AIDS and its discontents in Serbia: Silencing gay sexuality in the age of illness

Zoran Milosavljevi
September 2012

Supervisors: Dr Mark Johnson University of Hull, UK Approved by:

Dr Edyta Just University of Lodz, Poland

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Womens and Gender Studies GEMMA, in the University of Hull

Abstract

This thesis analyses the perpetuation of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Serbia as number of HIV/AIDS cases, with 30% of cases diagnosed only at the terminal in Serbia. The HIV positive gay men are discriminated on grounds of both stage of the illness, is a testament to the spreading of the epidemic in Serbia. The

directly resulting from the rejection and silencing of gay sexuality. The increasing HIV positive gay mens life-management in the HIV/AIDS discourse is further complicated with the enormous discrimination and stigmatisation by the majority as long as possible. The discrimination and stigmatisation on grounds of

their sexuality and the illness. Such double discrimination causes them to want

to maintain undetectability of the virus (the illness) and of the sexual identity for gay sexuality is structured around the silence of the majority toward it. The bodies to the testing and the forced coming-out in the medical and other state visible in the variety of their practices: from the masculinisation of their silencing enforces mimicry in the body politics of gay people. Such mimicry is

institutions. The biomedicalistation of the public health structures the identity reveal their sexuality in highly discriminatory surroundings of Serbian society. Sexuality is the main attribute of the discrimination, but is silenced in Serbian discourses. The non-existence of sexual education further enhances the institutions. The current policy against HIV/AIDS and other STDs in Serbia is futile and tumultuous. This is especially evident in the educational and medical HIV positive gay men is present even among the group of the PLHIV, which brings of the of the HIV positive gay men through the forced coming-out, leading them to

rejection of the differences among the people in Serbia. The rejection

these men and women are our best weapon against the dominant silence.

into the focus of this thesis their inclusion in all levels of society: the voices of

Key words: HIV/AIDS, Serbia, gay, sexuality, discrimination, body politic s, mimicry

Content
Introduction Chapter I

Acknowledgements

List of abbreviations 1.1 Transitional Serbian society 1.3 Biomedical discourse 1.4 Educational discourse

5 6 7 18 26 29 34 38 44 54 71 77

1.2 AIDS epidemiology in Serbia

Chapter II

Chapter III

2.1 Gay sexual minority in Serbia & homophobia

2.2 Anthropology of everyday life of HIV positive gay men in Serbia 3.1 Methodology of the research and analyses of the interviews

Conclusion

Bibliography

Acknowledgements
Mark Johnson possible; dr Jovi- Cvetkovi, Violeta Milosavljevi. wittiness, Tag McEntegart, Branko Jelena Petrovi, Alma Tanovi Damir from the University Arsenijevi for

My gratitude for the contribution to this work goes to: my supervisors, University of Lodz, Poland without whos experience his Markovi, Brankica of Hull, UK, loving and dr Edyta support, encouragement Just from

Stankov, Duan Marjanovi, Dimitar Matrakoski, Bojan, Dimitrije, Svetlana Krabel, and to my parents, Branislava Anaijevi and Sinia

Andjelkovi, Vladimir Veljkovi, Zoran Raili M.D., Djurica

and guidance this work would not be

Aimovi, Boris Gidak, Nataa

the

dr

and

List of abbreviations
EU European Union HAART Highly active antiretroviral therapy LGBT Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender NGO Non-governmental organisations PEP Post expositional prophylaxis STD Sexually transmitted diseases MSM Men who have sex with men HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus ARV Antiretroviral therapy

AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

MSWM Men who have sex with men and women PLHIV People who are living with HIV/AIDS RAC Republic National AIDS Committee of Serbia UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations Childrens Fund

UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS USOP Union of PLHIV organisations in Serbia

Introduction

Numerous questions arise when information comes to light, during the course of

World AIDS Day, on the 1st December 2011, that the promoter of safer sex in Serbia is a been HIV positive for seven years. You could ask yourself if this is a mistake of the famous gay porn actor has an equal right to be represented in the media and to youth concerning HIV/AIDS, and between activists to discredit each other in the battle to secure funds from the organiser, the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia, or a bad joke perpetrated Global Fund1 for the fight against HIV/AIDS. Or you could ask yourself whether the share his experience about HIV/AIDS? What about achievements in the education of 2011, 33% of the people infected with HIV are diagnosed in the last stages of AIDS? Why did they do of what? that to themselves? What is the cause of such irresponsible probably ask yourself (if or when you find out about it!) why it is that, in Serbia, in famous gay porn actor from barebacking online sites not to mention that he has

the population in general in Serbia? You would

behaviour? Is it a lack of knowledge about HIV/AIDS or maybe its fear? But then, fear today. This thesis seeks to investigate if, and, if so, how the negative social

response to gay sexuality is intensifying the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Serbia. The rising information, the present state of the AIDS epidemic in Serbia, and the discourses

number of the infected gay men and the 33% of PLHIV diagnosed in the last stages around AIDS, are showing confusion; a lack of clear ideas as to how to proceed to in the response to HIV/AIDS in Serbia. Paradoxically, in this time of easy access to

This schizoid episode is a microcosm of the state of the AIDS epidemic in Serbia

of AIDS should be signalling a state of high alert. Something is seriously malfunctioning tackle it; as result of economic instability, slow progress; rejection of the other(s) for the vicious spiral that is HIV/AIDS in Serbia.

sexualities; and institutional neglect. As the result of the present situation, the identity defence against stigmatisation. Taken together, all those are the excellent conditions politics of HIV positive gay men further evolve into the body politics of mimicry and

the
1

human condition. It is not problematic if you are dealing with a small problem. Maybe you will forget about it. However, if you try to ignore a big problem for long enough,
Global Fund To Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, see http://www.theglobalfund.org/en/

are pushing the problem deeper without the resolution. Silencing is also an aspect of the

The silencing is an unbearable process for the one who is doing it. In that way you

problem could become greater. This is most certainly the case when you have deadly or living with AIDS related illnesses. situation facing the overwhelming majority of gay people in Serbia infected with HIV, because of their sexuality and then, on top of that, because of the disease. This is the

disease spreading among people already scared that they are going to be stigmatized

Serbia. I will examine the social response that silences gay sexuality, as well as the politics of resistance stigmatisation. stigmatisation of HIV positive gay men in Serbia. of HIV positive gay men to the predominant

HIV positive gay men, and the persistence and growth of the AIDS epidemic in

In this thesis I will examine the connections between the double stigmatisation of Stigmatisation on the ground of sexuality and stigmatisation on the social

ground of illness (HIV/AIDS) are the two predominant components of the double are structuring HIV positive gay mens subjectivity, mostly through the biomedical and educational discourse. The discourse of biomedicine, and, as its integral part of The stigmatisation on the ground of illness is shaped by the discourses that

that, the pharmaceuticalization2 of public health, is emerging from the development of sexual identity . In Serbia, where the gay sexual minority is still stigmatized, and its so many HIV positive gay men, the moment of truth embodied in an HIV positive result, also becomes the moment of forced coming out, within their own social circle of their

the medical knowledge and the advantages that affords those fighting the disease. For

rights are ignored, that moment is very stressful for the gay individual and, if at all possible, should be mitigated.

most visible manifestation of the social silencing of it, and, in the politics of mimicry predominant social model of the rejection of gay sexuality and is very visible through the

adopted by the gay sexual minority, its result is apparent. Social policy in the field of process of its silencing.

HIV/AIDS is also an important factor for the life management of HIV positive gay men in the AIDS discourse. Unfortunately, such policy is under the constant influence of the The undetectability of the virus (upheld by avoiding the biomedical

Stigmatisation on the grounds of their sexuality of HIV positive gay men is the

procedures) and the undetectability of the gay sexuality (upheld through the politics of mimicry and social silencing) are the two major components of the body politics of HIV positive gay
2

Under the notion of pharmaceuticalization of public health Biehl assumes the involvement of pharmaceutical companies, producers of ARV therapy, in the different processes of providing and subsidising ARV therapy in the policy of the state therapy for all. See Biehl, 2009, p.97-101

men in Serbia. These two components are the main cause of the devastation being wrought by the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Serbia.

its impact on HIV/AIDS epidemic. The connection between these two should be taken the illness and the sexual differences in Serbia is one of the main purposes of this thesis. It is hoped that such an outcome will be attributable immensurable help in the endeavour to understand to this thesis. The voices of the problems they face into account for any successful strategy against AIDS. To provide a basis for the

dominant perception of gay sexuality as the illness. The aim of this thesis is to emphasise the importance of the necessary recognition, by Serbian society, of gay sexuality and

This thesis argues for a separation to be made between gay sexuality and the

correction and the redefinition of the educational procedures that claim to educate about HIV positive gay men and the people around them, seeing the light of day for the everyday in their fight against HIV/AIDS. first time in this thesis speak firmly in favour of this aim. Their life experiences are of Finally, this thesis is about the social construction of sexuality and the social

into how deliberate neglect of sexual differences in Serbia has provided and continues the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

construction of lies (about difference, sexuality, and illness). It provides an insight

to provide fertile conditions for the spread of the disease and for the dangerous spiral of

Theoretical framework
The complex power web structuring of gay into the

Serbian society. To understand such a complex web of discourses I decided to use a map theoretical framework and to illustrate the improved understanding of the process of epidemic. structure as the tool that would most usefully unlock deeper and wider insight perpetuating HIV/AIDS epidemic.3 The map will complement silencing of gay sexuality and, as the result of that, the perpetuation of HIV/AIDS In the first chapter, I take a closer look into recent Serbian history. When the

sexual identity are inevitably embedded in the context of the

around HIV

positive gay mens subjectivity and the

combined this history, the epidemiological situation with regard to HIV/AIDS and the society.
See the table

biomedical and educational discourse of HIV/AIDS will provide the context of Serbian
3

10

focuses on the interconnections between social rejection and the body politics of mimicry the politics of mimicry, the study investigates the variety of practices of HIV positive gay protective shield against the discriminatory politics towards gay people in Serbia. using feminist and gay studies methodology, this provides evidence of of HIV positive gay men toward health and sexualitys mimicry. When considering

anthropology of the everyday

The second chapter will closely examine the gay sexual minority in Serbia and an life of HIV positive gay men. The second chapter

masculinisation of their bodies and the abuse of steroids in AIDS related illnesses; to the disclosure of gay sexual identity in their social surroundings. This politics is the The third chapter analyses interviews of HIV positive gay men and people

men: from avoiding forced coming out in medical institutions; through the

who are coming from the different professions connected to with HIV positive gay men: the HIV/AIDS discourse in Serbia. their

everyday life practices and analyses their attitudes and notions of gay identity in introduces the origin of the social construction of sexuality and the rejection of it. In the social significance of homosexual behaviour, both in

his work The Construction of Homosexuality, Jeffrey Weeks defines the importance possible to understand

of the social context of gay sexuality and of gay representation thus: ...it is no longer terms of social response and in terms of individual identity, in its exact historical regulation.4 Weeks is also trying to analyse the construction of sexuality and sexual identity positions grounded in the discourse of choice nation context. To put it another way, the various possibilities of same sex behaviour are variously constructed in different cultures as an aspect of wider gender and sexual as the result of collective or individual autonomy.5 possible to talk of the possibility of a universalistic history of homosexuality; it is only

At the beginning of the thesis, describing the context of the Serbian society

Unfortunately, the discourse of choice and sexual differences were deliberately narrowed culminated in the outbreak of war. Thus far, through the Serbian tendency to purify the in the spotlight of numerous international and from the others of any kind, the choice of sexual difference has been domestic researchers.6 The rise of

narrowed. The recent history and the fall of Yugoslavia, as well as the rise of an nationalistic and right wing policies has followed not only that internal political shift, but the global political
4 5 6

in Serbia at the beginning of the 90s, when the nationalistic tendencies in Yugoslavia

independent Serbia through xenophobic leaderships and interethnic conflicts have been

See Jeffrey Weeks The Construction of Homosexuality in Seidman, 1996, p.42 See Plummer, 1993, pp. 121 -130 See Markovi, 2001; Bowman, 2005; Jensen, 2005; Milosavljevi, 2006

11

change brought about by the economic crisis, the collapse of welfare states and the state reform through the processes The nationalistic tendencies in the Serbian context and during the 90s, have marked major social and shaken she described the impact of local political aspiration towards a universal mode of of neoliberal capitalism the rise of populism and and globalisation.7 Serbia

generic shift of policy to the right. Ann Marie Smith showed how populism operates when

right-wing policies, and the opposite social, anti-nationalistic movement in

Balkan societies.8 Taking the global perspective on the processes of dismantling welfare examination in the work of Boris Buden.9 Buden refers to some of the characteristics transition of its society from socialism to neo-liberal noticed: role of liberated religion as its integral part of these characteristics.10 In the capitalism, Serbia of post-communist societies as a result of the re-traditionalization of the past and the regard. Nevertheless, as Dimitrije, the one of the HIV positive gay men interviewed adopted states in the period of post communism and the uncertainty of a neo-liberal society by economic crisis and social tensions, has been the central point of

political changes in the traditional

fully these processes of re-traditionalization, emerging as a crucial case study in this Dimitrije

Today, it seems that we are going backwards, thinking that we are going forward and every time when we talk about transition in society... transition is not something, at the end of the day, that we can be certain of. You might end in deep in a hole or you might be on the top of a hill with a beautiful view and clean air. In that search for identity in society, if a person is not empowered and does not have supportive surroundings...then such a
In the case of Serbia, the reimposition of tradition and religion and the role of communities, influence widely and deeply the institutional response to problems. The connections between HIV/AIDS, the gay and Catholicism) at root follow the logic of non-acceptance and nonsexual

person

will not take care of himself.

specific social as Islam

minority and religious fundamentalism of any kind (Orthodox Christianity as well tolerance of sexuality per se as fundamental human attribute.
Smith, 1997, p.115 Jensen, 2005 9 See Buden, 2009 10 ibid, p.89
7 8

religious

12

addressed fully without study of the epidemiological situation of HIV/AIDS in Serbia

the institutional response towards the spread of HIV/AIDS. The construction of the main and the level of testing for HIV that has been carried out among them.11 The tendencies in the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Serbia are the following; firstly, the in the HIV/AIDS epidemic has doubled, firstly, as the Strategy against HIV/AIDS demonstrates the same level of inconsistency toward the gay sexual minority, particularly in its estimate of the number of gay people in Serbia

social policy document about HIV/AIDS in Serbia from 2005 until 2015, the National

today. Those data are showing the dynamics of the epidemic and the inadequate result of

The context of Serbian society presented in the first chapter could not be

epidemiological data show the increasing number of those newly infected, particularly acceleration in the number of the newly infected, mostly among MSM, and secondly, a The population of Serbia has decreased by some young adult males.16 third of the AIDS cases (33%) are first diagnosed in the diseases terminal phase.14 acceleration total very easily reached on the NGOs websites and are thoroughly updated.13 The two major among the group of men who have sex with men MSM.12 The epidemiological data are

5%15 since 2002. Secondly, the number of cases of HIV/AIDS has increased, especially in tackles an examination of the educational discourse in Serbia about HIV/AIDS. The material of the 2nd Serbian PLHIV Conference provides an excellent example of the de facto life-management of minority groups that arises from the hypocrisy of the practices, religion itself then takes over the role of society.18 How is it possible to provide the functions of the state and biogovernmentality in such circumstances? What about the the thesis, the case of Serbia, and the present state of HIV/AIDS epidemic and gay Together with the history and the epidemiological data the first chapter also

silencing of gay sexuality is at the core of the aims of this educational process. The official claim,17 offering excellent proof as to how, when religion comes to determine social state and societys discriminatory politics? Such symbiosis could impede the ability to is undermining efforts to deal with the problem. That pattern is also traced in

minority in the country, will show how the unity of re-traditionalized society and religion the processes of
11 12

address specific social questions such as those to which HIV/AIDS give rise. Later in

See http://www.minzdravlja.info/downloads/Zakoni/Strategije/HIVAIDS%20Strategija%202005.pdf See Raki et al., 2010; Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia, 2010; www.aidsresurs.rs, 2012; www.jazas.rs, 2012 13 See www.aidsresurs.rs, 2012; www.jazas.com, 2012 14 ibid 15 See www.mediapopis2012.rs 16 Raki, 2010 17 Vukainovi et al., 2012 18 Buden, 2009, p. 166

13

representation of the gay sexual minority in Serbia, as well as the connection between thus: Representation, you wrote once, belongs together with medical and legal sexuality.19 representations and sexuality in a letter to the Spanish feminist Beatriz Preciado, discourses, to the biopolitical processes of normalization and control of bodies and

representation and sexuality. Tim Stttgen expresses this connection between

Foucault in The Birth of Biopolitics, and further developed, at the molecular levels of structuring of gay identity in a society ruled by information and HIV/AIDS control.21 as well as their life management.22 That is why a good structuring and framing of

complete without the biomedical discourse. The introduction of biomedicine and implementation of biogovernmentality in society, introduced and examined by

biomedical structuring of subjectivities around HIV/AIDS provide the pattern of the

The context of the Serbian society, presented in the first chapter, would not be

The body politics of HIV positive gay men is controlled by ARV (antiretroviral) therapy, social policy toward HIV/AIDS are very important for the halting of the epidemic. resistance and mimicry are guiding the gay sexual minority in Serbia. Their body of gay identity positions in widely homophobic and discriminatory surroundings. The work of Joao Biehl draws on the biopolitical and pharmaceutical The recent work of some researchers is developing our understanding of new social organisation around shared body politics in the gay community.23 The strategies of politics are structured around the undetectability of the virus, and the undetectability

governing, in recent times.20 The work of Marsha Rosengarthen brings the biomedical

processes that shape identities in his native Brasil.24 Nevertheless, the biomedical approach to HIV/AIDS in Brasilian society provides an insight as to how identity

politics has been productively structured through relations against the other, the similar situations worldwide. For Rosengarthen, the biomedical construction of the of AIDS discourse, and the
19 20

contemporary subjectivity of the PLHIV. The processes of the pharmaceuticalization

identity of HIV infected and the AIDS patients in the UK is an inseparable part of the

virus and the representation of the other.25 Such identity politics is important for

Stttgen, 2009, p. 44 Using the concept of the molecular level of biogoverning (or biogovernmentality), we have to consider the level of the tube and the tube testing where the identity is structured by positive or the negative biomedical test results of any kind, eg. Elisa testing on HIV antibodies, PCR testing on HIV, the screening testing for CD4 lymphocytes as the marker of ARV efficiency, etc., See Rose, 2007; Rosengarthen, 2009; Biehl, 2009; Whitacre, 2011 21 ibid 22 Rosengarthen, 2009 23 Biehl, 2009; Whitacre, 2011 24 Biehl, 2009 25 Rosengarthen, 2009

14

introduction of ARV therapy, are shaping new identity positions for PLHIV. Nevertheless, Unfortunately the present economic situation is not conducive to such policy. class and race remain the defining factors of the life-management of HIV positive gay men the heart of official social policy in low income countries such as Serbia. in Brazil, UK and Serbia as well. The political position espousing therapy for all is still at The organisation of life and the body politics of HIV positive gay men have

been transformed in recent years by the regulatory mechanism of seropositivity and the viral load.26 The viral load defines the body politics of the carrier of the HIV space for new strategies of resistance against stigmatization based on sexuality or

and brings completely new insight into gay social organisation in the AIDS discourses. illness or both. Through matching sexuality and sexual preferences, HIV positive gay men are trying to identify similar identity positions and thus, in some aspects, are ARV therapy has brought new perspectives for HIV positive gay men and provides a

aligning their everyday life practices and their body politics. New insights into the taboo anymore.27 similar

organisation and the life- management of HIV positive gay men in specific social and phenomenon of everyday-life practices in a community where gay sexuality is not a discrimination and stigmatisation toward HIV positive gay men, such as in Serbian address the same issues. patterns of behaviour operate in communities with a high level of geographical areas, such as the San Francisco Bay Area, has brought to light the Such insights could provide a basic understanding as to how the

society. While the silencing of gay sexuality is the Serbian response to gay issues the progressive factors being used, in Western countries, with more or less success, to its recognition by and in Serbian society. The philosophy of recognition, as developed by Alexander minority identity.
26

(including HIV/AIDS among gay people and other PLHIV), visibility and recognition are The second chapter addresses directly the gay sexual minority in Serbia and Garcia-Dttmann, will be used in this chapter.28 Reflecting on

recognition as the question of the voice of non-identical, Garcia-Dttmann is providing a starting point to understand the processes of non-acceptance (non-recognition) of
See Whitacre, 2011, p. V: Viral load is a measurement of the amount of virus in an organism and typically, in the bloodstream. In the case of HIV this measurement is obtained through a viral load test, formally referred to as the Human Immunodeficiency Virus RNA Quantitative and is expressed in virus particles or copies per milliliter (copies/mL) of blood plasma. As an important distinction, the HIV antibody test, not the HIV viral load test, is the recommended method for the diagnosis of HIV. The HIV viral load test is used for monitoring the level of virus after the initial diagnosis of HIV. Knowing the viral load is crucial in matters of prognosis, prevention and the management of HIV therapy, but the perceptibility of the viral load complicates such efforts and has the potential to create scenarios of misrepresentation and subsequent misunderstanding. 27 ibid, pp. 12-14 28 Garcia-Dttmann, 1996; Garcia-Dttmann, 2000

15

Garcia-Dttmann states: ...in order to gain knowledge of what the pain of the other of knowledge an absence which does not determine the failure of recognition....29 policy about HIV/AIDS and PLHIV. In talking about the extent of the influence of the politics of recognition, Garcia-Dttmann confirms: Politics is a politics of recognition and the legal system cannot be formed and thought without recognition, whatever in Serbia, is the cornerstone of any successful state policy and politics, including The importance of recognition of the gay sexual minority, (and in its core gay sexuality) to the extent that self-consciousness, identity, difference, culture, society, the state include the core identity factor of recognition; that is the recognition of gay is, then the failing recognition or the absence of a response may suggest an absence

ones concept of recognition may be.30 The recognition of the gay sexual minority should

sexuality. This is the main problem for Serbian society and the state, otherwise the expanding HIV/AIDS epidemic. The discourse of AIDS, also prominent in the work of Garcia-Dttmann, problematises the body politics of the gay sexual minority and Thinking and talking about AIDS cannot be detached from the context of practical wider social concepts organized around the same discourse. In discussing who, how,

tumult over gay sexual minority rights in Serbia would not be at the pitch that it has been

for over two decades and that is before even taking into consideration the ever-

and what is relevant in the problematisation of AIDS, Garcia-Dttmann points out: politics; they are inscribed in it and create it with the first word and first thought.31 the organisational level, and the recognition of gay sexuality. In this way, the politics around HIV positive gay men in Serbia is inadequate to deal The aim of prevention and the numerical targets to achieve this that have and ineffectual; prejudices remain.32 gay In with two recognitions: the recognition of the virus (HIV, and consequently AIDS) at been missed are just one element of the failing politics of recognition. In 1996, LewisAllen pointed out the relation between prevention and recognition: Prevention misunderstood, underfunded, these patterns even today the most important weapon against AIDS by far continues to be should introduce a different social response than has so far been seen. One of the biggest challenges for Serbian society and the global perspective of HIV/AIDS today is the societal inclusion of every
Garcia-Dttmann, 2000, p.9 ibid, p.190 Garcia-Dttmann, 1996, p.49 Lewis-Allen, 2000, p. 127

of prejudices, discrimination, and stigmatisation, new approaches individual HIV positive man and the

fighting

transformation of all of the social structures affecting and affected by HIV/AIDS.

29 30 31 32

16

analysed and this analysis is integrated into the theoretical conceptualization of the previous two chapters.

Finally, in the third chapter, the interviews conducted as part of this study are

17

Chapter I

1.1 Transitional Serbian society

To examine the context of the AIDS epidemic in Serbia is unimaginable without an very turbulent times in the last two decades. As one of the six republics of the former bloody Yugoslav wars of the 1990s. Initially, many historians saw the start of the The rise of nationalism, as Bowman explained, occurred as the response to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbia gained its independence through the introduction to recent Serbian history and politics. Serbian society has been through

fall of the Yugoslav Federation immediately after the death of President Tito in 1980. socialist legacy: The discursive shift to nationalist discourse occurred through the intervention crisis of the Yugoslav socialist model Vladimir Markovi refers disintegration. The notion of republican politicians who created national platforms from where to the 1990s as: they could launch bids to increase their holds on power in a Yugoslav state characterised, ...years marked with war transitions, bloody destruction of the federal state and societal of the political was commonly perceived as after the death of Tito, by a vacuum at the political centre.33 In trying to describe the

national, which was very convenient for awakening of ethnocentric ressentiment, the in Serbia in 1987, and the production of the notorious nationalist document called especially Slovenia and Croatia, similarly and consequently republics

Memorandum by the Serbian Academy of Science and Arts in Belgrade in 1986, by nationalistic Serbian politics.35 The political elites in other Yugoslavia, nationalist approaches Serbian nationalist propaganda and the political establishment, created the similar the end of Bosnian war, brokered through the Dayton Peace Agreement.37 Even responsible for the war activities played out by the ethno-nationalist elites,
33 34 35 36 37

rediscovery of traditional values and the rise of reactionary right-wing ideologies.34 The the end of the 1980s and throughout the 1990s had become the cornerstones of of Former on the

rise to power of Slobodan Miloevi, who became the Yugoslav Communist Party leader

bloody war between the nations and the republics from 19911995, culminating with though war clashes were avoided directly on Serbian soil, Serbia was very much
Bowman, 2005, p.134 Markovi, 2001, p.27 See http://www.scribd.com/doc/19499149/Olivera-Milosavljevi-Jugoslavija-kao-zabluda Bowman, 2005, pp.135-141 See http://www.ohr.int/dpa/default.asp?content_id=379

and rhetoric.36 These events were the precursors to the

18

especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina.38 Catalysed by the result of the conflict between during the 1990s, a strong antinationalistic movement had grown in Serbian society.
40

Serbs and Albanians in Kosovo, on March 24th 1999, NATO commenced its bombardment of Serbia, which continued until June 10th 1999.39 Alongside these developments, Jansen points out that both Serbian and Croatian nationalisms were based in the

repression of

the other.41 Traditional Serbian patriarchal society has found its immaculate imperative defeat of Slobodan Miloevi in the election, and post-election revolution of the various different countries of Eastern Europe at the end are facing the majority of people Northern of Miloevis election fraud, Serbia became what can be of the 1980s and and described as a fully place for any form of otherness that might undermine it. However, after the

masses on the streets of Belgrade in 5th October 2000, and as a result of the exposure beginning of 1990s, signalled the establishment of a regional period of transition insecurity, encountering the same problems as America, Europe the

in the nationalistic ideology of the purity of the nation, and consequently, there is no

transitional society.42 The end of socialist Yugoslavia and the post-revolution changes in from socialism to neo-liberal capitalism. The fallen welfare states and the economic World Bank study in 2005 exposed: Poverty rose sharply in the 1990s and remains Northern

equipped to deal or cope with. In this situation, Serbian society is no exception. As a widespread. Using a poverty threshold level of 2.40 a day finds that 11 percent of

with problems which they are ill-

the Serbian population falls below the poverty line.43 Economic insecurity has 2003) was pursuing, transparently, a path to a democratic Serbian society where significant progress towards the path of a democratic society with respect to basic human rights. However, in March 2003, the assassination of Prime Minister Djinji in of uncertainty to the political and social system in Serbia.44 human rights, including minority rights, would have been high in the list of the priorities political situation and even in just two years, Serbian society had made some Miloevi in October 2000, the government of the Prime Minister Zoran Djindji (2001 followed a deeply unstable political situation. After the fall of the regime of Slobodan

of social reorganisation. Recovering from the wars and the unstable economic and

Belgrade, slowed and, in some aspects, reversed these attempts at democratic progress, driving a reversion towards revisionist nationalistic rhetoric and politics, and the return
See http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-institutions_government/icj_bosnia_serbia_4392.jsp See http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/kosovo/312003.stm Jansen, 2005 ibid, 2005, p.85 See http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/europe/2000/milosevic_yugoslavia/downfall.stm Godinho et al., 2005, p.122 See http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2843433.stm

38 39 40 41 42 43 44

19

welfare states and the rise of economic and ethnic tensions, Serbia has experienced

democratic governments which have shown enormous shifts to the right of ideology and policy. Following the intensification of the global economic crisis since 2007, populism uncertainty and poor economic development. The transformation of Serbian society membership.45 When there is no external enemy, there is always somebody to remind the people of the purity of the family, the nation and the motherland. As different recent declaration rhetoric and

In the 21st century, following not only the local, but the global reality of failing

has been on the rise. As a political strategy and tactic, ever-increasing populism has been a policy. On the 1st March 2012 Serbia gained the status of the candidacy for the EU seems to be uniting nationalist and traditional tendencies with the European Union

key tool to gain power in nations where citizens are weakened by years of wars,

analyses demonstrate, this instability is still present in Serbia: Although the acute Kosovos level social services; lack of opportunities involvement of nations and states are no longer for new ways of knowing, potential

phase of war may have ended, tensions continue over many matters; for example:

refugees and returnees; poverty; instability of legal institutions; lack of health and in societal reorganization, and for critical thinking.46 Since, at the its publication, all the conflicts between former Yugoslav for

of independence from Serbia; tribunals; the status of

politically correct and since all of these states are influenced by the qualitative

lurch in the economic crisis that became most strongly visible in 2007, the easiest way to base populist policy on the creation of new threats to the national interest in example, Roma people are among the first to be labelled as different in Serbian weaken the authoritarian projects

the form of the other. Sexual minorities and other ethnic minorities, such as, for these contradictory identifications. A total exclusion of the demonized figure may

society and therefore to come under threat of fascist actions. As Anna Marie Smith accommodate virtually every legitimate social element; it must appear to be utterly claim to universality. It must pretend to

defined: A hegemonic authoritarian project must provide the necessary structures for

unaffected by the multiplication of new social differences. At the same time, it must

pursue populist strategies. It must mobilize and reproduce the reactionary forces that provide its political momentum. It must also drag the political centre so far to the right that the conservative elements within the centrist and centre- left parties feminists. Ultimately, the authoritarian populism of the new right and the become more prominent and move their parties to the right. This in turn contributes

to the increasing alienation among the voters who traditionally support the centreleft and leftist parties, such as progressive lesbians and gays, workers, blacks, and
45 46

See http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17225415 Daiute, 2010, p. 23

20

neoconservatives

permanent mobilization

fascism globally is occurring through very subtle and disguised adaptations.48 In Serbia, as has gained the substantial power it has in combination with a transitional hybrid social system. productive for the disguised fascism and national-socialist tendencies
49

disenfranchisement of the majority of the electorate.47 In addressing the topic of resurgence on the ideological crisis of the West and admits that the survival of well as in the other republics of ex-Yugoslavia, the ideology of neoliberal capitalism This socio-political ground has been targeting others among the

contemporary fascism and its political continuing manifestation, Markovi posits its

is itself contradictory since it depends simultaneously on the

of a small cadre of right-wing voters and the virtual

population, especially sexual minorities. Yet the process of becoming a full member of EU voted on has put Serbia constantly in the spotlight vis a vis having to negotiate national in Serbia was Parliaments vote for the Anti-discriminatory law in 2009. The deputies

and continues to be very

interests under scrutiny. One of the crucial moments in the recent political developments 26th March 2009, with the majority of 127 votes in 250 seats Parliament for the Anti- discriminatory law in which are addressed issues of equality and which makes illegal Parliament came together to lobby the Serbian Parliament and parliamentarians on expected that the Parliamentary group will continue its work in the newly formed discrimination of any kind.50 Nevertheless, in the same debate, an amendment to the families was rejected.51 In 2009, a parliamentary group of 9 members of the penal code which would have explicitly outlawed discrimination of PLHIV and their

HIV/AIDS and the reproductive health issues. There has been no achievement around

this issue but mere paying of the lip service and showing off of political correctness. It is

National Assembly which commenced its term of office in July 2012. It would be productive if the Parliament focused its attention on regulations concerning sexual and of the matter for vulnerable social groups.52 reproductive health education in schools. Nonetheless, today in Serbia, the question of the implementation of existing law and how the legislature deals with this, is the crux The Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia has a track record of 5

years of strategic responses in dealing with HIV/AIDS issues and is providing the guidance through its cornerstone document called National strategy for the responses to HIV
47 48 49 50 51

Smith, 1997, p.115 Markovi, 2002, p.23 Buden, 2011, pp.72-82 www.aidsresurs.com See www.q-club/org.rs/sr/view/vesti?page=4

52

Dimitrijevi et al., 2010, pp. 9-31

21

infection and AIDS which was put in place from 2005 onward.53 The regulatory body of the politics around the AIDS epidemic and HIV infection in Serbia is the Republic some other Ministries ( Education, Work & Social Policy, Internal Affairs, Defence, media, and some international agencies such as UNAIDS, UNICEF, UNDP, etc.55 National AIDS Committee (RAC) formed in 2001.54 The chairing of the RAC is the responsibility of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia, with the participation of

Youth

& Sport) and from the civil sector, NGOs dealing with PLHIV, health institutions, the Through the medical and the educational systems, collectively, those institutions are supposed to be the enactors of the processes of the biogovernmentality HIV/AIDS56 that show little serious pharmaceuticalization of public health where HIV/AIDS are concerned. There have intent, beyond using the politically correct and

been cursory references to address the challenges of the gay sexual minority and of rhetoric. Even those initiatives funded by international organisations, such as UNICEF, are well-intentioned but feeble and inadequate. Among recent publications, there is by the Ministry of Health in September against HIV/AIDS document, laying out, as it was supposed to do, the basis upon only one addressing the behaviour of MSM a piece of work that was carried out

2010.57 These studies were starting point for the creation of the National Strategy which Parliament intended to carry out its mandate; to lead the response of the state Serbia elected a new, right-wing President and a strongly right-wing coalition government to lead the country.59 to the prevalence and growth of HIV/AIDS up until 2015.58 However, in July 2012,

life of

Discriminatory practices

systems up to anti-discriminatory policy60, in Serbia, even at this point when the Serbian legislature is expected to follow EU regulations in practice in the everyday its citizens, such policies as exist are not sexual minority.62 The being and stigmatisation are widespread in Serbia, especially implemented.61

Even whilst legal frameworks in Europe and North America are opening their

against some social groups like Roma people and the gay semi-religious language, are

materials of the right-wing organisations show the present state of non-acceptance

See http://www.minzdravlja.info/downloads/Zakoni/Strategije/HIVAIDS%20Strategija%202005.pdf Godinho et al. 2006, p. 132 55 ibid, p.15 56 Cuci, 2002, p.15 57 Raki et al., 2010 58 See http://www.minzdravlja.info/downloads/Zakoni/Strategije/HIVAIDS%20Strategija%202005.pdf 59See http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/21/serbian-lawyers-aides-karadzic-mladic 60 See Beger, 1996; Rayside, 1998; Herman, 2000; Watney, 2000; Dorais, 2010 61 See Gajin et al., 2007; Dimitrijevi et al., 2010 62 See Cuci, 2002; Gajin et al., 2007; Raki, 2010; Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia, 2010;
53 54

and non-tolerance of sexual differences and, in their particular use of quasi-scientific and

http://gsa.org.rs/2012/05/godisnji-izvestaj-2011/

22

trying to portray homosexuality as a disease, or a fashion trend, which is a threat to both in general as a concept whose totalitarian intolerance64 should not be tolerated promotes the consumer society.65 The only possible

societys fragile youth and the unity of the nation.63 In his famous article The Ideology of

within society because it is extremely anti-social, aggressive, a betrayal and on top of against such attempts to intolerant totality is a healthy society where there is no place for such an unhealthy practice as homosexuality.66 Particularly when considering the stigmatisation of HIV everything else defender

and before being printed in the magazine Peat, Glii has referred to homosexuality

Homosexuality, first published in the New Serbian Political Thought on-line magazine,

preservation of the family, nation, religion and welfare states is seen to be under threat, contemplation.68 In his article, Soft Occupation, Antoni expresses opinion that the to him, such simplification arises as the result of the state persecution of several and give rationale for the existence of fascist organisations. LGBT activists and their any attempt even to acknowledge the existence of otherness is beyond

perceived as undermining a healthy societys safety through the unhealthy practice crisis within the post-communist East and the neo-liberal West, when the

positive gay men vis a vis illness, it is very significant to see how this scientific approach define the notion of healthy/non-healthy.67 Homosexuality, here, is

of the individual. Consequently it should not be tolerated by society. In this time of

fascistic organisations.69 This is, of course, the way such right-wing thinkers promote organisations are the usual suspects in such circumstances. Marko ivkovi explains matrix of the wartime Serbian society of the gay community 1990s.70 In his text Ex-Yugoslav Masculinities under the Female Gaze, or Why Men well as some LGBT organisations in Serbia, is in the use of the term gay some gay activists through
63 64

West is responsible for the simplification of the anti-globalist scene in Serbia. According

a similar pattern of behaviour in Serbia in his work on the other in the unified social and gay sexuality in the media, but deals mostly with the

Skin Cats, Beat up Gays and Go to War, he attempts to address the issues of the normativisation of gay subjectivity.71 One fundamental mistake made by rightists, as minority as a unifying concept for gay people. This was only recently addressed by
See Antoni, 2009; Glii, 2009; www.NSPM.com, 2011 Glii, 2009, p.17 65 ibid, p.16 66 ibid, 2009, pp.15-17 67 The persistence of the attitude / belief that homosexuality is a psychiatric illness (a deviance), and the notion that HIV/AIDS is a form of punishment for deviant sexual behaviour, is at the root of the rightists discourse around HIV/AIDS and homosexuality in Serbia. 68 Buden, 2009 69 Antoni, 2009, pp. 8-10; Antoni, 2010 70 ivkovi, 2006

sexual

71

Skrozza, 2009, pp. 15-17

23

their efforts to explain the failure of the organisation of the LGBT Parade in 2011.72 Unfortunately, rare gay publications, such as Optimist, are still failing to accept that gay implications of gay issues, gay life-style and behaviour, simply reflect the poverty of their other side of the coin which is to be found in the response (and absence of it) from state institutions to the challenges of HIV/AIDS among gay people. This is most obviously the gay sexual minority itself, especially if a person is HIV positive. That is why the towards the gay sexual minority in Serbia, is the woefully inadequate sexual ideas and their lack of perception of the diversity of gay people in Serbia. This is just the apparent in the silencing and the rejection of gay sexuality. This rejection also persists in sexual minority is a heterogeneous group. As for the editors and authors included in this

publication, patronising messages to its readers about body image, the political

body politics of health mimicry is influencing the increase of HIV infections and the education that still prevails. Indeed, this was identified by those interviewed for this thesis as the biggest problem in Serbian society. Vladimir - spread of the AIDS epidemic. What these attempts have in common with the state policies

V: I would like to change a lot. It is outrageous that some academic books still in use continue to identify homosexuality as a disease; e.g. as number of psychiatric text books do. Campaigns that are supposed to focus on protection against STDs are always very general, and take as their starting point the presupposition that the whole of the population is heterosexual. Z: With the nuclear heterosexual family at its centre? V: Yes. The immediate target population is heterosexual and that is taken for granted. There is a lack of specific information relating to specific social groups; gay people for example, with all references to vaginal sexual intercourse without any mention of anal sexual intercourse. I would say that anal intercourse is not only a sexual practice of gay people, but of heterosexuals as well. The same goes for risky behaviour. We should also be provided with positive attitudes in this information. Distinction should also be made between prevention from becoming infected with HIV and, having been infected, living with HIV. Education should not be scary because you have to motivate someone to act. You should start some process that will encourage understanding rather than rejection, and if you discover a

72

Milievi, 2011, pp.181-184

24

positive attitude in somebody you should not shatter it. You should present the perspective that, with ARVs, life can go on with HIV. The other thing is the need for education among the gay population. The majority of the Serbian population usually associate gay people with HIV. People think that, if you have HIV/AIDS, your sexual life should end. I often ask if they would have sex with someone who is HIV positive and am also asked the same question in turn? My answer is yes, and their reaction to that is always shocking. I then go further and ask them why it is that they use the condom during the intercourse, and say that this is because every sexual partner they have could be an HIV carrier. I tell them they are somehow even safer if they know that the person they are sleeping with is HIV positive, which in turn
Natasa and Violeta -

should make them use full protection and take every precaution.

N: We should instigate a completely new educational process, starting with the dismantling of the existing one! There has to be a systematic approach to education which means that you accept that you cannot transform someone by simply making them undergo a simple training and assuming the job is done. Education is a process and it should be tackled as such. When people seem to change their attitudes after one training, we are very proud of such an achievement. But actually its much harder for people to make a true change in their attitudes rather than to learn superficially some new information or to become familiar with it. We tried to educate some health workers; they appeared to learn something and returned to their duties, but nothing changed in practice. Thats the problem, its pointless. Its an investment of time, effort and money but they dont use it. State institutions are very immune to change. When health staff return to their duties, its business as usual. V: When we are talking about education ... if that education is not supported outside of the learning context, then we havent achieved any results. If we want to change various attitudes, then there are some necessary conditions for that to happen, like at policy level and in the community. Education has to go hand in hand with the implementation of the new knowledge acquired. At the moment, education is organised for people and thats it. We dont care
25

what kind of change is going to come out of it. The passing on of knowledge like it was a parcel doesnt mean anything can be taken for granted. It has to be the first step leading to some change in attitudes and behaviours. Those changes have to be supported by the new knowledge.

1.2 AIDS epidemiology in Serbia

The statistical data about HIV infection

turbulent dynamics of the political and social changes in the state, first as an integral part reported in 1984 and 1985.73 The World Bank report on the state of HIV/ AIDS in the 7.5 million (data taken from the 2002 Serbian state census). With 1912 registered The number of the cases has been transmission vulnerability through homosexual intercourse was 26% of the 1720 cases year.76 In discussing officially registered since 1987. Western Balkan region from 2004 onwards, estimated the population of Serbia to be than 0.1.74 A homosexual mode of transmission was estimated in 30% of all cases.75 of groups in the Serbian society, MSM are considered a highly Sexual the of former Yugoslavia, and second, as an independent state. The official publisher Serbia in Belgrade. The first reports of HIV and AIDS in former Yugoslavia were of the epidemiological data is the Institute for Public Health of the Clinical Centre of

and AIDS in

Serbia have followed the

cases of HIV and 1244 cases of AIDS, this indicated an HIV/AIDS prevalence of lower registered in 2002, with 103 newly infected in that

stigmatised group, so the question of the accuracy of data involving this particular AIDS cases and 936 deaths attributed to the disease.78 The epidemiological situation of HIV group is questionable.77 At the end of 2008, the Institute for Public Health in Belgrade acknowledged that the number of HIV cases registered since 1985 was 2287 with 1432 and AIDS in Serbia in 2008 was

characterised as uncertain.79 The number of the cases of HIV and AIDS provided by the of people with HIV was 114, and the new number of AIDS cases 34; 25 people had
Godinho et al., p.118 ibid ibid ibid, pp. 118-9 ibid, pp.125-6 See http://www.aidsresurs.rs/epidemiologija/epidemiolo%C5%A1ka-situacija-hivaids-u-srbiji-za-2008 ibid

Institute of Public Health in Belgrade showed that, from 1985 to 2010, the number of died
73 74 75 76 77 78 79

people infected with HIV was 2554 and that 1554 people had been diagnosed with AIDS.80 In the period from January 2010 to November 2010, the newly registered number

80

See www.jazas.rs

26

from AIDS.81 In 1997, the HAART therapy protocol was introduced and funded by the and morbidity decreased as the number of the people on ARV therapy increased from 2003, to 790 by the end of 2009.82 demographics in Serbia.83 330 in state through the policy Therapy for All. In the years from 2003 to 2009, mortality

2012 was 7,120,666. The decrease of 377,335 in the number of citizens during the period of the last 10 years (from 2002 to 2012) is showing negative population and AIDS cases in HIV infection and AIDS are far from ending. 2011, these statistics bear witness to fact that the persistent and increasing epidemics of The portal www.aidsresurs.rs has provided the data from the Institute of

the census of 2011, published on January 7th 2012, provided an insight into the new The headcount of citizens in Serbia at the beginning of

The most recent census in Serbia was taken in October 2011. The initial data from

growth in Serbia. Taken together with the increasing numbers of HIV infected people

Public Health in Belgrade claiming that the number of cases between 1985 and the 20th November 2011 was 2692 people infected with HIV, and 1585 people who had developed AIDS, with 1100 related deaths and 82 from diseases or states non-related to AIDS).84 cases was 44, with 22 people having died of AIDS.85 women is reported to be In the period between January 2011 and November 2011, the newly

people who had died from AIDS (1018 from AIDS-

registered number of people with HIV infection was 96, and newly diagnosed AIDS 83:13, which is more than 6 times the number of men than women; 86% are aged

through unprotected sexual intercourse, 46 were MSM. The ratio between men and

Of the 76 people infected

between 20-49 years old, with 33% aged between 20-29 years old. Up to 40 % of the significant about these data is the fact that every third person among the newly infected with HIV is 3500. These results are very worrying because, even though the
ibid See www.jazas.org See www.media.popis2011.rs See www.aidsresurs.rs

number of MSM, is showing that the epidemic continues to spread. What was most terminal stage of AIDS (= 32 people; i.e. 33%).87 The estimated number of the people infected found out about his or her status when s/he was already in the state has provided the Therapy for
81 82 83 84

newly infected are from Belgrade, 29% from the province of Vojvodina and one third is from the Central Serbia region.86 The number of men, and consequently the

85 86 87

ibid ibid ibid

27

All programme and free testing in around 22 cities in Serbia, the data show the at the 2nd Serbian PLHIV Conference that took place in Belgrade from April 19th -21st

continuation of the spread of HIV and AIDS, with a highly unstable epidemiological prognosis.88 The process of the decentralisation of AIDS treatment to another three therapies for PLHIV was publicly recognized as acute.89 The problem of such regular,

clinical centres, in Novi Sad, Ni and Kragujevac was instigated in 2009. Nevertheless, 2012, the problems that are impeding the regular, uninterrupted provision of ARV that I did for the purpose of this thesis. One of the HIV positive men

uninterrupted provision of ARVs and screening tests was evident in several of the interviews Dimitrije - confirmed:

D: We have people who are living with HIV who have not been informed at all about ARV therapy, and then theres the lack of availability of medicines, of
Thus, the pharmaceuticalization of PLHIV is heavily influenced by the unstable In seeking to understand the lives of HIV positive gay men, and consequently closely and to map the present conditions in Serbia through

screening tests, of qualified people, too.

social and economic conditions, and is reflected in the serious threat to PLHIV and to their ongoing ability to manage their own lives. examine their body politics in the organisation of everyday life, it has only been possible to interdisciplinary approach. Drawing knowledge from the medical field, gender an interrelations, is the only possible way to comprehend and to estimate the complex

studies, anthropology, social science, politics and philosophy in their highly woven

web of discourses around HIV positive gay men in Serbia. Indeed, if we consider the is the only one possible. such an educational approach: Central to these prevention strategies is an articulation and the social reorganization of selective segments of a larger population.90
88 89 90

two main questions of the AIDS discourse: 1/ the prevention of HIV/AIDS and 2/ the of medical knowledge with non-medical theories and techniques (including social management of life with HIV/AIDS, then an interdisciplinary method of examination Biehl discusses the problem of prevention and points out

anthropology, behaviour psychology, pragmatic philosophy, and community activism)

ibid See www.unijaplhiv.rs Biehl, 2009, p.160

28

narrow and statistical approach and with the most basic mistake made in such addressed fully in the chapter II.

approaches; i.e. that the gay community is defined as a unified one. This matter is

considered, even in medical and social studies. Any investigation into the gay community and HIV/AIDS has thus been problematic as it was usually examined through a

politics of HIV positive gay men. Usually, HIV positive gay men have not been specifically

One such selective segment of Serbian society is the gay community and the body

1.3 Biomedical discourse

The biomedical procedures currently undertaken

define the subjectivity of the patients. The specificity of the HIV/AIDS discourse is itself, but also offered new insights into the sexuality, class distinction,

very much evident through the biomedical interventions into the subjectivities of HIV positive gay men. It has not only opened completely new perspectives onto the disease life-

interventions performed through medical, pharmaceutical and social institutions

as a unique set of tests and

management, and perspectives of PLHIV. From the emergence of the transmission of and gender of the carriers is further complicating the precariousness of life in such knowledge rejection and stigmatisation of him/her. has enhanced a mechanical response by the institutions Perversely, improved numerous procedures from the fields of medicine and pharmaceuticals are structuring the body politics of HIV carriers. Nevertheless, taking into account sexuality, class, race the virus to the very last effort to prolong the life of those infected with the virus,

body politics. The responses of those within the social environment is rooted in the predominant fear of the other (the virus, sexuality, class, race, etc.) and mostly results in the biomedical toward potential carriers of HIV. The staff involved in such procedures, such as

medical personnel, forget the social aspect, for PLHIV and AIDS, of how their lifemanagement is defined through the health discourse. kind of contemporary view of citizenship.91 biomedical procedures are structuring the identity of the AIDS patients through some of biotechnology for the people has dramatically improved the quality of life of The connection between the development of society and the development in Biehl shows that: The result- a policy

the patients covered.92 In discussing the process of pharmaceuticalization of public health medicines, Biehl actually points to a new form of governmentality. In Serbia, this shift occurred in
91 92

or the shifting towards prevention and care and the broadening of access to
Biehl, 2009, p.49 ibid, p.8

29

1997, when all HIV positive or AIDS patients, when and if supervised by physicians, everywhere in the world where it has been implemented, the policy of Therapy for All has been relieving the class inequality between citizens in this case, in Serbia. years have shown big problems with the continuity the state medical institutions and neo-liberal pharmaceutical policy, the last couple of to make their journey through the difficulty of forced coming-out to the physicians, of Therapy for All process. Unfortunately, as the result of economic crisis, the inadequacy and inefficiency of Nevertheless, currently, access to therapy is possible only through this complex web medical staff, family, and colleagues. The psychotherapists included in my interviews acknowledged this in the following way: Violeta and Natasa of procedures. For HIV positive gay men in Serbia, such biomedicalisation forces them acquired free access to therapy (if they needed it) provided by the state. As

Z: What are the problems that you have heard about from HIV positive gay men? V: There a lot of stigmatisation from the professionals working with gay men first of all from general practitioners. When you are talking with GPs, it is terrible how they approach these patients. They are not educated and yet gay patients have to reveal their sexual orientation to them. Z: You mean a forced coming- out? V: Exactly. N: Its an enormous stress. V: It is stigmatising. The doctors are by and large uneducated. In general, they are completely ignorant about gay sexuality. Gay people generally have no one to talk to, and a lot of people tell me that they would prefer to talk with another gay person who has HIV and not with the doctor, because the doctor
It is not infrequent that patients have been treated for diseases that present in

doesnt understand it.

and recognized the underlying cause of the symptoms. The confessions of doctors, their share of the

whether they are in primary health care or AIDS departments in Clinical Centres, provide responsibility for the implementation of the politics of mimicry toward society. Driven by evidence that many are in the favour of making a misleading and inaccurate

a similar way to AIDS before anyone from the medical staff reacted appropriately

diagnosis. This material is presented in the interviews chapter. Patients too must bear

30

the fear of the forced coming-out, stigmatisation based on

undetectability to the system. In this way, tragically, they

silencing and stigmatisation. The increased number of patients in the late stages of

AIDS makes clear the danger in such a stance. As one of the interviewees confessed, immunodeficiency syndrome. As Biehl points out: In noticing and documenting this micro-politics tension between health as a public and private good.93 Especially evident in the of survival, ethnography illuminates the paths through which people treated as patients suffering from various infectious diseases lumped into the term (the account of which comes later in the thesis), HIV positive gay men are very often

their sexuality, patients try to disguise themselves, relying on

and

the consequent discrimination

collude in their own

and

the

micro-politics of health in Serbia amongst HIV positive gay men is the notion of the claim virus as the disappearance of the virus, resulting from various religious rituals or changes in life-style that they had undertaken. This is how they build a kind of a social milieu creates an status, is widely illusory identity. A similar pattern can be traced in the among the gay sexual AIDS- related, minority, resulting in the so-called Such kind of politics of resistance and the seeming self-defence against an invasive wasting after the fist detection of the virus, but explain any subsequent undetectability of the

to be a healthy person when the virus is undetectable. They may have used ARV or not

become the physicians of themselves and of their immediate worlds amid the growing

politics of resistance to the predominant stigmatization of PLHIV in the Serbian society. abuse of steroids that happened and happens when gay men are trying to hide their HIV status, although it is evident through the accepted syndrome.94 The body politics of HIV positive gay men, organised through For instance, the barebacking subpopulation is just one among formation of sub-populations of HIV positive persons, whose experience should be

highly valued in any kind of social response and policy aimed at combatting AIDS.95 scene itself like the case of the porn actor functioning as a promoter of safer sex. The results of this confusion are moral panic, the stigmatisation of homosexuality and further silencing of gay people, even in the PLHIV community. men. Sometimes these subpopulations cause confusion within society and the gay HIV positive gay

sero-

the ARV procedures; and 4. the inclusion of the HIV positive people in the social structure men or
93 94

if questions pertaining to the following are to be addressed further: 1. national strategies against HIV/AIDS; 2. life-management of the carriers of HIV; 3. the development of of society. Thus far, any opening up of matters regarding PLHIV, HIV positive gay
Biehl, 2009, p.49 Halkitis, 2000, p.147; Alvarez, 2008, p.145

Understanding the biomedical discourse in HIV/AIDS is of the highest importance

95

Whitacre, 2011

31

the biomedicalisation of their health is making slow progress but is driving an inevitable increase in understanding of the HIV/AIDS dynamics in Serbian society. A valuable

example is provided by Marsha Rosengarthen in presenting how ARV therapy and the companies could structure the identity of young HIV positive gay men in the UK through practices or issues addressing HIV/AIDS in Serbian society (or in any society) could have be understood, in advance of its damaging effects taking hold, as the marker of and not anthropological sense) as a lobbying tactic, to challenge homophobia and to gain pharmaceutical HIV positive gay design of treatments.97 Some concerns about the behavioural men arises from the development of specific prophylaxis, where the impact of homophobia. Rosengarthen continues: Using language (in the more limited linguistic

care in the use of language.96 The silencing of the gay sexual minority, gay sexual

implementation of the improved flow of market information from pharmaceutical

practices of result in

treatments, like PEP post-exposure message taken by some may become changes to

political support for treatments may be regarded as different from intervening in the

biomedical and pharmaceutical developments may be able to tackle, post-hoc, unsafe sex practices.98 This also shows how the pharmaceuticalization of public health could if I am on the ARV then I could do whatever I want. Several interviewees gave an indication of their grasp that it may have such an effect on sexual behaviour: Violeta

the body politics of potential carriers of the virus. The basic

V: I think...almost at the end of my working experience in the Students Clinic, more and more gay people have come for counselling and throughout the discussions I actually came to realise thathow...actually they know each other. This one today knows that one from yesterday, and they all behave irresponsibly, riskily, and that risk is completely at odds with their knowledge and understanding of the situation! Even if they know someone is living with HIV, they still behave recklessly; they have unprotected sexual intercourse on the premise if the virus is undetectable, then I cant transmit it. This is not situation only with gay people, but in general. Z: Is this a new phase in the AIDS epidemic? V: The advancements in treatment have brought this phenomenon to light. something bad happens whilst on the treatment, so what? An inadequate If

96 97 98

Rosengarthen, 2009, p.36 ibid ibid, pp.60-61

32

understanding of the advances in therapy says the virus is undetectable in the blood stream, so people think this is awesome. However, the advancement in treatment has not been accompanied by an advancement in education, nor in a full understanding of the whole problem. The lack of the self esteem life is different for HIV positive gay peoplemore stressful; there are more frustrations, and different mechanisms of defence.
It remains the task of some future research projects focusing on gay people to

for instance, into wider educational undertakings that are led by the educational sexual and reproductive health education in schools. Progressive

authorities and some religious authorities because it is perceived that it could biomedical

investigate the nexus between risky behaviour and advancement in ARV. In Serbian educational discourse, it is considered dangerous to introduce things such as PEP,

encourage promiscuity among young people. Similar comments are made with regards to advancements are dismissed with the same short shrift as the introduction of education healthy behaviour. Information about PEP (post-exposure prophylaxis) is supposed to be presented to potential carriers only, and only in public health institutions, most blatantly. The inevitability regulation regarding The hypocrisy of state regulation of information about HIV/AIDS of the biogovernmentality through a

such as the Clinic for Tropical and Infectious Diseases of the Clinical Centre in Belgrade. information of biomedical origin is converted into an edict of non-accessibility to its is here exposed simple

about the sexual diversity in schools. Both are considered as the promotion of non-

users. It can be argued that this signals the beginning of certain kind of censorship of in its potential for prevention. Paradoxically this pattern of silencing is very present as an inevitable part of education about HIV/AIDS in Serbia. The non-existence of biomedical knowledge that will or will not be available to the people of Serbia. It is surely scientific knowledge about HIV/AIDS and unsafe sexual practices is being welcomed

the example of negative biogovernmentality. It is unclear how the connection of real,

genuine sexual education in schools is its biggest result and inevitably, is the cause existence of homosexuality, are of the highest importance if the processes of silencing in the biomedical, educational and social communication are to be broken. in Serbia, are devastating. This is the reason why HIV/AIDS issues, including the

of STDs. The official and un-official data about the spread of STDs, including HIV/AIDS

of the catastrophic situation in reproductive health among youth and the rapid spread

33

1.4 Educational discourse

gay sexuality in HIV/AIDS discourse.

Two crucial attributes are the markers of education about HIV/AIDS in Serbia: the first is the discrimination and stigmatisation of PLHIV; and the second is the silencing of prevention in Serbia, The Youth of JAZAS99, published its quarterly magazine called In October 2011, the most well-established NGO working in the field of HIV/AIDS the shift from prevention of infection, as the main topic of such education, towards

Kontakt. In the preface of the magazine, celebrating 30 years of fight against

HIV/AIDS in Serbia, its editor-in-chief informed readers thus: The situation (concerning patients newly infected with HIV and AIDS is decreasing. Prevention programs are screening for HIV infection of people on ARV. Nevertheless, PLHIV are empowered is not clear from where an showing productive results. Therapy is more accessible. AIDS is no more a taboo.100 about their rights and they have Conference.102 It The editor continues to present the situation vis a vis HIV/AIDS in Serbia as good, The Declaration of PLHIV as an important output from the first, annual PLHIV HIV/AIDS) is not the same as it was in 1981. It is better because the number of

resulting from ongoing international donations.101 For her, the biggest problem is the editor- in-chief of an educational

magazine about HIV/AIDS draws such misleading information about the situation of in Serbia year after year, or the 33% of the infected identified in the last stage of

HIV/AIDS worldwide, and particularly in Serbia. Maybe the improvement that she state institutions? Any consideration of the official statistics, as well as the stories

AIDS in 2011, or the stigmatisation of gay people in the health care sector and other of PLHIV, especially HIV positive gay men and last but not least, the increasing Kontakt editorial) and the case of the

perceives lies in the small number of people who test themselves for HIV/AIDS annually

number of HIV cases in everyday life, testify to opposite of good. This example (the 2nd Serbian PLHIV Conferences official material demonstrate a pattern of disillusionment globally and in Serbia. Over the last two years, the biggest increase in HIV/AIDS

with the present state and overall incapability to deal with the problem of HIV/AIDS with cases is to be seen in the undifferentiated group labelled MSM. Thus far, any strategy
99

any integrity or genuine sense of purpose. Whether intentional or unwitting, such that hypocritically neglects gay sexuality could not possibly, without the

disillusionment is the result of the misjudgement of the present state of HIV/AIDS,

discrimination and
100

JAZAS -The Yugoslav Association for Fighting against AIDS/SIDA-e Mihajlovi, 2011, p.2 101 ibid

102

ibid

34

stigmatisation, produce results that would assist HIV positive gay men in Serbia to develop better life management skills and abilities.

contemporary Serbian society than the example of the official material from the 2nd Serbian PLHIV Conference.103 The production of the material was funded by two material cannot be taken to represent the views of the EU. The authors of the University of Belgrade; representatives of NGOs incorporated in the Union of the introduce and to develop successful institutions, the European Union and Philanthropy a charitable fund of the Serbian Orthodox Church. At the beginning of the booklet, a warning was printed: that the

There is no better example as to how educational discourse operates in

material came from the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy of the Republic of Serbia; the Serbian PLHIV (USOP); members of the City Council of Belgrade and the School of Serbia?, the authors try to against discrimination PLHIV. Under the title How to fight discrimination of people living with HIV/AIDS in and stigmatisation. The material, published bilingually in strategies

Director of the Centre for HIV/AIDS in the Clinic of Infective and Tropical Diseases of the Clinical Centre of Serbia in Belgrade; an associate of the School of Law of the Union,

Theology of the University of Belgrade; as well as a wide range of professionals and Serbian and English amounting to preface, no mention stigmatisation for

98 pages, gives guidelines as to how and what should be implemented in the institutional and everyday life practices regarding the problems that PLHIV face every day. Even in the everybody included in the group. In addressing the present authors, the group they call PLHIV seems to be unified with an equal level of Serbia is bad, due to poor average, the social and consideration of the discrimination based on sexuality experienced by PLHIV. For the is made of gay sexuality or gay sexual practices, or even

situation for PLHIV in Serbia, the authors confirm: On economic status of people living with HIV/AIDS in discrimination.104 sexuality to

education, unemployment, poverty, unsolved basic life issues, as well as those arising as a result of the neuro- psychiatric complications of the disease, stigmatisation and For the authors, in Serbia, stigmatisation on the grounds of

sexuality does not exist. The process of silencing diverse sexualities other than the heterosexual, or, in the rare mention afforded to gay sexuality, reducing all gay gay mens sexuality and gay subcultures, arguing how it results in a narrowing of educational procedures and materials.105 Such a process of narrowing might originate from the NGOs fear of being accused of the promotion of
103 104 105

normative. Watney has discussed questions of the disregard shown to differences in

anal intercourse, makes the content of educational materials narrowly

Vukainovi et al., 2012 ibid, 2012, p.9 Watney, 2000, pp. 66-67

35

homosexuality

traditionalised heterosexual social milieu such as is Serbian society. However, the matter disregarding subpopulations as an integral part of the dynamics of social groups,

policy makers should avoid the false representation of minority groups. The processes men are of the highest importance for adequate social policy toward minorities and of the inclusion of gay people in the social response to HIV/AIDS. Vladimir HIV/AIDS to be formed. Vladimir, one of the interviewees, mentioned the importance through which to bring about the inclusion and participation of HIV positive gay

of recognition of differences in the gay community should be a basic one particularly in

addressing current socio-political praxis with social communication at its root.106 In

among

youth

especially

in a conservative,

nationalistic,

re-

V: One has to engage in every initiative, combined or separate ones, that promote rights and education, whether about homosexuality itself or about HIV positive status, and it is very important to point out the double or multiple stigmatisation. Every topic should be discussed and conclusions reached as to every person that could be considered to be vulnerable, where the distinction is only the context in which it should be examined. At the root of it, we have
Natasa, one of the psychotherapists interviewed, also refers to inclusion as a

a society which comprises interwoven minorities.

crucial aspect of policy, education and the feeling of belonging to the community. Natasa

N: Any approach should involve gay people themselves, whether living with HIV or not, whether its discrimination, therapy, access to information or
Serbia is a country without adequate sexual education in its educational or discussion, with or between students or pupils. Even when

prevention in general thats under consideration...

system; more accurately, such education is present in total on approximately two involvement

pages, under the subject heading, Biology, in the curriculum for the 8th grade, for ages educational practices are interactive and include the students, mention of the differing pregnancies; of abortions;
Milievi, 2011, p.182

14-15. If or when the subject is raised, it is usually taught without any personal

sexualities is commonly absent. The increased prevalence of all of the STDs; of teenage

106

36

of cervical carcinoma in Serbia, reflects the state of emergency that has been arrived at with regards to sexual education in Serbian schools. about HIV/AIDS and other STDs were guided by the same ideological stance The best example of this is the Manual for the prevention of AIDS and STDs The continuing professional development and education of teachers in schools

without any inclusion of information about the differing sexualities and sexual identities. published in 2004 by the Committee against AIDS of the Republic of Serbia.107 mention of any kind of gender differences, sexualities or minority gender subjectivity in particular. Thus, the neglect of sexuality in the family, apparent in the silence social concept accepted by the majority toward minorities, with the heteronormative people with little or sexuality as a field as a homogenous group, no control over characteristics paradigm does one permanently consisting of small numbers that not define tend them to as about sex issues in general, between children and parents, continues in the schools. The creation of educational materials takes, as its foundational stance, the wider might promote sex in general and (unsafe, gay, promiscuous, etc.) sexual practices Heteronormative constructions rule in such educational training, amid a fear that

as the ultimate choice. As Didi Herman explains, such tendencies mean that: as minority-sexual orientation. Within liberal approaches to minority, the naturalness, questioned. Furthermore, the minority

applied to sexuality, the minority paradigm has constructed lesbians and gay men inevitability (for the majority), and (implied) superiority of heterosexuality are not veins of the majority of state institutions, NGOs, the media and of the community of consider of of

PLHIV. The body politics of HIV positive gay men and the gay sexual

minority, in general, are not recognised as an integral part of their subjectivities.

is still a taboo in Serbian society, and consequently such an attitude runs in the

of regulation and, hence, social construction.108 Gay sexuality

107 108

Duji et al, 2004 Herman, 1996, p.51

37

Chapter II

2.1 Gay sexual minority & homophobia in Serbia rights, policies, social life

In this chapter I will explore the perception of gay minority in Serbia, as well as the minority and related stigmatisation. Mostly seen as the menace from the West, homosexuality is perceived as a fashionable life style, the unbearable notion of sexuality. Jeffrey Weeks emphasises that the social actually structures the deviance construction acceptable.109 Nevertheless, the individual of the social and identity cannot conform to entire society. Every society has its own subtle mechanisms of silencing the gay the the anal carnality structured through notorious gay lobbys activities threatening the gay communitys response to the dominant politics failure to recognize gay sexual

through the recognition of homosexuality and the regulatory mechanisms of what is vital to keep in mind when exploring homosexuality, which has always been defined and acts in the public, the media and everyday life discrimination and stigmatisation response to that.111 In Serbia, such a tendency is operating through fascistic rhetoric in our culture as the deviant form, that what matters is not the inherent nature of the its categorisation.110 Weeks argues that: ...it is

of gay people. On the individual level, the results of such constructions are specific

act but the social construction of meanings around that activity, and the individual

identities of gay people defined through a variety of the body politics of mimicry,

ranging from the predominant masculinisation of the bodies to the construction of The HIV/AIDS discourse brings to the fore the difference that the society cannot tolerate

the good homosexual or the HIV/AIDS mimicry which will be addressed later in

the text. The recognition of gay sexual minority in Serbia plays an important role in

the processes of recognition of diversity among the members of the Serbian society. the gay sexuality. Therefore, any attempt to break the silence surrounding the social milieu. In former Yugoslavia, homosexual acts between men were punishable before gay issues is an important step towards the acknowledgement of differences in the 1977, even though there were no records of any convictions in Serbia in the late 70s and
109 110 111 112 113

80s.112 In Serbia, homosexuality was decriminalised in 1994.113 The first gay rights
See Jeffrey Weeks The Construction of Homosexuality in Seidmans Queer Theory/Sociology, 1996, p.42 ibid, p.59 ibid, p.59 Tatchell, 1992, p.136 Godinho et al, 2005, p.125

38

organisation in Serbia, Arcadia, based in Belgrade, was denied the right to enter into

the register of organisations by the state in 1991 on grounds that they were denied the right to assembly.114 Since then, there have been several attempts to address the organising the LGBT Parade in Belgrade ended in violence and clashes with the

issues of inequality of gay sexual minority and other sexual minorities mostly during organisation of the Gay Parade in 2001, 2009, 2010, and in 2011. All of the attempts of leading to increased stigmatisation of gay people in the public discourse.115 The to become the avatars against have not been

state has showed its incapability to deal with the issues, which finally resulted in banning the most recent attempt at organising the 2011 Parade. Weak political establishment and ambivalent statements of politicians regarding the LGBT rights served as the perfect grounds for radical groups sexual difference. The Nevertheless, political structures and the majority of population social tensions during the organization of Pride Parade,

nationalists and fascists, resulting in violence and bigotry against the participants,

responsive to such issues. The influence of homophobia, the discrimination, and the which results

stigmatisation of gay people are still most prominent in dealing with the issues of gay indeterminate response by the government and the officials. The Pride Parades are the sexual minority in Serbia. This is particularly evident in the states response to the rising in

people in the public discourse and address them to the political establishment.

LGBT NGOs constantly raise the issues of equality of LGBT

boiling points when the processes of intolerance outburst to the surface of the public organisations (mostly different every year) to fulfil their task to organize the Parade regardless of the consequences. Such tendencies are perceived in the gay scene as leaders and activists. There is a lack of the grass-root connections among the LGBT Violeta and Natasa events. The activists interviewed for this thesis also tackled the issue: examples of animosity between different NGOs and political correctness of some of its sphere. The intense atmosphere increases the nervous insistence of various LGBT

people and what many people see as the biggest problem in the organisation of such

V: The abuse of the Pride Parade, too. I think there are lots of wrongdoings there of a technical kind... N: Any action should be inclusionary of the community that is affected, all of the subcultures, not just some individuals. The people who are gay and HIV

Tatchell, 1992, p. 137 See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OVIQqw68d_s; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tjDPGkv1R6E&feature=related

114 115

39

positive could perceive it more tragically because of the stigmatisation

Vladimir

against them, and even take it more personally within their community.

V: We organized the Pride Parade in 2000 and we were a bit naive since there was no crucial change in the society and the institutions were not
Comparing the experience of Pride Parades in 2000 and 2009, Vladimir concludes

ready to support such an event.

Vladimir

how important it is to create an atmosphere of inclusion of different people in such organisations.

V: There are lots of things to do. We even had one successful Pride, which is not enough. I mean, how important is the Pride? In my opinion it is not of crucial importance, it is much better to work in the community on creating the cohesion within it, on educating others by raising the level of awareness in the community and maybe...you cannot explain everything because the history of my society does not have any connection with the LGBT history...maybe find some new model which is going to work here. Nevertheless, the Constitution provides the freedom of association in the
Activists from Serbia have different ideas about how to approach the majority

public and I will always support it.

interview with the activist Dimitrije who is an HIV positive gay man and tries to give his full support to the recognition of the LGBT rights. Dimitrije

with the messages of sexual differences. The recent one was addressed in an

D: We suggested to other NGOs and the Ministry of Minority Rights to organize the Cardboard Cut-Out Parade. We would make several LGBT puppets, take them to public squares, and have some bags that people could hit and relieve the stress. This is something that cannot be banned; it doesnt involve risk and is in accordance with the safety standards. We dont need the police, it is not expensive, and the puppets would carry certain messages about gay people and against stereotyping. It would be a very convenient
40

way to see whether the puppets could go through with what the gay people couldnt. We could also have two umbrellas which you could open if you didnt want to look at the puppets. There are some ways to establish the communication with the people that you cannot communicate with. It is all the matter of expressing your attitudes toward the people and their
Nevertheless, these attempts raise very important questions regarding equality

understanding of things.

and remind the organisations not to underestimate the influence of experience in organising big LGBT events. Some of the NGOs dealing with the promotion of the human Info Centre, Q-Club, The Centre for Queer Studies, Labris, and SPY (Safe Pulse of the Youth). The interrelations between these organisations surpass the scope of this issues, work in highly negative social surroundings and weak connections empowered by daily political animosity. Rayside pointed to the disadvantages related to disadvantage in entering mainstream political rights of LGBT people are Gayten-LGBT, Queeria, Gej-Strejt Alijansa, AS, Gay & Lesbian

thesis, but can be defined through the processes of brave intensions to address the LGBT orientation issues are often at a The disconnection organisations raising social movements: Activist organisations that make up sexual

processes of most interest groups, and they often form part of a social movement that is itself divided over how such engagement should be organized, and to what ends.116 for all NGOs dealing with the LGBT issues. The processes of discrimination against gay from the HIV/AIDS discourse, the body image, the body politic or from the ethnic and recognition on foundations of for the politics of equality.

sexual minority among gay people are not so uncommon, whether they are resulting origin. To build the atmosphere of equality discrimination of any kind is not the desired direction Some LGBT organisations in Serbia recognize this instability and try to connect with

with a common gay person is a very subtle and demanding matter

the people in the field. The constant return to the issues of sexuality as one of the cornerstones of the social integration is an inevitable path towards the politics of notion of the other as the disturbing factor of the social coherence, should be of the other. The gay sexuality plays the core role in these attempts. The social communication and the communication among
116

understanding and equality, and consequently, towards a better future of the LGBT subjugated by educational discourses built on practical issues relating to the notion incomplete if sexuality is not implemented. The results of silencing the gay
Rayside, 1998, p.3

community in Serbia. The dictatorship of heterosexual identity, forced through the gay sexual minority itself are

sexuality are very disappointing, especially in the field of HIV/AIDS education and the

41

PLHIV body politics. Nevertheless, gay sexual minority and individuals in Serbia have some other cohesion factors. The cyberspace culture has brought a completely new the people. The anonymity and safety of the cyberspace reflect the insistence of community. For gay youth these sites

area of communication and has established itself as a predominant connection between the predominant politics of mimicry among gay men in Serbia. Social networks such as GaySerbia.com or GayRomeo.com/Serbia are generally the first sites of introduction to and research of sexual practices in gay

established the path of social communication, whether based on sexual preferences or

represent the easiest way to meet other gay people, transfer the sexual drive from private disguised or closeted gay men and bisexuals which allow them to open up towards the the imperative of cyber social networking, defined through the alienation in the real life in Serbia and worldwide. The cyber wars between different groups are the most common contents of social networks and This is predominantly evident groups remain in the safety zone of the cyberspace and exhibit Serbian experience the is no communication is very much possible in the cyber space. It is unnecessary to stress issues of gay pornography in connection with the cyber freedom. The to public and find a sexual partner. These sites are also the common grounds for

gay part of their own identity. What reality cannot provide in terms of freedom of and sexual acceleration in the cyber space, reflects the contemporary social dynamics during organisation of a Pride Parade when vitriol hardly exception.

opposite groups transfer their verbal wars into cyberspace. In that manner those imaginable in real-life situations. Sometimes the hostilities against sexual minorities are easily practiced in the streets of Belgrade whenever the LGBT community tries to hold a Pride Parade.117 The preparations for the September continue.

2012 Pride Parade were announced by its organizers in May 2012,118 and the previously Serbia occur in parties and gay clubs mostly based in Belgrade and Novi Sad. The originates not only from the predominant homophobia of the majority in the Serbian society, but also from dynamics and communication among the gay sexual minority. the gay subjects, and some gay sexual minority, represent the
117See

noted manners of social communication among different social groups are expected to Alternative ways of communication and encounters within the gay community in

places of social and sexual communication like gay clubs or gay-friendly cafes are mostly placed in bigger cities like Belgrade, Novi Sad, Subotica or Nis, which provide anonymity because of their size. The fear of stigmatisation among HIV positive gay men activists intention of unifying the members of gay

The issue of unification of the predominant attitude of bigotry and negligence against
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tjDPGkv1R6E

118

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6WShaPhV78&feature=related

42

basis of the critique of the role of the good homosexual in

wants as long as he stays indoors (of his home, mind, practice) and is accepted by the society as long as his sexuality remains silenced. For some gay activists, the good homosexual is a cowardly closeted gay man who cannot participate in the evident in rare gay publications such as

heterosexual majority the good homosexual is the one who can do whatever he

Serbia.119 For the

liberated intentions of the LGBT people in the Serbian society and refuses to identify himself with a variety of pre-given patterns of speech, acts or the body politics. This is

Optimist magazine.120 While one define the good homosexual as the acceptable one, others try to bash this concept altogether. Both approaches show the same pattern of structuring gay subjectivity, and that is a fascistic intention to reject differences not only had identified the prefabricated clone model of the gay identity without any notion of in the society but also in the context of gay sexual minority, and incorporate them in

differences. Commenting on the structure of language in his Lesson, Roland Barthes fascism as the intention of forcing to say.121 The forcing to act is of the same recognition, inclusionary practices and in the end, the politics of equality. When manner. Such tendencies could undermine the politics of differences as well as against. In case of the HIV positive gay men in Serbia, such attitudes could push them Serbian society as well as the of different subcultures heterosexual majority. The issues of

building the society of equality, we cannot follow the very pattern we are trying to fight further into positions of mimicry and resistance. That is why it is very important to democracy, representations people need honest and critical approach, as well as a productive public debate. the right of gay to assembly and freedom of speech. The media are and unification among LGBT inclusion, build constant dialogue between different LGBT organisations and gay members of the

prominent entrepreneurs of such demands and policies. The analysis of the media celebrities, because they aim minoritys rights. Such debates are mostly vacuous in attempting to raise the issues sexuality and gay to entertain the audience with inadequate

debates would show the predominant pattern of dealing with the issues of gay sexual hypocritical stances or vacuous spectacle.122 The print media are no exception. The NSPM (New Serbian Political Thought),
Skrozza, 2009, pp. 15-17; Optimist, 2011, p. 44 http://en.calameo.com/read/00076885745adf9d8550f Barthes, 1977, p.16

sexual minorities and their constitutional rights as equal members of a society and the

Very often there is confusion between basic human rights the recognition of most

established magazines and weakly press (on-line or print), such as Vreme, Peanik,
119 120 121

minority with the participants chosen from the group of and

122

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=94bf9MQbylA

43

Peat, Geopolitika, try to present pro and contra arguments about different issues dealing fair addressing of the issues regarding gay participate in should be something disgusting and thus unnecessary in the social milieu. In the homosexual, as something acceptable at the verge of the gay sexuality, is widely the public debate about gay sexual minority. the construction of the deviance, too.123 The role of the good with gay sexual minority and its rights. Unfortunately, such attempts rarely result in to stereotypical representations and embed the predominant attitude that gay

context of the work of Jeffrey Weeks, it could be noted that the social could

sexuality and gay minority and often lead

construction of the media and the hypocritical stances of the participants in the

2.2 Anthropology of everyday life and the bod y politics of HIV positive gay men in Serbia
concept of body beautiful of the gay

Why does an HIV positive gay man consider himself healthy if the virus is

undetectable after the first inception of the virus? Why is the culture of barebacking mimicry leading toward homophobic society? What is the meaning of HIV in the machines are broken for a year or more? Are we is men? Is the desire to be sexually attractive trapped in the meanings of stronger than the life management of the carriers of HIV? Why are so many cases of AIDS representations before we consider the possible chances of life management? These issues reflect problems of everyday life management of HIV positive gay men. To raise such issues in the Serbian society hypocritical beginning, that is, with the question what is the body politics anyway? stance toward gay sexuality. Nevertheless, we should start at the the first step toward breaking its spreading among gay population? Why is the masculinisation of the body politics of

diagnosed in the last stadium of the illness? What should we do if the viral load screening

politic is constituted by a creative act, by a work of art or artifice, that uses the human politics of HIV positive gay men in
123 124

institutions where the body politics of the HIV positive gay men and the biomedicalization are overlapping. One
See Weeks in Seidman, 1996, p.42 Gatens, 1996, p.21

or trying to influence the State institutions or the actions related to gay rights in the society is also the body politics. The life management is also integral part of the body Serbia. This is particularly evident in state

body as its image, model or metaphor.124 The use of the body in expressing the attitudes

Moira Gatens defines body politics in the following manner: The body

44

of such overlaps is quite evident in interview with Bojan, a 29-year-old professional photographer who has recently found out that he is HIV positive. Bojan

Z: You said that you have recently found out about your HIV status. Could you tell me something about your experience with stigmatisation, is it because you are gay or HIV positive? Have you noticed that you have been stigmatized somewhere in institutions, gay clubs, work, or lets say in your everyday life experience? B: I havent felt it because I dont talk about it. I simply dont. The treatment at the Clinical Centre in Belgrade is nonsensical, stay in line, come in, come out and thats it. Z: You mean at the Clinic for Infectious and Tropical Diseases of the Clinical Centre in Belgrade? B: Yes. The people are just treated mechanically...it should be more personal, there should be more stories and talks...I need some explanations by the doctors about what are the consequences of the disease. I would like people to talk with me when Im there. Not do it like this, mechanically. What are the consequences, what does it lead to or...? I found out everything on my own. Z: You mean you need more than just only medical procedures, but more talk with the people? B: Yes. Not like- lets do some tests and thats it. I have the impression that our health system is deprived, with no funding. You can find everything on the Internet, but it would be of better for me to talk with other HIV positive gay people. The specialists dont talk to me, everythings done in 3 minutes
In Bojans case, the overlap between the institutional neglect and personal

and thats it.

identification as an HIV positive gay man that arises from biomedical procedures of testing with his expectation to be treated with proper care as an HIV/AIDS patient. is not in line For Vladimir, a 29-year-old activist from Belgrade, different body politics reflects

mimicry through his silence about his HIV status is very much evident. His

attitudes toward specific life situations. He does not have the notion of the healthy people HIV/AIDS patient when the virus is undetectable, but he confesses that different

45

have different attitudes toward the virus and the illness and, consequently, behave accordingly. Vladimir

Z: What do you think of an HIV positive gay man who doesnt have detectable HIV in the blood and considers himself to be healthy? Is this a dangerous position? V: Are they dangerous? Of course, because they could transmit the virus. Z: Do you have such examples in your work? V: The people on ARV? Z: Yes. V: No, I havent. There are lots of people who have positive results, they are in good condition, but I havent met those who said they were not ill. Different people have different attitudes toward life and if they feel good it is fine for them. Z: What about the culture of barebacking? V: I find it pretty scary, but I can understand why people want to have bareback sex. Z: Why? V: It is a matter of taste.

practices are acknowledged in their body politics, particularly in the context of gay sexuality.

Vladimir also witnesses how differently people react when different sexual

V: We start with the premise that everyone is heterosexual. Z: That gay intercourse is always an anal one? V: That heterosexual intercourse is always vaginal not even mentioning the anal intercourse it is widely spread, so we have the stigmatisation of the gay population as HIV carriers. We also have bisexuals, who use condoms when they have sex with men but they dont use condoms when they are with women, because it is less risky for them. That is the point of the transmission of the
Expressing such differences in sexual practice is not without danger and

virus.

and the rejection (by family, peers and friends, colleagues, state institutions, etc.) lives as

represent the predominant driving force for a certain kind of body politics of HIV positive

misunderstanding especially considering the gay identity. The social stigmatisation

gay men in Serbia today. Such body politics is shaped by the stigmatisation in the Serbian society, resulting from a variety of attempts among the HIV positive gay men to lead their

46

they wish. Most of such body politics could be drawn together into the field of the politics of mimicry. The politics of mimicry among the HIV positive gay grounds of their gay sexuality. furthermore complicates the attempts to deal with the HIV/AIDS as well as the response men in Serbia

from the state and puts much more people into danger of infection. The politics of mimicry is the direct and simple result of stigmatisation of HIV positive gay men on Serbia as well, is constructed through different power positions and explicitly deals with the political implications in the field of basic human rights. The politics is the The diversity of the body politics of HIV positive gay men worldwide, and in

inevitable part of the AIDS discourse today and should be an integral part of the of the HIV, the implementation of ARV therapy and the institutional mobility to the unresolved problems of everyday life of the HIV positive gay men, the social care and psycho-social support, reflect the complexity of such life management. As the body politics in general, the body politics of HIV positive gay men as men, represented through a variety of body politics, from testing and screening

the construction of representation, sexual practices, life management of HIV/AIDS and

examination of any issue related to HIV/AIDS. The life management of HIV positive gay

well, could be defined as private or public, individual or collective. The collective body surrounding HIV, AIDS or PLHIV, the body politics of the carriers of HIV should deal with dominant the examination model of biogovernmentality in highly intolerant social surroundings of the politics of mimicry and resistance to the politics of HIV positive gay men are still defined through rare attempts to establish the agency of PLHIV. If we truly want to define the unsolved problems and the dynamics

toward gay people. It seems that rejection of gay sexuality operates even within the group of PLHIV, and the body politics of representation consequently intertwine with the politics of inclusion and life management of HIV positive gay men. within the group of PLHIV. Djurica, a 36-year-old gay porn actor mentioned in the introduction of this thesis,

Djurica

wanted to emphasise the persistence of the stigmatisation not only in the society but also

Dj: We are facing different types of discrimination including the one from the people who are in the NGO dealing with PLHIV. Yes, that happens, too. Today
47

you have people... I dont want to sound bitter, but...I was a porn actor, and it was my job to have sex without protection, I wasnt the only one in the world.

You have lots of porn actors worldwide that have HIV and now they are activists, people support them and thats perfect, but here, in a poor country, people look at me as if I am politically inappropriate, inappropriate in general, whatever... Z: On what grounds would you be politically inappropriate, because you are a porn actor or because you are gay or maybe both? Dj: Yes, on every grounds because I am... even today some people feel they have the right to tell me that I have to go to a psychiatrist who is going to tell me what my sexual orientation is! But because I am gay, and because I was in porn, I am now a promoter of a healthy life style, I try to tell the young people that nobodys safe, that both partners, hetero, gay or bisexual, it doesnt matter, could be negative and that someone could be in the window period, the incubation of the infection, and that you have to use a condom. Still, the people from PLHIV think that I shouldnt do it, that somebody else should do it...I have excellent ideas, I know how to do it, but I have to be in the shadow... Z: What about discrimination at work, health institutions, gay places, clubs? Dj: As far as the works concerned, I have good relationship with the organisations and institutions that I work with, and I try to be engaged in all areas dealing with the HIV/AIDS and the reproductive health of the youth and that is important, right? The only problem is discrimination I face from PLHIV, NGO PLHIV. As far as the clubs and public places are concerned I am not the best example. Its just that a lot of young people stop me in the streets, they congratulate me, they hug me...women, guys, the young. I mean, there was no law telling me to stop doing the porn, I stopped on my own because I felt that was the right thing to do and I felt morally obliged to stop with it, although I could have been abroad filming using condoms, there is such a porn production with HIV positive actors...but I have decided that my wrongdoings and life misjudgements have to be shared with the young people and I have to influence them not to make same mistakes, and I manage to do that.
48

should not lead us to the mistake of thinking of the gay sexual minority as the monolith, of PLHIV conforms to the same social structuring of the gay sexual minority and the people who have accepted the dominant attitudes toward gay people. The connecting between the social groups emerge. commented interview. Natasa and Violeta on the issue identity factor of the illness is not the same as sexuality, thus the differences Natasa and Violeta, two psychotherapists, of communication between different social groups in their structuring of the deviance itself. To put it simply, the group of PLHIV consists of unifying concept of the inclusion and integration. Even though it is true that HIV positive gay men belong to the group of the PLHIV, the construction of the common identity

Tackling the ground of the PLHIVs attitude toward HIV positive gay men

V: What I would like to say is that gay men are stigmatised even before they know they are HIV positive. They are stigmatised their whole life, so if they get HIV they become twice as stigmatised. N: The whole community is stigmatised and it is a dead end for them. V: The PLHIV also stigmatise them, too. Its less possible, but present. N: It is not the rule if you belong to one particular stigmatised group youll have the understanding for the other group.
The importance of the body politics of HIV positive gay men among the members

of gay sexual minority is also of the highest importance in understanding the dynamics of one social group connected through the sexuality of its members. The body politics of the processes of representation masculinisation of the bodies reflects predominant model of desirable inclusion into

gay sexual minority is mostly defined through the sexual and health discourse. The body the beautiful and the masculinisation of the gay bodies are the best examples of how the transform the body politics among gay men. The not forget that the body politics of the

safety of heterosexual social matrix, as well as the sanctuary against the rejection, whether sexual or social. We should

politics of mimicry, and it is dangerously influencing the dynamics of HIV/AIDS spreading forbidden anywhere else where the culture of macho men and the patriarchy rule the sphere of the social. Thus, the gay machismo operates as the politics of mimicry against the among the gay population. In Serbia those processes are under the same influence as and unwelcomed participation of the differences in the society. The rare

masculinisation is also driven by the notion of resistance to homophobia and discrimination and is highly connected with previously mentioned safety zone of the dominant heterosexuality. Nevertheless, at the same time, it also represents the

the position of PLHIV in Serbia were made by some anthropologist, but with the

attempts to examine

49

predominant attention

desirable identity in Serbia is always the one without gay sexuality; hence, the intravenous drug user is still more preferable than a gay teenager or a gay adult. critics of the closeted gay men in someones capability to resist the predominant negative influence of the social Serbia always criticize nothing more individual is always torn between the desirable life and the possible one. Thus, the

From the mimicry of the sexual identity to the mimicry of the health and the illness, a gay related to the life management of the gay individuals. The core of gay sexualitys main preoccupation for the gay individual. than

to the subculture of intravenous drug users.125

The

disclosure and the mimicry of HIV/AIDS are the representations of the bodies as the could be seen as the site of social communication and activity (individual or

collective), the site of the self-destruction connected with the site of the statement of art), but also as the working tool (army servants or gay male sex workers). It activity has wider perception in the social communication. The majority in the Serbian

(personal = political). The body could be presented as the site of intervention (in the field

The body and the construction of the body (through the culture of the body)

seems that such political and economic network of signification has the central place in

society acts toward gay sexual minority applying the politics roughly described as the addressing such social response, mostly in the media, could be simply described as the attempts of establishing and preserving the present division in the hetero/homo context. As the result of these processes a gay individual has to maintain his own are going to accept that gay sexuality actually exists in Serbia. The rare occasions of we are going to say something about it, we will breathe the unnecessary life to it we

social establishes the identity inseparable of the wider social context and every personal

the creation of gay identity today. The constant negotiation between the individual and the

skeleton in the closet approach we all know it is there, but we will never say that. If

mechanisms of life management from the beginning of the awareness of his sexuality sexual minority and are based on the negligence of the diversity of the gay people. The even a certain kind of body fascism and social structure, including state and medical institutions, shape the body politics of processes of hegemonic masculinity, as the defence against homophobia and rejection, until the end of his life. The same patterns of exclusion operate among the gay

life-style fascism operate in full attempt. The stigmatisation on different levels of the gay sexual minority in a very complex way. The AIDS discourse further complicates the and mimicry, putting much more people into danger of infection. The present state of the HIV positive gay mens body politics and defines it through the politics of resistance

125

iki, 2006

50

AIDS epidemic and the HIV infections among gay population in Serbia speaks in favour of such notion.

sexual minorities use every opportunity to physically attack them. This is especially statements to the opponents of LGBT rights, but to the LGBT people as well.

evident during public events such Pride Parades.126 The shift of the perception of the body as the metaphor of presence to the site of intervention is not only the politics of The new technologies, medical advantages and general social development posit the intervening technologically manageable, something we can generate and transform into its genetic formula...127 The biomedicalization and Different interventions on bodies are at the core of the politics of mimicry.

sexuality in the homophobic surroundings, it is not strange that some opponents of

Since the body is the metaphor of presence, and hence, the reminder of gay

body as the central site of intervention. As iek pointed out in Organs without through

Bodies:...the body loses its mysterious impenetrable density and turns into something pharmaceuticalization of the bodies are in their full power precisely in the politics of athletic body and the body beautiful became the major representations in the gay aspire. The lifestyle and pornographic magazines, porn movies, culture promote the ideal body as the body of masculine, muscular male with the concept of the gym-built body Alvarez points out:The body culture of the gay gym-identified by a focus on a built muscular body- is most present in media, but it has come to affect gay life in many ways, from the way we identify and describe be absolutely symmetrical without any signs of irregularity. Trying to introduce us to body image. Such a tendency established the norms to which all gay subjects should books and mimicry for gay sexual minority. The representations of the body as masculine, club-

perfect shaped six-pack abs with wide shoulders, massive arms and legs. The body has to

ourselves to the way we meet for sex, dating, or more serious relationships.128 The become such a powerful and influential ethos that unless you isolate yourself from masculine body norms, established on the simple principle of the exclusion of the others or the ones

gay life it affects you one way or another.129 The ways in which unsuccessful

without certain attributes of the promoted body image, follow the logics described by

strategies to resist shame of being different or internalized homophobia facing social

See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OVIQqw68d_s&feature=results_video&playnext=1&list= PLA713D29F9BAA64C1 127 iek, 2004, p.25 128 Alvarez, 2009, p.2 129 Ibid
126

Alvarez. According to Alvarez: From mating to entertainment, gay gym culture has

rejection are best reflected on the example of homosexual youth suicides. Building the

51

as a site of resistance to social stigmatization is at the core of gay body images of today. The process of masculinisation problems. identity. Social stigmatisation two major is insecure gay teenagers without any support from school or family, it is impossible masculinisation of the body to obtain social acceptance and desirability as the sex Those causes a much faster process. The tactic

that such process be finished before they consider suicide as a solution to their are completely intertwined and work of

of the body takes some time, so for the

object for other men is at the core of the body representation in contemporary gay simultaneously in shaping of gay identity today. How this symbiosis works can be seen in one specific group of gay menHIV positive gay men. Whenever we hear a cry that building the perfect masculine body is motivated by one ultimate wish, and nothing desirable in illness of any kind or specially connected with sexual desire in syndrome or loss of body

that is to be healthy, we establish a certain connection between the healthy body and pathology. When the AIDS epidemic started in the 1980s and the medical knowledge about the illness increased, the wasting out:Perceptions of masculinity therefore become more intimately tied to defeating the fat and

general. If such a wish does exist than it certainly originates from some kind of musculature became one of the markers of the progressed illness. Halkitis pointed virus; keeping the body strong, functional, and sexual; and overcoming the effects of Corporeal identities, then, have become central to the organization of the discursive especially synthetic testosterone (Deca Durabolin). The role of testosterone in

the desired body. The desire and sexuality are always there in the body. There is

the infection and the side effects of the treatments for the infection.130 Cole argues:

increasing the volume of muscles and building masculine body image became ultimate goal for enormous number of HIV positive gay men.

ultimate reasons for developing the culture of the body by using anabolic steroids,

formation around AIDS.131 The social integration and sexual attraction again became the

reflected in the increased interest of the Ministry of Health to undertake the behavioural studies among the gay people in Serbia.132 Even though there is a lack of interest to trying to catch pace with the acceleration of the HIV/AIDS. Still, if such attempts will only serve as the politically correct interventions without sincerely addressing the issues

of gay people than they will simply continue the futile health and social policies of the Serbian state. The economic crisis and the deficit of states funds are not in favour of the
130 131 132

address the gay issues, it is obvious that the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Serbia is

The importance of the body politics of mimicry of HIV positive gay men is

Nardi, 2000, p.135 Seidman, 1996, p.284 See Rakic, 2010; Baros and Zikic, 2010

52

positive development in the field of HIV/AIDS among gay population and PLHIV. The gay population on voluntary basis, and the forced coming-out of participants is going research of social structuring of the HIV/AIDS discourse because the implementation of the body politics could only work in favour of halting the development of the AIDS epidemic and spreading of HIV. social changes. The body is only a tool in the processes of the continuation of life. The The body politics is a certain kind of adaptation of the human individuals to the to define the limits of it. Nevertheless, this example shows a good path for the success of such studies is connected with the participation of different people from

body is always a carrier of a virus and thus the limiting point of its existence. The virus is negative response of the society to the otherness (of the virus and gay sexuality)

only living in the living cell. Only there can it replicate and continue to live. The HIV/AIDS is the best example of it. The body politics of HIV positive gay men is a necessary process the limiting factor but the imagination of the carriers of the virus is limitless. So is the body politics. To establish the acceptance of the otherness in the society makes the because of the illness and otherness will create the atmosphere of tolerance where search for solutions to specific health problems will be imaginatively empowered. To establish the precious path toward the new knowledge about the HIV/AIDS, which is people in this time of armistice between the human and the virus. continues to boost the variety of the body politics of HIV positive gay men. The body is for life continuation the life of the carriers and the life of the virus at the same time. The

starting point for limiting the biological (viral illness such HIV/AIDS). To reject the shame learn about HIV positive gay men, their individual histories, and their body politics is to

necessary for solving the problem posed by HIV/AIDS, and gives hope to HIV positive gay

53

Chapter III

In this chapter I will analyse the interviews of the HIV positive gay men and the questions and to reveal their experiences and thoughts of the gay

people who are structuring everyday lives of these gay men in Serbia. I have opted for for the interviewees, whilst maintaining the structure, to go beyond the frames of the HIV/AIDS. The methodological frame will be briefly introduced and discussed so as to emphasise feminist and gay study methodology in the analysis of the interviews. sexuality and semi-structured interviews in order to give value to their voices and provide space

3.1 he

The basic methodology for this research is the interview. The interviews with the HIV the present state of the life-management of HIV positive gay men, their views on gay people who structure everyday lives of HIV positive gay men share their views on identity and sexuality, the state policy toward HIV/AIDS, as well as their experience with the differences and the recognition of differences in the Serbian society. In particular, to gay clubs, from NGOs to entertainment industry. Ranging from gay activists to positive gay men and the people who structure their everyday lives are the testimonies of

analyses of the interviews

The m ethodology of the research and t

how gay sexuality and the illness are perceived in a variety of settings: from hospitals medical doctor, psychotherapists to gay club owners and the gay porn actor, the testimonies are coming from the different levels of social organisation based on the infection. This struggle is particularly acute in related to HIV/AIDS in Serbia. sexuality, gender, class, beliefs, and ethnic origin. All these interviewees witnesses how HIV positive gay men struggle to organise their lives around their sexuality and

institutions, economic downfall and undignified and unrecognised life management as of their political correctness, their constant empty rhetoric about minorities and in the fight against HIV/AIDS and the voices of the people affected by it. I deliberately did not pursue interviews with officials in state institutions because

this current crisis of health

about HIV/AIDS in particular, and last, but not leastbecause what matters are the results from 6th April to 9th May 2012 (6 interviews) in Belgrade. The recording of the interviews

was made in my apartment, one interview was recorded in the office of the NGO of the

The interviews were held from 27th to 29th September 2011 (3 interviews), and

54

interviewed psychotherapists and one interview was carried out by the telephone.

Each interviewee was given the opportunity to withhold her or his name and any part or of their own interview or this thesis on request. The interviews were recorded in methodological discussion, was discussed and negotiated by a couple of literary of the expressions related to HIV/AIDS discourse in the Serbian original. This is why, phrased to a native-English speaker. The state approval. The participants were given the assurance that they would also have a copy all of her or his interview until the submission of this thesis. They were also asked to sign the written approval for this work to be published. They also signed the ethical

Serbian and then translated into English. The translation, itself a rich source for

translators from Serbian into English. With their help, I have attempted to come up with at times, interviews may seem oddly interviewing method was devised with some prior ethnographic research among the gay materials on HIV/AIDS; and the archives (the NGO libraries and the web sites as well as taken from the local media as well as the foreign materials dealing with this topic available on the web, or in printed. My participation in the Conference held from April 19th -21st 2012 2nd Serbian my personal library). The material considering the context of the Serbian society was in Belgrade was immensely important PLHIV population into: the places of gay social communication (cyber or real); the media and the with the focus on the stigmatisation and discrimination; the official Serbian publications considering the HIV/AIDS in Serbia; the specificity of LGBT issues in Serbia the best approximation of the content into English, without losing the conceptual richness

and helpful as it clarified for me some doubts and questions considering the into gay sexuality and HIV/AIDS in Serbia today. The interviews were conducted

HIV/AIDS discourse in Serbia today, particularly in connection with the educational

discourse and the politics of PLHIV around the gay sexuality. Nevertheless, I want to as semi-structured and

emphasise the enormous help of the interviewees who have provided crucial insights framework of the questions was devised so as to encourage the interviewees to share as much as they wanted of their own experience of HIV/AIDS in Serbia. Three of the according to interviewees are HIV positive gay men. The rest, whether gay or heterosexual, are the Glucksmann refers to the division of knowledge produced in the research process identity.133 I analysed all interviews on the ground of the discourses that are depended whether the
See Glucksmann, p. 156

the provisional

people who structure everyday lives of HIV positive gay men and their body politics. emerging from their content. the background of the interviewees as the integral part of their To get the clearer picture of the views of the

interviewees, I often asked them to clarify their opinions, experiences and beliefs. This
133

55

interviewees were speaking of the events in the past that took place or if they were aspects of HIV/AIDS problematic that was dealt with. Borland refers to the exchange the context of the whole interview is important to interviews like this and I analyse them in this vein. his to clarify particular episode in their chronology. Nevertheless, the importance of seeing One of the interviewees, Djurica, precisely as it happened, address the state of the structure of the interviews changed from time to time when the interviewees were trying

talking about some imaginary situation to clarify their flow of thoughts and the particular of the ideas during the interview in order better to interpret the narrative.134 The

attitudes of the interviewees or their doubts and questions. Hesse-Biber relate to the in the beginning of the interview reflected the problem of his ability to structure, for me and for the potential readers, narrative

interview as the whole instead of decoding one by one sentence.135 I relate to all because of his enormously rich experience over a long time and the time laps in experience and emotions in relation to his HIV status acknowledgment. My insistence Djurica mediated by attempting to as unobtrusive as possible of his recollections. to clarify for me the struggle of his search for the truth of his HIV status had to be remembering events. That was particularly evident when he had to reconstruct his

Z: Do you know how you became HIV positive? Dj: Well, since 2004 I have been HIV positive. How did I find out? I participated in hetero, bisexual and gay porn and thanks to that I got HIV. the porn movies were bareback. Z: You mean with barebacking as a request from porn industry? Dj: Exactly. With such requests you live somehow in the belief that you are safe, because we had tests all the time. I had some information from the internet, I knew what are the HIV and the other STD, but I was not so aware of the window period. I got it from the girl actor. Nevertheless, I declare
Djurica continues his narrative of the process of disqualification from the porn

Of course,

myself gay even the people are confused about my sexuality.

making, and his path through different medical institutions in Hungary where he was filming, and in Serbia afterwards, in search of his HIV status confirmation.
134 135

See Borland, p. 321 See Hesse-Biber, p. 336

56

Dj: At the end, the doctor said You are probably in the window period. It could last 3-4 months before we have full confirmation. We discussed every detail of it... because of my work in the porn I was a regular in the testing unit. They all knew me. Since the moment when gay people find out about their positive HIV status, they change their lives upside down, not in the way to improve them, but opposite, to make them bad. They abuse alcohol and drugs just to flee from that knowledge. I had a period of weed and ecstasy, but Ive put that behind me. I am very proud to come out of this. Z: Like running away from the reality?
Several of the interviewees were confused when they tried to reconstruct

Dj: Yes.

the particular episode from their experience. The slippage from the chronology to the episode, as discussed by Hesse-Biber, occurred most frequently when discussing related to sexual practices or deeply highlighted personal experiences.136 Bojan hard topics for the interviewees, whether such topics originated at work, were

positions and beliefs held in the past. The time gap was filled by their attention to

Z: Since when are you HIV positive? How did that happen? B: I thought it was 2 or 3 years ago. It is very interesting how that happened...I had very few risky sexual intercourses and I thought that my partner from previous times was responsible. I had 7-year relationship, started when I was 18 years old. I found out that I was HIV positive 4 months ago. My partner was eager to be in the open relationship. My friend who was very close for 5 years...after the period of long acquaintance I had sex with him, and I think he wanted to do that on purpose when I think of it now... he knew that he had a problem. We were close and I thought that if I had had sex with him that it was not going to happen, but he insisted that we didnt have sex with a condom. Lets do it without it, lets do it...-the classic catch. I found out that I was HIV positive some 3-4 months ago.
The difference between Bojan and Djuricas longevity in the experience with

stages
136

of the illness. While Djurica refers to his ability to come out of the original confusion by
Ibid

HIV/AIDS is structured around response to different issues emerging at different

57

leaving behind his drug abuse period, Bojan is still in the period of rationalisation of his friendship with the person from whom he caught the HIV. Zoran, 38-year-old specialist hospitalized PLHIV. He wants to emphasise not such good conditions for the patients in the HIV/AIDS department of the Clinic for Infectious Diseases in Belgrade, but also in the physical medicine, works with the

the discriminatory politics toward gay patients by the health professionals. Zoran teacher in the professional school for the psychical therapists.

refers to his experience from couple of years ago when he was working as the

Z: The medical staff working there have to have the professional obligation to take care of them, to give them proper care and the ARV protocol, and then...the medical staff are angry at me because I am asking about new data everyday, the temperature, the blood pressure...I mean they have to do it everyday. The patients are very much depressed, with the psychological status deeply depressed, there isnt any social worker there or the psychologist. I mean the clinical psychologist to help them. It is of the extreme importance to have a psychologist on that department, but there isnt any. ZM: Are you facing some problems in the organisational part of your work considering the rehabilitation of HIV positive gay men? Z: You mean in the technical sense? ZM: Yes, with the organisation of the work, the education of the physical therapists, are they educated enough, was there any problem? Z: The physical therapists are not educated at all considering HIV/AIDS, or about HIV positive people. They will do the protocol that I am prescribing, they never lie to me, but sometimes they have some comments about HIV positive gay men, some discriminatory comments...I had one problem with the therapist commenting about one gay patients sexuality, his position during the sexual intercourse and how he disagreed with that. The nurses gave him the info about the patient whether he was passive or active in his sexual role, so the therapist disgusted by it. So we talked about it and I asked him why he had a problem if he is a professional, why he was making the distinction between the patients when he has a protocol to follow? I pointed out that in my opinion, he was aware that through his job he could not be
58

infected and that I hope he had sufficient knowledge about HIV/AIDS. So what was the problem? What was it that was bothering you? Actually, when I think about it, its the same thing when I was working in the secondary school for physical therapists. The kids had a problem with gay people and they wanted to go to the Parade to beat up gay people. When I asked them why, what is the problem, they didnt have any answer, and not one single child knew how to explain that! Why we have to beat up gays? They withdraw immediately when you ask them...it is psychology of the masses in schools, theyve heard, they are seeing it on the TV...they disguise their own
For Zoran, the previous experience in the school provides the origin of the to change the practices shaped by the peer groups under the

weaknesses in that.

how it is hard

discrimination in the working space. Not only that he connected the discrimination from be no trace of the discriminatory politics toward gay people. This example shows biomedical discourse leads to the forced sexual practices in the mind of the heteronormative

influence of heteronormative social surroundings. This episode is witnessing how the professionals, the nurses and the psychical therapists. The social construction of the sexuality. The construction of the sexual scripts reflects the broader social construction sexual behaviour.138 The cultural scripts operate on the level of collective and sexuality emerges in their mind as soon as they have to deal with the present gay of the interactions between the different members of the society.137 The three levels collective is structured on the heterosexual relationships. Furthermore, the sexual psychic scripts, and are depending on the level of the organisations of the production of scripts are gender based and are playing on the cultural construction of the gender and passive (female).139 Bech has argued how the examination of the homosexuals throughout the history reproduced the homosexual itself.140 among the different individuals, could break the construction of role like romantic (for women) in opposition to adventure (men), or active (men) the normativisation of the gay coming-out for the patients and the

the school to some working space, but to the specific institution where there should

of the sexual scripts reflect the cultural scenarios, interpersonal scripts and intra-

importance of the sexual education, with the notion of the different sexual practices
See Matt G. Mutcher refer to the work of Gagnon & Simon in Nardis Gay Masculinities, p.14 Ibid, p.15 Ibid, p.16 See Bech in Homosexuality and Society in When Men Meet: Homosexuality and Modernity, pp. 161-3

That is why the

137 138 139 140

59

the sexual scripts and introduce much more of understanding and empathy by the people involved in the professional help for the HIV positive gay men.

the affects and the attitudes about gay sexuality, from the families of the students kids in the silenced space of the Serbian families toward the different sexualities. gay minority.

into the school space, where the education on the HIV/AIDS issues and the sexual differences should be very much introduced. The following example by Dimitar will show how the parents are trying to communicate the gay or LGBT issues to their Dimitar, 40 year old gay club owner, reflects on his experience with the

The episode with the secondary school students reflects the transposition of

discussion between one family in the park considering the topic of gay sexuality and the

D: I think that nothing in particular could improve the picture of the HIV positive gay men in Serbia at the moment. Z: You think that nothing could change the level of stigmatisation, the fear of gay people? D: Absolutely nothing. The most important thing is to try to change it in the family. I have one case in my neighbourhood how they raise their 14-year old child. How they talk about gay people, and not to mention HIV positive people, I mean about the others in the society, that those people are very much exist, that we should respect them, and to explain it to the child... It lowers the level of fuss about the illness... how the illness is not something in the air, flying, but in the blood and that you have to know how to protect yourself. I was listening to such conversations of one family in the park just in the wake of the Pride last year... Z: And what did they say? Do you remember? D: The women gave her opinion... first of all about gay people, how they have the same rights as everybody, we dont have the right to define their rights, she said... if they want to walk they should walk, if they want to gather they should gather. The women said that she doesnt have friends like that anyway. She thought that if somebody in her community is gay, she doesnt know about it. She had the same thinking about the HIV. She is informed and she wants her child to be informed. You couldnt catch the disease by saying hello, or that you can have a drink with the person, or your best friend from
60

the school could have HIV, or someone near you, and that you shouldnt run from them. I remember that because they are the average Serbian family, middle class, with the average jobs... Z: Would you define them as the average Serbian family? D: Yes. I imagine the average Serbian family like that. Z: Right. Would you define such attitude toward the HIV positive gay men in Serbia as the average? D: No. I think they are more avant-garde, such talk is a kind of avant-garde. Thats why I remember it. Contrary to the mothers opinion, her partner assumed the real Balkan attitude. He does not accept that, that is not the Gods gift, he said something stupid and he did not want to discuss it. It is not clear to him, he cannot accept it. He is not aggressive, he just cannot
Dimitar gave the true example of the division among the members of one

accept it.

family on the topic of homosexuality and how that division reflects on their 14 year old partners real heteronormative response with Balkan openness toward the question of negative response the religious answers to gayness. The construction of the attitudes toward gay sexuality oppression and inclusion oppose depends in the previous experiences on gender based division, where the womens views of the different individuals depend on their previous knowledge and the social context. This episode particularly shows the split educational discourse in the family. division of the attitudes toward the emancipation of the sexual minorities. Instead, the mens child. On one side the affirmative response by the mother and on the other her the hint of the re-traditionalized

to homosexuality. In Serbia there exists no clear gender

discrimination of HIV positive gay men. First he refers to the illness-the HIV/AIDS-as the only factor of discrimination of the gay people by the majority in the Serbian society.

confusion in his interview in connection with the topic of gay rights and the

Dimitars business partner, Dusan, 35-year old from Belgrade, reflects the

D: I think it doesnt matter whether you are gay or not. HIV is HIV, whether you are straight or gay. The illness is the only thing that matters. We should do more on the education. The rejection by some people, I mean, I would not reject anybody if someone says I am HIV positive. It depends from person to person, from the level of consciousness.
61

majority in Serbia he concludes:

When Dusan has talks about the treatment of the gay people by the

D: It is very bad. The reactions when somebody is gay, I mean... we are far from some satisfactory educational level. We should do a lot to change that, starting from the kindergarten. The kids should start to learn about it. Thats the way to have some progress, talking to the kids about the differences. The people who are on TV, the politicians, the psychologists, how they talk terribly about gay people, on a side of HIV, saying If someone has HIV then he/she deserves it. The level of the education and the consciousness about
Before this stage in the interview, Dusan tried to express his thoughts about

HIV/AIDS is very primitive.

the discrimination of the HIV positive gay men in his gay club by the other LGBT guests. Actually, he does not see it, as he said.

Dusan: Ive never met anybody who can say that freely, that he is HIV positive. They are mostly hiding it. All those stories... I have no idea, but nobodys ever telling me Listen, I have AIDS. The story is actually That one is HIV positive. How did they find out...whether somebody had sex with that person, maybe...maybe the person would say if he wants to have sex with me. I presume that is how you know it. Then you have the story goes mouth to mouth. I havent seen any kind of discrimination in the club if someone is HIV positive.
How is it possible that we see only a certain kind of the discrimination? For

the prevalent discrimination on the general level in the Serbian society, but he could not sexual minority as the unifying concept lacking the existence of the discrimination when they are talking about the same social micro level of their own club. among its members? As we have seen previously in Djuricas expression of the exist. It is very interesting to compare Dimitars interview with the Dusans perception discrimination between the PLHIV and the gay sexual identity of his own, such tendencies see discrimination on the micro level of his club. Is this the same notion of the gay

me, the most interesting part of the Dusans interview is in his intention to reflect on

Z: When we are talking about the HIV positive gay men in your club, are they feeling free to talk about their HIV status or theyre hiding their identity?

62

Dimitar: It never happened that one person is going to say openly that he is HIV positive no matter how evident is it by the progression of the illness. That never happens to me. Z: How do HIV positive gay people behave surrounded by LGBT people? Dimitar: It depends. The majority of them behave recklessly, overbearingly recklessly. What does that mean? I am sick and I can do whatever I want. A lot of them are hiding the illness very skilfully. Because... they are looking very nice and you cant say that they have HIV. They also drink a lot, probably because they want to push away the reality. Z: Could you say now how other guests behave towards them? Dimitar: 80 % of the people are accusing them. They avoid them. Z: Accusing them of what? Dimitar: Because they are different, and because...I dont know. They could not have them sexually, or afraid of having them. Because they are ill and they are afraid to getting know them better. It doesnt mean that behind some ill gay men you couldnt find a beautiful person. The other 20% do not care whether someone is ill or not. For them its normal, they communicate
The perception of the discrimination could be very tricky as the result of the

intimately.

highest importance when addressing discrimination in the first place. Vladimir, 29-year-old the gay gay

subtle mechanisms of discrimination. Thus far, for some person it is visible, for others it is not present. The subtle context of the discrimination should be of the activist from Belgrade, is referring HIV/AIDS, into the surface to the

core topic of this thesis, and that is the silencing of the gay sexuality as the social analysis of the discrimination toward gay people in Serbia. response to issues including of the

implementation of the anti-discriminatory laws in Serbia. His opinion brings the

V: I was also involved in the organisational committee of the 2009 Pride which was banned by the state. I participated in the creation of the National Strategy for Youth against HIV/AIDS. Lots of laws were lacking the mentioning of the sexual orientation and gender roles. Z: Do you mean the Anti-discriminatory law?
63

V: Yes, the problem in this state is a lack of the implementation of the laws. The rule of law is on very low level, the institutions are weak, and you can see it everywhere. If the Constitution says that everybodys equal then you dont have to mention gay people specifically...but in this social surrounding this is
It is very interesting how Vladimir thinks that you have to mention specifically states response even though the political correctness of the this because the particular silence is

necessary.

structuring the

the gay minority in the state documents. If the antidiscriminatory policy is inclusionary of every citizen in the Serbian society, then we have to ask why we have to mention specifically gay sexual minority in it. Is

documents reflects the intention of the representation of the every single person in Serbia? Vladimir points out very important question of the representation of the gay antidiscriminatory politics toward gay

people on every social level as the reminder that they exist in Serbia. Thus far, the society, as well as in the intention of the state to stop the spreading of HIV/AIDS. disconnection of the state policy with the grassroots, in this case the gay people. people and the gay sexuality visible. The articulation of the social policy with the people should be visible on every level of

problem for the majority in Serbia to deal with HIV/AIDS is because it makes the gay

rethinking the social and the state policy. They are referring to the problem of the

Natasa and Violeta are trying to mark what is the most important when

N: We should do... I mean we are always talking about the stigmatisation and was made with it...we are not trying to

discrimination and lots of wrongdoing

understand how big that stigma is, we are not looking at the effects that it produces, we are not interested in the lives of the people. There is the stigmatisation and you could recognise it in the health system or in the schools... we do not have enough of the real life stories. We should learn how the stigmatisation affects the lives of the stigmatised people and we should fight it on every level of the society...we are fighting against it with one campaign during the year, on the 1st of December with three posters campaign... V: We lack some systematic response...the society is not ready for the differences, it is not positive toward differences...We have to say we dont want anyone suffering in this society.
64

focus on the particular campaigns is undermining the everyday life problems of the PLHIV, and the HIV positive gay men, too. The connection with the real life stories the politics toward them in much more honest position. The importance of the experiences of the differences among the people in

and the solutions of it, through the inclusion of every single one of PLHIV is bringing Serbia is bringing the crucial questions of the Serbian societal response to the The educational process on the sexual differences should bring as one of its main construction of sexuality is detrimental, processes of the humane social interaction. the HIV/AIDS. Djurica and it will not result in tasks the process of learning that the differences exist among the people all the time

for the people is opening the questions of the shortfalls of the NGOs. Thus far, the

Natasas notion of the disconnection of the policy with the grassroots reality

predominant notion of the unification inside it. The gay people and the gay sexuality and everywhere. The social construction of silence as the response to the social the positive are structuring the everyday life of the Serbian society, as well as anybody elses.

toward better understanding of the differences and their better life management in

The interviewees see the inclusion of the HIV positive gay men as the top priority

Z: What would you like to change now, if you could, in the life of the HIV positive gay men in Serbia? Dj: What would I like to change? On what level? Private or public? Z: Both. Dj: In social, public...I would like people to unite, really to unite. Only that way we could help ourselves. All of the organisations are looking for their own interest, even though all of the projects are joint one with the common cause. But its not so visible. Its a kind of utopia, like you are saying that in 2015 there will be no more HIV positive people in Serbia which is a L I E. [emphasis in original speech] On personal level, you have to empower yourself. To help yourself and the others with your activism, your participation in the better position in the society and much better quality of life.
65

the HIV positive gay men.

Dimitrije, as the proven activist wants to emphasise the empowering process for

D: I see different problems there. First of all when we talk about it... first we have to improve the situation toward gay people, and then gay PLHIV. I would say that the social context where they live is not encouraging in any way. Theres nothing in this country toward better understanding of the gay people, their life management...the normal life in the society. There is another danger when we talk about the MSM and the gay PLHIV, the problem is the connection of the HIV with gay people, and this is the reason of the double stigmatisation and the connection of it with the origin of HIV/AIDS and sexual orientation instead of the unsafe sexual practice. The special role in this process has to have gay organisations in doing their job and that one story has to be... the stereotyping of the society considering gay people has to be dispelled and then we can talk about the HIV and gay, the risky behaviour, the promiscuity, etc., all the topics connected with the life of one gay person unfortunately, the life of the average gay person in Serbia as far as I can see. Now when we are talking about subcultures that is... the gay culture is marginalized without any perspective, without their own thoughts how it should look like, without some cultural model lets say, positive cultural model that the majority of the gay people could follow in the identification. I think that the problem is when the person is empowered in the hedonist way with all that sexual, carnal life, but with the danger of HIV and other STDs. There are some organisations that have some gay members that could talk publicly about their HIV status, or how they were drug addicts in Belgrade, Novi Sad, Nis and Subotica... The people responsible for the stigmatisation of PLHIV and gay people have to make some connections with risky behaviour, and not with them. The illness could happen to anyone with risky behaviour. Then well have some examples without the stigmatisation and to disconnect gay people with HIV, and not to say if you are gay you are guilty of getting HIV, if youre straight that wouldnt happen, even when the epidemiological situation speaks in the favour of it.
66

and the risky groups such as gay men. This connection is the result of the social the politic of the mimicry of the illness, and consequently the spreading of HIV/AIDS, not participate in the prevention by regular testing, the improvement of knowledge because if you do not see yourself as the member of the risky group than you will construction of the illness, and the discourse of health, that originates from the beginning the disease. The connection of the risky groups and the HIV/AIDS further increases

interview, wants to emphasise the importance of the disconnection of the HIV/AIDS

Dimitrije, among many other problems and questions in this extract of his

of HIV/AIDS pandemic worldwide when there was not sufficient level of knowledge about

about the illness and the development of the better understanding of those infected. the disease. The participation of every implement any importance of this problem. Thus far, such body politics of mimicry could be recognised as the body politics among gay sexual minority, toward the mimicry of HIV/AIDS could be in favour of spreading the heterosexual majority. The body politics of the heterosexual majority, as well as the individual is of the highest importance to successful strategy against HIV/AIDS. Djurica is also emphasising the

Dj: Everyone could educate himself/herself, of course if he/she wants to. Nevertheless, we have the risky groups again, the promotion of gay people as the risky ones, and the biggest problem is that everybody else who is not homosexual or bisexual, intravenous drug user or the prostitute, is not taking the condoms, they are not testing themselves, and as the results we have increased stigma leading to prejudices and discrimination. That is the problem
The attachment of the stigma to the risky groups, particularly the gay one, is

that is going to outburst any time now.

bringing the new gap between the introduction of the social policy against HIV/AIDS and the people in Serbia. This gap reflects in the increasing number of the discrimination brought the new light on the old problem.142 Instead the inclusion and the cases and the moral panic141 toward the PLHIV. The last case of the teacher in the participation in the educational process, the exclusion from the working places of the PLHIV is still dominant.
141

primary school in the central area of Belgrade, with the diagnoses of tuberculosis and HIV under the full control of the doctors, who has to go to the early retirement, has

Moral panic is the one of the principal forms of the ideological consciousnesses among the silent majority in addressing the questions of discontent among its members such as the sexual differences, the stereotyping of gender roles, etc. See the works of Jeffrey Weeks in Policing Desire by Simon Watney, p. 40 142 See http://www.021.rs/Info/Srbija/Ucitelj-oboleo-od-tuberkuloze-HIV-pozitivan.html

67

improvement in the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

experience, how the idea of the participation of gay people in some projects has been already materialised. They are also giving the suggestions about the ways of activism and the participation of the HIV positive gay men in the social work for the

Natasa and Violeta are witnessing in their interview, and sharing their own

V: We also had the project called The HIV and Mental Health. We learned a lot from it personally. That project was important for the education about specific life of the HIV positive gay men, so we actually met lots of gay people through the project. It was joint project with one Dutch organisation. Z: When did you do that project? V: Since 2005 up to 2008. N: Yes. We had psychotherapeutically based program about the psychological impact, the experience, but not only of the life with HIV but also the belonging to one marginalized and discriminated social group. V: The title of the project was Double stigma, double challenge and it was the combination of the AIDS problems and the stigmatisation on the ground of sexual orientation. N: It was basically about empowering and self-organising, about the groups of self help, lobbying, and the problems of auto-stigma. We educated those people to be lecturers, trainers so they could educate the people in the health
To face the general heterosexual majority with the experiences of the HIV

institutions.

toward the better education and understanding of the problems in HIV/AIDS. Zoran

positive gay men is recognized by several interviewees as one of the first steps

ZR: It is very necessary to face the general population with HIV positive gay people or PLHIV, as well as gay population in general, and at the end they will have to face themselves with the HIV/AIDS. They should simply understand the issue because they were never face to face with it, they just imitate the response, like the school kids. The way how they behave is just imitating the others in psychological terms, but they simply dont know what to do. The professional education should be regulated professionally which is going to be easy to accomplish.
68

Dimitar

D: There isnt education at all. So, in the prime time, instead of soap operas we have to have the program about HIV/AIDS and PLHIV. The information from the TV... someone has to go to the Clinical Centre and has to make a movie about the conditions there and to show that. What is the Serbian treatment of the sick people? You could catch the HIV not only through unprotected sex but also in the dentists office, anywhere without sterile instruments and neglect if you dont respect the procedure. The people are not aware of that or they think that only gay people and the promiscuous people could catch HIV and the rest are saying we are all protected. If we practice sex in our homes and with our wives and lovers we are out of any danger. It should be prime time program about all the aspects of the HIV/AIDS! How you can catch it, the unprotected sex, the needle...Nobody is telling to the people that they should insist on precaution when they visit the dentist. The dentist has to have a mask or the gloves...Ive never heard of it. You cannot do the education via TV commercials of 20 seconds. Absolutely not. You could easily live with HIV, too. The bus commercials are also unnecessary and insufficient. We had a guy who hit his head in the window in the club and then he went to the bathroom to disinfect himself with the toilet paper and the water because he thought that he is going to catch the HIV. It was so comic.
What is very intriguing in these interviews extracts is how the people from gay men, and with the

different background, reflect their thoughts how the educational discourse on HIV/AIDS in Serbia is failing to give any significant result.

different levels of the life management of HIV positive

management of

psychological shock of finding out about the HIV positive status. The importance for such communication goes further in their courage to find the motive for the life their own in the new conditions of the illness and people to be recognized as the equal participants on the social education and the the

Natasa is posing the vital question of the denial among gay men to the

discouraging social surroundings. Thus far to deal with the denial of sexuality, the gay people with the decision to participate in activism and the education are opening the way to fight the illness.

social death introduced through the discrimination on the ground of sexuality and the

69

N: You can see lots of gay people coming to the treatment very late, they are exhausting their bodies. Even if they take the treatment, they are ruining their immunological status. They dont think about it. Someone who is spending whole of his life with the denial he has to find a space for himself to live with it, in the gay community as well. When you catch the HIV then you have to comeback to the psychological hell, because AIDS is still incurable disease leading to death, so the whole idea is to cut off that and to not allow
The end of this chapter is the voice of one of the HIV positive gay men from

interfering in your life.

Dimitrije

Serbia, Dimitrije, and his vision of better life values.

D: There is the potential, of course. We should find people who have the quality and empowered them to join the organisations. We should close the door for the unsuccessful people and organisations without the results. That is very normal in any job and why not in the PLHIV sector. Some values have to be established if the person wants to manage his/her health, to say look, I think that health is a very much of worth if I wish to accomplish what I want in life, to multitude my talents, and to realize myself as the person I want to be. If we want that to happen then we have to have the generations with the proper education, the culture, the interest in it, and some nourishing surroundings that it is not going to be negative toward their
The question of life values for the HIV positive gay men is important to introduce

wishes.

as the way of hope and life management in the HIV/AIDS discourse, and provides the now. The experiences of the people included in these interviews are some of the inclusion of the HIV positive gay people, as well as in their everyday life practices.

space for the life fulfilment in the chronic, manageable disease such HIV/AIDS is right examples how the stability in the life management in HIV/AIDS could be achieved through the processes of the inclusion in the various activists programmes. The network of the people and their mutual help in the HIV/AIDS could be in favour of the better social

70

Conclusion

This thesis has argued that the social response to the rejection of the HIV positive Serbia. Thus far, this factor should be taken into account on the whole level of the social responses and the social strategies in the fight against the HIV/AIDS. Gay sexuality should be recognised as policy and PLHIV. laws should discriminatory politics at its core. The implementation of the anti-discriminatory politically correct transcription of the EU regulations. the integral part of the Serbian society and The sexual differences are the major factor of discrimination and stigmatisation in

gay men, as well as gay sexuality, further increases the spreading of HIV/AIDS in Serbia.

incorporated in the state policy and official documents dealing with HIV/AIDS. It should The same notion stands for

be recognized as the priority for the politics of inclusion and integration with the antibe incorporated in everyday life and not only serve as the

the implementation of the sexual differences in the educational processes of the youth, This thesis reveals how the silencing of gay sexuality, as the form of

the professional education, and the education of minorities including the gay minority and

discrimination, is reflected on different levels of social organisation ranging from the minority, to the gay subcultures and NGO dealing with HIV/AIDS. The participation of the the equal members of Serbian society. The inefficient social response to the

biomedical and the educational institutions, the social organisation of the gay sexual differences (gay sexuality in particular) reflects in the catastrophic epidemiological situation and the futile state response to the spreading of HIV/AIDS. The silencing of politics of recognition HIV positive gay men in the society should be in favour of their life management as

gay sexuality as the discriminatory response is evident in the treatment of the HIV positive gay men in medical institutions. The changing face of Serbian social policy toward gay people and their participation in the processes of the social acceptance. toward the HIV/AIDS should have as one of its main aims the implementation of the

other state documents should be articulated and rewritten in such a way so as to men in the creation of such documents should be encouraged and fostered. The professional discrimination in any institution, and the stigmatization against HIV positive gay men, should be regulated and followed through in everyday life, ensured and acknowledge and implement sexual differences in a more inclusive way, and focus on

PLHIV more thoroughly. The experiences and the participation of the HIV positive gay monitored through the existing professional bodies and committees. The medical

The social policy documents such as the National Strategy against HIV/AIDS and

71

institutions and the medical staff professionally connected with the HIV positive gay men coming out in institutions is inevitable, it has to be received so as to prove the social policy of recognition and the implementation of the anti-discriminatory politics. should operate strictly without stigmatisation and with respect of gay people. The forced coming out must not be in favour of the bigotry and neglecton the contrary, if

people living with HIV are perceived should lead to the breaking of the vicious circle politics of mimicry defines the everyday life of HIV positive gay men in Serbia. The the gay people living with HIV/AIDS, thus further enhancing the AIDS epidemic. The the and stigmatisation politics by the majority in the Serbian

of the politics of mimicry and the increasing number of the HIV/AIDS cases. The body undetectability of the virus and the undetectability of gay sexuality are standing at the politics of mimicry is mostly structured around the notion and fear of rejection, discrimination, Nevertheless, the body beautiful as the main attribute of the discourse of health and acceptance from the heteronormative rejection society. centre of such body politics. The mimicry is spreading into the whole life-management of

should also be mindful of the notion of the differences in their attempts to deal with the health issues, particularly in the HIV/AIDS discourse. The change in how gay

The biomedical governmentality and the pharmaceuticalization of public health

among the members of gay sexual minority. The body politics resulting from power of public health, has to be disconnected the differences in Serbia. The two recognitions should emerge among the citizens of Serbia before the inclusion of the HIV positive gay people: the recognition of the virus (HIV/AIDS) and the recognition of gay sexuality. inclusion does not necessary introduce the politics of structured around the discourses of biomedicalisation and the pharmaceuticalization

positions of the state and the mayoral ideology of discrimination toward gay people, of

masculinisation of the bodies, reflects the same origin of the mimicry that is in favour of

of mimicry in the gay sexual minority, such as the

different social groups. The social construction of sexuality as deviance, particularly PLHIV. The collective body politics of the PLHIV should be built through the agency of Union of the PLHIV is the move in the right direction; nevertheless it has to be built conference, albeit with good with the notion of gay sexuality as its integral part. Any rejection of sexuality as the intentions to deal with the discrimination against PLHIV, misses the point in its omission contributing to the spreading of HIV/AIDS. The material from the 2nd Serbian PLHIV PLHIV with the non-compromising implementation of the politics of equality. The of gay sexuality, is reflected at the same time in the politics of inclusion among the

As I have analysed and argued in this thesis, the politics of representation and understanding between

factor of the discrimination should be publicly dismissed as untrue, hypocritical, and as

72

of sexuality, including overcome them.

compromises made that spread the inequality among the PLHIV, and are perpetuated by donor funding, should be identified publically and collective efforts should be made to This thesis has also argued about the wrong path pursued towards the unification

gay

sexuality, as the discriminating

factor.

Significantly,

mostly structured through the silencing of the gay sexuality, are reflected in the unifying concepts among the members of the gay minority and the PLHIV. The question of PLHIV in which there is no mentioning of the sexuality among the discriminatory factors (including gay sexuality) is an obvious example of such politics. of any research into the spreading of HIV/AIDS. The culture of barebacking as the sexuality in the processes of unification. This is particularly evident in the discrimination of gay people by the PLHIV. The educational material about the discrimination of

representation of gay sexual minority should not be in favour of the silencing of gay

of the gay sexual minority as the unified social group. The discriminatory processes,

result of the body politics of particular gay subcultures could be seen as stemming men. The barebacking gay subcultures are structured not only on the ground of gay

from life management categorised by the sero-status among the HIV positive gay and future studies considering HIV/AIDS in the gay population. The behavioural

The body politics of subcultures among the gay people should be integral part

sexuality, but furthermore on the attitudes and tastes toward the sexual practices and studies among the gay population, undertaken by the health authorities in Serbia, predominant fear of the minorities forced coming-out of the gay men when dealing with state institutions. In that case, directly defines the success in such attempts. should come after the implementation of the antidiscriminatory politics because the the validity of those studies will be better, and the inclusion of the gay people larger than present. The improvement of the treatment of the gay people and other

desires. That is why the gay subcultures have to gain their full attention in any current

Their subjectivity in social, medical, or any other institutions is forced to reveal the part of discriminatory context of Serbia, to deal with such issues demands the openness for the individual histories and specific problems. The micro level of the discrimination, like shown in the case of the differences, the education of the professionals structured around the politics of equality and inclusion, as well as the presence of empathy and the understanding of their identitygay sexualitythrough the forced coming-out. In the highly

of the fight against HIV/AIDS in Serbia highly

This thesis posits the extent to which HIV positive gay men are in this phase dependent on state institutions.

73

context of the gay club, reveals how discrimination is performed through very subtle analyses of the HIV/AIDS issues in Serbia.

mechanisms, which some persons could recognise and others could not. The body politics of the HIV positive gay men, as the result of the stigmatisation, is the very Social policy toward HIV/AIDS and the PLHIV in Serbia should reject the notion of important part of the HIV/AIDS epidemic and as such should be in the focus of any

risky groups and their connection with HIV/AIDS. Such connection enables the majority harm them and consequently that such behaviour could be practiced without limits. the process of understanding the spreading of HIV/AIDS. The number of people

The disconnection between the risky groups and the HIV/AIDS would certainly improve included in the prevention campaign and the HIV testing could be increased because integrated in the educational materials and procedures. the gay awareness of the HIV/AIDS persistence in the everyday life in Serbia should be This thesis directly intervenes into the core of the politics of recognition for to be effected sexual minority in Serbia by analysing and discussing the shortfalls of the appropriate and nuanced the disconnection between the gay educational process of the

of people in Serbia falsely to believe that the irresponsible sexual behaviour could not

the people would no longer think of themselves as untouchable by the disease. The

Serbian state policy toward the gay minority. The thesis stands and argues for one particular disconnection the possibility of more sexuality and the perception of gay sexuality as illness. Such disconnection will open knowledge about the existence of different sexualities, but, most importantly, to as the basic human Constitution development knowledge about it. of the of Republic right to education society, of Serbia. and knowledge, as regulated Paradoxically, with people in Serbia the

majority about the gay minority, as well as the differences in sexuality. The setting open up the topic of the management of the reproductive health of the youth and other social groups. The authorities have to provide free access to sexual education information the are witnessing increasing by the up of sexual education in schools is of the highest priority not only to spread the

devastating HIV/AIDS epidemiological situation without having proper

Serbia, further inclusion and the participation of the HIV positive gay men in their the material resources. They should fully open up the outcomes of their activities to HIV/AIDS cases. the public and such outcomes should be measured by the decrease in the number of programmes. Their policy should reduce the level of complacency and the wasting of

This thesis would like to propose to the NGOs, dealing with the PLHIV in

74

The politics of equality and inclusion of the gay sexual minority has to be the top priority

for the NGOs, and any attempt to destabilise the politics of inclusion should be treated as the bulk of the inefficient materials (some of it could not even be called the

discriminatory and fascist. The separation between us (inside the NGO) and them

educational as was discussed in Chapter 2) to the programmes of the inclusion and target groups through the educational procedures. The aim of this policy should be educational materials should not further transfer the discriminatory politics toward the HIV the among the people in Serbia. The inefficient attempts among the PLHIV, whether it originates in inappropriate for Serbian society. HIV/AIDS, from gay sexuality to to address any issues or experience and knowledge about the HIV/AIDS should be accessible to

(outside the NGO) has to be dismissed as anachronism and discrimination. The spending

the participation of the PLHIV and the HIV positive gay men. The transfer of their the empowerment of the gay people to participate in the educational policy with the achievements in the field of the HIV/AIDS, as well as the recognition of the differences the biomedicalisation of the subcultures the re- traditionalisation the implementation of their body politics as inevitable part of the HIV/AIDS discourse. The in different

policy of the limited funds for the HIV/AIDS should be revised and transferred from

positive gay people. The materials have to reflect the contemporary

normativisation of sexualities through the copy-paste of EU legislation only to pay lip service to political correctness, should be dismissed by the PLHIV and the NGOs as As we have seen in this thesis, particularly in the part dealing with the interviews

infected, the confusion and despair structured around the new life situation for the

HIV sero- positive gay men sooner or later evolve in the search for the inclusion within therapy are different than faced by the one on the post-expositional therapy with the services and the NGOs should develop different platforms for inclusion in accordance access to psychological help and to psychotherapy should be around the clock and the similar groups of people. The problems faced by the individual undergoing ARV

positive gay men reflects the different stage of the illness itself. For the newly

with the HIV positive gay men, the different responses in the life management of the HIV

with the need of the potential carriers of the virus or those infected with HIV. The easily reachable with the protection of identity and the avoidance of forced coming-out.

anxieties about his HIV status. The health policy and institutions, the states social

experiences.

of HIV positive gay men, as well as the people who are part of their everyday lives. These people, neglected and invisible, have every legitimate right to share their

Finally, this thesis is a rare attempt to represent and give space for the voices

The thesis highlighted the possibilities of the life management, expressing the hope for

75

those who will eventually read this and who are at the same time afraid to help their surroundings. The thesis highlights the shortfalls of and articulates alternatives sexuality. With the spreading of their experiences and the knowledge themselves because they have to reveal their sexual identity or to undertake the test and show them in practice that they are not alone either in their illness or in

to the medical, social and state policy. This thesis shows that in Serbian society there are HIV/AIDS, better understanding of the PLHIV and HIV positive gay men can be easily achieved no matter how hard it may seem. The voices of these women and men celebrate their lives and are our best weapon in the breaking of silence. many people who are not conforming to the discriminatory politics of silencing gay about

on HIV. This thesis sheds light on the people who daily work with HIV positive gay men

76

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