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05 Reactor Physics – Part Seven

Neutron Life Cycle

1. I ntroduction

A major objective of this course is to determine the neutron flux as a function of

both position within a reactor core and the neutron energy. Neutron life cycle
analysis is the first method that we will examine for this purpose. It was the
principal means of design for nuclear reactors in the 1950s, before the advent of
significant computational power. It remains an important tool for qualitative
understanding and, in some cases, for quantitative analysis of criticality.

Neutron life cycle analysis involves the assumption that the neutron flux exhibits
no spatial dependence. Also, while it could be used for either fast or thermal
reactors, it is most often associated with thermal ones. Our purpose in studying it
here is to: 1) develop an understanding of neutron behavior as a function of
neutron energy, and 2) utilize the method for criticality analysis.

2. Need for Neutron Moderation:

As a first step in studying the neutron life cycle, we examine the fission energy
spectrum and note that the neutrons are born at energies that are well above both
the thermal (0.025 eV) and epithermal (keV range) regions. Such neutrons, both
prompt and delayed, are termed “fast.” Next, re-examine the absorption cross-
section for U-235. Note that the probability of a fast neutron’s being absorbed is
very small. However, it is substantial (~582 barns) for thermal energies. So, in
order for a fission chain reaction to be sustained, it is essential that the fission
neutrons be slowed down or thermalized. This process is called neutron
moderation and there are several constraints imposed on it:

— Maintenance of the fission chain reaction requires that the fission neutrons
be thermalized.

— The amount of moderator present needs to be sufficient for the

thermalization process and yet not excessive. It is imperative for safety
reasons that reactors be designed so that an increase in moderator
temperature or a decrease in moderator density result automatically in a
decrease in neutron thermalization. This is a passive safety feature known
as a “negative temperature coefficient of reactivity.” It precludes power
excursions. For this reason, we need to minimize moderator mass. (Note:
This topic is discussed at length later in the course.)

 — Moderators often double as coolants. If so, the amount of moderator

present must be sufficient to remove the heat generated by the fission
process. This requirement usually results in a desire to maximize
moderator mass.

— The moderator material contributes to the shielding that protects plant

operators. This is especially true during maintenance when most external
shielding has been removed. So, again there is a motivation to maximize
moderator mass.

The ratio of fuel to moderator is often termed the “metal-to-water” ratio and safety
factors are sometimes parameterized in terms of it. The competing functions of the
moderator illustrate a frequent paradox in nuclear engineering. Safety issues often
involve conflicting goals. Here there are strong safety arguments for both minimizing
and maximizing the moderator mass.

3. Neutron Slowing Down:

The slowing down of neutrons will be covered in more detail later in this course.
For now, we note that neutrons are slowed down by collisions. From energy and
momentum conservation, it can be shown that the maximum energy transfer
between two particles in a head on collision is:

4mM
Qmax = E
(m + M )2

Where: Qmax is the energy transferred

m is the mass of the incident particle

M is the mass of the moderator material, and

E is the energy of the incident particle.

This relation indicates that:

ƒ A head-on collision between a neutron and another particle of

equal mass (e.g., a proton) will result in a complete transfer of
energy from the neutron to the proton. In contrast, a collision
between a neutron and a particle of large mass (i.e., m<< M), will
result in the transfer of almost no energy. Thus, moderators of low
atomic mass are desired.

ƒ Neutrons lose energy in steps rather than continuously. This latter

point is important. Recall the six large resonances in U-238. If

 neutrons lost energy continuously, they would all be absorbed as

they slowed down. A step-wise loss mechanism allows some to
“jump” over the U-238 resonance region.

4. Neutron Moderators:

Possible moderators together with their advantages/disadvantages are noted:

a) ight-Water: Best choice for efficient scattering. Drawback is that its

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absorption cross-section is significant.

b) Heavy Water: Very little absorption of neutrons. The scatter cross-

section is less effective than that of light water. Also, the absorption
reaction, although minor, yields tritium which is a hazard to those doing
maintenance on the reactor.

c) Beryllium: Low absorption, reasonable scatter cross-section. Very

dangerous to machine. Beryllium dust, if inhaled, can cause serious lung
disease that is not curable.

d) raphite: Low absorption, reasonable scatter cross-section. Drawbacks

G
are that it is combustible and the “Wigner” energy issue. Fast neutrons
can cause separation of the graphite atoms which are layered. This stored
energy accumulates in the graphite and can cause combustion unless
annealed out.

A comparison of the properties of the four materials shows:

Material σs σa ρ GAW
H20 103 0.66 1.00 18
D2O 13.6 <0.00134 1.105 20
Be 6.14 0.0092 1.85 9
G 4.75 0.0034 1.60 12

5. Neutron Life Cycle:

The neutron life cycle quantifies the possible events that might occur as a neutron
is thermalized. In order to visualize the cycle, refer to the figures of the U-235
and U-238 cross-sections. At each energy level, what do those cross-sections
show as a possible fate for a fission neutron?

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 a) Fast Fission: If significant U-238 is present, then the fission neutrons
may immediately undergo a fission. Symbol is ε.

b) Fast Leakage: A fast neutron may diffuse through the fuel, moderator,
core structure, and reflector without interaction. If so, it has “leaked” out
of the reactor. Symbol is Lf for the fraction that escapes leakage. The
fraction that do leak is therefore (1-Lf).

c) Resonance Escape: If significant U-238 is present, some neutrons will be

captured in its six resonances are they move through the epithermal range.
Those that do not have escaped resonance capture. Symbol is p for the
fraction that escapes capture.

d) Thermal Leakage: A thermal neutron may “leak” out of the reactor.

Symbol is Lt for the fraction that escapes leakage. The fraction that do
leak out is therefore (1- Lt).

e) Thermal Utilization: The now thermalized neutrons may be absorbed in

the fuel or in something else such as the moderator, the core structure, or a
control device. Symbol is f.

f) hermal Reproduction: Upon absorption in U-235, the neutron may

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cause fission (80%) or it may lead to U-236 (20%). If fission occurs, 2-3
neutrons will be produced. Symbol is η where:

νΣ f
η=
Σa

The figure on the next page shows the life cycle in block diagram form. Also,
word definitions are given of the various factors.

6. Core Multiplication Factor

It is useful to define a “core multiplication factor” which is denoted by the symbol

“K” and which is the product of the six factors that define the neutron life cycle.
Thus,

K = εL f pL t fη

The above expression, which is called the “six-factor formula,” has physical
meaning:

 Neutrons Pr oduced from Fission

K= or
Neutrons Absorbed + Neutron Leakage

Number Neutrons in Pr esent Generation

K=
Number Neutrons in Pr eceding Generation

n n2 n3
K= 1= = when N is the number of neutrons in each generation.
n0 n1 n2

The term “generation” implies that neutrons move through the life cycle events in
groups. Obviously this is not true. Nevertheless, it is a useful construct, and we
employ it here. The two word definitions of K are equivalent. The only way for a
neutron to be in the present generation is to have been produced from fission (we
neglect source neutrons). The only way to have been in the preceding one was
either to have been absorbed or have been lost to leakage.

If K is unity, the reactor is critical.

7. K-effective:

The effective multiplication factor for a reactor is the core multiplication factor as
defined above. If Keff < 1, the reactor is subcritical. If it equals 1, the reactor is
critical. If it exceeds 1, the reactor is supercritical (i.e., power is rising). Thus,
we have an expression that defines criticality.

8. Criticality and Reactor Power:

The definition of K-effective says nothing about the power level. The reactor can
be critical with 10 neutrons being produced and 10 being lost to leakage and
absorption or with 10 billion being produced and 10 billion being lost. The
critical condition is simply a matter of achieving a neutron balance. The power
level is a function of the number of neutrons in the cycle. Specifically, it is the
fission rate. Hence, the power level is much greater if 10 billion neutrons are
present than if only 10 are. But in both cases the reactor is critical.

9. K ∞:

If a reactor has an infinite reflector, there would be no leakage and the core
multiplication factor reduces to:

K ∞ = εpfη

For a given configuration, K∞ >Keff.

 Neutron Life Cyclee

Fast Neutrons
Produced by
Thermal Fissions
ν ε

Thermal Neutrons Total Number of

Captured in Fuel which Fast Neutrons
Cause Fission

Thermal Neutrons Fast Neutron

Σf
Captured in Fuel Lf Leakage
without Fission Σa

Thermal Neutrons Fast Neutrons

Absorbed in Fuel Escaping Leakage

Thermal Neutrons
Absorbed in Neutrons Captured
f p
Control Rods, in U-238
Water, etc. (Resonance)

Thermalized
Neutrons

Thermal Neutrons
Lt
Escaping Leakage

Thermal Neutron
Leakage

 Definitions of Neutron Life Cycle Factors

Total Number Fast Neutrons Pr oduced from Fast and ThermalFission

ε=
Number of Fast Neutrons Pr oduced fromThermalFission

Lf = Total NumberFast Neutrons Escaping Leakage

Total Numberof Fast NeutronsProducedfrom FastandThermalFission

Total Number of Thermalized Neutrons

p=
Total Number of Fast Neutrons Escaping Leakage

L t = Total Numberof ThermalNeutronsEscaping Leakage

Total NumberThermalized Neutrons

 Definitions of Neutron Life Cycle Factors (Cont.)

Thermal Neutrons Absorbed in Fuel

f=
Total Number Thermalized Neutrons Escaping Leakage

Thermal Neutrons Captured in Fuel which Cause Fission

η=
Thermalized Neutrons Absorbedin Fuel

or

η = Numberof Fast Neutrons Produced fromThermalFission

ThermalNeutronsAbsorbedin theFuel

10. Numerical Illustration:

The MIT Research Reactor uses fully enriched (93%) U-235 fuel. Thus, its
inventory of U-238 is quite low. Also, it has a heavy water reflector so neutron
leakage is minimal, on the order of 10% for both thermal and fast. Thus, a
possible set of values for the six factors are:

Factor MITR Value Note

ε 1.01 Very little U-238
Lf .90 D2O reflector
p 0.99 Very little U-238
Lt 0.90 D2O reflector
f 0.60 Set by operator
Σf/ Σa 0.8
ν 2.5

The factors ε, p, Σf, Σa, and ν are fixed once the fuel type is selected. The leakage
terms are set by the design of the moderator and reflector. However, for some
cores, it is possible to dump the reflector. That is, it can be rapidly removed
thereby making the reactor subcritical. So, for some reactors, the operator can
control the leakage. The quantity f is entirely determined by the operator when he
or she moves the control devices.

11. Application of Life Cycle Analysis:

The MIT Research Reactor is light-water cooled and moderated. It is heavy water
reflected. Thus, the core sits in a tank of light water which in turn sits in a tank of
heavy water. Suppose the first of these two tanks leaked so that light and heavy
water mixed?

H2O

Core
D2O

In order to do this analysis, even qualitatively, it is first necessary to understand

the energy of the neutrons. Those in the core proper will be fast as will many in
the light-water tank. Those in the reflector will have passed through (and been
scattered off of) the light water and hence will be thermal.

a) H2O into D2O: The neutrons in the heavy water reflector are thermal.
D2O is chosen as the reflector medium because it has an extremely low
absorption cross-section and hence will not remove any neutrons. Its
scatter cross-section is about half that of light water. But this is not an
issue because no scattering is needed. The purpose of the reflector is to
direct the neutrons back to the core without absorbing them. What if H2O
were to leak in? The H2O would provide better scattering but this would
not affect the neutron life cycle because the neutrons in the reflector are
already thermal. The H2O would absorb many neutrons because of its
greater absorption cross-section. So, the effect of the light water leakage
would be to remove neutrons from the life cycle. The value of f would
decrease.

Re action Rate in Fuel

f =
Re action Rate in Fuel + Re action Rate in Moderator and Re flector

The reactor goes subcritical.

b) D2O into H2O: Suppose heavy water leaks into the light water tank and
is mixed (by the coolant pumps) with the light water. The neutrons in the
core proper are still fast. The D2O is far less effective than the H2O in
moderating them. Fewer neutrons slow down. Hence, more leak out and
fewer attain thermal energies. D2O absorbs fewer neutrons than the H2O
but this effect does not offset the loss of moderation. So, again the reactor
goes subcritical.

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