Digital Transmission

Chapter 4

Typical pulse response of a band-limited channel.

Pulse Transmission
Perfect Square wave can be reconstructed only if all the harmonic components are added together. Thus, Transmission of a square wave requires transmission of all the frequency components. This implies that the channel must have infinite bandwidth.

Pulse Transmission
Also, the amplitudes of harmonics decrease exponentially. As a result, if channel has an adequate bandwidth to pass the fundamental frequency and few harmonics, the square wave can reconstructed with slight ambiguity.

Pulse Transmission
90% power in contained within first null (f = 1/T). Thus, signal can be confined to a BW = 1/T and still pass most of the energy from the original waveform.

Pulse Transmission
In theory, only the amplitude at the middle of each pulse interval needs to be preserved. If the BW is confined to BW = 1/2T, the max. signaling rate achievable is given as the Nyquist rate and is equal to twice the BW, R = 2BW

Pulse Transmission
Most of the pulse trains are not square waves and have dc component. Hence the transmission channel must be capable of transmitting dc components as well. Alternatively, techniques may be adopted to remove dc components from the waveforms before transmission.

Pulse Transmission
Apart from the adequate BW, channel must offer equal attenuation and equal delay for all the frequencies within the BW. When it is not, certain frequencies may get delayed so much they result in what is known as Intersymbol Interference.

ISI
ISI is an important consideration in the transmission of pulses over circuits with a limited bandwidth and a non-linear phase response. Simply stated, rectangular pulses will not remain rectangular in less than an infinite bandwidth.

ISI
Each transmitted pulse reaches its full value at precisely the center of each sampling interval. Due to band limitation, the signal does not attain always the full value at the sampling instants at output end. Overlapped ringing tails interfere with major pulse lobe.

ISI
ISI causes crosstalk between channels that occupy adjacent time slots in TDM carrier system. Equalizers are used to remove distortions.

Four primary causes of ISI

Timing inaccuracies. Insufficient Bandwidth. Amplitude distortions. Phase distortions.

Timing Inaccuracies
If the rate of transmission does not confirm to the ringing frequency designed into the communications channel. Receiver clocking information is derived from the received signals, inaccurate sample timing is more likely to occur in receivers than in transmitters.

Insufficient Bandwidth
As the bandwidth of communication channel is reduced, ringing frequency is reduced, and ISI is more likely to occur.

Amplitude distortion
When the frequency characteristics of a communications channel depart from the normal or expected values, pulse distortion results. Pulse distortion occurs when the peaks of pulses are reduced, causing improper ringing frequencies in time domain. Compensation for such impairments is called amplitude equalization.

Phase distortion
If the relative phase relations of individual harmonics are altered, phase distortion occurs. Frequency components undergo different amounts of time delay while propagating through transmission medium. Delay equalizers are used to compensate phase distortion.

Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission

Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous without synchronism without a specific time reference. Start-Stop (Ping-Pong) transmission. The start and stop bits identify the beginning and end of the character. A high-to-low transition is used for start bit. All stop bits are logic 1s. Idle line or dead time is identified by continuous string of 1s.

Asynchronous Transmission

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Asynchronous Transmission
The main attraction of asynchronous transmission is the ease with which it determines the sample times in the receiver. In addition, asynchronous transmission automatically provides character framing and is inherently flexible in the range of average data rates that can be accommodated. An asynchronous system is naturally suited to applications where the data rate varies.

Asynchronous Transmission
In practice, sampling time departs from ideal depending on how much the start bit is corrupted by noise and distortion. Since the sample time for each information bit is derived from a single start bit, asynchronous systems do not perform well in high-noise environments. More than one start bit could improve accuracy but would complicate receiver and add more overhead for timing information.

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Asynchronous Transmission
Frequencies of transmit and receive clocks should be close and synchronized at beginning of each character. Clock slippage occurs when there is difference in transmit and receive clocks. Under-slipping transmit clock is lower than the receive clock. Over-slipping transmit clock is higher than the receive clock.

Synchronous Transmission
Digital signals are sent continuously at a constant rate. Receiving terminal must establish and maintain a sample clock that is synchronized to the incoming data for an indefinite period of time.

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Synchronous Transmission
Synchronous Transmission systems can support variable rates, but the adjustment of information rate requires inserting null codes into the bit stream. The null codes are used as a filler when a source has nothing to send. This form of transmission is sometimes referred to as isochronous. An isochronous mode is required whenever a synchronous line carries data from an asynchronous source.

Synchronous Transmission
The synchronization requirements imply that a certain minimum density of signal transitions is required to provide continuous indication of signaling boundaries.

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