E nd Sem E xam

Name: Mritunjay Kumar

Roll Number: P07116
Subject: Advanced Quantum Field Theory (P1007)
Instructor: Prof. Urjit Yajnik (IITB)
Ward Identity in Quantum Electrodynamics
The quantities of fundamental importance in eld theories are the Greens functions.
These are generated by the generating functional, which for the quantum electrodynamics
is, given by
W[J

, , ] = N
_
DA

DD exp
_
S
e

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i
_
_
(1)
where J

, and are the sources and S

e
is the action given by
S
e
=
_
d
4
x
_

_
/
+ ie
/
A
_
+ im +
1
4
_
F

_
2
+
1
2
_
A
_
2
_
(2)
The last term in the integrand is the gauge xing term.
Since quantum electrodynamics is a gauge eld theory, there is certain arbitrariness
in choosing the elds. The gauge elds and the Dirac elds can be transformed as
A

= A

+
1
e

and (x)

(x) = e
i(x)
(x) (3)
without aecting the terms in the Lagrangian density describing the Dirac elds, gauge
elds and the interaction between the two. In the above equation, (x) is an arbitrary
function of x.
However, the Lagrangian density contains additional terms as well namely the gauge
xing term and the source terms. These terms are not gauge invariant. Due to the
presence of these terms, the generating functional is also not gauge invariant. However,
the generating functional is dened as an integral over the various eld congurations and
a redenition of eld variables (i.e. gauge transformation) is like a change of variables.
This should not aect the integral and hence the generating functional.
Now, if we make a gauge transformation, the generating functional as a whole will
not remain invariant. The demand of invariance will impose certain constraints on the
generating functional which, as will be seen later, lead to the Ward-identities.
For this purpose, we consider a special kind of transformation known as the BRST
transformation. This transformation involves the ghost elds as well. By including the
ghost elds, the action S
e
in (2) becomes
S

e
=
_
d
4
x
_

_
/
+ ie
/
A
_
+ im +
1
4
_
F

_
2
+
1
2
_
A
_
2
i

_
(4)
1
It turns out that by including the ghost elds, the total Lagrangian density (with the
gauge xing term and the ghost term) becomes invariant under the specic BRST gauge
transformation. In that case, only non gauge invariant terms in the generating functional
are source terms.
Now, in the BRST transformation, we choose a specic form of the arbitrary function
(x) which is given by
(x) =

(5)
where and

are complex Grassmann variables independent of x.

Along with the gauge elds and the Dirac elds, the ghost elds are also subjected to
the BRST transformation which is given by
A

= A

+
1
e

) A

=
1
e

) (6)

= i(

) = i(

) (7)

= + i(

) = i(

) (8)

=
i
e
_
A
_
=
i
e
_
A
_
(9)

+
i
e
_
A
_

=
i
e
_
A
_

(10)
Under the above transformations, the action in equation (4) is invariant i.e.
S

e
=

S

e
S

e
= 0 (11)
where,

S

e
denotes the transformed action.
Next, we consider the generating functional (including the ghost terms)
W[J

, , , ,

]
= N

_
DA

DDDD

exp
_
S

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_
where, the sources and

are Grassmann quantities.

We now subject the above generating functional to the BRST transformation. Under
this transformation, only the source terms will be aected. The transformed generating
functional is given by
W

[J

, , , ,

]
= N

_
DA

DDDD

exp
_

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i

+ i

_
_
= N

_
DA

DDDD

exp
_
S

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_
2
In the above calculation, we have used the equations (6)-(11) and the fact that the
Jacobian of the transformation is independent of eld variables as is proved in appendix
(A). Subtracting the original generating functional from the transformed one, we obtain
W

[J

, , , ,

] W[J

, , , ,

]
= N

_
DA

DDDD

exp
_
S

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_

_
1 exp
_

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_
_
Now, we note that the BRST transformation involves the Grassmann quantity , so if we
use only the real i.e.

=
we see that it acts as an innitesimal quantity since
2
= 0 and we need to retain only
the 1st order terms in the expansion of exponential function. Moreover, we want the
generating functional to be invariant which is possible if W = W

. Thus, we can write,

0 = N

_
DA

DDDD

exp
_
S

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_

_
1
_
1
_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_
_
= N

_
DA

DDDD

exp
_
S

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_

_
_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_
= N

_
DA

DDDD

exp
_
S

_
d
4
x
_
J

+ i + i +

_
_

_
d
4
x
_
1
e
J

( +

) ( +

) + ( +

) +
i
e
( A)
i
e
( A)

_
_
In going from 2nd to 3rd line, we have used equations (6) - (10) and the anti commuting
property of the Grassmann variable with other Grassmann quantities. Above equation
gives the condition on the elds
_
d
4
x
_
1
e
J

( +

) ( +

) + ( +

) +
i
e
( A)
i
e
( A)

_
= 0 (12)
Now, we note that the generating functional for the one particle irreducible graphs is
given by
[A

cl
,
cl
,
cl
,
cl
,

cl
] = Z[J

, , , ,

]
_
d
4
x
_
J

cl
+ i
cl
+ i
cl
+

cl
+
cl

_
(13)
where the relationship between the classical elds and the sources is obtained by dier-
entiating the above equation
J

=

A

cl
, = i

cl
, = i

cl
, and, so on (14)
3
In terms of the OPI generating functional , equation (12) can be written as
_
d
4
x
_

1
e

cl

(
cl
+

cl
) + i

cl
(
cl
+

cl
)
cl
+i
cl
(
cl
+

cl
)

cl

i
e
( A
cl
)

cl
+
i
e
( A
cl
)

cl
_
= 0 (15)
This is the desired expression i.e. ward identity of QED. Next, we consider some appli-
cations of this identity. For this purpose, we put the above equation in a form in which
it is easy to use.
We note that and

dependence of the OPI generating functional can be written

as (proved in appendix (B))
= i
_
d
4
x
1
d
4
x
2

cl
(x
1
)
1
(x
1
x
2
)
cl
(x
2
) +

[A

cl
,
cl
,
cl
] (16)
where,
1
(x
1
x
2
) =
2

4
(x
1
x
2
).This gives,

cl
(x)
= i
_
d
4
x
1
d
4
x
2

cl
(x
1
)
1
(x
1
x
2
)
4
(x
2
x)
= i
_
d
4
x
1

cl
(x
1
)
1
(x
1
x)
= i
_
d
4
x
1

cl
(x
1
)
2

4
(x
1
x)
= i
_
d
4
x
1

2

cl
(x
1
)
4
(x
1
x)
= i
2

cl
(x) (17)
In the above calculation, we have used integration by parts. A similar equation holds for

as well (apart from a sign dierence which arises since in the above case, we needed
to take the derivative operator across the Grassmann quantity as in 1st line above)

cl
(x)
= i
2

cl
(x) (18)
Using (17) and (18) in (15), we obtain
_
d
4
x
_

1
e

cl

(
cl
+

cl
) + i

cl
(
cl
+

cl
)
cl
+i
cl
(
cl
+

cl
)

cl

1
e
( A
cl
)
2

cl
(x)
1
e
( A
cl
)
2

cl
(x)
_
= 0 (19)
Applying integration by parts to 1st, 4th and 5th terms, we obtain
_
d
4
x
_
1
e

_

A

cl
_
(
cl
+

cl
) + i

cl
(
cl
+

cl
)
cl
+i
cl
(
cl
+

cl
)

cl

1
e

2
( A
cl
)
cl
(x)
1
e

2
( A
cl
)

cl
(x)
_
= 0 (20)
4
Now, since the elds and

are independent, their coecients should be zero.

Taking the Grassmann eld to the right side of each term and setting its coecient to
zero, we obtain
_

_

A

cl
(x)
_
+ie
_

cl
(x)

cl
(x)

cl
(x)

cl
(x)
_

2
_
A
cl
(x)
_
_
= 0 (21)
Setting the coecient of

to zero gives an identical result.

Equation (21) is our desired form of the ward identity. We shall use this equation
below when we consider the applications of the ward identity. Before that, we note the
following connection between the OPI generating functional and the propagators.
The OPI generating functional generates the irreducible vertex functions. Thus,
for an scalar eld (x)

(n)
(x
1
, , x
n
) =

n
[
cl
]

cl
(x
1
)
cl
(x
n
)

cl
=0
(22)
where
(n)
is known as n-point irreducible vertex function. We are interested in 2 and
3- point irreducible vertex functions involving the gauge elds and the Dirac elds in
QED. For the Dirac eld, we have

(2)
(x, y) =

2
[
cl
,
cl
]

cl
(x)
cl
(y)

cl
,
cl
=0
(23)
Now, the 2-point irreducible vertex function is the inverse of the two point Greens
function i.e.
_
d
4
x G
(2)
(x
1
, x)
(2)
(x, x
2
) = i
4
(x
1
x
2
) (24)
and since,
G
(2)
(x
1
, x
2
) = iS
F
(x
1
, x
2
)
we obtain,

(2)
(x
1
, x
2
) = S
1
F
(x
1
, x
2
) (25)
where, S
F
is the full Feynman propagator for the Dirac eld.
Finally, the momentum space vertex functions are dened by

(n)
(p
1
, , p
n
)(2)
4

4
(p
1
+ + p
n
)
=
_
d
4
x
1
d
4
x
n
e
i(p
1
x
1
++p
n
x
n
)

(n)
(x
1
, , x
n
) (26)
We now turn to deduce some consequences of the ward identity.
5
Applications of Ward Identity
1. 3-point vertex and inverse propagators
Taking the functional derivative of equation (21) with respect to
cl
(y), we obtain
0 =

(y)
_

_

A

cl
(x)
_
+ie
_

cl
(x)

cl
(x)

cl
(x)

cl
(x)
_

2
_
A
cl
(x)
_
_
=
_

_

2

cl
(y)A

cl
(x)
_
+ie
_

4
(x y)

cl
(x)
+
cl
(x)

2

cl
(y)
cl
(x)
+
cl
(x)

2

cl
(y)
cl
(x)
_
+0
_
(27)
In going from 1st to 2nd line, we have used
_

_
=
_

_
=
_

,
_
=
_

,
_
= 0 (28)
Again taking functional derivative of (27) with respect to
cl
(z) and setting = = 0,
we obtain
_

_

3
[0]
(z)(y)A

cl
(x)
_
+ie
_

4
(x y)

2
[0]

cl
(z)
cl
(x)

4
(x z)

2
[0]

cl
(x)
cl
(y)
__
= 0
Or, rearranging the terms, we obtain

_

3
[0]
(z)(y)A

cl
(x)
_
= ie
_

4
(x z)

2
[0]

cl
(x)
cl
(y)

4
(x y)

2
[0]

cl
(z)
cl
(x)
_
(29)
The left hand side of the above equation is OPI vertex function involving the photon
and Dirac elds (i.e. electron and positron) while the two terms in the right hand side
are inverses of the total Feynman propagator of Dirac elds as in (25). Multiplying the
above equation by exp i(px + qy + rz) and integrating over x, y and z, we obtain for the
individual terms on using (26)
Term on LHS
_
d
4
xd
4
yd
4
z e
i(px+qy+rz)

_

3
[0]
(z)(y)A

cl
(x)
_
=
_
d
4
xd
4
yd
4
z

e
i(px+qy+rz)
_

3
[0]
(z)(y)A

cl
(x)
_
= i
_
d
4
xd
4
yd
4
z p

e
i(px+qy+rz)
_

3
[0]
(z)(y)A

cl
(x)
_
= iep

(p, q, r)(2)
4

4
(p + q + r)
(30)
6
1st term on RHS
ie
_
d
4
xd
4
yd
4
z e
i(px+qy+rz)

4
(x z)

2
[0]

cl
(x)
cl
(y)
= ie
_
d
4
yd
4
z e
i(pz+qy+rz)

2
[0]

cl
(z)
cl
(y)
= ie
(2)
(p + r, q)(2)
4

4
(p + q + r)
= ieS
1
F
(p + r, q)(2)
4

4
(p + q + r) (31)
2nd term on RHS
ie
_
d
4
xd
4
yd
4
z e
i(px+qy+rz)

4
(x y)

2
[0]

cl
(z)
cl
(x)
= ie
_
d
4
yd
4
z e
i(py+qy+rz)

2
[0]

cl
(z)
cl
(y)
= ie
(2)
(p + q, r)(2)
4

4
(p + q + r)
= ieS
1
F
(p + q, r)(2)
4

4
(p + q + r) (32)
Combining (29) - (32), we obtain
iep

(p, q, r)
4
(p + q + r) = ieS
1
F
(p + r, q)
4
(p + q + r) ieS
1
F
(p + q, r)
4
(p + q + r)
(33)
delta function in the LHS term ensures that is a function only of p, q and r = p + q.
Similarly, in the 1st term on RHS, delta function ensures that the inverse of the propagator
is a function only of q and q = p + r i.e. of q only. Finally, the delta function in 2nd
term in RHS ensures that the inverse progator is a function only of p +q and r = p +q
i.e. of p + q only. Taking these into account, above equation can be written as
ip

(p, q, p + q) = iS
1
F
(q) iS
1
F
(p + q)
Or, p

(p, q, p + q) = S
1
F
(p + q) S
1
F
(q) (34)
This matches with the equation (8.3.25) in the book by P. Ramond if we relabel the
variables as p + q p.
Equation (34) is another form of ward identities. It gives a relationship between the
QED 3-point vertex and the inverses of the full propagators meeting at the vertex.
2. Photon propagator
Taking the functional derivative of equation (21) with respect to the gauge eld A

cl
,
and setting the elds = = A

= 0, we obtain
0 =

A

cl
(y)
_

_

A

cl
(x)
_
+ie
_

cl
(x)

cl
(x)

cl
(x)

cl
(x)
_

2
_

A
cl
(x)
_
_
=
_

_

2
[0]
A

cl
(y)A

cl
(x)
_

2
_

4
(x y)
_
_
(35)
7
Multiplying the equation by e
i(kx+py)
and integrating over x and y, we obtain for the
individual terms,
1st term in RHS
_
d
4
xd
4
ye
i(kx+py)

_

2
[0]
A

cl
(y)A

cl
(x)
_
=
_
d
4
xd
4
y

e
i(kx+py)
_

2
[0]
A

cl
(y)A

cl
(x)
_
= i
_
d
4
xd
4
y k

e
i(kx+py)

(2)

(x, y)
= ik

(2)

(k, p)(2)
4

4
(p + k)
= ik

(k, p)(2)
4

4
(p + k) (36)
where,
1

is the full photon propagator. Delta function ensures that the photon prop-
agator is a function only of one variable say k.
2nd term in RHS
1

_
d
4
xd
4
ye
i(kx+py)

2
_

4
(x y)
_
=
1

_
d
4
xd
4
y
2

e
i(kx+py)

4
(x y)
=
i

_
d
4
xd
4
y k
2
k

e
i(kx+py)

4
(x y)
=
i

_
d
4
x k
2
k

e
i(k+p)x
=
i

k
2
k

(2)
4

4
(p + k) (37)
Combining (35), (36) and (37), we get
k

(k) +
1

k
2
k

= 0 (38)
Equation (38) is another form of the ward identity. General form of

, using the fact

that it is constructed out of the vector k

and has the Euclidean tensorial properties, is

(k) = A(k
2
)

+ B(k
2
)k

(39)
Using this in (38) gives
Ak

+ Bk
2
k

+
1

k
2
k

= 0
or, A + Bk
2
+
1

k
2
= 0 (40)
8
Appendix A
Jacobian of BRST transformation
Symbolically, the Jacobian of the transformation is given by
J =

, A

_
(x)

_
, , A

,
_
(y)

= det
_

_
(A.1)
Using the BRST transformation (6) - (10), we compute the individual derivative terms.
Noting that numerator depends on x while denominator on y (we suppress the x and y
dependence of terms), we obtain

=
_
1 i(

)
_

4
(x y)

=
_
1 + i(

)
_

4
(x y)

=
4
(x y)

=
4
(x y)
A

=
4
(x y)

= i

4
(x y)

= i

4
(x y)
A

=
A

= 0

= i
4
(x y)

= i
4
(x y)
Rest of the derivative terms are zero. Inserting these in (A.1), we obtain
9
J = det
_

_
1 + i(

) 0 0 i i

0 1 i(

) 0 i i

0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
_

4
(x y)
_
5
Expanding the determinant using the fact that
2
= 0 gives
J =

_
1 + i(

)
__
1 i(

)
_

4
(x y)
_
5

4
(x y)

5
(A.2)
This shows that the Jacobian of the transformation is independent of the eld variables.
10
Appendix B
Ghost eld dependence of the OPI
generating functional
The one particle irreducible generating functional is given by
[A

cl
,
cl
,
cl
,
cl
,

cl
] = Z[J

, , , ,

]
_
d
4
x
_
J

cl
+ i
cl
+ i
cl
+

cl
+
cl

_
Where,
W = e
Z
(B.1)
Now, the ghost eld dependence of the generating functional W is given by
W[,

]
= N
_
D

D exp
_

_
d
4
x(i

)
_
= N
_
D

D exp
_

_
d
4
x
_
i

) +

_
_
= N
_
D

D exp
_

_
d
4
xd
4
y
_
i

(x){
2

4
(x y)}(y)
_

_
d
4
x(

)
_
= N
_
D

D exp
_

_
d
4
xd
4
y
_
i

(x)
1
(x y)(y)
_
+
_
d
4
x(

)
_
where
1
=
2

4
(x y).
Now using the Grassmann integration formula
_
D

D exp
_

_
d
4
xd
4
y
_

(x)A(x, y)(y)
_
+
_
d
4
x(

_
_
= det(A)exp
_

_
d
4
xd
4
y

(x)A
1
(x, y)(y)
_
(B.2)
We obtain with A = i
1
, A
1
= i and the normalization condition W[0] = 1
W[,

] = N det(i
1
)exp
_
i
_
d
4
xd
4
y

(x)(x y)(y)
_
= exp
_
i
_
d
4
xd
4
y

(x)(x y)(y)
_
(B.3)
11
Comparing (B.1) and (B.3), we obtain
Z[

, ] = i
_
d
4
xd
4
y

(x)(x y)(y) (B.4)

From the denition of classical elds,

cl
(x) =
Z

(x)

cl
(x) =
Z
(x)
(B.5)
we obtain

cl
(x) = i

(x)
__
d
4
x

d
4
y

(x

)(x

y)(y)
_
= i
_
d
4
x

d
4
y
4
(x

x)(x

y)(y)
= i
_
d
4
y(x y)(y) (B.6)
and similarly,

cl
(x) = i

(x)
__
d
4
x

d
4
y

(x

)(x

y)(y)
_
= i
_
d
4
x

d
4
y

(x

)(x

y)
4
(x y)
= i
_
d
4
x

(x

)(x

x)
= i
_
d
4
y

(y)(y x) (B.7)
Now, the propagator (x y) is the Green function of the equation of motion of the
ghost eld i.e.

2
(x y) =
4
(x y) (B.8)
Operating on (B.6) with the operator
2
and using (B.8)

cl
(x) = i
2
x
_
d
4
y(x y)(y)
= i
_
d
4
y
2
x
(x y)(y)
= i
_
d
4
y
4
(x y)(y)
= i(x) (B.9)
and similarly,

cl
(x) = i

(x) (B.10)
Now, from the denition of the OPI generating functional, we have
[
cl
,

cl
] = Z[,

]
_
d
4
x(

cl
+
cl

) (B.11)
12
We have written only the ghost part of the OPI generating functional, since, we want to
isolate the ghost dependent part of .
Now using (B.4), (B.9) and (B.10), we can write
[
cl
,

cl
] = i
_
d
4
xd
4
y

(x)(x y)(y)
_
d
4
x(

cl
+
cl

)
= i
_
d
4
xd
4
y
2

cl
(x)(x y)
2

cl
(y) i
_
d
4
x(

cl

cl

cl

cl
)
= i
_
d
4
xd
4
y

cl
(x)
2
x
(x y)
2

cl
(y) i
_
d
4
x(

cl

cl

cl

cl
)
= i
_
d
4
xd
4
y

cl
(x)
4
(x y)
2

cl
(y) + 0
= i
_
d
4
xd
4
y

cl
(x)
2
y

4
(x y)
cl
(y)
= i
_
d
4
xd
4
y

cl
(x)
1
(x y)
cl
(y) (B.12)
In the above derivation, integration by parts has been used freely. In going from 3rd to
4th line, we have used (B.8).
Equation (B.12) shows that the ghost elds decouple from everything in the OPI
generating functional and hence the functional derivative of with respect to the
ghost elds depend only upon the ghost elds.
13