decayed to some arbitrary terminal velocity (typically 150, 100, and 50 fpm). See Figure 1. The common unit of measure is feet (ft). Spread (S) - The overall width of a horizontally projected airstream envelope measured perpendicular to the direction of airflow. Spread is usually determined for wide air patterns only, which is typical of sidewall air outlets. The common unit of measure is feet (ft). Drop (D) - The vertical distance from an air outlet to the lower edge of a horizontally projected airstream envelope. See Figure 1. The common unit of measure is feet (ft). Static Pressure (Ps) - the perpendicular force per unit area exerted on the walls of the upstream duct of an air outlet or the downstream duct of an air inlet at a given airflow rate. The static pressure is measured 1.5 equivalent duct diameters upstream of an air outlet or downstream of an air inlet via the static tap in a pitot tube or through small ports in the duct wall (piezometric ring). The common unit of

Face Velocity (Vk) - The average velocity of air entering an air inlet or leaving an air outlet. Face velocity is usually measured at pre-defined locations on the face or can be calculated from the total pressure of the device according to the following equation. The common unit of measure is feet per minute (fpm). Effective Area (Ak) - The actual minimum area of an air outlet or air inlet through which air is able to pass. The following two equations can be used to calculate the effective area. The common unit of measure for Ak is square feet (ft).

Effective area of an air outlet or air inlet is NOT the same as the free area. Free area is the geometric opening of an air outlet or air inlet whereas the effective area is essentially a percentage of the free area based on the magnitude of the vena contracta. Where flow hoods are unavailable or impractical, effective area and face velocity can be used by the balancer to determine how much airflow is being delivered through an air outlet or air inlet by measuring face velocity and using it in the following equation: Application of Air Outlet and Air Inlet Properties (System Design Using Published Engineering Data) The above air outlet and air inlet characteristics can be used by design engineers to ensure aceptable space air diffusion (ADPI of 80 or more). This is done using a fairly common design procedure as outlined in chapter 31 of the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook. The designer is urged to review this procedure. Selection and Location of Air Outlets According to ASHRAE, no criteria have been developed for choosing among the many different types of air outlets available. An acceptable ADPI can be achieved from almost any system of air outlets if they are sized and located properly in the building space. The location and selection of air outlets are predicated on the heating or cooling loads, the building design and size, local sources of heat gain or loss, the specific outlet design and performance, and the sound requirements of the

measure is inches of water (in w.c.). Velocity Pressure (Pv) - The force per unit area which would cause air to accelerate in a duct or other air conveying device. Velocity pressure is typically measured at 1.5 equivalent duct diameters upstream of an air outlet or downstream of an air inlet. The common unit of measure is inches of water (in w.c.). Total Pressure (Pt) - The sum of the static and velocity pressures. The total pressure of an air outlet or air inlet will influence the size of the fan required to deliver a specified amount of air, as well as the sound produced by the air outlet or air inlet. The common unit of measure is inches of water (in w.c.).

space. The convection effects of a concentrated load (such as a perimeter wall) should be directly counteracted with the flow from an air outlet or the placement of air inlet adjacent to the source. Selection and Location of Air Inlets The location and selection of air inlets depends on the allowable pressure loss of the device, the location of any concentrated heating or cooling loads, and the permissible sound. Air inlets do not influence the room air motion beyond one characteristic length of the opening away from the inlet, so rarely do air inlets cause unwanted drafts.

Due to their close proximity to the occupied zone, air outlets and air inlets often play a critical role in the acoustical "comfort" of a building space. This is because air outlets and air inlets not only tend to generate sound, but sound from the fan system or a terminal unit will also pass directly through them and into the space. The amount of sound generated by an air outlet or air inlet depends on the entrance conditions to the device, the amount of restriction of the device (pressure loss), and the amount of air delivered to or from the device. Sound attenuation of an air outlet or air inlet is not possible because they are usually located near the occupied zone and have a clear path to the occupants. Air outlet and air inlet sound predominantly peaks in the 500 through 4000 Hz octave bands. Because this frequency range is also associated with human speech, the devices can provide a masking sound for reducing the amount of cross talk typically found in an open office environment. Using these devices for masking sound should only be done; however, using a constant volume system. If used in variable volume sytems, changes in airflow rate will drastically reduce the effectiveness of the masking sound, especially at lower air flow rates. The sound power of air outlets and air inlets is measured in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 70-1991. The standard requires sound power levels to be determined in the 125 to 4000 Hz octave bands at a given operating condition. The sound power levels can then be reduced to sound pressure levels by subtracting the space attenuation in accordance with ARI Standard 885-98 Procedure for Estimating Occupied Sound Levels in the Application of Air Terminals and Air Outlets (this standard can be downloaded free of charge from the ARI homepage at www.ari.org). The resultant sound pressure levels are plotted on a noise criteria (NC) chart to determine the actual NC level of the device. Manufacturers often use a standard deduction of 10 dB per octave band for determining published NC ratings. The drawback of this method is that the actual space rarely has an attenuation value of 10

Sound

Room Criteria (RC) is used to analyze the actual sound quality of a space relative to loudness as well as spectral content. It is not to be used to rate equipment such as air outlets and air inlets. Other factors must be accounted for in determining the acoustic properties of a space. Additional sources of sound, such as the effect of multiple air outlets and air inlets, computers, telephones, and sounds transmitted from outdoors may actually dominate the acoustical spectrum of the space. Recommended Sound Reduction Methods The following steps can be taken to reduce the sound generation of air outlets and air inlets: Reduce the airflow delivered to each device by utilizing a greater number of devices for the same total airflow to or from the space. However, the size of the devices may need to be reduced to maintain the proper room air motion. Increase the size of the air outlet or air inlet, which decreases the face velocity and pressure loss. However, increasing the size of an air outlet without increasing the airflow will result in shorter throws and may cause conditioned air to drop into the occupied zone. Balancing dampers should not be used in the neck of the air outlet. This can add anywhere from 5 to 16 NC to the sound rating, depending on the amount of damper closure. Balancing dampers should be located as far upstream from the air outlet as possible. The approaching ductwork to the air outlet should be kept as straight as possible. Any offset or abrupt bend will add up to 15 NC to the sound rating. If flexible duct is used, sharp bends should be prevented at the neck of the air outlet. As a general rule of thumb, the face velocity of an air outlet should not exceed 800 fpm and the face velocity of an air inlet should not exceed 400 fpm.

References

dB per octave band. Therefore, the standard attenuation value is to be used only for comparison purposes and the ARI standard should be consulted for accurately determing actual space attenuation. Please note that ASHRAE Standard 70 does not require the conversion of sound power levels to NC. This is done strictly to give the end user a single number sound rating for a particular device at a given operating condition.

ASHRAE. 1997. Handbook Fundamentals, Chapter 31. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refridgerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Ebbing, C.E. and W.E. Blazier. 1998. Application of Manufacturers' Sound Data. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refridgerating, and AirConditioning Engineers, Inc.

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