University of Nottingham Beauty and the Beast of Advertising: The impact of idealized images of physical attractiveness on consumer behavior

and well- being. Samyukta Nair Msc. International Business

Beauty and the Beast of Advertising: The impact of idealized images of physical attractiveness on consumer behavior and well- being. By Samyukta Nair 2007 A Dissertation in part consideration for the degree of Msc. International Business

- Contents Page ! Acknowledgements.........2 ! Abstract.....3

1. Chapter One: Introduction...4 1.1. Background.......................................................................5 1.2. Research Objective and structure of the study.7 2. Chapter Two: Literature Review.8 2.1. Introduction..8 2.2. Advertising: An industry of persuasive signs8 2.3. Beauty before the eyes of the beholder...16 2.4. The distorted Mirror: Reflections on the consequences of images idealized physical attractiveness in advertising..25 2.5. Summary.32 3. Chapter Three: Research Methodology34 3.1. Introduction34 3.2. The Research Problem...34 3.3. The Research Process.35 3.4. The Research Experience...39 3.5. Summary.40 4. Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion41 4.1. Introduction41 4.2. Description of the sample...41 4.3. Research Question One..42 4.4. Research Question Two..47 4.5. Research Question Three...53 4.6. Research Question Four.55 4.7. Summary.58 4.8. Limitations of the study and future recommendations........58 5. Chapter Five: Conclusion..60

! Bibliography63 ! Appendices.......71
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- Acknowledgements Writing a dissertation is a long and complex endeavor, which is rarely done without any help. I would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who have helped and supported me through this journey of learning. I would like to thank my family: my parents and my sister Niki for their unrelenting support and motivation. If not for the help of my dissertation supervisor, T.C. Melewar, and the many thought provoking conversations we have had, his detailed comments and suggestions on my work and invaluable support and advice, it would not have been possible for me to complete this dissertation.

- Abstract It appears that the idea of beauty in todays day and age has been replaced by a narrower definition that is largely located in limited ideals of physical appearance and powerfully communicated through advertising, an important agent of socialization. (Ecoff et al, 2004: 47)It has been hypothesized that images of physical attractiveness present in advertisements are unrealistic, influence and idealize size, shape and propagate the beauty myth within society. These cultural notions of the body beautiful are said to be disorderproducing, causing bodily dissatisfaction, chronic dieting and eating disorders amongst other things.Moreover, literature suggests discrepancies to exist in the perception of beauty images in advertisements amongst male and female consumers. The present study wishes to explore the broader context of this important and controversial issue and answer questions relating to how and to what degree advertising involving thin/attractive endorsers affect consumers within the UK, if at all. It attempts to identify whether any discrepancies existed amongst male and female consumers with regard to the perception of beauty images in advertisements and consumer viewpoints with regard to the advertising being a reflector and reinforcer of social values, especially with regard to beauty and physical attractiveness.Through the use of a self-administered questionnaires, which contained the Body Esteem Scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984) the parameteres discussed above were explored. Though findings were not congruent with all the hypotheses, it was found that consumers held advertisements to be an important source of information about being attractive, one that objectified the human body and promoted unrealistic standards of beauty within society. On viewing adverts constaining images of idealized physical attractiveness, pressure to exercise, change physical appearance and low body esteemwere the only effects identified. Moreover, consumers were found to be of the opinion that both men and women are equally faced with unrealistic expectations of physical attractiveness. Additionally, findings supported the hypothesis of advertising being an important agent of socialization, one which reiforces, reflects, mirrors and shapes values within society especially highlights peoples preoccupation with the importance of physical attractiveness.

Chapter One: Introduction

What exactly is beauty? Who gets to decide whether or not we are beautiful? We surely cant decide for ourselves for the world would scorn as conceited. Look in the mirror! Trace the shape of your nose, run circles around your eyes, your lips. Try to make your hair catch the light so it shines ever so perfectly. You whisper under your breath, I guess I am pretty, but is it you that gets the final say?... Who decides whether or not we are beautiful? Magazines that paste their air-brushed beauties for all to admire Movie stars who walk towards the camera, smiling, sucking in their stomachs and sticking out their boobs, Who was the first person to claim that blondes had more fun? Who was the first to say that white is better than black, skinny is better than fat, and tall is better than short? The truth is, we all define beauty. Every time you stand in front of a mirror Every time you gain a few pounds and then step on the scale Every time you dye your hair or pop in the coloured contacts Every time you look at yourself and smile and of course, Every time you wish you were someone else. Swain, L (2000) From the excerpt presented above it is rather evident that the concept of beauty is subject to social scrutiny, such that it has become a social construct. In contemporary societies, the media is considered to be an important source of socialization and has begun to pervade all aspects of social life. According to Kilboure (1990) advertising is the foundation and economic lifeblood of the mass media (Kilboune, 1990). The advertising industry is large and growing, with an annual turnover a 100 billion dollars (Kilbourne, 1990). With individuals being exposed to over 2000 ads a day (Kilbourne, 1990), one can satisfactorily state our mental and physical landscapes to be filled with commercial messages (Machado, M 2002). As noted by researchers (Kilbourne, 1990; Baudrillard, 1990) along with selling products, advertisements also sell us values, images, and concepts of success and worththey tell us who we are and who we should

be (Kilbourne, 1990). Amongst other things, advertisements also seek to provide an archetype of what exactly beauty is supposed to be.

1.1 Background
Advertisements have pictured the human body since times immemorial (Kitch, C, 2001). In advertisements today, one can see an array of idealized beauty images displayed, which are aimed at both men and women. However, the focus of the extreme messages and pressures has been on females who are portrayed to be the epitome of perfection. Regardless of the product being advertised, advertisements display women as young, slender, wrinkle-free and good-looking (Baudrilliard, 1990). Thus, advertising has set into place a visual vocabulary of womanhood that now seems natural (Kitch, C, 2001:3). Parallel to this considerable literature on male body image has begun suggest an increase in images of lean, muscular men in advertisements (Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1986; Pope, Olivardia, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2001). However, in both cases men and women are faced with an ideal body type, one that is very difficult to achieve and constantly undergoing change in order to retain its extraordinary nature. Nonetheless, the beauty industry is constantly setting out standards of what is aesthetically appropriate within society (Black, 2004). The beauty industry, which has its roots in a spiders web of businesses ranging from the cosmetics industry to fashion, beauty-enhancing technologies and advertising has been responsible in making individuals pay homage to this standard (Black, 2004). Idealized images of physical attractiveness displayed in advertisements are seen to stem from advertisers wanting to initialize the concept of provocateur, wherein the depiction of an ideal image will arouse a feeling or reaction (Cortese, A, 2004: 53). Rightly so, these images highlight individual inadequacies and lure individuals, towards a myth created around the notion of beauty. Therefore, advertisers have been accused of making beauty a distinct entity possessing commercial value (Scranton, 2004) as well as of creating a cult of unrecognizable beauty (Richins, M, 1991: 71). The repercussions of which are far and wide and most recently have manifested itself in the form of the size-zero phenomenon, which has taken the fashion industry by storm.

Many top models are seen to have a body mass index (or BMI, which measures body fat based on weight and height) of 14 to 16, which is rather low when compared to the normal BMI measurements, which range from 18.5 and 25 (Povoledo, 2006). In response to this, organizers of Madrids Fashion week have banned models that did not have a minimum body mass index (BMI) of at least 18 (Povoledo, 2006). The British Fashion Council was made to cancel its opening photocall in London in order to support and follow Madrids example (Povoledo, 2006). Such measures are being enforced because as Concha Guerra, a regional official stated, fashion is a mirror and many teenagers imitate what they see on the catwalk (CNN, 2006). Thus, by implementing bans such as these, organizers have begun to express the desire of wanting to project an image of beauty and health, rather than a waif like, or heroin chic look (CNN, 2006).

However, the enforcement of such standards would cut out 80% of the models, leaving very few models left to walk and concern has been raised regarding empty runways during fashion shows (Povoledo, 2006). Mario Boselli, chairman of the Italian National Chamber of Fashion refuted arguments by stating the waif look was out of style and in the past two years models- both male and female-were decidedly more buff (Povoledo, 2006). He also suggested anorexia has more to do with personal psychological problems than with catwalks where anorexic models are practically nonexistent now (Povoledo, 2006). Nonetheless, studies have proven and continued to prove the effects of beauty standards presented by the fashion industry on consumers, which range from eating disorders to the reinforcement of negative self-images. Yet, the ban on ultra thin models has not been enforced unanimously, The British Fashion Council and the French Fashion Federation have refused to introduce an outright ban on size zero models (Derbyshire, 2007). This is a reason for concern especially in Britain wherein a size zero is equivalent to a British size 4 in womens clothing (Derbyshire, 2007). Moreover, soon after calls to ban stick thin models were initiated, researchers at the University of Bath conducted a study on 470 female undergraduates and found skinny models in advertising campaigns to be emulated and the products advertised by them were more likely to be bought (University of Bath, 2006). Furthermore, the study shows 8

how the use of thin models is a successful strategy used by advertising companies (University of Bath, 2006).

1.2 Research Objective and Structure of the study

With advertisements increasingly displaying idealized beauty images, which are far from reality, this poses to be an issue of concern to society as a whole. In light of this, the following study is an enquiry into the extent to which consumers perceive advertisements to influence and idealize size and shape and propagate the beauty myth. It wishes to understand whether or not representations of idealized images of physical attractiveness present in advertisements have repercussions on consumers as well as what form these repercussions might be manifested in. Moreover, the study seeks to identify whether any discrepancies exist in perception of beauty images in advertisements amongst male and female consumers. On the whole the study aims to find out whether consumers perceive the advertising industry to mirror society or shape it. A comprehensive survey of previously published literature related to the field of study mentioned above will be presented in the literature review, which is the next chapter. The chapter will also discuss the hypotheses of the current study being undertaken. The third chapter will outline the research process, the research experience and discuss the research instrument i.e. the use of questionnaires used to answer the hypotheses stated in the previous chapter. The fourth chapter will reflect the findings of the study conducted and will be used to present an overview of the analysis. Having looked at the findings of the research project, the fifth chapter will provide the conclusion to the study being undertaken. Being the final chapter this is where the results of the research data and summary of all the literature will be merged in order to understand the extent to which consumers are affected by images of idealized physical attractiveness present in advertisements as well as represent their views on the advertising industry as a whole.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
The loudest and most aggressive purveyors of images and narratives of ideal slender beauty are the mass media, which construct a dream world of hopes and high standards that incorporates the glorification of slenderness and weight loss (Groesz et al, 2001: 2). Advertising is one such vehicle through the mass media propagates such images. The following literature review seeks to provide a framework through which one is able to understand how the advertising industry has become powerful medium of communication such that the images of idealized physical attractiveness present in advertisements have far reaching effects on its viewers. In order to do so the following literature review is divided into three parts. In highlighting the nature of the advertising industry, which is heavily dependant on the study of signs, the first section provides a coherent backdrop against which the advertising industry is set. It helps understand how consumers are spun in a web of dreams and are made to succumb to the persuasive signs of advertising. The second section draws attention to the attitudes towards the construction and conception of beauty within advertisements, with regard to both male and female consumers and highlights how these are communicated to them and how they relate to such images. As advertising images are known to effect consumers, the last section deals with the adverse effects idealized images of physical attractiveness have on the lives of its viewers. Therefore, the main aim of the literature review is to understand how advertising has been able to construct a dream world of hopes and high standards by incorporating of images and narratives of ideal slender beauty, which as a result of glorification have resulted in slenderness and weight loss amongst consumers (Groesz et al, 2001: 2).

2.2. Advertising: An Industry of Persuasive Signs

The term advertising is derived from the Latin verb adverte, which means to direct ones attention to (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 1). In its untainted form it can be defined as any type or form of public announcement intended to direct peoples attention to the availability, qualities, and/or cost of specific commodities or services (Beasley & 10

Danesi, 2002: 1). However, in contemporary societies, the kind we live in today, this definition has been subjected to tremendous change and one can see a visible a shift away from the paradigm of advertising being an informative source alone. Today, advertising is looked upon as a persuasive force, one that has begun to pervade all aspects of contemporary social life. It has become responsible for the delivery of the meanings that people living in a society exchange on a daily basis (Beasley & Danesi, 2002:1). Thus, one can agree with Beasley& Danesis (2002) claim of advertising becoming a ubiquitous form of mass communication in todays global culture (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: v). However, even a claim such as this is an understatement while referring to the widespread and diverse nature of advertising seen today (Bignell, J, 2002). Advertising, with its persuasive and repetitive nature has a reputation of being a very competitive industry. Stemming from its omnipresent nature, Lantos (1987) considered advertising to be pervasive and powerful as both a social and socializing institution (Lantos, G, 1987: 104). With contemporary societies emblematizing an admediated world, the influence of advertising and advertisements is only heightened (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 14). According to Pollay (1986) advertising is a professionally developed vehicle and advertisements are an amalgamation of well thought of business strategies, art and science, primarily psychology (Pollay, 1986: 20). With the primary objective being to engage with, understand and influence people. This has been further reinstated by Woodward and Denton (1988) who suggest the the consumer of the product to be the major focus of advertising messages (Woodward and Denton: 1988:192). By undertaking strategies of positioning, image creation and its legitimate offspring image management, Leiss, Kline and Jhally (1986) have identified the modus operandi utilized by advertising creatives to engage with a wider range of consumers (Leiss, Kline and Jhally, 1986: 239-240). Woodward and Denton (1988) stated that tactics such as those mentioned above help in the creation of product imagery with which the consumer can easily identify (Woodward and Denton: 1988: 192). In addition, Pollay (1986) indicated applied behavioural technologies and extensive advertising research to be the sophisticated and elaborate instruments using

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which advertisers gain access to more information about consumers. As this information is constantly amended, advertisers are kept abreast of all the latest developments in consumer tastes and preferences. The use of this information then enables them to finetune their messages, making advertisement campaigns more effective. Thus, the information they are provided with is used as an arsenal to fathom the depths of consumer emotion. Though consumers can easily identify with advertisements, in actuality they are made to identify with advertisements instead of naturally being able to relate to it. From the above we can see how advertising merchants deliberately and calculatingly create advertisements and cultivate an era of persuasion which then flourishes into a privileged form of social discourse that has unparalleled rhetorical force (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 14). In being able to capture emotions of the target market, Judith Williamson (1978) suggests that advertising extends beyond its function of only selling us things, but it also asks us to participate in ideological ways of seeing ourselves and the world (Judith Williamson (1978) cited in Bignell, J, 2002:31). Moreover, according to Williamson (1978) by correlating feeling, moods or attributes with tangible object, advertisers strive to link possible unattainable things with those that are attainable (Williamson (1978) cited in Bignell, J, 2002). The advertisement campaign of the Wonderbra cited by Bignell (2002) is an ideal example of this. It depicted a woman suggestively leaning against a prop while wearing a green bra with the rest of the picture being in tones of black and white. The tagline then read Terrible thing, envy and further stated Now available in extravert green, with an image of the brand label, which would be attached to a Wonderbra when it is displayed on sale (Appendix A. Figure 1) (Bignell, J, 2002: 46). Envy is highlighted by greenness of the bra, which represents the cultural code for envy or envy may be expressed as emotion the reader of advertisement experiences on viewing the image. A female reader of the advertisement may experience a terrible feeling of envy as the tagline suggests, which arises from either not owning the bra herself or from the sexual attractiveness the bra gives the model in the advertisement. Therefore, the advertisement implies that buying and using the Wonderbra would enable females to

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overcome their terrible feeling and feel more attractive, at the same time they can make others green with envy. Therefore, advertisements portray the purchase and use of a product to be the portal through which consumers can affiliate themselves with social meanings and values associated with a product. Advertising generates such meanings, which are made effective, greatly enhanced and understood by the science of semiotics, which will be discussed in greater detail in the latter part of this section. Moreover, the Wonderbra advertisement also reinstates Camenischs (1991) claim that advertising primarily aims to hook the consumer to the product. In establishing associations with either celebrities or being sexually provocative, as the Wonderbra campaign was, advertisers establish a link with deeply held consumer values and commitment or portray products as solutions to wide shared insecurities or fears (Camenisch, P.F, 1991: 246). Thus, resulting in diminishing consumer rational decision-making about the product or services offered and enhances the factor of the individual identifying themselves with the product (Camenisch, P.F, 1991: 246). As established already, advertising offers recognizable objects, solutions and advice, however, many researchers (Ewen & Ewen, 1982; Pollay, 1986, 1987 and Ferguson et al, 1990) consider advertising to be an important force in teaching people basic values, ideas and lifestyle as well (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 18). In agreeing with the same, Lantos (1987) suggests that advertising extends beyond the realm of simply reflecting values but also reinforces and accelerates them within society. Therefore, it can be agreed with Fiske and Hartley (1978, 1980) that advertising does not represent that manifest actuality of society, but rather symbolically reflects social values (Fiske and Hartley (1978, 1980) cited in Ahmed, N, 1996: 25). However, Pollay (1986) refers to advertising as a distorted mirror, which only reflects and reinforces certain values and lifestyles, which get strengthened over a period of time. These values circle round the arena of youth, beauty, wealth, happiness and success, which are acceptable but the problem arises when these values are idealized and overrepresented, which happens more often than not. Therefore, manipulative and persuasive nature of advertising does have

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the potential to create moral implications for both consumers and the creator of advertisements. As consumers are active recipients of advertisements, advertising cannot make people buy something they dont want, said Anholt (2003: 165). However, taking into consideration its omnipresent and persuasive nature he observes advertising to make it seen as if the products being advertised are worth having, thereby leaving consumers wanting them (Anholt, S, 2003: 165). Therefore, in order to understand how advertisers are able to conjure such feelings amongst people on the receiving end, it is important to understand the mechanics of this process, which is fundamentally a semiotic one. By way of ascertaining a signification system, which will make products seem attractive, advertisements undertake the role of being invisible conveyors of certain messages, using which advertisers and marketers are able sell signs rather than sell products (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 131; Williamson, J, 2000: 17). The study of signs or semiotics can be seen to have its origins in the work of Ferdinand De Saussure and Charles Pierce. It was based on a theorem, which suggested, Words and signs used by us play a pivotal role in shaping our perception and understanding of reality (Bignell. J, 2002: 6). Due to language being the most fundamental and pervasive medium for human connection, semiotics uses the way language works as a prototype for understanding all other media of communication, be it language or image-based. The mutual agreement of people and the social context in which a linguistic sign is seen to exist was suggested to be imperative in determining its significance. Besides, Saussure also highlighted the dyadic nature of linguistic signs, which consist of a physical and emotional dimension (Chandler, D, 2002: 14; Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 2122). The former is referred to as the signifier, which represents the sounds or letters that make up words (Beasley & Danesi, 2002:21). In representing the physical part that has been created to stand for, whether it be real or imaged, the latter is known as the signified (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 22). Therefore, the signifier is the vehicle which expresses the sign and the signified is the vehicle which immediately calls up the signified or concept in ones mind (Bignell, J, 2002: 11, 12). A distinction such as this

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enables one to see how language plays an active role in creating and shaping our experiences by creating divisions in the way we think about things (Bignell, J, 2002). Although the fundamental tenets of semiotics was laid by Saussure, in order to understand and analyze the obscure meanings behind images and various forms of nonverbal communication seen in contemporary advertisements, it is important to pay attention to the work of Charles Peirce (1958). Moreover, by looking at his work we can also understand how advertisements are able to invoke feelings amongst its addressees, which is what the current study being undertaken wishes to understand. Similar to Saussure, Peirce (1958) also saw signs to be an interaction between the signifier or representamen and the signified or interpretant (Chandler, D, 2002: 33). However, he included a third element known as the object or referent, which was not included in Saussures model (ibid,: 33). According to Peirce (1958) the representamen stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity, while the object is the actual thing the sign stands for (Peirce (1958) cited in Ferreira,J, Barr, P & Noble, J, 2005: 47). Andersen & Nowack (2002) proposed the interpretant to be a reaction caused by the object in the mind of the perceiver (ibid: 47). He further went on to identify three categories of signs consisting of namely, iconic, indexical and symbolic signs. A sign is iconic when the signifier resembles the referent (Bignell, J, 2002: 15). When an advertisement portrays a picture of a product against a neutral background, Vestergaard & Schroder (1985) suggest it to be iconic (Vestergaard & Schroder (1985) cited in Ahmed, N, 1996). Signs that have a concrete and often causal relationship to their signified represent indexical signs. The diamond advertisement cited as an example in Ahmed (1996) highlights an indexical relation that arises from correlating a product with people, objects or situations, which are renowned for their distinguished characteristics. Therefore, by juxtaposing an image of an enlarged ring and a couple, the advertisement establishes an indexical relation wherein the diamond ring becomes associated with love. The symbolic sign is a mode wherein the signifier does not resemble the signified but which is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional-so that the relationship must be learned (Chandler, D, 2002: 37). The Wonderbra advertisement

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discussed above, features the model wearing a bra that is green in colour, which consequently is also the cultural code for jealously and envy within contemporary societies. Therefore, the colour symbolizes envy and is aided by a tagline, which read Terrible thing, envy. In the past and even now sometimes, Peircean typology has been employed to study the visual content of advertising (Ahmed, N, 1996). Moreover, by focusing on the work of Roland Barthes (1915-1980), especially his book Mythologies (1957) one can understand the sophisticated nature of the advertising industry and how advertisements are created so as to encourage ideological ways of thinking amongst and about society. Barthes regarded commercials to consist of a surface level represented by specific signs, which lend themselves to creating a personality around the product being advertised and the advertisement as a whole. These then, according to him cohere into a textuality that conjures up an array of meanings, which are embedded and form the underlying level of an advertisement (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 20). An interpretation of advertising content in this manner shows us how signs in advertisements trigger of a range of connotative associations along with a signs denotative activity (Bignell, J, 2002). These shape advertisement messages, making them effective and lead to creation of a myth (Bignell, J, 2002: 16). Myths herald certain structured messages that influence the reader of the text to think about people, places, and products in particular ways. Therefore, a myth is looked upon, as an extended metaphor whose function is to make dominant cultural and historical values, attitudes and beliefs seems entirely natural, normaland are thus objective and true reflections of the way things are (Chandler, D, 2002:145). According to Bignell (2002) by taking hold of an existing sign and make it a function as a signifier on another level, myths function by ordering signs to play a particular social role (Bignell, J, 2002: 17). For example, the Yves Saint- Laurent advertisement campaign cited by Bignell (2000) during the promotion campaign of their perfume Opium is an apt example of this. It demonstrates how a sign i.e. the photographed model begins to represent the concept of feminine beauty, which would be described by Bathes as a mythic meaning. Moreover, along with being an image of a model, the image itself symbolizes youth, slimness and health as

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well as works as the signifier for the mythic signified feminine beauty (Bignell, J, 2002: 32). A copy of this advertisement can be found in Appendix A. Figure 2. Additionally, mythic meanings are seen to be easily transferable to the product being advertised as well. The placement of the image of the photographed model next to the potentially ambiguous product, in this case the perfume, enables the feminine beauty myth to be carried forward from the image to the product. However, the notion of feminine beauty exuberated by the present advertisement stems from and highlights our social prejudice in favour of young, slim and tall women as signifiers of beauty (Bignell,J, 2002). This also reinstates Bignells (2002) view of advertisements calling on systems of differences which already exist in our culture and which encode social values (Bignell, J, 2002:35). By focusing of social values of youth, slimness and tallness for instance, advertisements such as the one discussed above lead to the creation, promotion and perpetuation of a dominant ideological myth of what beauty is (Bignell, J, 2002:35). Moreover, Barthes blamed advertising for creating a culturally induced state of mind called neomania, which refers to an obsessive desire for new objects of consumption (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 19). According to Baudrillard (2003) one object that is finer, more precious, more dazzling and even more laden with connotation than any other is the body (Baudrillard, J, 1998: 129). The nature of current production/consumption structures along with advertising, have made the human body the finest consumer object (Baudrillard, J, 1998: 129). Mythologizing techniques, which suggest that once a product is acquired will bestow upon its user the mythical meaning transferred to it by the image, further accelerates this. Therefore advertisers are mythic operators as Baudrillard (2003) calls them, and this can be seen in the case of prevailing beauty images in the media, which promote an ideological view of beauty, which is cultural rather than natural (Bignell, J, 2002). By way of focusing on the importance of semiotics in the advertising industry this section has helped understand the nature of advertising. It has shed light on the polysemic nature of signs involved in advertisements, which are structured in such a manner, that

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they work psychologically at a sub threshold level of the mind. Furthermore, by reflecting on how advertisements draw upon cultural knowledge existing in a wider social context, one can see how advertisements promote mythic ideas about the individual subject as a consumer, social relations and consumer society (Bignell, J, 2002: 56). The following section will paint a clearer picture of how the persuasive nature of advertising is able to create a link between an endorsers attractiveness and the consumer, thereby spinning the consumer in a web of dreams, some of which they will never achieve.

2.3. Beauty before the eyes of beholders

According to Baudrillard (1998) today the body has exponential value of the functional bodyand is taken up in its materiality (or its visible ideality) as narcissistic cult object or element of social rituals and tactics- beauty and eroticism are two leitmotivs (Baudrillard, 1998: 132). Furthermore, with the aesthetics of the body being dependant on the appropriation of objects such as beauty products and accessories, one can say, there is an equivalence between bodies and objects as signs (Baudrillard, 1998: 132). This is what makes possible the magical quotation- buy and you will be at ease with your body, which is continuously reinforced in the world of advertising through an interplay of persuasive signs, as discussed in the previous section (Baudrillard, 1998: 132). Thus, making advertising is an art with a purpose to please a vast number of people (no matter how: by amusing, edifying, praising, but it must please)it must have an instantaneous impact (Kitch, C, 2001: 5). In light of this, advertising today has begun to depict the individualas the finest of objects, as the most precious exchange material through which an impact is created (Baudrillard, 1998: 153). The following section wishes to outline the role played by advertisements in presenting consumers with idealized images of physical attractiveness, it aims to understand as to why individuals have a tendency to compare themselves to such images. It also strives to outline how beauty ideals are multidimensional and are applicable and have been applied to male attractiveness as well.

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Beautiful colloquially understood, is paradigmatically characteristic of a person (Higgins, K, 2000: 92). The famous proverb beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder itself proves what a subjective concept beauty is. Therefore, there is no definitive answer to the question What is beautiful? However, it is important understand beauty as a a multidimensional construct replete with nuance rather than a simple bipolar continuum of being either attractive or unattractive (Ashmore, R, 1994: ?). According to Banner (1983) beauty is culturally constituted as result of common socialization experiences (Banner (1983) cited in English, B; Solomon, E, & Ashmore, R, 1994: 49) In todays world, advertising is one of the most popular means of socialization (Greening, K, 2006). It has been assumed that advertising, through different means of mass media propagates an ideal of beauty to consumers (Freedman 1984; Solomon, 1992). The continuous reinforcement of advertisements filled with images of thin, happy people has generated a lot of pressure to be slim such that these images have come to be the yardstick against which people judge the worth of their own bodies (Solomon, 1992: 226). Each historical period had its own culturally specific standard of beauty. The Victorian era saw the ideal body type for women was being plump, fleshy, and fullfigured. At the start on the 19th century, this began to change, slenderness became more desired. Thus, paving the way for the rise of the hourglass figure of the 1890s, which was then replaced by the boyish flapper of the 1920s and the unisex look of the 1960s (Scranton, P, 2004: 9). Even today, nothing changes, a lean physique is sine qua non of physical attractiveness (Stephens, D.L, Hill, R.P & Hanson, C, 1994: 139). Though notion of what constitutes beauty is under constant change what has remained constant is that beauty is an attribute that has always been associated with women. Though recipients of advertisements have been men and women, to a large extent the focus of extreme messages and pressures has been on females alone. The concept of female beauty has been the vehicle through which products have been sold to consumers time and time again.

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In todays world especially women are placed in a moral order and physical hierarchy based on complexion, hair and symmetry of face and form (Scranton, P, 2004: 8). However, this stems from a long history of women being socialized into the beauty myth from a very young age through both fairy tales and toys such as the Barbie doll, which idealize female physical attractiveness and propagate beauty standards within society. A study conducted by Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz (2003) on the pervasiveness and persistence of the feminine beauty ideal in children's fairy tales found 94% of the chosen fairy tales to mention details regarding physical appearance with special emphasis on beauty, which was highlighted 5 times more often than mens attractiveness (BakerSperry & Grauerholz, 2003: 712). Moreover, in being blonde, white and inordinately thin, the Barbie Doll embodies an illusory and partial definition of a woman (Benstock & Ferriss, 1994: 9). Although to match her characteristics a woman would have to be eight foot, six inches, flaunt a forty-five inch bust and a twenty-six inch waist, this plastic image has become the yardstick against which most girls begin to measure themselves (Freeman, B, 2002: 29). Another plausible reason for the marked gender difference towards physical attractiveness stems from an underlying difference between girls and boys while viewing their bodies, according to clinicians and researchers such as Freedman (1984). Boys are said to grow up viewing their bodies primarily as a means of achieving mastery over the external environment as compared a girl who learns the main function of her body is to attract others (Stephens, D.L, Hill, R.P & Hanson, C, 1994: 144). Barbie and adult role models in the form of parents, friends and celebrities further reinstate the importance of being thin as well as strengthen the link between being thin and being attractive. Moreover, Freedman (1984) draws light upon the puberty-related bodily changes which results in differences in size, contours, smells and texture of an adult woman (which) contradict the soft, sweet, childish aspects of feminine beauty standards emphasized in the media (Freedman, 1984: 36). Boys, on the other hand are seen to welcome these changes that lead to muscular development. According to Rodin (1992) boys' pubertal development brings them nearer to the societal ideal for men, but girls' pubertal development pushes them further from the societal ideal for women (Rodin (1994) cited

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in Stone, 1994). This further helps understand why exposure to media images of physical attractiveness are seen to raise concern amongst women more than men, making them strive harder to achieve this ideal. Hitherto, the fact remains clear that no girl will ever be able to be Barbie (Benstock & Ferriss, 1994: 9). However, advertisements are still responsible for delineating, enforcing and promising a normative ideal of femininity and consumer behaviour that readers can attain by investing in the right diet, exercise, clothing and makeup (Benstock & Ferriss, 1994: 9). Over the years Colburn (1992) has noticed fashion models, pageant contestants and models in magazines center spreadsheets to become steadily thinner (Colburn, 1992 cited in Stephens, D.L, Hill, R.P & Hanson, C, 1994). This has led to the fortification of an ideal body type, which in being drastically different widens the gulf between the cultural norm and biological reality (Stephens, D.L, Hill, R.P & Hanson, C, 1994:140). However, it is undeniable that the quest for the perfect body is reflected and promoted by the advertising industry. According to Kilbourne (2000) beauty images make individuals especially women view their faces as masks and their bodies as objects (Kilbourne, 2000 cited in Greening, K, 2006). As a result of which women are made to feel the need to make amendments and augment themselves in order to disguise their inadequacies. Fredickson and Roberts (1997) have further blamed advertisements for giving rise to a phenomenon called objectification, wherein individuals, especially women begin to view themselves as objects and begin to live life in the third person (Fredickson and Roberts, 1997 cited in Greening, K, 2006). This further cultivates into a form of self-consciousness, one that is characterized by the idiosyncrasies of constant and habitual self-monitoring of ones outward appearance. According to Strelan and Hargreaves (2005) objectification in the case of women takes place through constant evaluation of women by men through the male gaze as well as the world of entertainment and advertising. By promoting a thin beauty ideal, advertising images bind women to an archetype of what they should look like. This further encourages them to perceive and assess their value through the attainment of this ideal. Thus, in the words of Strelan and Hargreaves (2005) the objectification theory

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asserts that ongoing exposure to the socio-cultural belief that women are to be judged by how they look leads women to internalize others' views of themselves, thus causing them to self-objectify (Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005: 496). There have been studies conducted which attest the negative implications of objectifying the female body, which will be discussed in further detail in the next section1. Therefore, one has reason to support Naomi Wolfs (1991) argument of women being placed within the modern day Iron Maiden as a result of enslaving themselves to the beauty myth, which is permeated through cultural images of beauty present in advertisements. However, it is important to note that although the objectification theory was proposed initially to explain the source of appearance anxiety amongst women, it has also been utilized by researchers (Strelan & Hargreaves, 2005; Morrison et al, 2004) a measure to understand the same amongst men. This further suggests that, as women, men too are subject to images present in the entertainment and advertising media, which proves to be a likely source of body dissatisfaction. This will be discussed in further detail as this section unfolds. Higgins (2000: 93) claims popular visions of beauty particularly in advertisements to exhibit beauty as being either the flawless or the glamorous (Higgins, K, 2000: 93). The quest for which she states is self-sabotaging. Furthermore she asserts false paradigms such as these to form the basis on which the marketing of beauty is dependant (Higgins, K, 2000: 87). Consistent with this view, Philip Scranton (2004) too regards beauty to have become a distinct entity possessing commercial value and making women beautiful to have become a business. Feminists such as Paula Black (2004) argue that the beauty industry, which has its roots in a spiders web of businesses, sets out standards of what is aesthetically appropriate within society. Its accomplice in this heinous act is the advertising industry, which perpetuates the consumption of beauty products and makes it easier to manipulate individuals into conforming to such standards (Black, P, 2004). Wolf (1991) in her book The Beauty Myth suggests this manipulation to be psychological in nature such that individuals, especially women are encouraged to feel insufficiently beautiful and to blame themselves for this failure (Wolf, 1991 cited in Higgins, K, 2000: 93).On the whole it can be agreed with Philip Scranton (2004) when he says, Beauty

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images simultaneously promise and withhold, elevate and degrade. They are sanitized and sexualized, aspirational and arousing (Scranton, P, 2004: 19). Solomon, Ashmore and Longo (1992) regard advertising merchants in the form of art directors, fashion designers and photographers to be gatekeepers of such images who by virtue of aesthetic decisions involving casting, wardrobe and props, makeup and so on, they help to define and sanction ideals of beauty (English, B, Solomon, E & Ashmore, R, 1994: 50). Moreover, the endorser of the advertisement becomes an icon of beauty, one that is looked up to by consumers and is emulated especially if they are celebrities. Though beauty sells and is an influential factor in changing consumer perceptions, it is important to note that an attractive endorser alone is not sufficient to guarantee product success. It is important for the product to be able to speak for itself. However, the dynamic, attractive, likeable qualities and already established fame makes Atkin and Block (1983) believe that a celebrity endorser may be influential in attracting consumer attention and buying behaviour (Atkin and Block (1983) cited in Kamins, M.A, 1990). This is because the purchase of celebrity-endorsed products provides a vestibule through which consumers are able to symbolically aspire to identify themselves with celebrities, even though they may never become one themselves. Thus, it can be agreed with Assael (1984) who suggests celebrities to be looked upon as reference groups who provide points of comparison through which the consumer may evaluate attitudes and behavior (Assael (1984) cited in Kamins, M.A, 1990). In order to identify the extent to which consumers perceive advertisements to propagate the beauty myth, this study hypothesizes the use of celebrities in advertising to be one such measure through which idealized images of physical attractiveness are promoted and reinforced in the media. Irrespective of whether it is a celebrity or an attractive model displayed on an advertisement advertising images frequently are not realistic, asserts Richins (1991:71). Schudson (1984) notes, advertising does not claim to picture reality as it is but reality as it should be- life and life worth emulating (Schudson (1984) cited in Richins, 1991: 71). Viewing such images evokes a sense of inadequacy amongst consumers such that Richins (1991) suggests they consciously or unconsciously compare their mediocre selves and

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lives with the idealized images (Richins, 1991: 71). Moreover, comparison is considered to be a common theme in social psychology literature and according to Pettigrew (1967) is an inherent human characteristic (Pettigrew (1967) cited in Richins, 1991). Additionally, Festingers (1954) social comparison theory helps understand the underlying principal behind consumers comparing themselves with idealized images in advertisements. The tenet of this theory proposes individuals to feel the need to assess their opinions and abilities. In the event unavailable non-social means, individuals are seen to make social comparisons with other individuals, who are similar to them. (Morrison et al, 2004). Merton (1957) suggests individuals to engage in comparisons with members of groups who do not belong to or with social categories- individuals who share a social status but who have no social interaction, (Merton, 1957 cited in Richins, M, 1991: 72). As models in advertisements cannot be regarded as peers, they fulfill the criteria of being a reference group used by individuals to make comparisons and judge their own attractiveness (Stephens, D.L, Hill, R.P & Hanson, C, 1994). Festinger (1954) and many other researchers (Diener, 1984; Wood, 1989) have identified consequences that arise out of such comparison; these will be discussed in further detail in the next section (Festinger, 1965; Diener, 1984 and Wood, 1989 cited in Richins, M, 1991). However, by focusing on the satisfaction theory we can enhance our understanding of how individuals reach such outcomes in the first place (Richins, M, 1991). According to the satisfaction theory put forth by Thibuat and Kelly (1959) individuals evaluate some standard of performance with perception of performance (Thibuat and Kelly, 1959 cited in Richins, M, 1991: 72) In the event of discrepancies being present between standard and perceived performance, individuals become dissatisfied, however if expectations are equaled or exceeded expectations are satisfied. In this case, the standard of performance against which individuals evaluate their level of satisfaction are idealized images of physical attractiveness present in advertising. Moreover, Goethals (1986) blamed advertisements portraying happy, beautiful and wealthy people to add fuel to the fire by forcefully creating a comparison between consumers and those in a better off position than them (Goethals, 1986 cited in Richins, M, 1991: 72) For the purpose of this study, it is hypothesized that individuals make

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comparisons between themselves and idealized images of physical attractiveness present in advertisements, which leads to dissatisfaction. This further aids the research aim of this study, which wishes to gauge the extent to which consumers perceive advertisements to propagate the beauty myth by promoting idealized images of physical attractiveness. On the whole there is no doubt that societal ideals of beauty are most visible in the form of images of thin, beautiful women (Hargreaves & Tiggeman, 2006: 568). As seen from the literature above, in advertisements it is women who orchestrate or rather around whom the beauty myth is orchestrated (Baudrillard, J, 1998: 137). However, parallel to this considerable literature on male body image has begun suggest an increase in images of lean, muscular men in advertisements (Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1986; Pope, Olivardia, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2001). These images are seen to mirror the same dissatisfaction that is produced as a result of images such as these in the case of women. However, researchers such as Smolak, Levine & Thompson (2001) suggest the negative body image experiences of boys and men to be less prevalent, and when present less severe than those faced by women (Smolak, Levine & Thompson (2001) cited in Hargreaves & Tiggeman, 2006). Research conducted by Cash (1990) supports this claim as it indicates one-half to three-quarters of females of normal weight to perceive themselves to be heavy as compared to one-quarter of normal weight males who consider themselves overweight (Cash (1990) cited in Cash, 2002) Nonetheless, it has been proven that the socio-cultural model of body dissatisfaction, which posits that negative body image results from the pursuit of (unrealistic) societal beauty ideals, is applicable to men as well (Hargreaves & Tiggeman, 2006). According to Cash (1990) almost as many males as females report being dissatisfied with some aspect of their physique. In spite of this, the nature of dissatisfaction between men and women is seen to differ (Cash (1990) cited in Cash, 2002). Garner (1997) highlights this difference by stating womens dissatisfaction leaves them wanting to be thinner while mens dissatisfaction stems from their desire to be more muscular. Hargreaves & Tiggeman (2006) further suggests gender differences such as these present in the domain of discontentment to mirror the difference in beauty ideals

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for women and men prevalent in society. This ideal advocates the need for women to be tall and slender and men to be mesomorphic, broad shouldered, well-developed upper body, flat stomach and narrow hips (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002:92). Such images are commonly seen in the portrayal of masculinity in mens magazines such as Playboy, Maxim, GQ, and Esquire, making men a victim to the objectification theory discussed above. Although objectification of men to takes place, it is important to note that the nature of the objectified image is different compared to women. On studying the portrayal of action figures across time, Pope et al (1999) found them to have become unrealistically muscular over the last 20 years (Pope et al (1999) cited in Murnen, S, et al, 2003: 428). Furthermore, a study conducted by Tracy Tylka (2006), the lead researcher and assistant professor of psychology at Ohio State University, "found that media images of men in action toys, Playgirl centerfolds, etc., have become increasingly muscular over the last 25-30 years (Tylka (2006) cited in Goudarzi, S, 2006). Therefore, one can see how images such as these permeate a drive for muscularity" as McCreary & Sasse (2000) calls it (McCreary & Sasse (2000) cited in Murnen, S et al 2003: 428). Those men who cannot match up to this ideal, they are left feeling dejected and dissatisfied with their bodies. Though men might not be as vulnerable to the muscular ideal as women are to the thinness ideal, it is certain that images that idealize physical attractiveness impinge them both. This has been further proven by the results of the Future Foundation Survey (1999) Sexing the Media, which suggest that 48% of women and 26% of men are dissatisfied with the way they are represented in the media and are of the view that advertising does not depict their lives realistically (Future Foundation Survey (1999) cited in Reichert, T & Lambiase, J, 2003: 225). From the above we can see how idealized images of physical attractiveness help shape and reinforce attitudes towards the need of developing an ideal body in the case of both men and women. It also plays a role in confirming social categories and influencing the development of an individuals social consciousness, which constantly reinstate the notion of women being thin and men being muscular (Hawkins, S, 2004). Although

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advertising is an important source, it is seen to compete and cooperate with the other sources of social knowledge, such as family and school to reinforce such messages. However, owing to its omnipresent nature it is important to pay close attention to the attitudes that are communicated through advertising images, and how they are communicated. This is because advertising images can have adverse effects in the lives of its viewers, which in the case of idealized images of physical attractiveness will be discussed in the next section.

2.4. The Distorted Mirror: Reflections on the consequences of images of idealized physical attractiveness in advertising.
The body, according to Code (2000), with its insistent need and unconquerable vulnerabilities has always been a flashpoint for anxieties about control and order (Code, 2000: 150). Owing to the presence of images of physical attractiveness present in advertisement campaigns, one can hold the advertising industry responsible for giving consumers a constant stream of representations of perfect and of course unattainable standards of beauty (Cortese, 2004:61). The cultural images of an ideal body type (slender in the case of women and muscular in the case of men) play an integral role in heightening ones anxieties and in doing so symbolize a tantalizing ideal of self-disciple and self-control (Code, L, 2000: 150). Therefore, one can agree with Code (2000) when she states our cultural notions of the body beautiful are clearly disorder- producing and growing more so (Code, 2000:149). In light of this, the following section wishes to identify the effects of idealized images of physical attractiveness on the mental and physical well - being of consumers. For the purpose of this study it has been hypothesized that viewing advertising images of physical attractiveness promote appearance consciousness, food control and body image distortion among consumers, which arise from the fear of being fat (in the case of women) or having a scrawny, emaciated appearance (in the case of men). Popular culture and media influences in the form of advertising and entertainment are known to have a reputation of being an influential source that promotes an ideal of

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physical attractiveness (Monro and Huon, 2005; Graff Low et al, 2003). Especially in the case of women, the ideal image of feminine attractiveness rigidly emphasizes the drive for thinness, which women of all ages are pressurized to attain (Freedman, 1984). Buss (1994) has considered womens social outcomes to be critically dependent on their perception of their attractiveness (Buss (1994) cited in Posavc et al, 1998: 188). With the media being filled with images that deliberately highlight the discrepancy between a female perceivers conception of her own weight and the standard accepted by society, young women find media images of idealized physical attractiveness threatening. This was certified by a study conducted by Smolak and Levin (2001) on adolescent girls, which found them to feel bad about their bodies as a result of comparisons with images of fashion models (Smolak, Levine & Thompson (2001) cited in Hargreaves & Tiggeman, 2006). Additionally, Graham (2005) found close to 70% of women to be negatively affected after viewing fashion magazines, which displayed images of models that on average are 5 feet 9 inches tall and weigh approximately 110 pounds (Graham, 2005:17). Therefore, one can see how idealized images of physical attractiveness in the media highlight and escalate individuals inadequacies making them feel threatened and increase their preoccupation with body weight and shape. Comparisons with advertising images results in self-objectification which objectifies the body and makes individuals internalize this objectification by habitual self-monitoring of ones physical appearance, as suggested earlier (Cortese, 2004: 55). McKingley and Hyde (1996) have suggested body surveillance, internalization of cultural body standards, and beliefs about the controllability of appearance to be to the three components through which consciousness of ones body as an object is escalated (McKingley and Hyde, 1996 cited in Cortese, 2004: 55). Moreover, Graff Low et al (2003) suggest continuous exposure to the thin ideal to evoke a desire to alter ones weight and shape such that they begin to view their own bodies as objects, develop concerns regarding body image including body dissatisfaction, which sometimes leads to the onset of dieting and disordered eating. Results from a study conducted by Kuring and Tiggeman (2004) on 286 undergraduate students at the Flinders University of South Australia, which studied the proposed consequences of self-objectification has supported

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Graff Low et als. (2003) claim. The study was conducted using a questionnaire that contained measures of self-objectification and self-surveillance, measures of the proposed consequences of self-objectification (body shame, appearance anxiety, flow and awareness of internal bodily states), as well as the outcome variables of disordered eating and depressive mood (Kuring, J & Tiggeman, 2004:301). In the case of women, the results identified a domino effect to be caused by self-objectification that began with selfsurveillance, in turn, leads to body shame and appearance anxiety and in both greater disordered eating and more depressed mood. Self- surveillance in the case of men, was seen to manifest itself in the form of increased body shame and appearance anxiety, however, they demonstrated no self-objectification. Therefore, Kuring & Tiggeman (2004) the likelihood of women experiencing self-objectification and self-surveillance is greater than men, who when seen to experience self-surveillance demonstrate similar dissatisfaction. In an attempt to internalize prevailing cultural standards of beauty and reduce levels of dissatisfaction, women especially, begin to owe allegiance the cult of dieting, as Naomi Wolf (1991) calls it (Wolf, 1991 cited in Campos, 2004: 149). Moreover, Hesse-Biber (1997) discusses the working of this cult, which begins with rituals involving weighing, calorie counting, and exercise that are dished out by gurus in the form of diet-book writers, followed by icons that are provided by media/fashion and ultimately displayed in ceremonies such as beauty pageants. Ultimately, resulting in worship of none other than the human body. Furthermore, feminist author Susie Orbach (1998) suggests the way women describe their body sizes are a result of cultural dictates prevalent within society, which resonate male determined standards of beauty (Orbach, S, 1998: 16). She further suggests women with eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia do not reduce their appetites and remain preoccupied with their bodies due to mental illness. They do so in order to adhere to male dominated beauty standards set within society. Therefore, Orbach (1998) suggest food and the body have become a medium of communication through which women communicate in todays world.

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Moreover, with the American food industry spending $36 billion on advertising each year, one is not surprised to hear claims such as 50 million American adults begin a weight-loss diet each year (Vartanian et al, 2001: 713) or almost half of American women to be on a diet on any given day (National Eating Disorders Association, 2007). Although dieting when carried out for lengthy periods of time has been noted to devolve into a ritualistic and indeed obsessive-compulsive attitude towards food such that Code (2000) holds the cultural-diet-mania responsible for putting people in the risk of eating disorders (Campos, 2004: 149). This has been further certified by the results of a study conducted on 72 female undergraduate students studying at Duke University by Fredrickson et al (1998). Through the use of the Self-Objectification Questionnaire and an indirect measure that assessed body shame, the study was able to demonstrate how women engage in disordered eating in an attempt to maintain or gain body satisfaction as a measure of evade experiencing body shame. The study found that self-objectification contributed directly to disordered eating patterns (Fredrickson et al, 1998 cited in Greening, 2006). However, with advertisements sporting models like Kate Moss, who supposedly have been responsible for re-popularizing the waif look consequences such as these are bound to occur (Code, 2000: 150). According to Dunn (1992) eleven million women and one million men in America suffer from eating disorders either in the form of self-induced semi-starvation commonly known as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa that is characterized by a cycle of bingeing and purging with laxatives, self-induced vomiting, or excessive exercise (Dunn (1992) cited in Stephens, et al, 1994: 137). However, it is important to note that the models depicted in these advertisements, whose bodies are idealized by the media and internalized by consumers, are not invincible to feelings of poor body image. Zimmerman (1997) cites Cindy Crawford as an example who in spite of being acknowledged as a world class beauty who portrays to be flippant in her attitude about models, impacts on eating disorders is in actuality affected by her colleagues as much consumers on the receiving of advertisements are. In an interview with Vogue Crawford admitted that she felt "self-conscious of my arms, because I look at someone like Linda [Evangelista] and she has these little bird arms and they look great in clothes (Zimmerman, 1997). Crawford also doesn't like the area right

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under her butt, "where the cellulite tends to come," and thinks that her feet are too wide. Evangelista, in turn, told interviewers that she covets Christy Turlington's mouth and would like to "remove two ribs - or just shrink the size of my rib cage (Zimmerman, 1997). From the above, one can see how even supermodels, similar to other women lack inner security of body acceptance due to escalated societal pressure, which constantly emphasize the attainment of an ideal body type portrayed in advertisements. Thus, along with Greening (2006), we can assume our cultures practice of objectifying the female body to have negative effects on women, and disordered eating is only one of its many manifestations. According to Twitchell (1996) advertising images of physical attractiveness encourages not only fat free-diets but anorexia, bulimia, binge eating as seen above but also liposuction, cosmetic surgery and dentistry (Twitchell 1996 cited in Cortese, 2004: 56). Idealized images present in advertising are peddled by the beauty industry, which propagate the use of cosmetics and beauty aids has fuelled a culture that places more emphasis on external appearances. Feminists such as Paula Black (2004) argue that the beauty industry (cosmetics, fashion, diet and cosmetic surgery) sets out standards of what is aesthetically appropriate within society. However, idealized images of physical attractiveness present in the media are constructed through cosmetics, photography, and airbrushing techniques Cortese, 2004:54). Furthermore, according to Kilbourne (1989) these can only be achieved artificially through the purchase of vast quantity of beauty products, many of which like the Proctor & Gamble UKs Pantene Pro-V shampoo and Este Lauders Body Performance Anti-Cellulite Visible Contouring Serum, are found to be misleading and unsubstantiated (Kilbourne, 1989 cited in Cortese, 2004:54; Lister, S, 2005). According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS), in 2003, under 3 million cosmetic procedures were performed (ASPS, 2003). This figure is up 424% from 1992, 207 % from 1998, and 41% from 2002 (ASPS, 2003). With nose reshaping (rhinoplasty), breast augmentation, eyelid surgery, facelifts and liposuction being the top five procedures of choice (ASPS, 2003). This has been further certified by a survey

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conducted by The Lanark Centre, a UK-based cosmetic surgery clinic, suggested, cosmetic surgery to have become increasingly popular with up to one in three UK women have considered a procedure (BBC News, 1999). Moreover, the study found women in their twenties and early thirties to be most likely to seek breast enlargement operations, while tummy tucks and liposuction were favored by women in their late thirties and those in their forties were most likely to demand a face lift (BBC News, 1999). However, men are not too far behind either, according to the British United Provident Association (BUPA) One in 12 cosmetic surgery patients were men and for them, the most popular operation was to pin back ears, followed by nose surgery, eyelids, facelifts and liposuction (Dobson, R, 2004) Thus, one can see how the advertising industry with its accomplice, the beauty industry, transforms the face into becoming a mask and the body into becoming an object by promoting images of idealized physical attractiveness, which are not real but merely a faade and yet have the power to leave consumers feeling inadequate about themselves (Cortese, 2004: 54). The Real Truth About Beauty: A Global Report, a study conducted by Etcoff et al (2004) encompasses the viewpoints of 3,200 women aged 18-64 on all the dimensions discussed above. Results of this study showed women to harbour the desire of seeing more realistic examples of womens shape and weight displayed in the media, as the existing ones seemed to cause body satisfaction and other body image concerns. On surveying womens perceptions of social and cultural mandates of beauty, the study found over half of all women (57%) to strongly agree with the claim the attributes of female beauty have become very narrowly defined in todays world. Additionally, 60% of women believed that society expects women to enhance their physical attractiveness by way of cosmetics, weight loss, exercise, and/or cosmetic surgery (Etcoff et al, 2004:25). Interestingly, half of the women studied (45%) believed that women who are beautiful have greater opportunities in life, both personally and professionally. In addition, the study also found more than half of women (59%) strongly agreeing to the claim that physically attractive women are more valued by men, which suggests that social pressures are reinforced by perceptions regarding the role of men in driving up the beauty standards within society (Etcoff et al, 2004:25). However, the most important finding was

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that two-thirds (68%) of women strongly agreed with the claim the media and advertising set an unrealistic standard of beauty that most women cant ever achieve. (Etcoff et al, 2004: 26-27) As suggested above the media has been help responsible for promoting a drive for thinness in the case of women, however, Schwerin et al. (1997) have suggested them to promote a drive for bulk amongst men, which creates and heightens dissatisfaction amongst men (Schwerin et al. (1997) cited in Vartanian et al, 2001: 713). As with the case of body satisfaction and self-esteem (McCauley et al, 1999 cited in Vartanian et al, 2001) mens concerns about thinness tend to be more variable than those faced by women (McCauley et al (1999) cited in Vartanian et al, 2001: 712). Mens preoccupations pertain to attaining an ideal body shape, compared to an ideal body weight (Rothblum, 1990), which is further heightened according to Vartanian et al, 2001) by the desire of wanting to become more muscular ((Rothblum, 1990 cited in Lorenzen et al, 2004). Moreover, a study conducted by Lorenzen et al (2004) on 104 American college going men studied the effects of cultural ideals for men portrayed in the media on mens body satisfaction. The use of a 25-item Body Assessment (BA) scale along with 12 advertisements (6 images of muscular men and 6 images of non-muscular men) from popular mens magazines were used to assess participants levels of satisfaction (Lorenzen et al, 2004: 745). The results of the study indicated lower rates of body satisfaction after viewing images, which suggests a direct relationship to exist between mens body satisfaction and images of muscularity. Furthermore, Lorenzen et al (2004) suggested the implications of exposure to such images are be comparable to the effects faced by women when exposed to the thin body ideal. The various manifestations of these can be seen in the form of lowered self-esteem, depression, guilt, stress, insecurity, shame, and body dissatisfaction (Lorenzen et al, 2004: 747). Furthermore, the necessity of a muscular physique and body shape has been highlighted and illustrated in the increased muscularity of male action toys, male models from Playgirl centerfolds and male models in magazine advertisements (Lorenzen et al, 2004: 744). It is no wonder that Cortese (2004) suggests men to have become obsessed

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with achieving an unrealistic cultural standard of muscularity as masculinity, which has given rise to a condition similar to that of anorexia in women, amongst men (Cortese, 2004:64). This syndrome is called dysmorphia wherein men begin to see themselves as scrawny and inadequate despite their bulging muscles (Cortese, 2004: 64). This has led to an increase in bodybuilding, which Klein (1993) suggests has rise due to an increasing insecurity amongst men (Klein (1993) cited in Cortese, 2004). According to Vartanian et al (2001) the increased use of anabolic steroids and dietary supplements among young males further reflects how males too are preoccupied about their body and will undertake extreme measures in order to develop a sufficient musculature so as to not appear as "scrawny" or "wimpy (Vartanian et al, 2001: 715). Nonetheless, today companies are seen to make attempts to shift away from endorsing images of physical attractiveness as apart of their advertising campaigns. Dove can be seen as one of the companies, which supported this cause by initiating its campaign for Real Beauty in 2005. The campaign sported six women who are not professional models, each beautiful, but broader than Bundchen, heftier than an Olsen twin, to model in bras and panties (Appendix A. Figure 3) (Traister, 2005). Urban markets of the Western world witnessed this campaign in the form of both television and print advertisements. Though this campaign was a shift away from the narrow, stifling stereotypes and in doing so paid homage to real women with real curves, it was a precursor to the promotions of Doves newest product The Intensive Firming Cream (Traister, 2005). Though the idea behind the campaign was a smart, worthwhile and rational one, Traister (2005) highlights its essence as being a business proposition and an advertising campaign (Traister, 2005). Moreover, Zimmerman (1997) looks at such strategies to be a marketing ploy to promote an even stronger identification between the average woman and the supermodel.

2.5. Summary
Although some researchers (Cash, 1990; Smolak, Levine & Thompson, 2001) believe women to be effected to a greater extent by advertisements of physical

34

attractiveness than men, others (Grogan, Williams, & Conner, 1996) suggest advertisements of idealized physical attractiveness to negatively affected both men and women, and to an equal extent. In this realm of contradicting viewpoints, which will keep counteracting each other, all what matters is that advertisements containing images of idealized physical attractiveness affect consumers be it males or females, with only the extent to which they are affected being a variable factor. The literature reviewed above predominantly focuses on studies conducted in America, which is the only country known to deluge its consumers with images of ideal beauty for over a century (Zimmerman, 1997). The first of such images which proliferated the world of advertising was the the slimmer, more athletic-looking Gibson Girl who remained an image of American beauty until World War I, who was then replaced the boyish flapper in the 1920s, who in turn was replaced by the five feet, six inch, 89 pounds weighing Twiggy (Zimmerman, 1997) Today, these idealized images of beauty still continue to exist in the form of models such as Naomi Campbell and celebrities such as Paris Hilton, Mary-Kate Olsen, and Lindsay Lohan, who emulate these ideals strictly in order to adhere to the only form of sanctioned attractiveness they know (Zimmerman, 1997). The latest manifestation has been noted to be the trend of the super skinny size 00 that has swept America and taken the meaning of 'to die for' in fashion to a whole new level (BBC News, 2006). However, today advertisements sporting images of idealized physical

attractiveness have spread beyond the United States, thereby becoming a universal phenomenon. In light of this, the following study wishes to assess the extent to which consumers in the UK perceive advertisements to influence and idealize size, shape and propagate the beauty myth. Secondly, this study is concerned with the effects images of idealized physical attractiveness have on the mental and physical well-being of consumers, who are at the receiving end of such images. Thirdly, it wishes to find out whether consumers find discrepancies to exist in the perception of beauty images in advertisements amongst male and female consumers. Lastly, the study aims to find out whether consumers perceive the advertising industry to mirror society or shape it.

35

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

3.1. Introduction
The following chapter will provide a detailed description of the various procedures undertaken to complete the research. The chapter will be sub-divided into three sub sections, each of which will provide an in- depth explanation of how the research was carried out. The Research Problem, being the first sub section will identify the problem in question and why it is to be investigated. Secondly, The Research Process will provide an outline of the actual steps taken while conducting the study including a detailed explanation of the procedures, instruments, tools, timelines and sample size used. Thirdly, The Research Experience will outline the ethical issues; the major challenges and dilemmas faced while conducting the study as well as reflect on the relationship shared between the participants and myself.

3.2. The Research Problem

With advertisements increasingly displaying idealized beauty images, which are far from reality, this poses to be an issue of concern to society as a whole. The repercussions of which are far and wide and most recently have manifested itself in the form of the size-zero phenomenon, which has taken the fashion industry by storm. Therefore, one can only imagine the impact these idealized beauty images must have on consumers, who are at the receiving end of such messages. In light of this, the present study being undertaken will focus on consumer attitudes towards the advertising industry and seeks to identify the extent do consumers perceive advertisements to influence and idealize size and shape and propagate the beauty myth. It also wishes to identify the possible effects such images might have on the mental and physical well being amongst consumers today. Moreover, extreme messages and pressures to attain and ideal body type has been directed towards females but recently studies suggest men to bear the brunt of such messages as well. In light of this the following study also seeks to identify whether consumers find any discrepancies to exist in the perception of beauty images in 36

advertisements amongst male and female consumers. Lastly, the study aims to find out whether consumers perceive the advertising industry to mirror society or shape it. Owing to the nature of the study being undertaken, the use of a quantitative research instrument was chosen to investigate and delve deeper into the area under discussion. Making use of a quantitative research instrument seemed most suitable to conduct research on the present study as it made making comparisons between data possible (Ragin, 1994). Moreover, the use of quantitative research methods eliminates weaknesses such as departing from the original objectives of the research (Cassell & Symon, 1994), excessive subjectivity of judgment (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996) and high requirements for the experience level of the researcher ((Bryman, 2001), which arise from the use qualitative research methods. Furthermore, quantitative research methods use a deductive approach to test the relationship between theory and research and in doing so attempt to provide evidence for or against a pre-specified hypothesis (Bryman, 2001:20). Therefore, it was concluded that the use of a quantitative research instrument would be most beneficial in the case of the current study being undertaken as it provides an important opportunity to test whether the theories put forth in the literature review regarding mainstream consumer perceptions regarding advertisements, the effects of idealized images of physical attractiveness and discrepancies regarding advertising messages to male and female consumers are factual or not in case of the sample in question.

3.3. The Research Process

This sub section of the chapter recapitulates the various steps taken to complete the research experiment. This section will comprise of information regarding the sample under study, the questionnaire design as well as how and where the research was conducted. Furthermore, it will provide an account of the procedure involved in carrying out the study.

37

Participants 100 members of the general public, particularly those studying and the University of Nottingham made up the sample for the current study undertaken. As the University of Nottingham hosts an eclectic mix of individuals, varying in age and ethnicity, this provided a diverse cross-section of viewpoints of consumers on the subject matter. The average age of participants was 25 years. Furthermore, the selection in terms of gender was balanced in order to avoid any sampling bias. These participants were chosen through a method of simple random sampling, which is the most unbiased method of sampling wherein each member of the population has an equal probability of being selected (Gratton, C & Jones, I, 2004: 101). Moreover, Grantton & Jones (2004) consider this to be the best technique to obtain a representative sample and produce findings that will be generalizeable to the overall population, which further paved the way for its use as a sampling technique for this study. Furthermore, this method was cost effective and not time consuming (Bryman, 2001).

Measures The research was conducted through the use of selfadministrative questionnaires. Being a full-time student at University of Nottingham made questionnaires the most viable option to be used while conducting research. The use of questionnaires enabled me to investigate a larger sample, which was necessary to collect adequate data in the case of this study (Gratton, C & Jones, I, 2004: 117). Not only did it suit the timeframe but was also cheaper to administer and a practical method to analyse information which was not complex in nature (Denscombe, 1998). Moreover, questionnaires enable easy comparison between subject groups, which was required in the case of this study as one of the research questions entailed a comparison between male and female viewpoints with regard to any discrepancies present in the perception of advertisements (Gratton, C & Jones, I, 2004: 117). Furthermore, the lack of interviewer variability, interviewer bias and lack of verbal or visual clues to influence the participant allows individuals to in their own time, without any prejudices answer the questions they are given as honestly as

38

possible. This is important especially when the questionnaire consists of personal factual questions regarding behaviour, attitudes and beliefs such as the ones used in this study (Bryman, 2001). Data collection for this study was obtained through two questionnaires. The first questionnaire was created through a synthesis and modification of Cusumano & Thompsons (1997) The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire Revised (SATAQ- R) and Cusumano & Thompsons (2000) Multidimensional Media Influence Scale (MMIS). Consisting of list of 20 questions rated on a 5-point Likert scale raning from 1 (Completely Disagree) to 5 (Completely Agree) with 3 being a neutral mid- point attitude, the questionnaire primarily focused on the advertising industry and was used to measure internalization and awareness of societal expectations regarding physical attractiveness. It sought to identify whether or not ideals of attractiveness stemmed from numerous media images, such actors/actresses and models and assess individuals attitudes about their body, their views on the advertising industry as a whole. A table providing details regarding the construct of each question can be found in Appendix B The second questionnaire required participants to view four advertising images after which they were asked to fill out The Body Esteem Scale (BES; Franzoi & Shields, 1984). The Body Esteem Scale was used to measure body attitudes, and consists of 35 body parts and functions rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Have strong negative feelings) to 5 (Have strong positive feelings), with 3 being a neutral mid- point attitude. Factor analysis indicates that the body items comprising the BES are best conceptualized as being composed of three gender-specific dimensions. These factors are: Physical Attractiveness (PA) for males or Sexual Attractiveness (SA) for females, Upper Body Strength (UBS) for males or Weight Concern (WC) for females and Physical Condition (PC) for both males and females (Franzoi & Shields, 1984) Since its development, a number of studies suggest that the BES is adequately valid and reliable, and relatively free from social desirable responding (Cecil & Stanley, 1997; Franzoi, 1994; Silberstein, Striegel-Moore, Timko, & Rodin, 1988; Thomas & Freeman, 1990).

39

Moreover, according to Franzoi (1994) when BES was administered to university students, it proved to be a reliable and valid measure of body esteem. Images Participants were presented with four ideal images of the sort commonly found in magazines such as Glamour, Cosmopolitan, and Vogue. Images were selected on the principal of being apart of controversial ad campaigns for companies, which have been popularized due to being notorious for advertising nudity, blatant sexuality and criticized for their gratuitous use of sex and exploitative use of young men and women. A copy of the questionnaires being discussed above can be found in Appendix C. Procedure Once the questionnaire was formulated, a pilot study was conducted in order to test whether it was consistent with the research protocols that needed to be followed. Five individuals on the University of Nottingham campus were randomly selected and asked to be apart of the pilot study. The questionnaire was administered in exactly the same way as it was going to be in the main study, the time taken was recorded and participants were asked for feedback in order to identify any problems with the questionnaires. However, none of the participants encountered any difficulties with understanding the instructions. The way in which the questions were worded did not seem to pose any problems and the ordering of the questions seemed to be satisfactory, as the questions seemed flow concisely into each other. Thus, making it easier and quicker to conduct the actual study on the required sample size. 100 students from the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom were asked to participate in the final study by completing both questionnaires. Being a full-time student at the University of Nottingham made it easier to gain access as my identification was easily verifiable and I knew the whereabouts of the students considering I studied at the

40

same institution. However, as my research was not conducted during term time participants were recruited from all over the university primarily from the library and the cafeteria. Both locations proved to be a host to a large number of students who varied in age and gaining access was not an issue either. The data was collected by handing out questionnaires to participants face to face as they were readily available and being there in person made it a suitable option to make use of (Gratton, C & Jones, I, 2004: 136). An overall response rate of 100% was achieved.

3.4. The Research Experience

The following will reflect on the experience gained while conducting the research and will state the relationship with the participants, the major challenges faced as well as enlist any ethical dilemmas faced. As I shared no relationship with the participants I had to make them feel comfortable and tried putting them at ease by building a rapport with them. I spoke to people individually, introduced myself, explained the purpose of the study being conducted, the time it would take to complete it and thanked them for their co-operation. I also told them that this study was consistent with all ethical considerations and their identity would be anonymous at all times. In order to avoid them answering in a particular way that they thought would be in favour to me, I tried to maintain an interview style that did not bias the respondents answers. In order to avoid any inconvenience to the participants and in order to make the study seem professional, I also provided participants with writing supplies. The research experiment was consistent with the Statement of Ethical Practice put forth by The British Sociological Association whose four the main principles are not causing physical harm, invading peoples privacy, lying or misleading people and forcing them to perform actions against their will. In both cases participants were told that participation in this study was on a voluntary basis; therefore they were under no

41

obligation to complete the questionnaire. They could withdraw from this study at any point prior to completing the questionnaire and handing or e-mailing it to back to me. Furthermore, in order to maintain confidentiality and anonymity participants were not required for asked additional information about themselves other than their age and gender. Overall the experiment was consistent with the time frame assigned to it being carried out in and no major challenges or ethical issues were faced which could possibly have deterred the process of carrying out this study.

3.5. Summary
On the whole the use of questionnaires was advantageous. It proved to be an ideal measure to make use of given the designated time frame and also was a cheaper and practical method to make use of while administering and analysing data. The first part of the questionnaire was devised so that it was consistent with the research objectives of this study and the use of BES in the second questionnaire further aided the research objective. Moreover, it has been administered to university students in the past, wherein it has proved to be a reliable and valid measure to be made use of. Additionally, the sample of the study was easily available, one that varied in age and provided a large spectrum of consumer viewpoints on the subject matter. Neither was gaining access an issue of concern nor were any major challenges or ethical dilemmas faced by the study undertaken. However, in the case of both questionnaires attitudes were measure through the pre-coded, five pointed Likert scale, which restricted participants freedom of expression, did not give them an opportunity to elaborate and restricted answers to the predetermined set of option that were listed. None the less, a finite set of answers of a clear cut nature were obtained from these questions and they were easy to code and evaluate data as can be seen from the following chapter wherein the findings will be stated.

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Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion

4.1 Introduction
The questionnaire used in this study was devised in congruence with the research aims, with its primary purpose being to answer the research questions of the study undertaken. In order to do so questions pertaining to specific hypotheses were grouped together. In addition to providing a description of the sample, the following chapter will present the findings from the questionnaire, address the findings in light of the research question as well as provide a discussion of the findings and see whether or not they were consistent with the theories put for in the literature review in chapter two. Lastly, the limitations and implications to enhance the present study will be discussed at the end of the chapter.

4.2. Description of the sample

100 members of the general public, particularly those studying and the University of Nottingham made up the sample for the current study undertaken. As the University of Nottingham hosts an eclectic mix of individuals, varying in age and ethnicity, this provided a diverse cross-section of viewpoints of consumers on the subject matter. The average age of participants was 25 years. However, due the submission of incomplete questionnaires on behalf of 8 participants only data collected from 92 participants was used during data analysis. Furthermore, in terms of the gender split 42.4% respondents were male while 57.6% were female. This split facilitated a balanced response within results and avoided any sampling bias in terms of gender that might arise. Further analysis of any contrasting opinions between genders will be provided as the chapter proceeds. All participants were given a standardised questionnaire, which strives to answer the research questions of the study undertaken. The results are grouped together and presented below so that they can answer the specific research questions they pertain to.

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4.3. Research Question One

Data collected from questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 14 and 15 of Questionnaire 1 have been used to assess the extent to which consumers perceive advertisements to influence and idealize size, shape and propagate the beauty myth. Advertising, according to Greening (2006) is one of the most popular means of socialization. Researchers such as Graff Low et al (2003) and Monro and Huon (2005) are of the opinion that popular culture and media influences in the form of advertising and entertainment have a reputation of being an influential source that promotes information about attractiveness along with an ideal of what is considered to be attractive. Based on this construct, participants were asked in question 1 to reflect their degree of agreement with the statement In our culture, advertisements are an important source of information about being attractive (Figure 1). 41.3% (38 participants) appeared to mostly agree with this item on the questionnaire, which confirms Graff Low et al (2003), and Monro and Huons (2005) point of view.
Figure 1: Question 1 25 20 15 male 10 5 0 female

Baudrillard

(2003)

is

of

the

opinion

that

the

nature

of

current

production/consumption structures along with advertising, have transformed the human body into becoming an object which is finer, more precious, more dazzling and even more laden with connotation than any other (Baudrillard, J, 1998: 129). Moreover, Fredickson and Roberts (1997) have blamed advertisements for giving rise to a

44

phenomenon called objectification, wherein individuals, especially women begin to view themselves as objects and begin to live life in the third person (Fredickson and Roberts, 1997 cited in Greening, K, 2006). This further cultivates into a form of selfconsciousness, one that is characterized by the idiosyncrasies of constant and habitual self-monitoring of ones outward appearance. Cortese (2004) goes a step further by suggesting the advertising industry and its accomplice the beauty industry to be responsible for transforming the face into becoming a mask and the body into becoming an object by promoting images of idealized physical attractiveness (Cortese, 2004: 54). In order to asses whether consumers were in agreement with this notion put forth by researchers, participants were asked in question 14 to agree or disagree with the statement Advertisements idealized the human body, making it the finest consumer object present in our society (Figure 2). Results confirmed the claims made by these researchers as 71.7% (66 participants) seemed to mostly agree and completely agree with this statement.
Figure 2: Question 14 25 20 15 male 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 female

The image of the human body presented in advertisements has become a bone contention because researchers such as Freedman (1984) and Cortese (2004) estimate advertising, through different means of mass media propagates an ideal of beauty to consumers, which is not in their best interest. Solomon (1992) further reinstates their claim by stating advertisements filled with images of thin, happy people has generated a lot of pressure to be slim such that these images have come to be the yardstick against 45

which people judge the worth of their own bodies (Solomon, 1992: 226). In the event of participants being faced with the statement Advertising promotes unrealistic standards of physical attractiveness in question 15 (Figure 3), 41.3% (38 participants) mostly agreed with this claim, which was further supported by 29.3% (27 participants) who were in complete compliance with this claim.
Figure 3: Question 15 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

male female

As of the results presented above it is rather evident that majority of the sample who participated in this study were of the opinion that advertisements idealize size and shape and propagate the beauty myth. However, in order to determine how consumers are influenced by ideals of physical attractiveness, results from questions 2, 3, 4 and 6 were analyzed. Comparison is considered to be a recurrent theme in social psychology literature, an inherent human characteristic to researchers such as Pettigrew (1967) (Pettigrew (1967) cited in Richins, 1991). According to Festingers (1954) social comparison theory individuals tend to compare themselves with idealized images in advertisements. This may be done consciously or unconsciously. However, Merton (1957) suggests individuals to engage in comparisons with members of groups who do not belong to or with social categories- individuals who share a social status but who have no social interaction, (Merton, 1957 cited in Richins, M, 1991: 72). Models present in advertisements fulfill this criterion and are looked upon as a reference group by individuals to make comparisons and judge their own attractiveness.

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It has been suggested that the endorser in an advertisement is emulated and looked up to by consumers furthermore if they are celebrities. Atkin and Block (1983) believe celebrities are influential in attracting consumer attention and buying behavior and the purchase of celebrity endorsed products is a vestibule through which individuals can identify with celebrities (Atkin and Block (1983) cited in Kamins, M.A, 1990). Sequentially, Assael (1984) suggests celebrities to be looked upon as reference groups who provide points of comparison through which the consumer may evaluate attitudes and behavior (Assael (1984) cited in Kamins, M.A, 1990). Moreover, the use of celebrities is a measure through which idealized images of physical attractiveness is promoted and reinforced in the media. In order to asses whether or not models and celebrities are apart of the common mans sphere of influence participants were asked 2 questions based on the above construct. Results from question 2, wherein participants were presented with the statement After viewing advertisements, I tend to compare my body to that of the model/models present in the advertisement (Figure 4) revealed 42.4% (39 participants) to mostly agree and completely agree with this claim, while 32.6% (30 participants) seemed to mostly disagree and completely disagree with the same. Additionally, question 3 called upon participants to state their agreement with the statement I compare my appearance to the appearance of celebrities in advertisements (Figure 5). Results from which fitted in with the literature researched above, demonstrating 43.5% (40 participants) agreement and 40.4% (37 participants) disagreement amongst the sample.

Figure 4: Question 2 20 15 10 5 0 male female 25 20 15 10 5 1 2 3 4 5 0

Figure 5: Question 3

male female

47

Conversely, results from question 4, which required participants to state their extent of agreement with the statement I do not care if my body looks like that of the models/ celebrities that appear in advertisements (Figure 6), for the largest part at 30.4% (28 participants) to mostly disagree and 26.1% (24 participants) chose to neither agree nor disagree with this claim. Concurrently, participants were asked to agree or disagree with the statement I do not try to look like models/ celebrities that appear in advertisements in question 6 (Figure 7). While 44.6% (41 participants) agreed with this claim while 33.7% (31 participants) seemed to disagree with it.

Figure 6: Question 4 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 18 16 14 male female 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1

Figure 7: Question 6

male female

Gauging from the results, which illustrate a minimal difference between the degree of agreement and disagreement it cannot be concluded with certainty if models/ celebrities and are influential in making consumers succumb to the ideal of physical attractiveness propagated by advertisements. Thus, proving to be incoherent with the research conducted previously. However, consistent with the literature, results from this study enable one to undoubtedly certify that consumers perceive advertisements idealize size, shape and propagate a beauty myth by promoting an archetype of what should be considered as beautiful within society. This prototype is unrealistic and difficult to achieve and is responsible for transforming the face into becoming a mask and the body into becoming an object (Cortese, 2004: 54).

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4.4. Research Question Two

The effects of idealized images of physical attractiveness portrayed in advertisements have been an area of considerable research. Hesse-Biber (1997) suggests people to involve themselves in weighing, calorie counting and exercise in an attempt to internalize prevailing cultural standards of beauty and reduce levels of dissatisfaction. In doing so, Wolf (1991) reckons people begin to owe allegiance to the cult of dieting, which is heightened by images of idealized physical appearance present in advertisements (Wolf, 1991 cited in Campos, 2004: 149). Moreover, Twitchell (1996) is of the opinion that advertising images of physical attractiveness encourages food control in the form of fat-free diets, self- induced semi-starvation as well as liposuction, cosmetic surgery and dentistry (Twitchell 1996 cited in Cortese, 2004: 56). Therefore, continuous exposure to the thin ideal is said to evoke a desire to alter ones weight and shape such that they begin to view their own bodies as objects, develop concerns regarding body image including body dissatisfaction, which sometimes leads to the onset of dieting and disordered eating. Moreover, feminists such as Black (2004) regard the beauty industry to use advertising as a means to set out standards of what is aesthetically appropriate within society. Therefore, advertisements researchers such as Benstock & Ferriss (1994) hold advertisements responsible for delineating, enforcing and promising a normative ideal of femininity and consumer behavior that readers can attain by investing in the right diet, exercise, clothing and makeup (Benstock & Ferriss, 1994: 9). Furthermore, researchers such as Lorenzen et al (2004) have suggested men to face similar implications from the exposure to idealized images, which are comparable to the effects faced by women when exposed to the thin body ideal. It has been proposed that these effects manifest themselves in the form of lowered self-esteem, depression, guilt, stress, insecurity, shame, and body dissatisfaction (Lorenzen et al, 2004: 747). In line with the construct provided above data collected from questions 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 from Questionnaire 1 as well as participants responses from Questionnaire 2 were taken into consideration in order to determine whether or these allegations are legitimate as well understand the effects idealized images of physical attractiveness have on the mental and physical well-being of consumers. 49

The results of question 5, wherein participants were presented with the statement I would like my body to look like that of the models/celebrity that appear in advertisements (Figure 8), showed 50% of the sample (46 participants) to be in agreement with the statement while 26% expressed their disagreement with the same. Alongside this, when participants were asked to state their agreement to the statement I have felt pressure from advertisements to have a perfect body (Figure 9) in question 7 more than half the sample at 51% (47 participants) were in disagreement with this statement. It is important to note that the gender split supporting this finding was nearly equal, which increases its validity even further. In question 8, participants were asked to agree or disagree to the statement I have felt pressure from advertisements to have a perfect body (Figure 10). Results revealed 44.5% (41 participants), consisting more of male participants to mostly disagree and completely disagree with this claim. However, it is important to note that 39.1% (36 participants) were in agreement with the same, with a higher number of responses from female participants.
Figure 8: Question 5 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 16 14 12 10 male female 8 6 4 2 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 male female Figure 9: Question 7

50

Figure 10: Question 8 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 male female

What is more is that when participants were presented with question 9 that required them to agree or disagree with the claim I have felt pressure from advertisements to diet (Figure 11), 58.6% (54 participants) consisting of a nearly equal response from males and females exemplified disagreement with the statement. On analysing participants level of agreement on question 10 wherein they were presented with the statement I have felt pressure from advertisements to change my appearance (Figure 12), 31.5% (28 participants) consisting of a higher number of female participants mostly agreed with this claim. While 25% (23 participants) comprising of a larger number of male respondents seemed to mostly disagree with the same. Additionally, participant responses from the statement I have felt pressure from advertisements to exercise in question 11 (Figure 13) revealed 45.7% (42 participants) to mostly agree and completely agree with the statement. However, an opposing viewpoint of disagreement was rather high as well at 42.4% (39 participants).
Figure 11: Question 9 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 25 20 15 male female 10 5 0 male female Figure 12: Question 10

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Figure 13: Question 11

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 male female

Further participants were called upon to validate or nullify their opinion on the statements I do not feel pressure from advertisements to look attractive (Figure 14) and Advertisements make me feel dissatisfied with the way I look (Figure 15) in Question 12 and Question 13 respectively. Results showed 53.3% (49 participants) of the sample, consisting of a similar ratio of male and female participants displayed compliance with the statement in question 12. In question 13, majority of the sample at 60.6% (56 participants), consisting of a similar ratio of male and female participants disagreed with the statement with only 21.8% (20 participants) choosing to agree and 17.6% neither agreeing nor disagreeing with the same. In addition to the analysis of questions from Questionnaire 1, results from Questionnaire 2 were analyzed as well in order to answer the above research question effectively.
Figure 14: Question 12 25 20 15 male 10 5 0 female 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Figure 15: Question 13

male female

52

This questionnaire consisted of the multidimensional Body Esteem Scale (BES) (Franzoi & Shields, 1984), which assessed figure or body image dissatisfaction amongst consumers after they had viewed four individual advertisements, details of which have been provided in chapter three and a copy of which can be found in Appendix C. The three BES subscales measure sexual attractiveness (SA), weight concern (WC), and physical condition (PC) for women. For men, the three subscales of BES measure physical attractiveness (PA), upper body strength (UBS), and physical condition (PC). Although of each of the subscales can be scored separately or combined as an overall score, a comparison between male and female subscale is not possible due to them being comprised of different components. Results from 53 women participants revealed an average of 31.2, 44.7 and 30.3 on the PC, SA and WC subscales respectively (Figure 16). On the other hand, the average for the 39 male participants was 45.8 on the PC subscale, 44.1 on the PA subscale and 28.6 on the UBS subscale. The average body esteem amongst female participants was 35.4 whereas the average body esteem amongst male participants was 39.5 (Figure 17).

Figure 16: BES Female

Figure 17: BES Male

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

PC

SA

WC

PC

PA

UBS

For the most part, the results presented above studies are not completely consistent with previous research that considered images of physical attractiveness to be pressure point that made individuals want to have a perfect body, loose weight, diet, bring

53

about changes in appearance, exercise, enforce the need to be attractive and encourage dissatisfaction amongst consumers. Although a considerable amount of participants expressed the desire to want their body to look like that of the models/celebrity that
Figure 13: Question 11
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 male female

appear in advertisements, more than half the sample disagreed to feeling pressurized from advertisements to have a perfect body or look attractive as well as refrained from blaming advertisements for being the cause of bodily dissatisfaction . Moreover, results depicted positive responses to arise towards the claims that blame advertisement pressurizing individuals to change their appearance and exercise, but the minimal difference between agreement and disagreement amongst participants proves to pose a problem in supporting these results with extreme certainty. Furthermore, nearly all the highest selected alternatives consisted of an equal response from male and female participants. However, in the case of advertisements pressurizing individuals to obtain a perfect body and change their appearance, female participants were noted to have chosen to agree to these claims to a larger extent than their male counterparts. Contradictory to these findings in Questionnaire 2 when the BES was administered to participants, body esteem scores were seen to be very low in the case of men and women, the lowest mean in each being 27 and 23 respectively. Therefore, though majority of the results are not consistent with previous literature pertaining to the effects caused by the display of images of idealized physical attractiveness, the need to alter ones appearance and engage in exercise were the only possible effects this study was able to identify. However, it important to bear in mind that these can be stepping stones

54

rising beliefs about the controllability of ones appearance and the internalization of cultural body standards appearance (McKingley and Hyde, 1996 cited in Cortese, 2004: 55), which if not kept within bounds this can percolate into encouraging individuals to engage fat free-diets, anorexia, bulimia, binge eating, liposuction, cosmetic surgery, amongst other things (Twitchell 1996 cited in Cortese, 2004: 56).

4.5. Research Question Three

Data collected from questions 15, 16 and 17 of Questionnaire 1 was used to find out whether discrepancies existed in the perception of beauty images in advertisements amongst male and female consumers. As can be seen from the results of question 15 that were presented earlier (Figure
3) it is evident that participants are of the belief that advertisements promote unrealistic

standards of attractiveness. Consequently, making it congruent with previous literature pertaining to this topic as well. However, according to Baudrillard (1998) in advertisements it is women especially who orchestrate or rather around who the beauty myth is orchestrated (Baudrillard, J, 1998: 137). Feminist authors (Wolf, 1991; Scranton, 2004; Black, 2004) believe women today to be placed in a moral order and physical hierarchy based on complexion, hair and symmetry of face and form (Scranton, P, 2004: 8). As a result of which Wolf (1991) considers women to enslave themselves to the beauty myth, which is permeated through cultural images of beauty present in advertisements, feminist authors suggest women to be within a modern day Iron Maiden. Moreover, Black (2004) suggested the beauty industry that has its roots in a spiders web of businesses, to set out standards of what is aesthetically appropriate within society. Its accomplice in this heinous act is the advertising industry, which perpetuates the consumption of beauty products and makes it easier to manipulate individuals into conforming to such standards. Thus, there is enough evidence from prior literature, which suggests women to be faced with extreme pressure from advertisements to beautiful and maintain their shape and weight.

55

In order to assess whether consumers views on this subject matter were congruent with previous literature, question 16 asked participants to agree or disagree with the statement The advertising industry is responsible for setting unrealistic expectations of beauty and weight amongst women (Figure 18). With 32.6% mostly agreeing, 29.3% completely agreeing and only 15.1% mostly disagreeing and completely disagreeing with this statement it is apparent that majority of the sample and the viewpoint presented by researchers above are in alignment. Although researchers such as Cash, 1990; Smolak, Levine & Thompson, 2001 believe women to be effected to a greater extent by advertisements of physical attractiveness than men, others Grogan, Williams, & Conner, (1996) suggest advertisements of idealized physical attractiveness to negatively affected both men and women, and to an equal extent. When participants were asked to state their opinion with regard to this in question 17, 42.4% mostly agreed with the statement Men and women are both equally faced with unrealistic expectations of physical attractiveness (Figure 19). This finding is seen to support a relatively new school of thought which contradicts considerable amount of research prevailing in this area of study that portrayed women alone to be at the receiving end of the pressure generated from the representation of idealized images of physical attractiveness present in advertisements as compared to men.

Figure 18: Question 16

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 male female

Figure 19: Question 17 25 20 15 male 10 5 0 female

On the whole, results portrayed more than half the participants of the sample under study seemed to agree with the statements provided in question 15, 16 and 17. It is important to note that the gender split in terms of these response were nearly equal, which 56

removes the possibility of gender bias arising. Thereby increasing the validity of these findings and providing an effective answer to the research question that attempts to identify whether any discrepancies existed in the perception of beauty images in advertisements amongst male and female consumers. Nonetheless, results depicted no major discrepancies to exist in the perception of beauty images in advertisements amongst male and female consumers. Participants seemed to unanimously agree with the claim that advertisements promote unrealistic standards of attractiveness, which are responsible for setting unrealistic expectations of beauty and weight amongst women as well as affect men in an equal manner.

4.6. Research Question Four

In order to ascertain whether the advertising industry has begun to mirror or shape society, data collected from questions 18, 19 and 20 of Questionnaire 1 were utilized. As stated earlier by Greening (2006) advertising is one of the most popular means of socialization. Additionally, Beasley and Danesi (2002) regard Advertising to be an important force in teaching people basic values, ideas and lifestyle (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 18). In agreeing with the same, Lantos (1987) suggested advertising to extend beyond the realm of simply reflecting values but playing in role in reinforcing and accelerating them within society. Furthermore, Fiske and Hartley (1978, 1980) claim advertising does not represent that manifest actuality of society, but rather symbolically reflects social values (Fiske and Hartley (1978, 1980) cited in Ahmed, N, 2000: 25). In light of this, when participants were asked in question 18 to state their level of agreement with the statement Advertising reflects values in society, reinforces and accelerates them as well (Figure 20), results showed 52.1% (48 participants) to mostly agree and completely agree with this statement, which further validated the claims presented by researchers above.

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Figure 20: Question 18 25 20 15 10 5 0 male female

However, Pollay (1986) regarded advertising be a distorted mirror, which only reflects and reinforces certain values and lifestyles, which get strengthened over a period of time. In the case of this study the values focused upon were that of beauty and the importance physical appearance in both males and females. Question 19 required participants to validate or nullify this claim by stating their level of agreement to the statement Advertising today mirrors out societys preoccupation with physical appearances in both males and females (Figure 21). Results illustrated a widespread compliance with 76% (70 participants) choosing to mostly agree and completely agree with this claim.
Figure 21: Question 19 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 male female

What is more is that advertisements are also said to be deliberately and calculatingly created to cultivate an era of persuasion which flourishes into a privileged

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form of social discourse that has unparalleled rhetorical force (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 14). Lantos (1987) regards advertising to be a persuasive and powerful as both a social and socializing institution (Lantos, G, 1987: 104). Owing to the fact that advertisements are filled with idealized images of physical attractiveness one regard advertisements to play a role in creating the preoccupation present in peoples minds regarding the importance of physical appearances. With regard to this construct present in previous literature, participants in question 20 were asked to agree or disagree to the statement Advertising today create the preoccupation present in peoples minds regarding the importance of physical appearances (Figure 22). While 7.6% chose to mostly disagree and completely disagree, 10.9% chose neither to neither agree nor disagree, majority of the sample at 81.5% (75 participants) chose to mostly agree and completely agree with this assertion.
Figure 22: Question 20
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 male female

Thus, the results displayed above are consistent with the literature that suggests advertising is an important agent of socialization, one that plays an integral part in the forming and training consumers to form norms, values and beliefs within society.
Moreover, results draw attention to the fact that the advertising industry cannot be held responsible for solely mirroring or shaping society alone. Though there is no doubt that

advertising, like the media of social communications in general, does act as a mirror, it is a mirror that helps shape the reality it reflects (Somosierra, J, 2007). Such that it begins to represent a distorted image of reality, which in the case of this study can be seen in the

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form idealized images of physical attractiveness that keep reinstating a dominant ideological myth of what beauty should be ( Bignell, J, 2002:35).

4.7. Summary
From the present study it is rather evident that the idea of beauty appears to have been replaced by a narrower definition that is largely located in limited ideals of physical appearance (Ecoff et al, 2004: 47). It appears that the word beauty has in many ways become functionally defined as physical attractiveness (Ecoff et al, 2004: 47). This definition of beauty is powerfully communicated through advertising and has been assimilated through popular culture (Ecoff et al, 2004: 47). However, from the present study one is unable to ascertain with certainty what the plausible effects of such images on consumers mental and physical health might be. Nonetheless, participants seemed to unanimously agree with the claim that advertisements promote unrealistic standards of attractiveness, which are responsible for setting unrealistic expectations of beauty and weight amongst women as well as affect men in an equal manner. Lastly, it seems to be that consumers are of the opinion that advertising is one of the major agents of socialization, one which appears to mirror, reflect as well as mold
and shape the values of its target audience (Somosierra, J, 2007).

4.8. Limitations of the study and future recommendations

However, further research could engage in exploring the propositions contained within this study and others along similar lines as the present study undertaken had its limitations. Firstly, the limited number of participants that made up the sample and the fact that participants pertained to one particular region within the United Kingdom restricted the results generated to be generalized within the populous. Secondly, as with any study using self-reported measures, findings may be susceptible to selective or erroneous reporting as can be seen in the case of incomplete questionnaires which further reduced the participant responses taken into consideration during data analysis (Filaire et al, 2007: 56). Thirdly, although the questionnaire used in this study proved to be an adequate instrument in attaining the necessary information needed, The Body Esteem

60

Scale did not enable any kind of comparison to take place between the BES scores generated amongst male and female participants. However, the overall nature of the study conducted did not entail extreme comparisons to take place between male and female participants; therefore the use of the BES did not pose to be a major issue of concern. Furthermore, research in the immediate future could be done on the same subject matter with a larger sample, which would enable the results derived to be generalized. Other avenues of research can attempt to look into whether or not findings of this study can be replicated in samples of individuals belonging to specific ethnicities within the UK itself. Moreover, research can also attempt to see whether these findings arise in the event of cross-cultural examination. Furthermore, research can also look into whether or not the use of idealized beauty images stimulates or manipulates consumers when they pertain to advertisements of specific products such as lingerie, make-up and thinnessenhancing products and services.

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Chapter Five: Conclusion

It is not a hidden fact that we live in an ad-mediated world, wherein advertising, a major agent of socialization is seen to pervade all aspects of social life (Greening, K, 2006). In contemporary societies advertising is also looked upon as an important force to contend with in imparting and teaching people ideas, lifestyle and basic values within society (Beasley & Danesi, 2002: 18). Amongst values of wealth, happiness, success, advertisements reinforce and reflect values of youth and beauty as well, which like other values represented get strengthened over a period of time. However, a problem is seen to arise when these values are idealized and overrepresented, which happens more often than not (Pollay, 1986), as it has in the case of beauty. By representing images that idealize physical attractiveness, the advertising industry has subject the concept of beauty to social scrutiny, such that it has made it a social construct. Moreover, advertisements have constructed a dream world of hopes and high standards by incorporating images and narratives of ideal slender beauty (Groesz et al, 2001: 2). Continuous proliferation of such images has resulted in consumers adulating these images and feeling increasingly pressurized succumb to this ideal of exaggerated physical attractiveness popularized by the world of advertising.

There is mounting critique in academic and popular press which asserts that one sex tends to feel more pressurised than the other by advertisements that epitomize the human body, and highlight attributes of physical attractiveness and beauty. However, in either case these images are said to highlight individual inadequacies and lure individuals, towards a myth created around the notion of beauty that glorifies the need for one to be physically attractive. Thus, advertising has been held the culprit behind making beauty a distinct entity possessing commercial value (Scranton, 2004), making individuals succumb to viewing their faces as masks and their bodies as objects (Kilbourne, 2000 cited in Greening, K, 2006) by promoting a drive for thinness (Freedman, 1984) which has led to the creation of a cult of dieting (Wolf, 1991) and unrecognizable beauty (Richins, M, 1991: 71). Further evidence has been attained by studies conducted by

62

researchers which aid these claims. Moreover, they also highlighted the consequences that arise from advertisements sporting images of idealized physical attractiveness, which extends into the realm of encouraging fat free-diets, liposuction, cosmetic surgery and dentistry (Twitchell 1996 cited in Cortese, 2004: 56), amongst other problems such as lowered bulimia. The present study was conducted in order to testify whether or not consumers within the UK regarded advertisements that displayed idealized beauty images to pose a problem by making consumers alter their behavior, thereby making them pay homage to it. Through the use of self-administered questionnaires, the results suggested an unrealistic standard of beauty is powerfully communicated through advertising, which is then assimilated through popular culture (Ecoff et al, 2004: 47). However, from the present study one is unable to ascertain what the plausible effects of such images on consumers' mental and physical health might be. Nonetheless, participants seemed to unanimously agree with the claim that advertisements promote unrealistic standards of attractiveness, while being responsible for setting unrealistic expectations of beauty and weight amongst women as well as men. Lastly, consumers are seemingly of the opinion that advertising is one of the major agents of socialization; one which appears to mirror, reflect as well as mould and shape the values of its target audience (Somosierra, J, 2007). However, further research needs to be conducted to certify these results and to be able to draw generalised conclusions from within the population as a whole. The study can be further extended to see whether or not findings of this study can be replicated in samples of individuals belonging to specific ethnicities within the UK itself as well as that in the event of cross-cultural examination. From the evidence drawn from the present study, one can say that advertisements help create and represent an ideal unrealistic, synthetic and commercial notion of beauty which influences peoples consideration of being beautiful.Though this study has not identified any potentially harmful effects caused as a result of these images, it does not self-esteem, depression, guilt, stress, insecurity, shame, and body dissatisfaction (Lorenzen et al, 2004: 747) and harmful disorders such as anorexia and

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rule out the possibility of people identfying themselves so closely with these unreal prototypes that they could face problems in various forms later on.Being an important agent of socialization, advertising has the power to reflect, reinforce, mirror and shape values and beliefs within society, beauty being one of them. What one must remember at all times is that beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder. However, with the beholden being greatly influenced by the presence of idealized images of physical attractiveness, which provide an overarching archetype of what beauty should consist of, the significance of this age old axiom in todays day and age is questionable to a large extent.

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- Appendices -

1. Appendix A: Images
Figure 1: The Wonderbra Advertisement Figure 2: The Opium perfume advertisement campaign by Yves Saint- Laurent. Figure 3: The Dove campaign for Real Beauty promoting Doves newest product The Intensive Firming Cream.

2. Appendix B: Questionnaire Construct 3. Appendix C: A copy of the questionnaire

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Appendix A: Images
Figure 1: The Wonderbra Advertisement.

Figure 2: The Opium perfume advertisement campaign by Yves SaintLaurent.

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Figure 3: The Dove campaign for Real Beauty promoting Doves newest product The Intensive Firming Cream.

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Appendix B: Questionnaire Construct

Question No.
Q 1.

Author

Construct

Graff Low et al (2003) Monro and Huon (2005) Greening (2006)

Advertising is one of the most popular means of socialization. Popular culture and media influences in the form of advertising and entertainment have a reputation of being an influential source that promotes information about attractiveness along with an ideal of what is considered to be attractive.

Q 2.

Festinger (1954) Merton (1957) Pettigrew (1967) Richins (1991)

Comparison is considered to be a recurrent theme in social psychology literature. The social comparison theory suggests individuals to compare themselves with idealized images in advertisements. This may be done consciously or unconsciously. However, those who are the yardstick of comparison may be members of groups who do not belong to the same social categories as individuals. More often than not they dont share the same social status or have any social interaction with individuals either. Models present in advertisements fulfill this criterion and are looked upon as a reference group by individuals to make comparisons and judge their own attractiveness. The comparison theory suggests individuals to compare themselves to those who do not belong to the same social categories, share the same social status or have any social interaction with individuals. It has been suggested the endorser in an advertisement becomes an icon of beauty, one that is emulated and looked up to by consumers especially if they are celebrities. Celebrities are influential in attracting consumer attention and buying behavior. Moreover, the purchase of celebrity endorsed products is a vestibule through which individuals can

Q 3.

Festinger (1954) Merton (1957) Pettigrew (1967) Atkin and Block (1983) Assael (1984)

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identify with celebrities and thus celebrities are looked upon as reference groups who provide points of comparison through which consumers evaluate attitudes and behavior. Moreover, the use of celebrities is a measure through which idealized images of physical attractiveness is promoted and reinforced in the media. The human body has always had insistent needs, unconquerable vulnerabilities and has been a flashpoint for anxieties, control and order. Advertisements with images of idealized physical attractiveness heighten peoples anxieties further and emphasize the need for self disciple and self control, which raises concern amongst those on the receiving end of such messages. Advertisements with images of idealized physical attractiveness heighten peoples anxieties with their bodies further and emphasize the need for self-disciple and self-control. Individuals internalize these standards of beauty and take to selfmonitoring of ones physical appearance to look like the images they see. Advertising does not claim to picture reality as it is but reality as it should be- life and life worth emulating. This can be seen in the case of idealized images of physical attractiveness found in advertisements, which are constructed through cosmetics, photography, and airbrushing techniques. However, models and celebrities are looked upon as reference groups using which individuals make comparisons, judge their own attractiveness and in doing so seek to emulate them as well.

Q 4.

Code (2000)

Q 5.

Code (2000) Cortese (2004)

Q 6.

Cortese (2004) Assael (1984) Schudson (1984)

Q 7, 8,9, 10, 11

Wolf (1991) Hesse-Biber (1997) Benstock and Ferris (1994) Twitchell (1996)

In an attempt to internalize prevailing cultural standards of beauty and reduce levels of dissatisfaction people involve themselves in weighing, calorie counting and exercise. In doing so they begin to owe

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Graff Low et al (2003) Black (2004) Lorenzen et al (2004)

allegiance to the cult of dieting, which is heightened by images of idealized physical appearance present in advertisements. Advertisements are said to encourage food control in the form of fat-free diets, selfinduced semi-starvation as well as liposuction, cosmetic surgery and dentistry. Therefore, continuous exposure to the thin ideal is said to evoke a desire to alter ones weight and shape such that they begin to view their own bodies as objects, develop concerns regarding body image including body dissatisfaction, which sometimes leads to the onset of dieting and disordered eating. Moreover, feminists regard the beauty industry to use advertising as a means to set out standards of what is aesthetically appropriate within society. Therefore, advertisements are held to responsible for delineating, enforcing and promising a normative ideal of femininity and consumer behavior that readers can attain by investing in the right diet, exercise, clothing and makeup. Furthermore, researchers have suggested men to face similar implications from the exposure to idealized images, which are comparable to the effects faced by women when exposed to the thin body ideal. It has been proposed that these effects manifest themselves in the form of lowered self-esteem, depression, guilt, stress, insecurity, shame, and body dissatisfaction. Therefore, the questions above seek to determine whether or these allegations are legitimate as well understand the effects idealized images of physical attractiveness have on the mental and physical well-being of consumers.

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Q 12.

Graff Low et al (2003) Monro and Huon (2005)

Popular culture and media influences in the form of advertising and entertainment have a reputation of being an influential source that promotes information about attractiveness along with an ideal of what is considered to be attractive. The constant reinforcement of this ideal and the omnipresent nature of advertising pressurizes on individuals to succumb to this ideal.

Q 13.

Thibuat and Kelly (1959) Goethals (1986) Lorenzen et al (2004) Graham (2005)

According to the satisfaction theory individuals evaluate some standard of performance with perception of performance. In the event of discrepancies being present between standard and perceived performance, individuals become dissatisfied, however if expectations are equaled or exceeded expectations are satisfied. In this case, the standard of performance against which individuals evaluate their level of satisfaction are idealized images of physical attractiveness present in advertising. Moreover, advertisements portraying happy, beautiful and wealthy people to add fuel to the fire by forcefully creating a comparison between consumers and those in a better off position than them. This has been proven in the case of both men and women who when exposed to advertisements which carried images of idealized physical attractiveness have felt threatened, dissatisfied seem to exhibit extreme preoccupation with body weight and shape. In todays day and age one object that is finer, more precious, more dazzling and even more laden with connotation than any other is the body. Owing to the nature of current production/consumption structures along with advertising, the human body seem to have become the finest consumer object. Advertisements have been blamed giving rise to a phenomenon called objectification, wherein individuals, especially women begin to view themselves as objects and begin to live life in the third

Q 14.

Baudrillard (2003) Cortese (2004) Fredickson and Roberts (1997)

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person. This further cultivates into a form of self-consciousness, one that is characterized by the idiosyncrasies of constant and habitual self-monitoring of ones outward appearance. Moreover, the advertising industry and its accomplice the beauty industry have been help responsible for transforming the face into becoming a mask and the body into becoming an object by promoting images of idealized physical attractiveness.

Q 15.

Freedman (1984) Solomon (1992) Cortese (2004)

It has been assumed that advertising, through different means of mass media propagates an ideal of beauty to consumers. The continuous reinforcement of advertisements filled with images of thin, happy people has generated a lot of pressure to be slim such that these images have come to be the yardstick against which people judge the worth of their own bodies.

Q 16.

Wolf (1991) Baudrillard (1998) Scranton (2004) Black (2004)

According to feminist authors, women today are placed in a moral order and physical hierarchy based on complexion, hair and symmetry of face and form. In advertisements especially it is women who orchestrate or rather around whom the beauty myth is orchestrated. As a result of enslaving themselves to the beauty myth, which is permeated through cultural images of beauty present in advertisements, feminist authors suggest women to be within a modern day Iron Maiden. Moreover, the beauty industry has its roots in a spiders web of businesses sets out standards of what is aesthetically appropriate within society. Its accomplice in this heinous act is the advertising industry, which perpetuates the consumption of beauty products and makes it easier to manipulate individuals into conforming to such standards. Thus, there is enough evidence, which suggests women to be faced with extreme pressure from advertisements to beautiful and maintain their shape and weight. The

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main aim of this question is to assess whether consumers believe the advertising industry is responsible for setting unrealistic expectations of beauty and weight amongst women.

Q 17.

Grogan, Williams and Conner (1996)

Although some researchers (Cash, 1990; Smolak, Levine & Thompson, 2001) believe women to be effected to a greater extent by advertisements of physical attractiveness than men, others (Grogan, Williams, & Conner, 1996) suggest advertisements of idealized physical attractiveness to negatively affected both men and women, and to an equal extent. This question wishes to assess whether consumers believe men and women to be both equally faced with unrealistic expectations of physical attractiveness.

Q 18.

Beasley and Danesi (2002) Advertising is looked upon as being an Fiske and Hartley (1978) important force in teaching people basic values, ideas and lifestyle. It is seen to Lantos (1987)

extend beyond the realm of simply reflecting values but also reinforces and accelerates them within society. Thus, advertising does not represent that manifest actuality of society, but rather symbolically reflects social values. Advertising is regarded to be a distorted mirror, which only reflects and reinforces certain values and lifestyles, which get strengthened over a period of time. These values circle round the arena of youth, beauty, wealth, happiness and success. However, in the case of this study the values focused upon were that of beauty and the importance physical appearance in both males and females.

Q 19.

Pollay (1986)

Q 20.

Beasley and Danesi (2002) Advertisements are said to be deliberately and calculatingly created to cultivate an era Lantos (1987)
of persuasion which flourishes into a privileged form of social discourse that has unparalleled rhetorical force. Moreover, it

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is said to be a persuasive and powerful as both a social and socializing institution. Owing to the fact that advertisements are filled with idealized images of physical attractiveness one regard advertisements to play a role in creating the preoccupation present in peoples minds regarding the importance of physical appearances.

Appendix C: A copy of the questionnaire

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Beauty and the Beast of Advertising: the idealization of the human body in advertisements and its repercussions on consumers. I am Samyukta Nair, a full time post-graduate studying International Business at the University of Nottingham. The following questionnaires are a part of my postgraduate dissertation, which is based on understanding whether or not representations of idealized images of physical attractiveness present in advertisements have repercussions on consumers. Furthermore, it seeks to understand the extent to which consumers are affected as well as seeks to gauge their views on the advertising industry as a whole. In order to enable me to conduct further research with regard to this topic, I would appreciate if you could spend fifteen minutes of you valuable time answering the following questionnaires. Data collection for this study will be obtained through TWO questionnaires. The first one consists of a list of 20 statements and you will be asked to read each of the items, and circle the number that best reflects your agreement with the statement based on the scale provided above. After carefully looking at the four advertisement presented to you, the second questionnaire requires you to state the feelings that are evoked using the scale provided. Your responses will be treated with confidence at all times. All data from individual participants will be coded so that their anonymity will be protected in any reports, research papers, thesis documents, and presentations that result from this work. If at any point of time you may wish to discontinue this questionnaire, you are permitted to do so.

Thank you for your patience, co-operation, and precious time.

Questionnaire 1
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Please read each of the following items, and circle the number that best reflects your agreement with the statement.
Completely Disagree 1 Mostly Disagree 2 Neither Agree Nor Disagree 3 Mostly Agree 4 Completely Agree 5

1. In our culture, advertisements are an important source of information about being attractive. 2. After viewing advertisements, I tend to compare my body to that of the model/models present in the advertisement.

3. I compare my appearance to the appearance of celebrities in 1 advertisements. 4. I DO NOT care if my body looks like that of the 1 model/celebrity that appear in advertisements. 5. I would like my body to look like that of the model/celebrity 1 that appear in advertisements. 6. I DO NOT try to look like model/celebrities that appear in 1 advertisements. 7. I have felt pressure from advertisements to have a perfect 1 body. 8. I have felt pressure from advertisements to loose weight. 9. I have felt pressure from advertisements to diet.
1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5

10. I have felt pressure from advertisements to change my 1 appearance. 11. I have felt pressure from advertisements to exercise.
1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

12. I DO NOT feel pressure from advertisements to look 1 attractive. 13. Advertisements make me feel dissatisfied with the way I 1 look. 14. Advertisements idealize the human body, making it the

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finest consumer object present in our society. 15. Advertisements attractiveness. promote unrealistic standards of

16. The advertising industry is responsible for setting unrealistic expectations of beauty and weight amongst 1 women. 17. Men are women are both equally faced with unrealistic expectations of physical attractiveness. 18. Advertising reflects values in society, reinforces and accelerates them as well. 19. Advertisements today mirror our societys preoccupation with physical appearances in both males and females.
1

20. Advertisements today create the preoccupation present in peoples minds regarding the importance of physical appearances.

Questionnaire 2

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After viewing the following four advertisements turn to page 3 for further instructions

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On this page are listed a number of body parts and functions. Based on the advertisements viewed please read each of the items and indicate how you feel about this part or function of your own body using the following scale: 1 = Have strong negative feelings 2 = Have moderate negative feelings 3 = Have no feeling one way or the other 4 = Have moderate positive feelings 5 = Have strong positive feelings ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Body scent 2. Appetite 3. Nose 4. Physical stamina 5. Reflexes 6. Lips 7. Muscular strength 8. Waist 9. Energy level 10. Thighs 11. Ears 12. Biceps 13. Chin 14. Body builds 15. Physical coordination 16. Buttocks 17. Agility 18. Width of shoulders 19. Arms 20. Chest or breasts 21. Appearance of eyes 22. Cheeks/cheekbones 23. Hips 24. Legs 25. Figure or physique 26. Sex drive 27. Feet 28. Sex organs 29. Appearance of stomach 30. Health 31. Sex activities 32. Body hair 33. Physical condition 34. Face 35. Weight _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____ _____ _____

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