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Space and Culture 13(1) 121133 The Author(s) 2010 Reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1206331209353693 http://sac.sagepub.com
Abstract This article discusses and analyzes the online phenomenon of Google Earth, which poses a number of spatial ambiguities. By using a tourism perspective emphasizing the dynamics between physical, imaginary, and mediated experiences, four dimensions of Google Earth users practices are analyzed: a cartographic, an informational, an emotional, and a social dimension. It is argued that Google Earth facilitates an enhanced spatial and social experience, a spatial augmentation. It demonstrates that the Internet is not a space radically distinct from the space of the real world. Rather it is used and included as a part of the users social space by constant dynamics between physical, imaginary, and mediated experiences. Keywords Internet, online communities, geography, space, tourism, mobility The upsurge of digital media, most notable the Internet, raises interesting spatial implications, particularly exemplified by online communities drawing on notions of space. Among these communities are virtual games, such as World of Warcraft, constructions of new worlds such as Second Life, and cross-cutting applications such as Google Earth. The rise of the Internet partly coincides with a theoretical trend within social sciences, the socalled spatial turn. Among the prominent works in this field are Soya (1989) and Lash and Urry (1994). From a specific media perspective, Meyrowitz (1985) and Couldry (2000) have been highly influential. Common for those theorists is that the notion of space no longer corresponds to a mere physical place. Lefebvre (1991), for instance, distinguishes among physical and social spaces, and Jansson (2002) operates with physical, imaginary, and mediated spaces. The focus on space within the social sciences is naturally linked to an increased focus on mobility (see, e.g., Thrift, 1996). A certain aspect of mobility, tourism has generated an independent and distinct tradition of studies. The tourism industry has for decades been on a steady rise and so has the body of literature within the field. Tourism has been regarded as one of the most important forms of social action and a characteristic feature of the contemporary society (Urry, 1990/2002). Bauman (1996) has seen the tourist as a metaphor of the restless postmodern human being, shopping around in an endless space of possibilities.
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Corresponding Author: Jakob Linaa Jensen, Department of Information and Media Studies, University of Aarhus, Helsingforsgade 14, DK-8200 Aarhus N., Denmark Email: linaa@imv.au.dk
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There are at least two reasons why tourism in particular challenges well-known concepts of space and mobility. First, tourism is about space: about appropriations, constructions, and distinctions of space (Rojek, 1997; Urry, 1990/2002). Second, new media such as the Internet has shown to be of paramount importance for the development of tourism. The worldwide, 24-hour network has proved an unprecedented ability to link travellers, destinations, and transportation options and even provide travellers with virtual representations of the destination before actually going there. Through enhanced graphics, three-dimensional technologies, and greater bandwidth, online simulations of reality are becoming more and more natural. Molz (2004) and OReilly (2005) have raised the question whether tourism will entirely go online, making travel to real destinations abundant. Thereby, tourism would be the first example that the virtual world substitutes the real. Google Earth, a Web-based application providing a representation of planet Earth, is a particular interesting example of such spatial ambiguities at play when tourists and other travellers use Internet technologies. Although the application aims to present the users with a three-dimensional, embodied experience of the real world, it is obviously neither a physical place nor a space in the normal social sense. On the other hand, it is something more than just another virtual or imaginary community. In this article, I will analyze Google Earth from a users perspective. By employing a framework from tourism studies, I will demonstrate how users interchange between physical, imaginary, and mediated practices and how the application altogether facilitates a changing spatial experience. I shall call this as an augmentation of space. In the following sections, I will first address in more details the increased focus on space and mobility within the social sciences in general and media studies in particular, especially the debate about the spatial status of the Internet. Next, I will outline a perspective inspired by tourism studies, more specifically by John Urry (1990/2002) and Andr Jansson (2002). I will argue that distinguishing between physical, mediated, and imaginary tourism is useful to analyse the dynamics of Google Earth, more specifically the users experiences of various spatial ambiguities. I shall refer to four dimensions of such experiences: cartographic, informative, emotional, and social dimensions. In daily practices, the users do not distinguish between Google Earth and the real Earth. Instead, physical, mediated, and imaginary experiences seamlessly merge. As the various experiences enhance rather than exclude each other, I will conclude that the Internet might increase rather than substitute real, physical tourism.
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that satellite TV and the Internet results in a death of distance, that all kinds of events and experiences are available independent of geographic distances between individuals. Furthermore, media no longer only reproduce reality but also produce events of their own. Good examples are large media events such as the TV-transmitted war in Iraq, which everybody could follow in real time and popular reality TV shows, entirely constructed media products. Media use is no longer only about mediation but mediatization (Couldry, 2003). As such, we are coming closer to what Debord (1967/1995) calls the society of the spectacle where media play a dominant role, not only in mediating events but also in mediating social relationships. As the Internet is playing a major role in these changes, there has been much debate about how to define it in spatial terms. A now classic concept is that of cyberspace, often associated with William Gibson (1984): Cyberspace. A consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught mathematical concepts . . . A graphical representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human system. (p. 51) The idea of cyberspace contains an implicit assumption that the Internet is something out there, distant from the real world. This concept is still dominant in daily language when we say, find it on the Internet or Im going online. This conceived dualism is similar to Paddy Scannells (1996, p. 72) concept of the doubling of place. According to Scannell, modern television events take place in two different places: where they actually take place and in front of the screen, where they are perceived. What might be wrong about such ideas is that in reality, virtual and real worlds are not clearly separated. In daily, social practices, online and off-line experiences are interrelated. People keep in touch with friends via the Internet, which is also used for establishing new relationshipsfor example, through online dating. Often the interactions between the experiences are seamless, and the users do not clearly distinguish as demonstrated in various studies of social communities online (e.g., Kendall, 2002; Turkle, 1995). Furthermore, electronic media do not bypass the basic physical conditions of life, time, and space. Although the users experience of time and space and their possibilities of social actions, from banking to social conversations, are fundamentally expanded by the Internet, we cannot live only in the virtual world. Basic physical necessities such as food and sleep are still bound to the cycles of the real world. However, the use of computers and the Internet is challenging traditional understandings of mobility. We can sit in front of the screen and navigate the entire world. This process is mental as well as physical. Mentally, it is possible to move seamlessly through texts, images, and other online features. Physically, the user moves from Web site to Web site, transported at the speed of light among different hosts situated around the world. While surfing the Internet in front of a computer, we are physically as well as metaphorically moving around; we are stationary, but our activity is highly mobile (Parks, 2004). Furthermore, traditional distinctions of the virtual and the real are challenged. As Rob Shields (2003) has demonstrated, the idea of the virtual is not new, but the rise of the Internet makes the definition of reality more relevant than ever. The tourist is an example that dynamics between virtual and the real experiences has a long history. Lfgren (1999, p. 14ff) has argued that tourism is based on a constant interplay between real and imagined destinations, between landscape and mindscape. The tourist imagines a destination before going, compares the actual and the expected experiences when at the spot, and subsequently constructs a memory of the destination. Today, the memories can be communicated to friends and family instantly through various communication technologies, thus producing and spreading new imaginations. Media are as important as ever in the processes of tourism as TV, radio, magazines, and the Internet are abundant with information on distant destinations, how to go there, and what to see.
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Mediated tourism
Physical tourism
Imaginary tourism
Especially, the visual media are powerful. As John Urry (1990/2002) has demonstrated, vision is the most important dimension of modern tourism, which he describes as the tourist gaze. The relationship between physical, imaginary, and mediated tourism can be modelled as a triangle inspired by Andr Jansson (2002), where the three dimensions of tourism constitute and enhance each other as shown in Figure 1. This model is useful as a point of departure for analyzing the dynamics of Google Earth. I will demonstrate how users spatial experiences are characterized by a constant interplay between physical, imaginary, and mediated aspects. I distinguish among four dimensions of the spatial experiences: a cartographic, an informational, an emotional and a social dimension. But first, a brief introduction to Google Earth.
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Although such technological and commercial perspectives might be interesting, this article takes a users perspective and analyzes their spatial experiences and practices, especially by highlighting the dynamics between physical travel, virtual experiences, and the medium itself.
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GPS units. Finally, the user can place virtual pins in certain places, as if Google Earth was a paper-based atlas or wall map. With these pins, the user can add information, pictures, or personal accounts to the place and share it with other users. As discussed later, this feature makes Google Earth more than just an information searching system. It is also a social spacea kind of community. In a cartographic sense, Google Earth represents a move from two-dimensional atlases and maps, which have been dominant for centuries, to a three-dimensional representation aiming to give the impression of navigating through an actual landscape. Google Earth is moving from representation to simulation! Naturally, because of limitations in the graphic resolution and bandwidth, Google Earth is mostly a poor simulation of reality, especially when the user zooms in on actual locations. However, new and more detailed satellite photos are added constantly and the level of details is improving rapidly. The future might bring a much more close-to-reality simulation. In sum, from a cartographical perspective, Google Earth users experience an enhanced sense of space compared with using traditional maps, through the three-dimensional representations that contribute and by the rich possibilities of interacting with the maps. Google Earth is a bit like travelling in the atlas, meeting people on the way.
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In sum, Google Earth is providing the users with a personalized informational space. But using Google Earth is not a question of passive consumption of information alone. Contrary to traditional globes and atlases, the user can add information linked to certain places through the application of virtual pins. It is possible to map personal physical travel experiences by drawing routes travelled and posting comments, images, and travel tips linked to certain destinations. The users can interact with the digital library in new and unprecedented ways. Google Earth is an interactive me-medium where real-world experiences constantly contribute to redefine the individual as well as the collective experiences. Importantly, all this takes place in a spatial context. The experience of information is quite different from the traditional library or encyclopaedia, where the information is presented in a linear way. In Google Earth, the information available and the discussions in the related forums are related to specific, physical locations. Still, there is no privileged perspective on the world, one point of space from where to start, as is often the case in online role games and other graphical communities. Each user defines his or her position in space: from where to look and what to look at. There are no predefined information hierarchies and roles of consumers, spectators and producers merge. Using Google Earth is what Deleuze and Guattari (1987) have named a rhizomatic: The experience as everything is interrelated and there is no end or no beginning.
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The discourse of global awareness is immanent in Google Earth by the way the planet is initially portrayed and by some of the extra features recently added to the application. When Google Earth is launched on the computer, the first image encountered is of the Earth seen from space. This was the view experienced by the first people on the Moon in 1969: the Earth as a blue and green oasis in the midst of millions of stars on a dark sky. When the first images from space were broadcast to the entire world, it helped facilitate a new perspective on the planet. Many people started to see the Earth as a little part of a big universe. The cosmic perspective became part of everyday discourses on politics, the environment, and the future. It inspired environmental thinking, such as James Lovelocks (1979) idea of Gaia, the Earth as one big system where everything is interrelated. The development of Google Earth demonstrates that the global discourse is present in the process of enhancing the application and adding new features. Among the various organizations providing data is UNEP, the United Nations Environmental Program, which offers information and images of the changing climate and environmental conditions around the planet. One can view oil pollution, the spread of the deserts, or the effects of global warming. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has added information on 150 conservation projects around the world in an attempt to raise consciousness on endangered species. Recently, close-up images of the conflict in Darfur in the south of Sudan were added, showing movements of refugees and deserted or burned-down villages. Such initiatives spark the imagination among the users. Similar to other mass media, Google Earth might contribute to emotions of global awareness, eventually resulting in change of behavior in the physical world. The media, imagination, and physical actions play together.
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In sum, Google Earth might have a stronger emotional impact than other three-dimensional online communities incorporating spatial and corporeal elements, for example, World of Warcraft and Second Life. It does not simulate another artificial world, but the physical world in which we are all living. Movements in Google Earth might be replicated in real places and vice versa. Physical and emotional experiences around the world are referred to by the use of personal markers, stories, and information. Users are able to reproduce earlier trips by drawing routes or record a flight across Grand Canyon or a trek up Everest. These trips can be played again and again, creating an almost cinematic experience. Users can gaze and feel enthralled by watching their hometown or even their house, and they can imagine unknown destinations and find inspiration for actually going there. All the time, the users can shift seamlessly between the God-like perspective of the whole globe and the viewing of details normally only available through physical presence.
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improvements to the application, further enhancing the experience for other users. As in other Internet-based forums, the technically minded users are generally helpful to their fellow users and will eagerly discuss and improve new technical features. For example, one user has made a map of Mars, complete with valleys and mountains, which can be wrapped around the Earth; so Google Earth becomes Google Mars. These features together form the Google Earth Community, where everybody can access the information but only members can contribute. By the creation of the community, the founders at Google clearly state that Google Earth is a social utility as well as a practical tool. In many ways, the social dimension of Google Earth reminds of other spatially based online communities such as World of Warcraft and EverQuest. However, there is no game or play in Google Earth; it is rather a world in which to navigate, act, and perform.
Conclusion
In this article, I have demonstrated how Google Earth is an example that digital, interactive media often poses new spatial ambiguities or re-actualize old ones. I have argued that it makes no sense to distinguish clearly among virtual and real spaces. In the practical use of Google Earth, the dimension melt together, thus boosting imagination of distant destinations. Physical, mediated, and imaginary experiences play together. I have analyzed four dimensions of how these processes take place.
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On a cartographic dimension, Google Earth is a major change from the traditional strong distinction between maps or globes and the actual landscape. Traditional maps were only representations where Google Earth opts for simulation. Even though generations of map users might have been able to imagine and dream about foreign destinations, Google Earth provokes a stronger sensation and imagination through three-dimensional representations and fully flexible navigation. The scale and level of details is determined by the users, thus making Google Earth plastic, flexible, and ultimately personal compared with traditional cartographic media. Furthermore, there are certain dynamics between the actual landscape and Google Earth. Maps and globes are updated infrequently, where Google Earth is updated almost constantly by new satellite photos, thereby reflecting changes in the physical landscape. By providing their own information, the users take part in that process. The users experience is something in between the static information of a map and the ultimate informational flexibility of actually visiting a destination. The informational dimension of Google Earth is obvious as the application is first and foremost a part of the Google strategy of making information on the Internet readily available for the users. Contrary to encyclopaedias, libraries and other well-known information systems, the information of Google Earth is organized and embedded in a spatial context. Whereas traditional browsers are graphic, Google Earth is geographic. Certain information is linked to certain places, ultimately affecting the users appropriation of the information. Furthermore, the digital-stored information can be customized and personalized by the users, one of the great strengths of the Internet. Last but not least, the information can be used when actually visiting the destinations through the use of GPS units, laptops, and mobile ones by which it is also possible to contribute and update information, another example of the melt-together between the virtual and the real world. By the lack of central perspective and the flux-like state of information and interactions, Google Earth resembles Deleuze and Guattaris (1987) rhizome: a structure with no end and no beginning where all points interrelate and where there is no privileged perspective. Emotionally, it is clear that Google Earth is not real in any metaphysical sense. However, from a users perspective it invokes certain corporeal and emotional sensations similar to those experienced in real life. By including and remediating various other media it makes a strong attempt to deny the fact of its own mediation. That might not be new as media, such as film and TV, have for almost 100 years struggled for denying their own mediation.5 But Google Earth has more than cinematic effects. By three-dimensional views and advanced navigation tools, the users get a certain feeling of embodiment, of actually being there. Google Earth also presents the user with a kind of preview of physical destinations, which might facilitate and enhance the experience once actually going there. Again, physicality, mediation, and imagination play together. Another emotional aspect is linked to the global awareness discourse articulated both through the graphical presentation of the Earth and through various information sources related to actual environmental and humanitarian disasters. Thus, Google Earth might be a tool for changing images and understandings of the state of the planet, just as the moon-landing in 1969 did it. Google Earth is even more democratic than the moon-landing as everybody gets the astronauts view. Finally, Google Earth has an important social dimension. Besides being a tool for looking up destinations and seeking information, it is also an online community where users interact by exchanging virtual pins, information, and opinions. Google Earth shows some of the same tendencies as other hobby-based online communities. Users are generally friendly and helpful toward each other and eagerly discuss real-world destinations as well as improving and enhancing the application itself. Apart from initial information provided by Google and various other sources, most of the information is provided by the users, discussed, renewed, and melted together as a kind of a collective memory of the planet. These online interactions are embedded in a spatial context, most significant through the virtual pins by which users inscribe themselves in the globe. Hereby, they take up positions of the physical world as well as within the online community. They
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can present and exchange their real-world experiences and by the virtual information of fellowusers create new imaginations and aspirations and, ultimately, going new physical places. Google Earth is a social guidebook, travel magazine, TV program, and tourist brochure at the same time. To sum up, Google Earth is a multidimensional phenomenon. From a cartographic perspective, it revolutionizes the possibilities of ordinary maps and globes. From an informational perspective, it foregrounds bright new ways of organizing and distributing information. It has the strengths of film and TV of invoking emotions among the users and it can facilitate some of the bodily sensations of virtual reality devices, providing the users with an almost corporeal experience of navigation and annihilation of information. Finally, it is a social medium and shows similarities with other online communities. By combining the strengths of maps and globes, libraries, the film media, and the Internet community, it does not only remediate. It is a meta-medium. Some critics might point out that Google Earth is close to what Debord (1967/1995) has called the society of the spectacle, that the social relationship between people that is mediated through images rather than by personal, true interactions. However, such criticism of new media is a longstanding phenomenon, often associated with the theoretical critique of TV from the Frankfurter School. Against Debord, one could argue that by technologies such as Google Earth, it makes no sense to distinguish between media and the real world as Google Earth is part of real-life experiences, sensations, and emotion sharing. It is not alienating but rather facilitates social life and actual physical, emotional experiences. On a metaphysical level, Google Earth might exits only on servers and through hasty glimpses of electrons in the global informational infrastructure. But from the users perspective, Google Earth facilitates a changing spatial experience: by enhanced geographical and corporeal sensations of the globe, by accessing vast amounts of information in new ways, and by exchanging knowledge and information with other users and possibly form new relations and friendships. Google Earth facilitates an increased range of personal and social actions, an extension of social space. This experience melts together with existing social and corporeal experiences. Thus, in sum, Google Earth contributes to an augmentation of space. By the example of Google Earth, it seems as if the Internet strengthens the interplay between physical, mediated, and imaginary experiences. Rather than substituting the real, lived world it seems to supplement, enhance, and even accelerate it. From a travel and tourist perspective, by using virtual representations of reality, such as Google Earth, the urge to go to real places will probably increase rather than decrease. To return to the question of Molz (2004) and OReilly (2005), the possibilities for virtual tourism might accentuate rather than reduce the amount of real, physical travel. Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.
Notes
1. Even though a globe is three-dimensional, in principle it is still a two-dimensional piece of paper wrapped around a ball. Relief maps might account for three dimensions, but still, depending on their size, the extent of detail is limited. 2. A former Web site justlikebeingthere.com aimed for creating a similar illusion by presenting massive amount of images and information on distant destination. Even though the illusion was much less strong this Web site is long gone, I am thankful for borrowing the concept. 3. Even though Medieval maps used to be oriented, toward East, and the Australians have produced maps where Australia is on top and Europe and America at the bottom.
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4. The term is borrowed from Patricia Schultz (2003) book, 1000 Places to See Before You Die, where she urges the readers to go to certain places particularly worthwhile. 5. For interesting analyzes of similarities of and the film medium, see Manovich (2001).
References
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Bio
Jakob Linaa Jensen is associate professor at the Department of Information and Media Studies, University of Aarhus, Denmark. He holds a Ph.D. in political science, also from University of Aarhus. He has published three books and several international articles on e-democracy, the public sphere, media and tourism and social uses of the Internet.
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