Terminology

Terms of Relationship: Anterior- Toward the front Posterior- Toward the back Superior- Upper or above Inferior- Lower or below Medial- Toward the midline of the body Lateral- Away from the midline of the body Superficial- nearer to the surface Deep- Further from the surface Ventral- Anterior Dorsal- Posterior Cranial- Toward the head Caudal- Away from the head (tail) Proximal- Toward a reference point (extremity) Distal- Away from a reference point (extremity) Internal- Deep or away from the surface External- Outward, further from the inside Ipsilateral- The same, on the same side Contralateral- different, on opposite side Body Areas: Head- Cephalic (caput) Neck-cervical (collum)

Thorax- Chest; the part of the body between the neck and diaphragm, encased by the ribs Upper Limb- The limb of the body extending from the deltoid regions to the hand Lower Limb- the Limb of the body extending from the gluteal region to the foot Abdomen- that part of the body lying between the thorax and the pelvis, and containing the abdominal cavity and viscera Lumbar region- The region of the back lying lateral to the lumbar vertebrae Plantar Surface- Pertaining to the sole or caudal aspect of the digit Palmar Surface- of, relating to, or corresponding to the palm of the hand Occipital region- Pertaining to the back of the head, inferior, posterior region of the skull Carpus- The joint between the arm and hand, made up of eight bones; the wrist Tarsus- The ankles; the seven bones, composing the joint between the foot and leg Movement: Flexion: The act of bending or the condition of being bent. Extension: The act of straightening or extending a flexed limb Abduction: Movement of a limb away from the midline or axis of the body Adduction: The movement of a limb toward the midline or axis of the body Rotation: The process of turning around an axis Circumduction-The circular movement of a limb or the eye Lateral flexion: Bending to one side. Used to describe motions of the trunk and neck Protraction: Anterior movement of arms at the shoulder Retraction: posterior movement of the arms at the shoulder Supination: The opposite of pronation, the rotation the forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly (palm up) Pronation: A rotation of the forearm that moves the palm from the an anterior-facing position to a posterior facing position (palm down)

Dorsiflexion: Flexion of the entire foot superiorly, as if taking ones foot off an automobile pedal Plantar flexion: Flexion of the entire foot inferiorly, as if pressing an automobile pedal Inversion: The movement of the sole towards the median plan (ankle twist) Eversion: The movement of the sole of the foot away from the median plane (opposite of inversion) Plane: Median (midsagittal)- Separates body into right and left parts Sagittal: Any plane parallel to the median plane Coronal (frontal): Separates the body into anterior and posterior parts Horizontal: Separates the body into anterior and posterior parts

General Describe the difference between a nerve, an artery, and a vein as relates to both structure and function. -A nerve is a cordlike structure comprising a collection of nerve fibers that convey impulses between a part of the central nervous system and some other body region. - An artery is large vessels that carry blood flows away from the heart; in the systemic circulation it carries oxygenated blood. Its walls are thicker than those of veins in order to withstand the greater pressure of blood on the arterial side of the circulation -Veins are the blood vessels that accept blood from the venules and bring it back to the heart. In the systemic circulation it carries deoxygenated blood; except for the pulmonary vein List the organs of the following organ systems: Respiratory: The respiratory system is made up of the organs in your body that help you to breathe. The goal of breathing is to deliver oxygen to the body and to take away carbon dioxide Parts of the respiratory system: *The respiratory system consist of the Upper respiratory system (Nose, Nasal, Paranasal cavities, and pharynx), and Lower respiratory system (Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi and Lungs)

Lungs: the main organs of the respiratory system, two saclike organs that occupy the pulmonary cavity of the thorax. In the lungs oxygen is taken into the body and carbon dioxide is breathed out. Right lung is divided into 3 lobes and left into 2 lobes. Trachea: the trachea is sometimes called the windpipe. It is a cartilaginous and membranous tube descending from the larynx that filters the air we breathe and branches into the bronchi Bronchi: are the 2 air tubes that branch off the trachea and carry air directly into the lungs. It further divides into bronchioles and alveoli. It is made up of 3 layers. Diaphram: The major respiratory muscle responsible for inspiration. A dome-shaped musculomembranous portion separating the abdominal and thoracic cavities and serving as a major muscle and aiding inhalation. Nose: The organ through which air is inhaled and exhaled. It includes the nasal cavity Larynx: The part of the respiratory tract between the pharynx and trachea. It regulates the opening into the lower respiratory system and produces speech sounds. (Voice box) Pharynx: The throat; the musculomembranous cavity behind the nasal cavities, mouth, and larynx. It is shared by the digestive and respiratory systems; divided into 3 regions.

The gastrointestinal System: -The organs of the human digestive system execute the basic function of digesting or breaking down the foods into appropriate substances and nutrients that can be utilize by the body. -The digestive system can be classified into 2 sections; the upper gastrointestinal tract (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and stomach) and the lower gastrointestinal tract (small intestine, large intestine, and anus) Organs of the gastrointestinal system: Mouth: The first organ that directly contributes to the digestion process. It is divided into 3 basic structures; salivary glands, tongue and teeth. Pharynx: The pharynx prevents the food from entering the larynx. It diverts the food particles into the esophagus, a muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. Esophagus: the musculomembranous tube connecting the throat to the stomach, which is about 10inches long in adults. It is coated with mucus and surrounded by muscles and pushes food to the stomach by sequential waves of contraction.

Stomach: The organ responsible for the task of breaking down food. The stomach is divided into 4 parts. It is an enlarged saclike portion of the digestive tract between the esophagus and small intestines, lying under the diaphragm. Small Intestine: The narrow, winding, upper part of the intestine where digestion is completed and nutrients are absorbed by the blood. The small intestines divide into 3 parts. The duodenum is the receiver of simplified food and is connected to the lower section of the stomach. The jejunum is the mid-section of the smaller intestine. The ileum is the last section of the small intestines. Large Intestine: The portion of the intestine that extends from the ileum to the anus, forming an arch around the convolutions of the small intestine and including the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. The first organ of the large intestine is the cecum which is attached to the appendix and is the connecting pouch between the small and large intestines. The colon comes after the cecum and is responsible for the abrogation of water and salts. The last region is the rectum, which is the connection between the intestines and the anus. Anus: The opening at the lower end of the alimentary canal through which solid waste is eliminated from the body. **The liver and gallbladder are auxiliary organs of the gastrointestinal system The urinary System: The urinary system is responsible for the production, storage and excretion of urine from the body. The organs of the urinary system include the kidneys, urethra, urinary bladder and ureters. Organs of the Urinary system: Kidneys: the 2 bean-shaped organs in the lumbar region that filter the blood, excreting the end products of the bodys metabolism in the form of urine and regulating the concentrations of hydrogen, sodium, potassium, phosphate and other ions in the body. Urethra: A passageway from the bladder to the outside for the discharge of urine. In females this canal lies between the vagina and clitoris; in males the urethra travels through the penis to the tip. The urethra is surrounded by a muscle that is voluntary and relaxes for urination to occur Urinary bladder: A musculomembranous elastic receptacle in the anterior part of the pelvic cavity serving as the temporary storage place for urine. When enough urine is in the bladder, receptors that respond to the stretch in the bladder wall will send electrical signals to the brain.

Ureters: the fibromuscular tubes through which urine passes from the kidneys to the bladder. The ureters transport small quantities of urine when their muscular walls contract rhythmically. This pushes the urine in a wave-like fashion through the ureters from the kidneys to the bladder. Male Reproductive organs: The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to produce, maintain, and transport sperm. It is also responsible for the discharge of sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex, in addition is produces and secretes male sex hormones responsible for maintaining the reproductive system. The organs are the Penis, scrotum, testicles, epididymis, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands. Penis: The penis the male organ for sexual intercourse, It has 3 parts: the root, attached to the abdomen; the body (shaft), and glans the cone-shaped end of the penis. The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the glans. Scrotum: the scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It contains the testicles as well as nerves and blood vessels. It acts as a climate control system for the testes. It contains a special muscle which moves the testes closer to the body for warmth or farther away to cool. Testicles: Oval organs that lie in the scrotum, secured at each end by the spermatic cord. Testes are responsible for making testosterone, and generating sperm. Within the testes are seminiferous tubules which are responsible for producing sperm cells called spermatogenesis The internal Organs (Accessory Organs): Epididymis: A long coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle. It transport and storages sperm cells produced in the testes. It also brings the sperm to maturity Ejaculatory ducts: Formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra Urethra: It expels semen when the man reaches orgasm. When the penis is erect during intercourse, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm Seminal vesicles: Sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder. The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides the sperm with a source of energy and helps with sperm mobility

Prostate gland: A walnut-sized structure that is located below the urinary bladder in front of the rectum. It contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate which nourishes the sperm. The urethra runs through the center of the prostate gland Bulbourethral glands (Cowpers gland): Pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. The fluid lubricates the urethra and neutralizes any acidity that may be present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra Vas deferens: A long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The van deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation

Female Reproductive organs: The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction. This includes external organs (Labia Majora, Labia minora, and bartholins glands) and internal organs (vagina, uterus (womb), ovaries, and fallopian tubes. The external Organs: Labia Majora: The labia majora enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. The labia majora are large and fleshy. It contains sweat and oil secreting glands. (Large lips) Labia Minora: They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to the vagina and urethra. (Small lips) Bartholins glands: Glands that are located besides the vaginal opening and produce a fluid (mucus) secretion The Internal Organs: Vagina: A canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of the uterus) to the outside of the body. Also known as the birth canal Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a developing fetus. The uterus is divided into 2 parts: the cervix and corpus. Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones.

Fallopian tubes: narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall

The endocrine System: The endocrine system secretes hormones which regulate the functioning of the body. The hormones play a vital role in the growth and development of the body, regulating mood, proper functioning of the organs, reproductive processes, and metabolism. Organs of the endocrine system are pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thyroid and parathyroid, adrenal gland, pineal glands, gonads, and pancreas Organs of the endocrine system: Pituitary gland: known as the master gland. It produces hormones which control the functioning of the other endocrine system organs. It is the size of a pea located on the lower side of the brain. It consists of 2 parts: the anterior lobe and posterior lobe. The anterior lobe controls hormones secreted by the adrenal, reproductive and thyroid glands. The posterior lobe secretes antidiuretic hormones, and oxytocin. Hypothalamus: Is situated above the pituitary gland, and connects the endocrine system with the nervous system. It produces certain chemicals that help in stimulating or controlling secretion of hormones in the pituitary gland. It also transmits information like change in temperature, light, feelings, etc. Thyroid and Parathyroid: A butterfly shaped gland, situated in the front part of the lower neck. It produces 2 hormones: triiodothyronine and thyroxin which controls chemical reactions in the body like burning food to produce energy. Parathyroid is tiny glands attached to the thyroid. They produce parathyroid hormone, which with the assistance of calcitonin controls the level of calcium in the blood. Adrenal gland: Is situated on the top of kidneys. They are triangular in shape and have 2 parts: adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The outer part of the adrenal gland the adrenal cortex secretes a hormone called corticosteroids which controls the level of salt and water in the body, the metabolic rate, immune system, sexual development and function, and response to stress. The inner portion adrenal medulla releases a hormone called epinephrine, during stress it increase heart rate, widens blood vessels and air passage and increases oxygen intake

Pineal gland: a small endocrine organ that is situated at the center of the brain. It secretes melatonin which regulates sleep cycle and hormonal changes during adolescence Gonads (Reproductive glands): the gonads mainly secrete sex hormones. Androgen are produced by the gonads which is necessary for testosterone in male sex hormones and progesterone and estrogen the female sex hormones Pancreas: Serves as both a digestive and endocrine system organ. The pancreas secrete glucagon and insulin, that help in maintaining a steady level of sugar in the blood

The cardiovascular System: The cardiovascular system is the mechanism through which blood is transported to various parts of the body. There are 3 basic components of the circulatory system. The heart, which serves as a pump; the blood vessels, which carry the blood throughout the body; and lastly, the blood, which is a vital component for the basic functioning of the human body. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The main function of the cardiovascular system is to carry nutrients to the various body parts, help with the removal of waste, regulate the temperature within the body, and help protect the body from infection, diseases, in addition to the blood clotting process. Organs of the cardiovascular system: Heart: The main task of the heart is to pump blood within the blood. The human heart is located in the center cavity of the chest and is divided into 4 chambers; the left and right atrium, and the left and right ventricle. Blood and Blood vessels: There are thousands of vessels intertwined in an endless network within the body. The arteries carry pure blood from the heart to the body parts and the veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body parts to the heart. The right and left side of the heart are divided by a wall known as the septum, and the arteries are connected to the right side of the heart, while the veins connect to the left side. The Lymphatic System: The lymphatic aids the immune system in destroying pathogens; it also removes excess fluid, waste, debris, dead blood cells, cancer cells and toxins. The lymphatic system also works with the circulatory system to deliver nutrients, oxygen, and hormones. It consists of the Lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen Organs of the Lymphatic system:

Lymph nodes: Bean-shaped and occur along the lymph ducts. They serve as tiny filters, in which lymphocyrtes attack foreign substance. There are many clusters of lymph nodes. Some examples are cervical lymph nodes, axillary lymph nodes and inguinal lymph nodes Thymus: is a large gland that covers the top of the heart in children. Lymphocytes migrate to the thymus from the bone marrow, where they divide rapidly to form T-lymphocytes. After puberty the thymus degenerates slowly. Spleen: A large gland like organ situated in the upper left part of the abdominal cavity, lateral to the cardiac end of the stomach. It function include disintegration of erythrocytes, the setting free of hemoglobin which is converted into bilirubin in the liver, and the genesis of new erythrocytes during fetal life and in newborn; an interface between the blood and the lymphatic system. The spleen acts as a filter for the blood, and helps to destroy worn out redblood cells. Describe the difference between a flexor and an extensor: A flexor is a muscle that when contracted acts to bend a joint or limb in the body. It decreases the interior angle of the joint. The bicep is a flexor of the elbow joint brings the fist towards the shoulder An extensor is opposite of a flexor, extensor unbend at the joint, increasing the interior angle. The triceps are extensor of the elbow joint, taking the fist farther away from the shoulder. ***Muscles cannot push, they contract Movement terms: Isotonic: Contraction, in which a muscle shortens against a constant load or tension, resulting in movement Contraction: A shorting or tensing of a muscle or muscle fibers Isometric contraction: Action in which the muscle develops tension, but does not shorten; also called a static contraction. Concentric contraction: a type of muscle contraction in which the muscles shorten while generating force ex. Bicep curl Eccentric contraction: During an eccentric contraction, the muscle elongates while under tension due to an opposing force being greater than the force generated by the muscle Explain the difference between: tedon, aponeurosis, raphe, and ligament

Tendon: a fibrous cord of connective tissue continuous with the fibers of a muscle and attaching the muscle to bone or cartilage Aponeurosis: A sheetlike fibrous membrane resembling a flattened tendon that serves as a fascia to bind muscles together or to connect muscle to bone Raphe: A seamlike line or ridge between 2 similar parts of a body organ, as in the scrotum. Ligament: A band of fibrous tissue connecting bones or cartilage, serving to support and strengthen joints and prevent excessive movement of the joint -Cartilage and bone are specialized types of connective tissue and are made up of cells, fibers, and ground substance. Their functions are somewhat similar, but cartilage is more flexible and has less tensile strength than bones. -Cartilage is a type of dense connective tissue, composed of specialized cells called chondrocytes. Cartilage is used as protection in between bones and discs in the spinal cord. -Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Define: axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle Axial skeleton: the bones of the body axis, including the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum Appendicular skeleton: the bones of the limbs and supporting thoracic (pectoral) and pelvic girdles Shoulder girdle: Also called the pectoral girdle is composed of four bones: 2 clavicles and 2 scapulae. The primary function of the pectoral girdle is to provide an attachment point for the numerous muscles that allow the shoulder and elbow joints to move. It also provides the connection between the upper extremities (the arms) and the axial skeleton Pelvic girdle: Also called the hip girdle is composed of 2 coxal (hip) bones. The pelvic girdle supports the weight of the body from the vertebral column. It also protects and supports the lower organs, including the urinary bladder, the reproductive organs, and the developing fetus in a pregnant woman Define: tubercle, trochanter, line, crest, fossa, foramen, notch, groove, condyle, epicondyle, head, neck, process

-Tubercle: A projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally smaller than a tuberosity -Trochanter: One of two specific tuberosities located on the femur. -Line: A long, thin projection, often with a rough surface. Also known as ridge -Crest: A prominent ridge -Fossa: A broad, shallow depressed area -Foramen: An opening through a bone -Notch: An indentation at the edge of a structure; an incisure -Groove: -Condyle: A large, rounded articular process -Epicondyle: A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint -Head: The proximal articular end of the bone -Neck: The region of bone between the head and shaft -Process: A relatively large projection or prominent bump Define: Diaphysis, Epiphysis, Metaphysis -Diaphysis: The shaft of a lone bone, between the epiphyses -Epiphysis: The end of a long bone that is originally separated from the main bone by a layer of cartilage but that later becomes united to the main bone through ossification -Metaphysis: The wider part at the end of a long bone, adjacent to the epiphyseal disk The parts of the Vertebrae: The adult spine is made up of approx. 24 bones (vertebrae) stacked on top of each other from the bottom of the skull to the pelvis. Each vertebra is composed of several parts that act as a whole to surround and protect the spinal cord and nerves, provide structure to the body and enable fluid movement in many planes. -Vertebral Body: is the main portion of the vertebra. It bears approx. 80% of the load while standing and provides an attachment for the discs between the vertebrae. The anterior section of the vertebral body protects the spinal cord and the nerve roots.

-Pedicles: Each vertebra has 2 cylinder-shaped projections (pedicles) of hard bone that stick out from the back part of the vertebral body. The pedicles also serve as a bridge, joining the front and back parts of the vertebra. -Lamina: The lamina is the roof of the spinal canal that provides support and protection for the backside of the spinal cord. -Spinous Processes: The bumps that can be felt down the back are the spinous processes. They are bony projections that arise at right angles (perpendicular) to the midline of the lamina. Each spinous process is attached to the spinous process above and below by ligaments -Transverse Processes: The transverse processes are located at the right angles to the junction of pedicles and the lamina. They provide a place for the back muscles to attach to the spine. -Spinal canal: is a bony tunnel surrounding the spinal cord. It is made up of the anterior of the vertebral body, the pedicles on the sides of the vertebral body and lamina in the back. In the lower back it not only contains the spinal cord, it also contains the nerve roots of the lower spine. -Facet Joints: Each vertebra has a paired joint on its right side and a second paired joint on its left side, allowing a connection with the vertebrae above and below it. The pair that faces upward is the superior articular facet. The pair that faces downward is the inferior articular facet. The facet complex is surrounded by a watertight synovial capsule that allow for smooth movement. Describe the structure of the following types of joints: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial: -Fibrous: fibrous joints are connected by dense connective tissue, consisting mainly of collagen. The 3 types of fibrous joints are: sutures-found between bones of the skull. Syndesmosis-found between long bones of the body such as radius and ulna in the forearm, and the fibula and tibia in the leg, unlike other fibrous joints, syndemoses are moveable. Gomphosis-the joint between the root of a tooth and the socket in the mandible -Cartilaginous: Cartilaginous joints are connected by cartilage. They allow more movement between bones than a fibrous joint but less than the highly mobile synovial joint. An example is the joint between the manubrium and the sternum. 2 types are primary (synchondroses) and secondary (symphyses) -Synovial: Also known as diarthrosis, is the most common and most movable type of joint in the body of a mammal. As with most other joints, synovial joints achieve movement at the point of contact of the articulating bones. The main structural difference between the synovial and fibrous joints is the existence of capsules surrounding the articulating surfaces of a synovial

joint and the presence of lubricating synovial fluid within that capsule (synovial cavity). Movements of the synovial joints are abduction, adduction, extension, flexion, and rotation. The 7 types of synovial joints are gliding, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball and socket, and compound. Explain the difference between an autonomic nerve, a motor nerve, and a sensory nerve: Autonomic Nerve: Any of the parasympathetic or sympathetic nerves of the autonomic nervous system Motor nerve: An efferent nerve that stimulates muscle contraction Sensory nerve: A peripheral nerve that conducts impulses from a sense organ to the spinal or brain Define: Afferent, Efferent, Ganglion: Afferent: Refers to peripheral nerves that transmit signals to the spinal cord and the brain. These nerves carry out sensory function Efferent: Refers to peripheral nerves that carry signals away from the brain and spinal cord. These nerves carry out motor and autonomic functions Ganglion: A group of nerve cells forming a nerve center, especially one located outside the brain or spinal cord; Also called neuroganglion