Potential Transformer Potential Transformer is primarily designed to check single and three-phase power line voltages in power metering

and electrical instrumentation systems. Since it provides step up or step down voltage and current with electrical isolation, is effective in connecting electrical applications to high-voltage and high current power systems. The standards define a voltage transformer as one in which "the secondary voltage is substantially proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections." a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are known as instrument transformers. A current transformer is defined as "as an instrument transformer i n which the secondary current is substantially proportional to the primary current (under normal conditions of operation) and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections."

What are the functions of current transformers and the difference between current transformers and voltage transformers? To sense the current flow across the current transformers and to monitor the current ratings. In current transformers no voltage variations occurs. but in voltage transformers it is mainly used to increase or decrease the voltage value.

What are symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults in power system? Symmetrical faults are 3 phase faults i.e fault occurs on all phases at the same time symmetrically, Unsymmetrical faults involve one line to ground or two lines to ground

Fault
A transient fault is a fault that is no longer present if power is disconnected for a short time. Many faults in overhead power lines are transient in nature. At the occurrence of a fault power system protection operates to isolate area of the fault. A transient fault will then clear and the power-line can be returned to service. Typical examples of transient faults include: momentary tree contact bird or other animal contact lightning strike conductor clash

 A persistent fault does not disappear when power is disconnected. Faults in underground power cables are most often persistent due to mechanical damage to the cable, but are sometimes transient in nature due to lightning

A symmetric or balanced fault affects each of the three phases equally. In transmission line faults, roughly 5% are symmetric.

An asymmetric or unbalanced fault does not affect each of the three phases equally. Common types of asymmetric faults, and their causes: line-to-line - a short circuit between lines, caused by ionization of air, or when lines come into physical contact, for example due to a broken insulator. line-to-ground - a short circuit between one line and ground, very often caused by physical contact, for example due to lightning or other storm damage double line-to-ground - two lines come into contact with the ground (and each other), also commonly due to storm damage.

LPC2148 CPU module is based on LPC2148 SOC from NXP is an ideal platform for applications which needs USB device such as Industrial control and monitoring device with interface to PC via USB, or USB based hardware security key etc. This CPU module board supports peripherals such as USB device, ADC, SPI, I2C, RTC etc.

In our previous tutorial (Getting Started), we installed our development software (Crossworks for ARM), setup our JTAG debugger (an Olimex ARM-USB-OCD), and ran our first program on the development board. As important as all of that is, it isn't particularly fun or exciting. In this tutorial, we'll try to do something a bit more interesting and show you the most basic method for actually making your microcontroller interact with the outside world via GPIO. GPIO, or General Purpose Input/Output, is the easiest way for you to interact with basic peripherals like buttons, LEDs, switches, and other components. It can also be used for more complex components like text and graphic LCDs, but for now we'll start with a few basic components that are relatively ease to get working. In order to get started with GPIO, you need to understand the four 'registers' that control it: IODIR, IOSET, IOCLR andIOPIN. Each of these registers is explained in detail below with some basic examples of how they work. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- for arm ADC is inbuilt in lpc2148 where as for micro controller it is placed externally Pros and Cons of ARMs (compared to PIC18) Pro: Ample resources (ROM, RAM) Faster program execution. More sophisticated interrupt architecture Exceptions C++ compilers, which might speed-up development and facilitate code reuse JTAG Many silicon vendors Many flavors

Con: Smaller mind share Lack of small device (the smallest one is 48-QFP) Larger amount of necessary external hardware ------------------------------------------------------------------COMPARISION BETWEEN ARM AND 8051 Microcontroller 1. ARM executes almost all the instruction in only one cycle where as 8051 micro controller takes more than one cycles in almost all the instruction except register transfer. Ex: conditional jump takes 3 cycles for execution ex: DJNZ in 8051 conditional jump takes 1 cycle for execution ex: BNEQ in ARM 2. ARM is RISC based architecture. 8051 is a CISC but having less number of instructions as compared to ARM which is RISC.

3. ARM is based on load store architecture i.e data processing instruction cannot access memory directly, data has to be stored in a register before processing . 8051 can access memory directly. 4. ARM has conditional data processing instruction whereas 8051 does not.

Main differences: 16F877(A) is a 14 bit core PIC, with only 35 instructions. 18F452 is a 16 bit core PIC, with 75 instructions. Note that both are 8 bit microcontrollers. 16F877(A) runs at 20MHz maximum clock 18F452 can run at 40MHz maximum clock 16F series have paged memory 18F series dont.
A memory management unit (MMU), sometimes called paged memory management unit (PMMU), is a computer hardware component responsible for handling accesses to memory requested by the CPU. Its functions include translation of virtual addresses to physical addresses (i.e.,virtual memory management), memory protection, cache control, bus arbitration and in simpler computer architectures (especially 8-bit systems) bank switching.
The 18F series have more instructions than the 16F. The multiply, compare, conditional branch, MOVFF and table instructions make programming less tedious. Oh, and they also have the "access bit" which eliminates a lot of bank switching. Do a lot with the 16f series still, but the 18f makes it easier from an assembly language point of view.

Physical addressing means that your program actually knows the real layout of RAM. When you access a variable at address 0x8746b3, that's where it's really stored in the physical RAM chips. With virtual addressing, all application memory accesses go to a page table, which then maps from the virtual to the physical address. So every application has its own "private" address space, and no program can read or write to another program's memory. This is called segmentation. Virtual adddressing has many benefits. It protects programs from crashing eachother through poor pointer manipulation, etc. Because each program has its own distinct virtual memory set, no program can read another's data - this is both a safety and a security plus. Virtual memory also enables paging, where a program's physical RAM may be stored on a disk (or, now, slower flash) when not in use, then called back when an application attempts to access the page. Also, since only one program may be resident at a particular physical page, in a physical paging system, either a) all programs must be compiled to load at different memory addresses or b) every program must use Position-Independent Code, or c) some sets of programs cannot run simultaneously. The physical-virtual mapping may be done in software (with hardware support for memory traps) or in pure hardware. Sometimes even the page tables themselves are on a special set of hardware memory. I don't know off the top of my head which embedded system does what, but every desktop has a hardware TLB (Translation Lookaside Buffer, basically a cache for the virtual-physical mappings) and some now have advanced Memory Mapping Units that help with virtual machines and the like.

PIC16F877A

The 40 pins make it easier to use the peripherals as the functions are spread out over the pins. This makes it easier to decide what external devices to attach without worrying too much if there enough pins to do the job. One of the main advantages is that each pin is only shared between two or three functions so its easier to decide what the pin function (other devices have up to 5 functions for a pin). Note: A disadvantage of the device is that it has no internal oscillator so you will need an external crystal of other clock source. PIC16F877A pinout
The pinout of the PIC16F877A is:

Peripheral Interface Controller Programmable Interrupt Controller

PIC16F877A

Learn about the tool used for creating this diagram.

As you can see the PIC16F877A is rich in peripherals so you can use it for many different projects.