GHEORGHE M. T.

RDULESCU

GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY
LECTURE NOTES

2002

FOREWORD
The presented lecture notes are addressed to the students of the Faculty of Mineral Resources and Environment, to those who attend a form of undergraduate or postgraduate specialization, to all those who in their design or execution activity find themselves in situations that require the help of topographic methods and instruments in order to solve the technical problems related with implementing an investment. This course represents the general part of TOPOGRAPHY, the direct side by which planimetric and leveling terrain surfaces are measured in order to be represented on topographic plans. Based on an experience of more than 20 years, I have elaborated this work starting from what I have learnt in the Faculty of Geodesy from Bucharest, from the prominent specialty teachers: the regretted N. Cristescu, M. Sebastian-Taub, M. Neamtu, E. Ulea, from my lifetime mentor Mr. Prof. Dr. Eng. Vasile Ursea, then passing to the collaboration within the specialty department in the Polytechnic Institute from ClujNapoca (during the years 1980-1985) together with the colleagues Ms. Viorica Balan and Mr. Gheorghe Bendea, and then continuing within the institution where I am working in the present. Being addressed also to those that chose a form pf specialization with reduced frequency (Distance Learning or Without Frequency) I have tried to give this work a didactical, explicit character, each relation being deduced starting from solutions in which the interrelation of the processed elements is presented. The Author

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS
GHEORGHE M. T. RDULESCU..................................................................................I GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY.............................................................................................I LECTURE NOTES............................................................................................................I FOREWORD....................................................................................................................II TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................III CHAPTER I.......................................................................................................................1 CHAPTER II THE SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS OF EARTH, PROJECTIONS, REPRESENTATIONS....................................................................................................17 CHAPTER III TOPOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS OF THE TERRAIN.....................26 CHAPTER IV ERROR ANALYSIS IN TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS....38 CHAPTER V TOPOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS....................................................45 CHAPTER VI PLANIMETRIC SURVEYS..............................................................92 CHAPTER VII LEVELING SURVEYS..................................................................129 CHAPTER VIII PLANS AND MAPS......................................................................166

III

CHAPTER I
1.1. TOPOGRAPHY THE SCIENCE OF TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS
1.1.a. THE ACTIVITY SPHERE OF TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS The assembly of sciences that contribute to the measurement and representation of terrestrial surfaces establishes the science of terrestrial measurements. There can be distinguished three main goals of this science, from the following perspectives: Scientific: knowing the shape and dimensions of the Earth, as a planet; Direct practical: obtaining topographic plans and maps; Indirect-applicative practical: placing, directing and tracing the designed investments in the field, based on and comply with the execution project. The main branches of terrestrial measurements (Schema no.1) are: Geodesy: deals with studying the shape and dimensions of the Earth, or of some parts of it and with accurately determining the position of some points in the field, which, as a whole, form the geodetic control network. Because the surfaces that are operated on are large, the geodetic measurements take into account the terrestrial curvature. Topography: determines the position in the field of the natural and artificial details of the Earths surface, based on the points of the geodetic network, without taking into consideration the terrestrial curvature. Photogrammetry: by processing photographs (photograms) of the terrain, taken from plane or on the ground, it drafts plans and maps. Remote sensing: a set of techniques and technologies that allow the remote analysis of terrestrial surfaces, soil subsoil, from the qualitative and positional point of view, by processing the images taken in different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Cartography: studies the possibilities of passing from terrestrial surfaces which are curved, to projection ones which are plan, scaling down the obtained images and

representing them on maps, as well as the techniques of drafting, reproducing, printing, multiplying and depositing topographic maps.

TE RRESTRIA L M EA SU REM EN TS

G EO D E TIC A STRO N O M Y

G EO D ET IC G RA V IM ETRY

GE O D EO SY

CA RTO G RA P H Y

TO P O G RA P H Y

P H O TO G RA M M ET RY

REM O T E SE N SIN G CO SM ICA L ELIP SO ID P RA CTICA L M A TH EM A TICS A ERIA L D RA FT IN G CA RRY IN G O U T PLAN MAP E D ITIN G RE P RO D U CIN G P LA N P RO BLEM H EIG H T P RO BL EM G EN E RA L EN G IN E ERIN G T ERREST RIA L

P LA N P RO BLEM P LA N IM ETRY

H E IG H T P RO BLEM LEV ELLIN G

D ESIG N EX ECU TO N I M O N ITO RIN G

TRIA N G U LA TIO N

TRILA TERA TIO N G EO D E TIC L E V E L LIN G G EO M E T RY M ETH O D S IN ST RU ME N T S

O F SU P ERIO R O RD ER

O F IN FERIO R O RD E R

TRIG O N O ME T RY TRA V ERSIN G P LA N IM ETRIC TRA V ERSE L EV E LLIN G SU RV EY LEV EL LIN G TRA V ERSE

P RE CISIO N TRA V ERSIN G

P LA N IM ETRIC SU RV EY

D RA FT IN G TO P O G RA P H IC P LA N S

S ch e m a 1 . Th e co m pl e x o f a ppl i e d s ci e n ce s th a t fo rm th e te rre s tri a l m e a s u re m e n ts a n d th e i r i n te rde ce n de n pe

PHOTOINTERPRETATION

T EH N ICA -E CO N O M ICA L STU D IES L

1.1.b. THE OBJECT AND THE TOPOGRAPHIC APPLICATIONS IN CONSTRUCTIONS AND MINING Depending TOPOGRAPHY: GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY, which comprises: The study of general methods and instruments, used for different works; Measuring and representing terrestrial surfaces of limited extent on topographic plans and maps (the direct problem of topography). APPLIED TOPOGRAPHY (or engineering), which consists of: Ensuring maps, plans, profiles, bearing points, measurements and computations (that belong to the direct problem) for the design of different investments; Office and field works for applying the engineering projects and monitoring the time behavior of the terrains and constructions (the inverse problem of topography). General topography, as office science, precedes engineering topography. If the former has a universally valid character, the latter is profiled and adapted to the conditions and the domain that it is applied to. There are many applications of topography in different branches of economy (Schema 2). But we shall not discuss except those that are directly connected to the mining domain. Thus, in constructions, topography precedes, accompanies and follows the execution works, as we shall see: It offers graphical and numerical documentation (maps, plans, known coordinates benchmarks), which are necessary to study the design alternatives: In the phase of technical-economical studies, as well as of drafting the execution project integrated in the preceding aspect; The designed construction objects, as well as each composing element, are placed in the field in accordance to the project using topographic means. This on the solved problem, there exist two components of

kind of topographic operations are called tracing and refer to the accompanying aspect of execution works; Monitoring the behavior of the foundation terrain and of the construction elements during the execution is integrated in this category of topographic woks, too. After finishing the execution of the designed objectives, the above-mentioned activity is continued until it is found that the deformations in plan (horizontal displacements) and space (settling) have ceased. These topographic works are integrated in the following aspect of execution works. In mining topography also takes part in all phases of the activity: investigation, design, exploitation, monitoring. Investigation, phase of mining similar to that of technical-economical studies from constructions, is solved also through the contribution of topographic methods, which, besides the maps and plans of the studied area, based on geological laws, determines the position, shape and dimensions of the ore bodies that can be found in the terrestrial crust. In the opening and exploitation activity similar to the execution in the construction domain, the mining topography methods contribute to the good progress of the production processes. The main topographic operations in this study are: Topographic surveys of the mining perimeter; The exploitation of the opening works; Surveys aiming the spatial position of constructions and mining works, and their support with respect to the ore deposit; The correct placement of mining works; Tracing works under execution; Placing and verifying the position of important mechanical installations.

As the process of exploitation of the ore deposit is carried on, the pressures in the mining works and the influence of the spaces exploited underground upon the main mining works and upon the surface are determined based on topographic measurements.

M A T H E M A T I C S H Y SIC S P

E R RO R T H E O R Y

IT

GE O GR A P H Y GE O L O GY

GE O D E SY

T O P O GR A P H Y P H O T O GR A M M E T RY C H E M IST R Y

CO N ST RU CT IO N S M IN IN G LA N D RECLA M A T IO N LA N D REGIST ER SYLVICU LT U RE GEO LO GY GEO GRA PH Y GEO PH YSICS GEO M O RPH GY O LO H YD RO GRA PH Y O CEA N O GRA PH Y SYST EM A T IZ A T IO N U RBA N ISM SEISM O LO GY VO LCA N O LO GY PO LLU T IO N A N A LYSIS N A VA L A N D A IR N A VIGA T IO N A RCH A EO LO GY D EFEN SE SPO RT A T H LET ICS S

S che m a 2 . The ma in s cie nce s tha t to po g ra phy a nd pho to g ra mme try ha v e direindire ct co nne ctio n with ct o r

1.2. THE PRINCIPLES OF THE TECHNICAL SCIENCE IN TOPOGRAPHY

The importance of topography as applied science is undeniable. All this, in the case in which the execution precision of topographic works is respected and is correlated to that of the works they are applied on. In the same way, the leading role of topography in different application domains should not be neglected, since it implies great responsibility. In order to correspond to these requirements, the topographic works should be executed respecting the technological discipline, concisely reflected by the following principles: 1. VERIFYING THE OPERATION: At least one verification is needed for every topographic work. 2. VERIFYING THE MEASURED DATA: When the operations in field are finished, the data taken during that measurement cycle will be verified. 3. THE NECESSARY PRECISION: The precision of the topographic tracing or measurement works will be given by the execution precision of the designed objective. 4. APPLYING AUTOMATED CALCULUS: Data processing is performed, if it is possible, by using means of automated calculus. 5. THE PERIODIC VERIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS: In order to maintain over time the functional qualities of the topographic instruments (especially the optical ones), their periodic verification and rectification is required.

6. FAVORABLE METEOROLOGICAL AND NATURAL CONDITIONS: There will be performed no work in the field, except if the meteorological and natural conditions are favorable to the chosen methods and devices. In case of emergencies, there will be taken such operation measures that the influence of the environment to be minimal. 7. THE PROFITABLENESS OF TOPOGRAPHIC WORKS: The choice of methods and instruments used in a topographic operation should depend on the necessary working precision. 8. GEOMETRIZING THE MEASURED AREA: The terrain cannot be measured as it is, so it is geometrized. In the choice of the points by which topographic surface is geometrized, it is essential that the scaled down image (the plan, the map) obtained as final product to be complete, corresponding to the requirements of the beneficiary, but not to contain more elements than necessary. 9. AVOINDING LAUNCING INTO THE WORK: Before beginning a topographic work, there should be drafted a rational activity schedule, which should be respected along the entire period of execution of the work. 10. RESPECTING THE SAFETY MEASURES OF THE WORK: In order to avoid any possibility of accident or sickness, the safety measures of the topographic work and those specific to the domain that is operated within (mine, construction site, etc.) should be respected. One should work only being completely healthy. Schema no. 3 synthetically presents the main measurement and tracing topographic operations. As it can be seen, two types of angles are used: horizontal and vertical, and two distances: horizontal and vertical (heights). A clear distinction should be made between the measurement and tracing operations. In the first case, the linear or angular ratio under which a series of points existing in the field is to be found is recorded,

whereas in the second case, one or more dimensional measures are applied in the field, in order to obtain a new topographic point.

GENERAL MEASUREM ENT

Measured elements

ENGINEERING

TOPOGRAPHY
TRACING
Compu tations Known Unknown elements elements
Measur Points Measur Points es es Traced Measured Traced

Known Unknown elements elements

Measur Points Measur Points es es

Schema

Schema

Compu tations

Distances

l0

A B

DA
B

D A B D B n A l0 l0 l0 B l1 n0 l1 xl
C
II A

D B C

Particularities of topographic operations

D =n A A 0 1 DB l l B =n - 1 B 0 DA l l l0 D= A D A ---------D B B ---2
I = IB - IA

A C

B
A

D B
A

n = ---D --- 0 l l1= D - n 0 .l

n l1

S A B

Horizontal angles

SC
C

I A

CA

C
II B

I B

C C II = IIB - IIA A D B CB C I +CII = ------- --2

I = g - I 100 V II = II - g VI 300 +II = ------- --2

A C

B S

CIA

CII A

A
CIA CII A CIB CII B

D A
B

I CB = IA- C II = II - CB A C

Vertical angles

A B

I V II V

i VI B VII

A C

B i

I V

i B i

II V

A A A Z B Z B
B Horizontal comparison plan b B A Z Level B Z surface B

A A C a bB Z A
B

I V I V I

I V= g - 100 V=- g 300

Heights

ZA

a A Z A

Z A A = a Z B- b b Z= A -A Z Z B BZ a
B

ZB A Z
B

A ZA

ZB

a b

-A BZ =Z = a A Z B b-

1.3. LENGTH AND SURFACE MEASURING UNITS

1.3.1. LENGTH-MEASURING UNITS Along time, there were several measuring units. In 1790, the geodesists Delambre and Mechein, delegated by the French Academy, have measured the Earth meridian between Dunkerque and Barcelona, and in 1799, they have proposed the meter as measuring unit in France, which was considered to be the 1/40.000.000 part of the length of the Earth meridian. In 1801, there was built a length, called the standard meter, which is kept at Sevres, near Paris. In 1840, the meter was introduced in France, as being mandatory, and then it was adopted by other countries, too. In our country, the meter was introduced in 1866 by the prince Al.I.Cuza, in order to unify the measurements, which were performed until then with different length-measuring units. The last countries that adopted the meter were England and USA, which, until 1971 and 1972, respectively, have used their own length-measuring units. After some more precise calculus, there was observed that the standard meter represents actually the 1/40,000,003.42 part of the meridian, and because of that diverse solutions were searched in order to find more rigorous and more stable definitions. Thus, in 1961, at the General Conference of Measures and Weights, the standard meter was defined to be equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange radiation emitted in vacuum by the radioactive gas Krypton 84. The multiples and submultiples of the meter are: 1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm; 1 km = 1000 m = 10 hm = 100 dam. In our country, most of the old measurements were performed in stanjeni (fathoms) or other measuring units. Thus, there can be identified: stanjenul ardelenesc (Transylvanian fathom): 1 stj = 1.98648384 m or 1 m = 0.5272916 stj; stanjenul muntenesc (Wallachian fathom):

1 stj = 1.9666500 m or 1 m = 0.508518 stj; stnjenul moldovenesc (Moldavian fathom): 1 stj = 2.230000 m or 1 m = 0.448430 stj; 1 prjin munteneasc (Wallachian rod) = 3 stnjeni munteneti (Wallachian fathom) = 5.899500 m; 1 prjin moldoveneasc (Moldavian rod) = 3 prjini moldoveneti (Moldavian fathom) = 6.690000 m; 1 palm munteneasc (Wallachian palm) = 0.25 m; 1 palm moldoveneasc (Moldavian palm) = 0.28 m; 1 dejet muntenesc (Wallachian inch) = 0.02 m; 1 dejet moldovenesc (Moldavian inch) = 0.03 m; 1 linie munteneasc (Wallachian line) = 0.002 m; 1 linie moldoveneasc (Moldavian line) = 0.003 m; 1 (international) marine mile = 1852.20 m; 1 (international) geographic mile = 7420.44 m. From among the foreign measuring units more frequently used, we can specify: 1 arsin 1 sajau 1 veceta 1 Austrian mile 1 Hungarian mile 1 English mile 1 marine mile 1 geographic mile 1 yard 1 inch (tol) 1 foot (picior) = 0.7112 m; = 2.134 m = 7 feet; = 1066.780 m = 500 sajene; = 7595.94 m; = 8353.60 m; = 1609.33 m; = 1852.20 m = 10 cabeltown; = 7420.44 m; = 0.9144 m = 3 feet = 36 inches; = 0.0254 m; = 0.3040 m = 12 inches.

10

1.3.2. SURFACE-MEASURING UNITS The most known surface-measuring units are those that derive from the metric system, as follows: 1m = 100 dm = 10,000 cm = 1,000,000 mm; 1 dm = 100 cm; 1cm = 100 mm; 1 hectare (ha) = 100 ari = 10,000 m; 1 ar = 100 m; 1 km = 100 ha. The most important old Romanian surface-measuring units, expressed in square meters, are: stnjenul ptrat ardelenesc (Transylvanian square fathom) stnjenul ptrat muntenesc (Wallachian square fathom) stnjenul ptrat moldovenesc (Moldavian square fathom) (Wallachian square poles); 1 prjin flceasc = 173.024 m = 4 prjini ptrate moldoveneti (Moldavian square poles); 1 pogon (yoke) = 5011.790 m (Wallachia); 1 flcea = 14322.000 m = 80 x 4 prjini moldovenei (Moldavian poles); 1 jugr cadastral (cadastral yoke) = 5754.848 m; 1 jugr ardelenesc (Transylvanian yoke) = 5775.000 m; 1 acru (acre) = 4046.856 m. (See Appendix 1 a and Appendix 1 b) 1 stj = 3.59565055 m; 1 m = 0.27803643 stj; 1 stj = 3.8671212 m; 1 m = 0.2585902 stj; 1 stj = 4.9729000 m; 1 m = 0.2010899 stj.

1 prjin pogoneasc (yoke pole) = 208.824 m = 6 prjini ptrate munteneti

11

Tolerances when measuring and tracing topographic elements 1. Direct measuring of distances a. Exactly measured lengths b. Traversing sides outside towns c. Traversing sides inside towns T = (0.030 + 0.002L) m T = (0.004L + l/7500) m T = 0.003L m (1) (2) (3)

(2) and (3) are increased with 35% for = 5g 10g (slope angle); (2) and (3) are increased with 70% for = 10g 15g; (2) and (3) are increased with 100% for > 15g. 2. Measuring horizontal angles with the theodolite a. The case of one angle ec = 0.2 cc for Theo 010; ec = 20 cc for Theo 020; ec = 2 c for Theo 080, Theo 120. b. The case of multiple angles (horizon tour) T = ecn 3. Measuring vertical angles with the theodolite T = ec2 4. Measuring altitude differences (geometric leveling) Leveling of order I Leveling of order II Leveling of order III Leveling of order IV Leveling of order V T = 0.1 mm; T = 0.2 mm; T = 0.5 mm; T = 1 mm; T = 2 mm; (7) (6) (5) T = ec2 = 1.41 ec (4) where ec represents the reading approximation of the theodolite

12

5. Planimetric traverse a. Measuring sides TL = 0.003L (see 1 b, c); b. Closing discrepancy on orientations T = pn; (8) (9)

n = the number of measured angles (compensated orientations); p = the precision of the reading device p = 2 cc for Theo 010; p = 1 c for Theo 020; p = 10 c for Theo 080, Theo 120; c. Closing discrepancy on coordinates T = 0.003D + D/100; D is the total length of the traverse. 6. Leveling traverse Leveling network of order I Leveling network of order II Leveling network of order III Leveling network of order IV Leveling network of order V T = 0.5 mmLkm; T = 5 mmLkm; T = 10 mmLkm; T = 20 mmLkm; T = 30 mmLkm; (11) (10)

Where Lkm represents the total length of the traverse, expressed in km. 7. The leveling of surfaces, profiles Determining the height of a point T = 0.5 mm; (12) 8. Works on plans and maps a. Linear graphical precision P = 0.2 N; Where N = the denominator of the scale of the plan. b. Angular graphical precision (13)

13

FU = 20cc; FU = 15; 9. Tracing simple topographic elements in the field Value tolerances similar to those from points [1] [4]; a. - Direct tracing of a distance: T = 1 cm / 100 m; - Indirect tracing of a distance: T = 1 2 cm / 100 m; b. c. - Tracing a horizontal or vertical angle: T = [1cc 1c]; - Tracing a given height: T = [0.001 1] mm; (18) d.

(14)

(15) (16) (17)

- Elevating (descending) a normal with the topographic square: T = 5; (19)

10. Tracing construction elements and works a. Embankment works b. Foundations axes: TAX = 1 2 cm; Deviations from the designed height: (23) TC = 0.5 1 cm; c. Casing the strength structure: (22) Deviations from the transversal or longitudinal Linear (dimensional) deviations: (20) (21) Deviations from the designed height: TL = 5 cm; TC = 2cm;

14

d. Stakes axes:

Dimensional deviations: (24) (25) Verticals:

T = 0.5 cm; T = 0.2 cm / m height

Deviations from the transversal or longitudinal (26)

TAX = 1 cm; console): TC = 1 cm; Verticality: TV = 1/1000 H; H = the height of the stake. e. Sustaining walls (similar to d) f. Beams g. Floors h. Bridge crane rails Deviations from the designed opening: TC = 1 cm; Plan winding: TF = 0.5 1 cm; The height of the two wires in cross section: Horizontality: T0 = 1 cm; Deviations from the designed axis: TAX = 1 cm; Deviations from the designed height: TC = 1 cm;

Deviation from the designed superior height (or (27) (28)

(29) (30)

(31)

(32) (33)

15

TC = 0.5 cm; (34)

(max. 1 cm)

Remark: All the presented values have a guiding character. Depending on the importance of the work, the tolerances can have narrower or larger values in comparison to those presented. The Anglo-Saxon system of measuring units
Table Appendix 1 a

Unit 1 inch 1 foot 1 yard 1 fathom 1 terrestrial mile 1 nautical mile Unit 1 square inch 1 square foot 1 square yard 1 acre 1 square mile -

Length-measuring units Submultiples 12 inches 3 foot 2 yards 1760 yards Surface-measuring units Submultiples 144 square inch 9 square foot 4840 square yards 640 acres -

m equivalent 0.0254 0.3048 0.9144 1.8288 1609.34 1852.20 m equivalent 6.4516 cm 9.2903 dm 0.8361 m 4046.8400 m 2.5899 km -

Old Romanian length and surface measuring units

Table Appendix 1 b

Length-measuring units Surface-measuring units Unit m equivalent Unit m equivalent 1 stnjen ardelenesc 1 stnjen ptrat ardelenesc 1.89648384 3.5966508 (Transylvanian fathom) (Transylvanian square fathom) 1 stnjen moldovenesc 1 stnjen ptrat moldovenesc 2.2300 4.9729000 (Moldavian fathom) (Moldavian square fathom) 1 stnjen muntenesc 1 stnjen ptrat muntenesc 1.9665 3.8671222 (Wallachian fathom) (Wallachian square fathom) 1 palm 1 prjin pogoneasc moldoveneasc 0.28 208.8240 (yoke pole) (Moldavian palm) 16

1 deget moldovenesc (Moldavian inch) 1 linie moldoveneasc (Moldavian line) 1 palm munteneasc (Wallachian palm) 1 dejet muntenesc (Wallachian inch) 1 linie munteneasc (Wallachian line)

0.03 0.003 0.25 0.02 0.002

1 prjin flceasc 1 pogon (yoke) 1 falc 1 jugr cadastral (cadastral yoke)

179.0240 5012.000 14,320.000 5,754.6412

CHAPTER II THE SHAPE AND DIMENSIONS OF EARTH, PROJECTIONS, REPRESENTATIONS

2.1. THE GENERAL SHAPE OF THE EARTH
The various economic activities carried on at the surface of the Earth or underground require the representation of some larger or smaller parts of the area of our planet on plans or maps, or even its whole representation. The general or detailed representation of Earth on plans or maps needs a series of measuring, data processing and drawing steps, some having a generally valid character, others with a particular character.

N V

Ellipsoid Geoid Topographic surface

Figure 1. Surfaces for studying the shape of the Earth

17

The terrestrial surface being curved, the main difficulties come exactly from passing from the real image, on a curved surface, to the scaled down image, on a plan surface. In the study and representation of terrestrial surfaces we can distinguish: THE TOPOGRAPHIC SURFACE = real, on which the measurements are performed, and which is represented on maps and plans: geometrically and simplified. (It represents 29% from Stotal of the Earth). IT CANNOT BE MATHEMATICALIZED. THE GEOID = the medium level surface of calm seas, assumed to be continued under the continents. IT CANNOT BE MATHEMATICALIZED. (It is used for representing the third dimension: Z the height). THE REFERENCE ELLIPSOID = the operative geometric shape which is closest to the real one. (It is used for planimetric surveys on large surfaces). V: the vertical normal to the geoid N: the normal normal to the ellipsoid.

2.2. THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH

In the mathematical study of the shape and dimensions of our planet, along time, there were established several variants of the terrestrial ellipsoid, considered as being optimal (table 1).
Table 1

Half axis Author BESSEL CLERKE HELMERT HAYFORD KRAKOVSKI Year 1841 1880 1906 1909 1940 Big a 6,377,397 6,378,249 6,378,200 6,378,388 6,378,245 Small b 6,356,079 6,356,515 6,356,818 6,356,912 6,356,863

Flatness a-b = -----a 1 : 299.2 1 : 293.5 1 : 298 1 : 297 1 : 298.3

18

PN

G ZERO MERIDIA N

M EQUATOR CIRCLE

PS

Figure 2. The terrestrial ellipsoid

2.3. CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS. OVERVIEW. CLASSIFICATIONS

The only possibility to create maps on larger or smaller scales is to represent the curved surface of the Earth on a plan, or firstly on a surface which can be unfurled (cone or cylinder). The fundamental problem of a projection system is to transform the geographic coordinates that determine the point on the surface of the reference ellipsoid into the corresponding coordinates (X, Y) in the system of the projection plan. The plan representation of the terrestrial surface is performed by a series of geometrical rules, expressed through mathematical relations and practical suggestions that form the PROJECTION SYSTEM. The representation of the elements of the

19

terrestrial surface (angle, surface, length) does not assume their representation at their real size, or the representation of all of them. One of the classifications of the cartographic systems is the following:
Table 2

CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

By the nature of the distortions

CONRRESPONDIN G Surfaces are kept similar

By the aspect of the cartographic network

Azimuthal The projection is performed on a plan

Perspective Polar

EQUIVALENT Surfaces are kept undistorted EQUIDISTANT Surfaces are kept undistorted ARBITRARY Everything appears distorted

Conical Cylindrical Pseudoconical Pseudocylindrical Polyconical Circular

Orthographic D= Oblique Exterior R<D< Equatorial Stereographic D=R Interior D<R Central D = R NonPolar perspective Oblique Equatorial Polar Oblique

Equatorial D: the distance from the center of the sphere to the viewed point

Practically, a biunique and bicontinuous functional link is created: U = f1 (U, V), where (U, V) is the coordinate system on a surface; V = f2 (U, V) (U, V) is the coordinate system on another surface.

U U UM M (U,V) V VM f1 f2 VM
20 Figure 5. The cartographic projection

UM

M (U,V) V

The cartographic network: The main cartographic network the plan image of the network of meridians and parallels on the terrestrial surface. The secondary (auxiliary) cartographic network the plan image of a curved network on the terrestrial network, adequately chosen.

2.4. CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS GENERAL PRINCIPLES

a. Azimuthal

P Q Y PN P Z Y M

a M E

X M

E Pi

PS

Figure 6. Azimuthal cartographic projections

a: azimuth z: zenithal distance M: the image of M on Q (projection plan) a, q: polar coordinates in the plan the projection of Cartesian coordinates

21

x = q cos a y = q sin a q = f(z) DISTORTIONS R1 (on the vertical) = 1/R dq / dz R2 (on the almucantar) = 1/R q / sin z p (on the areolar) = qdq / R2 sin z dz

Orthographic Central

Stereographic

Figure 8
Tangent Conical Pseudoconical Secant The projection is perf ormed:
the parallels appear as concentric circles, and the meridians as some curv es

Polyconical
The projection is perf ormed: on two or more cones

Cylindrical
P E
N

Figure 9
P E PS
N

P E

E PS

Transversal (polar)

PS

Normal (equatorial)

Oblique

Figure 10

Pseudocylindrical equivalent (the meridians are ellipses, and the parallels are lines) Cylindrical corresponding: navigation Cylindrical equidistant: are recommended only for regions close to the equator

Figure 1122

P PN Polar

P E Equatorial

E P PN Oblique

Figure 7

2.5. PROJECTION SYSTEMS USED ALONG TIME IN OUR COUNTRY

Table 2 Projection name CASSINI BONE LAMBERTCHOLESKY Projection type Central Origin Radius of projection axial the null point meridian distortion circle KRASOVSKI 18761893 250 1895 19141918 230 4627.83 + 20 dif. Keeps the angles under certain limitations Keeps the angles and shapes resemblances Reference ellipsoid Year of adoption Properties

CONVENTIONAL CYLINDRICAL EQUIVALENT CLARKE CONICAL CORRESPONDING CONICAL

Tangent CORRESPONDING BESSEL plan PERSPECTIVE Budapest AZIMUTHAL

1933

232.78

23

Tangent plan Tg.Mures Secant plan Brasov TRANSVERSAL CYLINDRICAL HAYFORD

= 51g = 28g21c38cc 1951 =210:270

GAUSS. KRGER

STEREOGRAPHIC

KRASOV

STEREO 70 SECANT PLAN

CORRESPONDING KRASOV PERSPECTIVE AZIMUTHAL

1970

= 51g = 25g

The axial meridian is represented without distortions Keeps the angles and shapes resemblances

The stereographic projection with secant plan Brasov The projection center at NV from Brasov; Distortion of lengths around 40cm/km; C: central point;

C Rs 0 /2 Rs

P Y P P (XP ,YP) YP l = 2Rtg/2 0 = l/R0 l = 2Rtg l /2R0 0

0 V Stereo representation on the tangent plan Figure 12

XP XP = lsin YP = lcos

The plan image of the circle that passes through the pole of the projection and the fundamental point is a straight line and it is adopted as 0z axis, and 0x 0y;

24

The coordinate axes have been translated with 500km towards S-V by convention, in order to make these coordinates positive; In order to pass from stereographic lengths or coordinates in tangent plan to those in secant plan Brasov, there was established a coefficient equal to 0.000666667, which determines a distortion of 33 cm/km in the center of the projection and of + 65 cm/km at the periphery of the country;

The map sheets: are divided in rectangular shapes, having 60 x 80 cm; Distortions: 3-4 times smaller than in GAUSS; Advantages: only one system of coordinates is carried out on the whole territory of the country, so there is not necessary, as in GAUSS, to transform the coordinates from one meantime zone to another;

The projection areas do not have to be limited anymore.

l, l: the lengths on the ellipsoid. lt, lt: the lengths projected on the tangent plan. ls, ls: the lengths projected on the secant plan.

Tangent plan Brasov Secant plan Around 232 Brasov

C l ls
R = 6379 km

lt lt l ls

lt

NORTH Y
Cavnic

Cluj

C
WEST - X 500 km
500 km

R = 232 km Brasov Bucharest

km

Null distortion circle

EAST X

SOUTH - Y

0 Figure 13

25

CHAPTER III TOPOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS OF THE TERRAIN

3.1. TOPOGRAPHIC SURFACE, DETAILS, GEOMETRIZING THE TERRAIN, CHARACTERISTIC POINTS
Measuring and representing on large scale (1:5000 1:200) some terrain surfaces, which we shall call TOPOGRAPHIC SURFACES, is necessary for different purposes, especially for designing investments. The topographic surfaces contain several natural and artificial elements, which are interesting or not from topographical point of view. We call the topographically measurable elements of the terrain DETAILS. Details can be: NATURAL DETAILS: relief elements, waters; we include here also the destination of the terrain: forest, vineyard, orchard, agricultural terrain, etc. ARTIFICIAL DETAILS: diverse constructions, communication means, and artworks, hydrotechnical works, various networks, etc. Details cannot be measured on the whole, therefore, for topographic purposes they are replaced by CHARACTERISTIC POINTS. The CHARACTERISTIC POINTS are the minimum number of points correctly chosen to represent the measured detail, on the required scale and detail degree. GEOMETRIZING THE TERRAIN represents replacing a topographic surface by the interesting details, and then, by characteristic points, for the purpose of topographic survey. The characteristic points are chosen in the points where the detail contour changes direction and in the points of declivity change.

26

If the distance between the characteristic points is large (> 50 m), then intermediary points are chosen on the contour of the detail, which will be called THICKENING POINTS.

V1 1 2 3 4

DETAIL a)

2 11 1

12

3 4

13 5

6 3 11 2 1

5 12

4 1

b) 3 11 2 Alba river

V2

12 13 4

c) 5 14 15 d) 6 16 7 8

a) b) c) d)

Artificial detail: construction; Artificial detail: axis of communication way; Natural detail: vertical section of a side; Natural detail: river.

1,2,.. CHARACTERISTIC POINTS 11,12, THICKENING POINTS

Figure 3.1. Geometrizing the terrain, characteristic and thickening points

PROJECTIONS, MAPS, PLANS In geodetic measurements the curvature of the Earth is taken into account, because the measured surfaces are large. The points measured on the real surface of the EARTH are afterwards projected on the terrestrial ellipsoid, operation that is called GEODETIC PROJECTION. It can be seen that the projection lines converge towards the center of the terrestrial reference ellipsoid. The CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTION is the operation by which a plan image is given (through mathematical transformation relations) to the curved image from the ellipsoid, using a horizontal projection plan. This image, scaled down and cartographically processed, represents the TOPOGRAPHIC MAP. 27

The surfaces measured in topography are small, so that the terrestrial curvature can be ignored, and the projection of the measured points is performed directly on a horizontal projection plan. The operation carried on through verticals is called TOPOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.

A B
The surface of the Earth

D C
Geodetic projection

A B D C
Horizontal projection plan

Ellipsoid Cartographic projection

A D C

A D
Topographic map

B C

Figure 3.2. The topographic map. The geodetic projection The obtained image, scaled down and topographically processed, represents the TOPOGRAPHIC PLAN. The points M, N, P, R represent measured points, that is characteristic points and points of the control network in the measurement.

28

Scaling down
B

TOPOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS OF THE TERRAIN They determine the relative position of characteristic points in the space. The TOPOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS can be:

M N Topographic projection N Horizontal projection plan P Scaling down 29

R M R P

Topographic plan

Figure 3. Topographic projection LINEAR: the horizontal distance Diy, slanted distances Lij, absolute heights Zi, Zy, relative heights altitude differences Ziy (the last two are vertical distances); ANGULAR: horizontal angles i, vertical angles Vij, declivity angles ij (the last two are vertical angles).

ZAB sin = ------AB --- AB L AB AB alignment co D AB = ------( ( B) C L VC ) B AC s --- AB V B VAC V AB L AB V LAB Z AB VAB ZAB ( A) tg = ------- AB AC AB --- AB D AC H D AB AC AB D DAB C B 0 0 A ZB A 2 2 Z LAB =DAB + ZAB A Reference surface for heights ZB = A + AB Z Z Figure 4. Linear and angular topographic elements of the terrain b) Two alingments intersected in A (VB), (VC) vertical plans through A,B, and A, C, respectively. (HA) horizontal projection plan through the point A

a) Vertical section through the AB alignment A, B are two topographic (control or characteristic) points (de sprijin sau caracteristice) from the terrain. ORIENTATIONS, COORDINATES

DIRECTIONS, HORIZONTAL ANGLE, VERTICAL ANGLE

B A
0g

0g
C A

VAB AB A

200
200g
Figure 5. Directions, horizontal angle Figure 6. Directions, vertical angles

100g

30

In the horizontal plan, using a graduated circle (the horizontal circle of the theodolite), placed in its center it coincides with the topographic point A, the axes that unite the stationed point A with the aimed points B are called ORIENTED DIRECTIONS. Taking into account the sense of the graduations of the circle, it will result that the horizontal angle will be: = direction C direction B. In vertical plan, using a graduated circle (the vertical circle of the theodolite) placed in the point A, the axis that unites the point A with the point B is called SLANTED DIRECTION and it expresses the value of the ZENITHAL ANGLE VAB. It can be seen that the activity (vertical) angle AB will be: AB = 100 g VAB. In fact, because the device cannot be placed at the level of the stationed benchmark, the axis AB, and AC, respectively, will be translated with a height corresponding to the height i of the device with which the point A was stationed. COORDINATES AXES, ORIENTATIONS A rectangular systems X0Y is used in topography for repeating the measured points on the topographic plan, which is chosen such that the 0X axis to be parallel to the NORTH direction. In this system, the measured points will be characterized by the values (Xi, Yi) called ABSOLUTE COORDINATES, in this case, for A: (XA, YA), and for B: (XB, YB). There also can be identified: (XAB, YAB) called RELATIVE COORDINATES, noticing that: XAB = XB XA, YAB = YB YA and that DAB = X2AB + Y2AB. ORIENTING A DIRECTION represents the angle measured in right-handed direction, from the NORTH direction towards that direction. For each point from the terrain there can be defined three NORTH directions: Ng = the direction towards the GEOGRAPHIC NORTH; Nm = the direction towards the MAGNETIC NORTH; N = the TOPOGRAPHIC NORTH, the direction that is parallel to the 0X axis. : magnetic declination angle, continuous variable; 31

 : meridians convergence angle (in everyday practice, it is pursued that 0); The MEASURE of an angle can be any value between 0g 400g.
X Ng Nm

N AB gAB nAB D AB B

A 0
Figure 8. Orientations

X N E

AB B

AE A

AC

C D AD

0 Figure 9. The orientation of directions in the four quadrants

32

In figure 9 it can be seen that: 0 < AB < 100g therefore it belongs to the quadrant I; 100g < AC < 200g 200g < AD < 300g 300g < AE < 400g ---II; III; IV.

THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE, THE TOPOGRAPHIC CIRCLE In topography, the trigonometric circle was modified as follows: The 0X axis became vertical axis, parallel to the NORTH direction; The graduation of the circle is in the centesimal system; The graduation sense: right-handed direction; The angles defined in the circle are codified with the Greek letter (THETA), having the end points of that direction as indexes example: AB. X 90
II I

ctg
IV

X g 0 N sin AB AB cos
III II

tg AB

18 0
III

cos
IV

sin

cos Y 0

cos AB 30 0
g

ctgAB Y 10 g 0

270 Figure 10. The trigonometric circle

20 g 0 Figure 11. The topographic circle

THE RELATION BETWEEN COORDINATES AND ORIENTATIONS In everyday practice there can appear two cases in what concerns the relation between the known elements and the required ones (orientations, coordinates).

33

X X
B

AB

XAB XA

YAB

YA

YB

Figure 3.12. Orientations and coordinates CASE I: A: topographic benchmark, point designated in the terrain. (XA, YA) : known elements. (DAB, AB) : measured elements (therefore known). B: point in the terrain, which can be a new topographic benchmark or characteristic point. (XB, YB): required elements. Computations: XAB = DAB cos AB YAB = DAB sin AB XB = XA + XAB YB = YA + YAB CASE II: A, B: some points in the terrain (benchmarks, characteristic points) (XA, YA), (XB, YB): known elements; (DAB, AB): required elements. Computations:
2 D AB = X 2 + sYAB AB

tg AB =

YAB X AB

34

THE

CORRESPONDANCE

OF

THE

FUNCTIONS

IN

THE

FOUR

QUADRANTS Trigonometric functions sin iy cos iy tg iy ctg iy Quadrant I 1 = 1 + sin 1 + cos 1 + tg 1 + ctg 1 Quadrant II 2 = 2 100g + cos 2 - sin 2 - ctg 2 - tg 2 Quadrant III 3 = 3-200g - sin 3 - cos 3 + tg 3 + ctg 3 Quadrant IV 4 = 4-300g - cos 4 + sin 4 - ctg 4 - tg 4

Orientation ij Quadrant I Quadrant II Quadrant III Quadrant IV

Xij Yij + + + + -

Orientation ij Quadrant I Quadrant II Quadrant III Quadrant IV

Computation relation
iy = arctg Yiy X iy Yiy sX iy Yiy X iy Yiy sX iy

Example figure (9) AB AC AE AD

iy = 100 g + arctg iy = 200 g + arctg iy = 200 g + arctg

The tables complement the knowledge needed for solving the two problems, regardless of the quadrant in which is the orientation iy. The handbook of tutorials and problems gives different computation examples, numerically extending the solution of the two cases discussed earlier. It should be noticed that from the three tables it results the analysis of the four previous figures. PLANIMETRIC AND LEVELING TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS, INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS

35

The planimetric topographic survey of a terrestrial surface represents all the operations by which is collected the data needed for drafting the topographic plan of the measured area, on the scale. After finding the existence of a sufficient number of control points in the area, points designated in the terrain with known coordinates (Xi, Yi), the relative position of each characteristic point (e.g. 1) is measured with respect to a support basis (e.g. 23.22). This position is given by the following elements: a horizontal angle i (e.g. 1) and a horizontal distance Diy (e.g. 23.1) obtained from measurements, practically the polar coordinates of the characteristic point with respect to the support basis. From figure 3.12 it results the new orientation: 23.1 = 23.22 + 1 (-400g) Remark: if summing up the known orientation with the horizontal angle it exceeds 400g, than subtract those 400g from the obtained value. Then, applying the computational model from CASE I (the relation between coordinates and orientations) the absolute coordinates of the surveyed point are obtained. The problem can be extrapolated to any necessary number of measured characteristic points, solving in this way, from the main point of view, the problem of planimetric survey of the area that was operated within. The leveling topographic survey of a terrestrial surface represents all the operations by which is collected the data needed for completing the planimetric topographic plan made in the previous stage with data concerning the heights of the characteristic points from the area. Remark: in everyday practice, these two operations of PLANIMETRY and LEVELING are executed simultaneously, collecting the data needed for computing the complete position (Xi,Yi, Zi) of the measured characteristic point. After finding the existence of a sufficient number of leveling control points in the area, points designated in the terrain with known height (e.g. point 37), the data needed for measuring (or computing) the altitude difference between the two points are collected (e.g. Z 37.1), obtaining the height of the measured characteristic point from the next relation: Z1 = Z37 + Z37.1 36

The elements needed for computing the heights of all characteristic points situated within an area can be measured with respect to a benchmark of known height found in that area, solving in this way, from the main point of view, the problem of leveling survey of the area that was operated within.

37

CHAPTER IV ERROR ANALYSIS IN TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS

4.1. MEASUREMENT CLASSIFICATION
The topographic measurements of distances and angles, from the point of view of the relations created among the measured elements or among them and other elements obtained by data collecting, can be: DIRECT MEASUREMENTS: when the value of the measured elements is obtained by comparing it to a standard (e.g.: the distance measured with a measuring reel); INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS: when the value of the determined elements is obtained by processing some measured data (e.g.: the horizontal distance Dij, obtained from the relation: Dij = Lijcos iy, where Lij and ij have been measured directly); CONDITIONED MEASUREMENTS: when direct measurements are constrained through certain conditioning relations (e.g.: the sum of the measured angles around a point must be 400g). The DIRECT, INDIRECT or CONDITIONED MEASUREMENTS, depending on the operation circumstances under which they were performed, can be: MEASUREMENTS WITH THE SAME PRECISION: when the measurements are performed under similar circumstances (instrument, environment, operator), fact that confers equal confidence to all measurements; MEASUREMENTS WITH DIFFERENT PRECISION: when the measurements are performed with instruments in different environmental conditions, fact that can lead to a greater confidence degree of some measurements in comparison with others. THE VALUES OF MEASUREMENTS The results of measurements are called VALUES. Values can be:

38

REAL VALUES (Xi): value that cannot be obtained, since it is a theoretical, reference value (which one tends to). MEASURED VALUES (Mi): the result obtained by measuring a variable, under accepted measuring circumstances; in practice the variable is measured many times (e.g.: with the same precision), so individual values Mi are obtained, which slightly differ among each other, therefore they contain errors. From probability calculus it can be proved that the arithmetic mean M of these individual values Mi (in the case of measurements with the same precision) or the weighted arithmetic mean M0 of these individual values Mj, with weights pj, represents the value that is closest to the real one. These values are called: MOST LIKELY VALUES (M or M0) and are computed, according to GAUSS notation, as follows:
M= M 1 + M 2 + ... + M n [M ] = n n
p1 M 1 + p 2 M 2 + ... + p m M m [p M ] = p 1 + p 2 + ... + p m [p]

(4.1) (4.2)

M0 =

where pj represents the weight coefficients distributed to each individual measurement. Remark: The next assertions result naturally: The more precise the used instruments are, and the more experienced the operators are, operating in known environmental conditions favorable to the measurements, the better the results shall be; The greater the number of measurements for a given variable, the closer the most likely value M (or M0) shall be to the real value; The real value being an ideal variable (therefore unknown), it is replaced in the computations by the value M (or M0).

39

4.2. NOTIONS CONCERNING ERRORS

The large differences between the measured values Mi and the reference value X (we accept that it is replaced by M or M 0) are called MISTAKES. The values incorrectly measured are removed from the data processing, being unacceptable. The small (acceptable) differences between the measured values Mi, obtained at each measurement of a variable, and the reference value X (M, and M0 respectively) are called ERRORS. The (INHERENT) appearance of errors is determined by three main causes: Equipment causes (resulting from their construction or exploitation), which determine EQUIPMENT ERRORS; Human causes (lack of experience, the limit of sense especially the visualoptical one, tired operator), which determine PERSONAL ERRORS; Natural causes (different meteorological conditions more or less adequate for topographic measurements), which determine EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS. The difference between some two values Mk, and Mp from among the series of individual measurements executed upon the same variable, is called DISCREPANCY ():
= Mk Ml

(4.3)

The MAXIMAL DISCREPANCY (max) represents the difference between the greatest value and the smallest value from among the measurement series:
max = M max M min

(4.4)

The TOLERANCE (T) is the maximal admissible discrepancy. The ACTUAL ERROR (ei = Mi X) is an unknown value, therefore it is not used. The PERCEPTIBLE ERROR (Vi = Mi M) is a value that replaces the actual error in studies, taking the means M and M0 as reference values. The ROUGH ERRORS (MISTAKES) are those errors that exceed the tolerance: e > T or max > T

40

If in the series of measured values there exists one or more such values that fit into this class, these are removed from the computation. PROPER ERRORS are those errors that fulfill the condition: E T or max T (4.5) PROPER ERRORS can be classified depending on their way of action into: SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: determined by permanent causes, maintaining the magnitude and sign, or varying the magnitude by a known law. The SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: Are controllable; Can be determined by the influence of the environment, instruments, measuring methods; Are propagated with the number of measurements therefore becoming dangerous, since they can alter the final result; Must be removed from measurements (improving the measuring circumstances or applying corrections). RANDOM ERRORS: determined by unknown causes, expressed as small variations of different measured values (both as magnitude and sign). The RANDOM ERRORS: Are not controllable; Can be determined by the influence of the environment, the performance of the instruments and of the operator; As a whole, they are subject to the probability laws; The probability of producing positive and negative errors being the same, the sum of these errors will be close to zero for the case of a large number of measurements; Small errors are more likely to appear than large ones; Cannot be removed from measurements, but they can be diminished choosing instruments as reliable as possible, operating under favorable environmental circumstances, using experienced operators; The relation: eti = eui n (4.6) where: eti is the mean total random error;

41

eui is the mean unitary random error; n is the number of measurements of the same value; expresses the propagation of random errors. RANDOM ERRORS in direct measurements The properties of perceptible errors vi (of random errors) are: 1) [v] = 0 (4.7) for direct measurements with the same precision, where: vi = Mi M; i = 1,..,n [p v] = 0 for direct measurements with different (weighted) precision. 2) [ v2] = minim [p v2] = minim respectively, for the two types of measurements. The MEAN SQUARE ERROR of one measurement is: eq = [ v2] -----n-1 [p v2] --------n-1 (4.12) The sum of the squared perceptible errors vi is minimal: (4.10) and (4.11) (4.8) (4.9)

for the first case, and eq1 = (4.13 )

for weighted measurements. eq (and eq0, respectively) characterizes the precision of one measurement. It was proven that: Vlim (2 3) eq or max = Mmax Mmin (2 3) eq (4.14) (4.15)

for the evaluation of some values of the maximal (limit) error and of the discrepancy max, respectively. 42

THE MEAN SQUARE ERROR OF THE MEAN will be: eM = Eq -------n (4.16)

in the case of direct measurements with the same precision, and Eq0 eM0 = -------[ p ] respectively, to the real value X that they are replacing. Analyzing the relation (4.17) it can be seen that eM will be smaller if: Eq is smaller, that is when the work is reliable; n is greater (optimally, it is recommended that n 5). (4.17)

This kind of error indicates the closeness degree of the means M and M0,

RANDOM ERRORS in indirect measurements: The result y of an indirect measurement can be represented as a function of other independent variables, directly measured (x1,x2,,xn), namely: y = f (x1,x2,,xn) where xi = measurements, and if the mean square errors will be denoted with mi, the mean error of the function f can be computed in the following way: f f f m2f = m21 ---- + m22 ----- + .. + m2n ------ (4.19) x1 x2 xn Therefore, it can be said that: THE SQUARED ERROR OF A FUNCTION f IS EQUAL TO THE SUM OF THE PRODUCTS BETWEEN THE MEAN SQUARE ERRORS AND THE SQUARED PARTIAL DERIVATIVES OF THE FUNCTION. (4.18) the mean values of the independent variables from the direct

4.3. PRESENTING MEASUREMENT RESULTS

The measurement of a variable, once or more times, has a result of general form:

43

P a systematic errors; a is one of the mean or limit errors (eq, eM, etc.).

(4.20)

where: P is the mean value (M, M0) of the measurement series, after removing the

In the case when the precision of measurements depends on the measured variable (e.g.: measuring distances), the errors can be expressed as RELATIVE ERRORS (er), for example: eM er = -------M Conclusion: ERROR THEORY solves two basic problems in topographic measurements: 1. It allows removing rough errors (mistakes). 2. It determines the precision of measurements. The analysis of errors also allows the organization of topographic measurements (methods, instruments, measuring circumstances, number of measurements), as correctly and economically as possible. It should be notices that: ERROR THEORY refers only to 1. Proper errors; 2. Random errors, ONLY AFTER THE MEASUREMENTS HAVE BEEN CORRECTED OF ALL SYSTEMATIC ERRORS.

44

CHAPTER V TOPOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS

Introductory remark: From the previous chapters it could be seen that topographic measurements focus on collecting from the field the data needed to compute the following variables: slanted or horizontal distances, horizontal or vertical angles, vertical distances that is, altitude differences. Along time, topographic instruments have been created and perfected, which are used today to perform measurements with higher or lower precision, collecting from the field the data needed to compute one or more variables, even until collecting simultaneously all the data needed to establish the position of the measured point in the space (complete topographic stations), with manual or automated data recording or transmitting the data to the center of data processing. This chapter presents these instruments, their structure and construction, their usage, and verifying and rectifying these devices. Initially there are presented the classically constructed instruments, and then the modern instruments, whose appearance has significantly improved and perfected the work of the topographer.

5.1. STUDYING THEODOLITES

The THEODOLITE is a device that is used to measure horizontal directions between two points in the field (a stationed one, e.g. A, and an aimed one, e.g. B or C) and the declivity angle of these directions with respect to a horizontal plan (generated by the aiming center of the device Cv). From the measured directions horizontal angles (e.g. A) and vertical angles (e.g. AB, AC) are determined. The theodolites that can measure horizontal distances too, using the optical method indirectly, are called TACHEOMETERS.

45

The vertical

point A

Cv Plumb bob wire A 0

AB A

B 0 C AC Horizontal plan Cv C 0

Mathematical point (Xi, Yi) Topographic benchmark

Figure 1. Horizontal angle and vertical angles

B A A
Figure 2. Horizontal angle
Remarks: i) There are numerous producers of THEDOLITES-TACHEOMETERS (Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Sweden, Italy, Russia, Japan, China, and South Africa), which produce different types of

46

devices, of different form and precision. Nevertheless, all these devices have the same main parts and axes; ii) The theodolites can be classified as: Classic theodolites: characterized by the decentralized construction, with graduated metallic circles, the first ones that have appeared, nowadays being museum artifacts though they have been produced until the 50s; Modern theodolites: characterized by the centralized, robust construction, with graduated glass circles, produced even today, for more than 40 years; Electronic theodolites: mono-block construction, electronic reading, with the possibility to record the measured variables, produced for more than 15 years; iii) Depending on the precision assured for measuring angles, the theodolites can be classified as: Low precision theodolites: equipped with a WIRED reader, the smallest gradation 10c, the smallest read value 1c, the precision obtained 2c; for example: THEO 120, THEO 080 produced until 1990 by Carl Zeiss Jena; Medium precision theodolites: equipped with a SCALE reader, the smallest gradation 1c, the smallest read value 10cc, the obtained precision 20cc 30cc; for example: THEO 020, THEO 030 produced until 1990 by Carl Zeiss Jena; TT50 MEOPTA Czech Republic; TE-D2 MOM Hungary; Wild T1A, Wild T16 Switzerland, etc; High precision theodolites: equipped with readers with optical micrometer, with the smallest gradation 10cc, being capable to read values of 1cc, the obtained precision 2cc; for example: THEO 010 produced until 1990 by Carl Zeiss Jena; wild T2, T3, T4 Switzerland; TH2, 3 Germany. 47

Specification: until 1990, the main supplier of topo-geodetic equipment for Romania was Carl Zeiss Jena company (from the former GDR), and now, most of the devices that exist at the execution structures belong to this category. MAIN AXES AND PARTS OF A THEODOLITE The device is structured along the following MAIN AXES: VV: main axis, vertical during measurements; HH: secondary axis, horizontal during measurements; 0: reticule lens, central axis of the telescope; NN: the directrix of the level air bubble, tangent axis to the horizontal setting device of the apparatus.

V R2

H N R1 V
Figure 3. Main axes

H N

From the construction of the device: i) ii) iii) iv) HH VV; 0 HH; NN VV; VV HH 0 = {Cv}; Cv: the aiming center. The device can be rotated around the first two main axes:

48

R1 rotation around the VV axis; R2 rotation around the HH axis. MAIN PARTS: Graduated horizontal circle; Graduated vertical circle; Alidade circle, which supports the superstructure of the theodolite and carries the reading indexes for the horizontal circle; The base that supports the entire device; The telescope of the device.

The superstructure of the theodolite is the part that has as basis the alidade, being supported by it: the vertical circle and the telescope. The infrastructure of the theodolite is the part that connects the superstructure to the trivet plate, consisting of the horizontal circle and the base. PARTS THAT ENSURE THE FUNCTIONALITY OF THE DEVICE PARTS THEODOLITE: The level air bubble, the spherical level, the foot screws (three) of the base (Remark: bubble similar word level). PARTS THAT ENSURE LIMITING AND CONTROLING THE MOVEMENTS OF THE THEODOLITE Screw for locking the movement around the VV axis, screw for locking the movement around the 00 axis, screw for locking the movement around the VV axis of the horizontal circle (locking the recording movement), device for the refined movement around the VV axis, device for the refined movement around the HH axis, device for introducing horizontal angular values, device that fastens the apparatus to the base. ACCESSORIES OF THE TELESCOPE THAT ENSURE AIMING AND POINTING THE MONITORED BENCHMARK: Device for focusing the telescope (clarifying the image); THAT ENSURE THE HORIZONTAL SETTING OF THE

49

Device for approximate aiming, screw for clarifying the image of the reticular plate.

OTHER PARTS: The microscope for reading the values of the horizontal and vertical angles, optical plumb-bob wire = device for optical centering of the device. THE COMPONENTS OF A THEODOLITE THE TOPOGRAPHIC TELESCOPE Is an optical device used for clearly and magnifyingly aiming point (signals); Has internal focusing (image clarification) the reticule is fixed, and the image is moving in the plan; Consists of two coaxial tubes: the lens tube and the ocular tube; The lens of the telescope has the purpose to form the image of the aimed object, reduced, real, reversed (if there isnt another auxiliary system that turns the image upright again), located between the ocular and the center of the ocular lens; The ocular of the telescope has the purpose to magnify the image of the lens; The reticule of the telescope consists of a glass plate on which lines are very finely engraved (1), being called vertical and horizontal cross-hairs, (double on one side) and stadimetric wires, symmetrically placed with respect to the previous ones (figure 4).

50 Figure 4. Cross and stadia hairs

The technical characteristics of the telescope are: Magnifying power, which represents the number that shows how many times the image of an object seen through the telescope is larger than the image seen with the eye; the value is labeled with M and is given by the ratio between the focal distance of the lens and of the ocular; practical values of M: 15X 60X; The aiming field of the telescope represent the conical space bounded by the generator that passes through the center of the entrance pupil and the interior border of the bed of the reticular plate; values between 1 1.5; it is conversely proportional to its size, the high precision theodolites have large M and a small aiming field. THE GRADUATED HORIZONTAL CIRCLE The graduated horizontal circle (the bearing circle) is concentric with the alidade circle, having two indexes for reading the horizontal angular values i1 and i2. It is fixed during measurements; The diameter of the circle is between 70 and 250 mm; The smallest gradation can be: 1g, (1/2)g, (1/4)g, (1/5)g, (1/10)g.

The theodolite can be used in two positions, diametrically opposite on the bearing circle, thus for a measured angle resulting two sensitively equal values: IA = C IC - C IB IIA = C IIC - C IIB IA + IIA The most likely value will be: A = --------------, only if IA IIA; 2 Using this method, most of the equipment errors are removed. The horizontal circle must satisfy the following conditions: The graduated circle must be horizontal and stable during measurements; The alidade circle must be horizontal and concentric with the graduated circle.

51

10 0

CC I A CB
0

20 0

A
i1

bearing circle i2

alidade
30 0

a) Position I C

10 0

20 0

i2 i1
0

CB IIA CC
30 0

b) Position II Figure 5. The horizontal circle and the alidade

52

THE GRADUATED VERTICAL CIRCLE The graduated vertical circle (the clinometer) has the purpose to measure vertical zenithal angles.

V B
30 0
INDEX BEARER

0 Z
20 0

H A
Cv
0

VI J

I
10 0

a) Position I

V V
10 0

B 0 Z
20 0

A
Cv

VII
0

J V

30 0

a) Position II

Figure 6. The ve rtical circle and the 53 ve rtical inde x be are r

It is assembled in such a way that the line of gradations 0g 200g is in the same plan with the aiming axis of the telescope (figure 6); It is mobile during measurements, moving together with the telescope; The reading index J is on the support distaff of the assembly vertical circle telescope; We will obtain the two vertical zenithal angles VI, VII in the two positions of the telescope, satisfying the condition: VI + VII 400g

The zenithal angle will be: Z I = VI ZII = 400g VII ZI + ZII Z = ---------2 and the declivity angle of the telescope will be: = 100g Z or, directly from the readings: I = 100g - VI II = VII - 300g I + II = ----------2

THE READING RULE FOR ANGULAR VALUES THE CIRCULAR VERNIER (Figure 7) The reading will have two parts: P I = 261g 30c (because there are three intervals from the gradation 261g to the origin of the vernier);

54

P II = 7c (because there are seven intervals on the vernier until a gradation from the vernier coincides with one on the bearing circle.

Vernier on the alidade

P II

10

0 261 PI 262 C

Bearing circle

Figure 7. The circular vernier

THE MICROSCOPE WITH LINES (Figure 8)

V
93 92

347

Hz
Figure 8. The microscope with lines

346

55

THE SCALE MICROSCOPE (Figure 9) Vertical circle: Exact reading: Approximate reading: 87c 80cc V = 96g87c80 Similarly, on the horizontal circle Hz = 28g03c60cc
97 V 96

10

28

9 96

10

Hz

27

Figure 9. The scale microscope and the magnified image of readings

87c 60cc 80cc

0 03c 28

USING THE THEODOLITE THE PLACEMENT IN THE STATION Is the operation by which the device is placed in a correct position, ready for measurements. The conditions that must be satisfied are the following:

56

1) It should be placed very stably in the field (the shoes of the trivet should be thrust all the way into the ground, without forcing); 2) The plate of the trivet should be horizontal; 3) The height of the trivet should allow the operator to perform measurements in a comfortable manner; 4) The center of the trivet, determined by the center of the plate, should be above the station point (the point A in this case), on its vertical (VA, VA), which can be verified and accomplished using a plumb-bob wire attached to the trivet; 5) The theodolite should be stably placed on the plate of the trivet, in a central position; 6) The main axis of the theodolite should be in vertical position and should coincide with the vertical of the station point (VV VA VA); automatically, HH will be placed in a horizontal position, as well as the horizontal circle and the alidade.

V
H

Theodolite

Plate

Plumbbob wire

Trivet

VA

A
VA

57 Figure 10. Theodolite in the station

Both the correctness of the measurements and their precision depend first of all on the INTEGRAL satisfaction of the above-mentioned conditions. The order of the operations in the field, in order to satisfy these conditions, will be: Verify the station point (whether it was deteriorated or moved); Open out the legs of the trivet, raise it up (according to condition 3); Bring the trivet above the station point, attach the plumb-bob wire and satisfy simultaneously the conditions 1, 2, and 4; Remove the device from its case, verify it; Fasten the theodolite on the trivet, temporarily, preliminarily satisfying condition 6; Horizontally set the theodolite using the level air bubble (approximately); Successively, horizontally set using the level air bubble center using the plumb-bob wire, until condition 6 is completely satisfied; Condition 5 is fulfilled without disturbing the position of the device. The definitive horizontal setting is performed on normal directions (we can guide ourselves by the axes of the foot screws), watching that the bubble of the level to remain in central position, in each position rotated around the vertical axis VV of the device. PERFORMING MEASUREMENTS From a station performed using the theodolite, aim towards at least other two points (e.g. B and 1, but could also be 2, 3, etc.).
1 B 2

A 3

58 Figure 11. The station panel

From among these points, one point is currently another topographic benchmark (e.g. B), and the other points will become bearing points or are characteristic points of the details from the area. Collecting the characteristics of any of these points is similar, therefore we shall present the steps for measuring the first point (B). These are: Measure the height i of the instrument in the station; Fix the device in position I (the vertical circle is on the left of the telescope); Unlock the rotation movements around the VV and HH axes; Approximately aim the signal from the point (B), lock the movements previously unlocked; Focus the image of the signal; Using the refined movement screws, bring the aiming center in coincidence with the mathematical point of the aimed signal; Collect the angular values and other data (rod readings, etc.); Unlock the device and rotate in right-handed direction towards the second measured point, which appears first (in this case, point 1); Repeat the previous operations. The measurements can be repeated in position II (the vertical circle is on the right of the telescope), the rotation sense of the device will be in left-handed direction. Usually, for both positions of the telescope, the measurements begin and end on the first aimed point the known one (B in this case). During measurements, the following conclusion should be taken into account, since it derives from the description of the functioning principles of the device: the less the theodolite is moved or touched, the more precise the collected values will be. For that: Locking and unlocking the device should be performed very delicately; The device should not be moved unless necessary; Any operation on the device should be performed delicately;

59

THE TRIVET SHOULD NOT BE TOUCHED BY HAND during measurements (this being the most frequent mistake that beginners do).

Attention: collecting data should be performed only from very clear images, both of the aimed signal and of the readings from the microscope. ONLY VERIFIED DEVICES WILL BE USED! VERIFYING AND RECTIFYING THEODOLITES Using devices determines their derangement in time, introducing inadmissible (ROUGH) errors in performing measurements. This is why, before usage, they will be verified and rectified PERIODICALLY (3-6 month). The construction conditions of the theodolite are: The coincidence of the centers of the alidades with the centers of the graduated circles; The normality of the graduated circles on their rotation axes. Removing errors produced by not satisfying within acceptable limits these conditions is accomplished by averaging the values from the two positions of the telescope of the theodolite. The geometric conditions that the theodolite has to satisfy are: 1) The main axis should be vertical (NN VV); 2) The aiming axis should be normal to the secondary axis (0 HH); 3) The secondary axis should be horizontal (HH VV); 4) The line of reading indexes from the vertical circle should be in a horizontal plan. Not satisfying these conditions determines adjustment errors, which can be observed through the checking operations and can be minimized by rectification operations. 1) (NN VV) ESTABLISHING THE WAY THE CONDITION IS SATISFIED: Verify and rectify the level air bubble; 60

Horizontally set the theodolite; If rotating the device around the VV axis, the bubble of the level does not remain in central position, then it means that VV is not normal to the horizontal circle.

The RECTIFICATION of this derangement is performed only by the producer. 2) (0 HH) is determined by the repositioning of the center of the cross-hairs from the geometric axis of the telescope, and the rotation axis of the telescope around the HH axis will describe a CONE, not a vertical plan. This error is called COLLIMATION ERROR (c). ESTABLISHING THE WAY THE CONDITION IS SATISFIED: Install the theodolite in the station and aim a remote point P in position I, read the horizontal value PHZ1; Aim the same point P in position II, reading the horizontal value PHZ2. If PHZ2 = PHZ2 + 200g then there id no collimation error. Otherwise, the difference represents the double of the collimation error. Compute the actual reading PHZ2 in position II in which is the telescope: THE RECTIFICATION OF THE ERROR PHZ2 = 1/2 [(PHZ2 + 200 g) + PHZ2] which is introduced in the device from the screw of refined movement around the VV axis; It can be seen that the vertical cross-hair has moved from the boundary of the aimed point P with a distance equal to the collimation error; Bring the cross-hair to coincide with the point P, using the horizontal adjusting screws of the reticule; Repeat this operation until the collimation error becomes null; Averaging the values obtained in the two positions of the telescope, the collimation error is eliminated. 3) ERROR OF NON-HORIZONTALNESS OF THE SECONDARY AXIS (HH is not normal to VV) ESTABLISHING THE EXISTENCE OF THE ERROR

61

Aim a point R locates as high as possible on a vertical wall (figure 12), in the position I of the telescope, project R in RI by plunging the telescope around the HH axis, similarly in the position II is obtained RII. If RII RI then the error exists.

RI

RII

Figure12. The error HH

IGFCOT Bucharest, DTM Bucharest).

VV

The error cannot be rectified except in specialized shops (CICLOP Bucharest,

4) THE INDEX ERROR OF THE VERTICAL CIRCLE ESTABLISHING THE ERROR is performed similarly as the operation from point 2, except that here the zenithal readings PIV, PIIV are recorded. If PIV + PIIV 400g then the error exists; Its value will be 2ei = (PIV + PIIV) - 400g; The correction through computation is performed computing ei and subtracting it from the two values PIV, PIIV obtaining the correct values; The RECTIFICATION of the error can be done only in specialized shops.

62

5) SATISFYING THE CONDITION OF CORRECT POSITIONING OF THE CROSS-HAIRS ESTABLISHING THE EXISTENCE OF THE ERROR is performed in the shop, aiming a plumb-bob wire with the telescope of the device; if the vertical cross-hair does not have the same direction as the plumb-bob wire, then the error exists. THE RECTIFICATION OF THE ERROR is performed rotating the reticule, after the screws that were fixing it have been loosened up. After rectification, the second condition is verified again. Attention: THE VERIFICATIONS IS PERFORMED IN THE ORDER IN WHICH WERE PRESENTED HERE. MEASURING ANGLES WITH THE THEODOLITE THE SIMPLE METHOD (Figures 13, 14, 15)
B C 0
II CIC C CCIC I II A C CC C C IB

CB

II

B
I 0 ZB

B A
A

ZIIB

Horizontal plan A Figure 14. A simple horizontal angle

Figure 13. The station of the simple angle

Figure 15. Ve rtical angle

The method is used when isolated angles are measured. The measurement is performed in the two positions of the telescope, recording the readings: CIB, ZIB, CIC, ZIC readings on the horizontal and vertical circle, telescope in position I for point B and C, respectively; CIIB, ZIIB, CIIC, ZIIC similarly for position II of the telescope.

63

COMPUTING THE HORIZONTAL ANGLE IA = CIC - CIB IIA = CIIC - CIIB IA + IIA A = ------------2 COMPUTING THE VERTICAL ANGLE (DECLIVITY OR SLOPE ANGLE OF THE TELESCOPE) B: IB = 100g - ZFB IIB = ZIIB - 300g IB + IIB B = -----------2 Remark: C is obtained similarly. For measuring the vertical angle (figure 16) it is taken into account that during measurements the device will be situated at some height with respect to the stationed benchmark i, and the signal aimed in the point B will be seen (observable) at some height s.

ZA B h s

A B ZAB

B
D AB

Figure 16. Me asuring the ve rtical angle

64

If s i then the angle obtained through measurement will be exactly the declivity angle of the terrain B. If s i (the case when the aim situated at height i is covered by an obstacle) then the vertical angle that results from the measurement will be different than the declivity angle of the terrain B. Its computation will imply knowing the horizontal distance between the station point (A) and the aimed point (B): D AB. In this case the computation of the angle B is possible: From the figure i + h = ZAB + s h = DAB tg AB ZAB = DAB tg B thus i + DAB tg AB = DAB tg B + s DAB tg AB + (i s) from where tg B = ------------------------DAB From this relation it results that if i = s => tg B= tg AB. THE METHOD OF SERIES (REITERATIONS, HORIZON TOUR) This is used in the case of measuring multiple horizontal angles (recording the declivity angle of the telescope for each direction) from a station point. Position II B Position I

4 A 3 Figure 17. The horizon tour

65

The measuring protocol in this case is: Stationing (centering, horizontal setting, etc.) in the station benchmark; Choose the farthest point as first aim (in the case when the first point is not a topographic benchmark with which the station point forms the support basis); Aim the first point in the position I of the telescope and moving in righthanded direction aim the other points (e.g. figure 17), the last aim being the starting point. The readings for the aimed points are obtained: HZIB, VIB, HZI1, VI1, HZI2, VI2, , HZIB, VIB, where, as it can be seen, for the first point initial values are obtained, denoted with and final values denoted with _ (measured in right-handed direction); In the second position (measured in left-handed direction) the following data is obtained: HZIIB, VIIB, HZII4, VII4, HZIIB, VIIB, HZII4, VII4, HZII3, VII3, , HZIIB, VIIB. It should be mentioned that VIB and VIIB could be neglected, since they have no relevance in data processing. Processing measurement data can be performed using a table. INSTRUMENTS FOR DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES Depending on the measuring precision, the instruments can be: Precise used for regular topographic measurements: tapes, measuring reels, and steel wires and their accessories; Very precise used for measuring geodetic bases: invar wire and the necessary accessories. The development of electronic instruments for measuring distances, even of electronic measuring reels, has limited the direct measurement of distances, which is a difficult procedure, whose precision is conditioned by several factors (atmospheric conditions, environment, the skills of the operator). But there exist cases when this method is still used, for example when an electronic instrument is not available and the sides of a planimetric traverse have to be measured (thickening of the network of known points in an operation area).

66

The TAPES with divisions from dm to dm, marked by a hole ( 1 mm) in the axis, at half meter a metallic plate is marked, and the meter and the ends (0 and 50 m) are marked by metallic plates with stamped values. Centimeters and millimeters are measured with a regular graduated bar; The ends are equipped with a ring into which the tensioner is introduced during the measurement; Are calibrated at + 20C and a tension force of 15 daN (in these circumstances the tape has nominal length); During measurement the following accessories are used: ring; Two tensioners; A thermometer; A dynamometer, which is used to ensure that the tape is The steel pickets: metallic rods (~ 30 cm length, ~ 5 mm section) which mark the ends of the measured panel, 11 pieces fixed on a

tensioned during the measurement under a force equal to the standardization one. The MEASURING REEL: Section 0.1 0.3 mm x 8-15 mm, lengths 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100 m; Calibration at + 20C and a tension force of 5 daN.

OPERATIONS ON THE DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES SETTING OUT: it is the procedure through which there is ensured the coaxiality of the directions by which the measuring reels (the tapes) are stretched during the measurement, with the direction given by the ends of the measured panel (figure 19). The procedure can be ensured with a theodolite place at the starting end of the measurement (e.g. A) or just with the eyes, using some range poles placed at the ends of the panel (A, B in figure 19) and at the end of the measuring reel stretched for measurement.

67

The operator, staying on the measurement direction, 1-2 m behind the point A, will indicate the direction on which the measurement must be performed (positions 1, 2, , etc.) to the operator from the end of the measuring reel (in 1, 2, etc.).

1 l0 2 A l0 1 L AB 2

l1

Figure 19. Setting out alignments

If l0 is the nominal length of the measuring reel (the tape), which was successively stretched out along the measured panel for n times, and the length l1 was measured until the end of the panel on the last measuring reel that was applied, then the measured distance will be given by the relation: LAB = n l0 + l1 CORRECTIONS APPLIED TO LENGTHS MEASURED WITH STEEL TAPES The precise measurement of distances (support bases, execution works of high precision investments creating the control network) implies also the application of some corrections, due to the fact that the working conditions differ from the conditions in which the calibration of the measuring instrument was performed. THE CALIBRATION CORRECTION (Ck) If: l0 the nominal length of the tape; lk the actual length of the tape, in the moment of the measurement Then: Ck = lk - l0 The correction for the entire measured length (we agreed to call it LAB) will be:

68

LAB

LAB k = Ck ------l0

THE TENSIONING CORRECTION (Ct) Fr F0 Cp = ----------- l0 EA Where:F0 the calibration force; Fr the force that was applied for tensioning the tape; E the elasticity coefficient of steel, e + 2.1 106 daN / cm2; A the section of the tape (cm2). If the entire measurement is performed with the same tensioning force F r, then the total tensioning correction will be: LAB CLABP = CP ----------l0 Otherwise, the correction for each tensioning of the tape is computed, cumulating the obtained values. THE TEMPERATURE CORRECTION Ct = T l0 Where: T = Tr - T0 T0 the calibration temperature (usually 20C) Tr the temperature during measurements; - the thermal dilatation coefficient of steel, = 0,0115 mm / 1C, 1 m. For the entire measured length the temperature correction will be: C
LAB

LAB T = CT -------l0

THE CORRECTION OF HORIZON REDUCTION C0 (Figure 20) In the topographic calculus, the horizontal distance (DAB) is used:

69

DAB = LAB cos = L2AB - Z2AB C0 = DAB - LAB Where: - the declivity angle of the terrain; ZAB the altitude difference between B and A.

C0 L AB D AB A DAB B B ZAB

Figure 20. The correction of horizon reduction For variable declivity alignments, the alignment is sectioned in panels with constant declivity (M1, 12, etc.) and each panel is measured (LiJ and i).

1 L M1 M DM1 1

L12 2

2 3 L L 3N 3
23

N 4 N

D12 D MN

D23

D3M

M N
Figure 21. Measuring distances on the variable declivity alignment 70

Compute DiJ = LiJcos i and in the end DMN

N = DiJ M

The corrections are applied in the following order: LAB = LAB + CLABk LAB = LAB + CLABT LIIIAB = LAB + CLABP DAB = LIIIAB cos It is interesting to compute, for each correction, which are the limit values for which the application of that correction is not necessary anymore (For example, if for a measuring reel with l0 = 50 m, the temperature correction is less than 1mm, then it is obvious that this correction is not necessary anymore. In this case the temperature interval for which the correction is not applied must be determined. If we assume that C T = 1 mm, we shall have 1mm = 0,0115 mm/1C, 1m 50m. (TL - 20C), from where TL = 21.7C, therefore the temperature interval in which the correction does not have to be applied anymore is: 18.3 21.7 C). THE PRECISION OF DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES In optimal measuring conditions (clean alignments that allow the correct stretching of the measuring reel/tape) the measuring precision of a 50m long instrument can be 0.5 2cm / 100m. For some length LiJ, the admissible error will be: LiJ eL = 0.01 -------- = 0.01 LiJ (m) 100 Remark: in the case of direct measurement of distances, too, repeating the measurement (for example, forth from A to B, back from B to A) and computing the length as average of the obtained values improves the precision of the measurement.

71

ELECTRONIC DEVICES FOR MEASURING DISTANCES Applying the electrooptic or electromagnetic principle, measuring distances with these devices is done by recording the forth-back time parsed by modulated light, or radio microwaves, respectively, from the emitting station (located at one end of the measured panel) to a reflector (located at the other end), and then back to the reception station (which is the same as the emitting station). D=vt Where v = the propagation speed of waves the speed of light; t = the forth and back time. Practically, modern devices used so far directly display the measured distance. GEOMETRIC LEVELING DEVICES THE MEASURING STAFF (STADIA ROD) The measuring staff is a divisional bar placed vertically in the points in which the altitude difference is determined. The height of the aiming axis of the level telescope is measured on the measuring staff with respect to the point signaled by the measuring staff. THE CENTRIMETRIC MEASURING STAFF: Made of wood or aluminium, with length of 2, 3, or 4 m, width of 8-12 cm, thickness of 1.5-2.5 cm; Are graduated every cm, from 0.000 m (this end being placed on the signaled point) to 2.000 m (or 3.000 m or 3.000 m) at the superior end. Example: figure 22: S = 2026 M = 1965 J = 1905 The reading on the middle cross-hair of the reticular plate is used in the computation of the altitude differences, the other two readings having a double utilization:

72

For determining the distance device-measuring staff using the tacheometric method (see the next chapter); For verifying the central reading: S+J M = -------- 1 mm 2

2026 + 1905 In this case: 1965 = ----------------- - 0.5 2 Hence the readings are correct.

J 19

Figure 22. Reading on the centimetric measuring staff

PRECISION MEASURING STAFF (Figure 23)

79

78

Figure 23. Invar strip measuring staff

73

These are measuring staffs equipped with an invar strip and vertical setting devices spherical levels, graduated, on the invar strip, every half-centimeter; the accurate reading is performed by centering a division of the measuring staff between the two convergent cross-hairs (left or/and right) from the reticular plate. Thus, the reading in the case presented in figure 23 will consist in the rod reading C = 784.5 and the reading on the drum (e.g. 612), total: C = 784.5 + 0.612 = 785.112 cm = 7851.12 mm. LEVELING DEVICES WITH TELESCOPE The main condition these devices must satisfy during measurements is that the aiming axis (0) should be perfectly horizontal.

0 R1

CV V

Figure 24. The main axis of the level

74

These devices are called LEVEL and have the same main axes as the theodolite, except the HH axis the device having only one rotation possibility R1 around the VV axis. The significance of the other axes is the same as in the case of the theodolite. Comparing to the theodolite, in what concerns the parts, this devices contains as main parts: the telescope, the base (there also can be a bearing circle and an alidade) with the accessories needed for operation (screw for locking the movement around the VV axis, for the refined movement around this axis, spherical level and air-bubble level, the accessories of the telescope and, in the case of nonflexible devices, device for refined horizontal setting). Depending on the method used for ensuring the basic condition (0 should be perfectly horizontal in the moment of aiming a measuring staff) the devices can be of two types: NONFLEXIBLE LEVEL for which the refined horizontal setting is performed for each aimed direction (most known in our country Ni 004 and Ni 030 CZJena); SEMIAUTOMATIC LEVEL for which the previous operation is automatically performed, without the intervention of the operator (most known in our country Ni007 and Ni025 CZJena). VERIFYING AND RECTIFYING LEVELING DEVICES These are similar operations as in the case of the theodolite, having as main purpose that the 0 axis to be perfectly horizontal in the moment of measurement. The order in which the verification-rectification operations are performed is the following: 1) 2) (NN VV) as in the case of theodolites; (VsVs || VV) the axis of the spherical level should be parallel to the VV Rectifying this condition: after satisfying condition 1, horizontally set the device using the air-bubble level, and if the gas bubble of the spherical level is not centered in the benchmark circle, correct the position of the bubble using the three adjusting screws

rotation axis.

75

of the spherical level, until the condition is satisfied (setting horizontally the air-bubble level, the spherical level will be horizontally set, too). 3) The level wire from the reticular plate is not horizontal when the device is Aim some point (B) (with the horizontally set device) at the boundary of the visual field. If by moving the telescope of the device through the refined movement around the VV axis, the point does not stay on the horizontal cross-hair, then ensure the satisfaction of the condition using the adjusting screws of the reticule. 4) The vertical plan that contains NN || to the vertical plan that contains 0. ESTABLISHING THE EXISTENCE OF THE ERROR: place the device with one of the foot screws towards an aimed point (at 20-50 m), horizontally set the device, read the value M1 at the central hair, shift the device using the left-axis foot screw, rotate the right-axis foot screw until M1 is read again. If the gas bubble of the air-bubble level stays coincident, then the error is null, otherwise, by operating the adjusting screws of the level the condition will be satisfied. 5) (0 || NN) Not satisfying this condition produces the declivity error of the telescope (figure 25) horizontally set.

Figure 25. The position error of level wires

76

ESTABLISHING THE EXISTENCE OF THE ERROR: is performed through middle and end geometric leveling. For the first station, the declivity angle of the telescope (given by the error 0 || NN) is , constant, produces a reading error x1, equal on the two measuring staffs situated at equal distances from the device. ZAB = a1 b1 = (a1 + x1) (b1 + x1) = a1 b1 Through this procedure the error is removed;

1.5-3m x1 a1 a1 S1 A a) Middle geometric leveling ZAB x2 b1 x2 b1 B a2 a2 S2 b2 B ZAB

A b) End geometric leveling

Figure 26. The error 0 II NN For the second station, the device is placed near one of the points: ZAB = a2 b2 = a2 + x2 b2 = (a2 b2) + x It will result that: x = (a1 b1) (a2 b2) Hence, a2 = a2 + x = a2 + a1 b1 a2 + b2 = a1 + b2 b1 From S2 bring the level wire in front of the computed reading a 2 using the position adjusting screws of the reticular plate, maintaining the aim towards the point A. VERIFYING AND RECTIFYING SEMIAUTOMATIC LEVELS (WITH ADJUSTER) These devices have no air-bubble level, and therefore the operational limits of the adjuster must satisfy the following conditions: 1) VsVs || VV 2) The level wire of the reticular plate should be horizontal;

77

3) 0 should be horizontal. TACHEOMETRIC DEVICES These are devices that allow the optical measurement of distances (indirect methods) and horizontal and vertical angles. TACHYMETRY WITH VERTICAL MEASURING STAFF The device placed in the station, will have its aiming center on the vertical of the station point (CVEVV).

lens F CV h H

ocular V A

DAB

DAB B

Figure 27. Tachymetry with ve rtical measuring staff and horizontal aim

If:

: the distance between the aiming center CV and the lens; f: focal distance (the distance between the telescope and the center F); DAB = DAB + (f + ) DAB H ------ = -------f h: the distance between the stadia hairs;

But:

78

H: the generator number (the distance between the projections of the inferior and superior stadia hair on the measuring staff). f DAB = ----- H h f But f and h are constant, hence K = ----H DAB = KH K = 100 (more rarely 50 or 200) It results that DAB = KH + (f + ) For modern devices f + = 0 Thus DAB = KH If the telescope is slanted under an angle (figure 28), we can see from the schema that since the aiming axis is not normal to the measuring staff (MR), the previous computational principle cannot be applied. In order to be able to apply the previous relation, a measuring staff (MF) is built in the point M (the projection of the level wire on the measuring staff), which is normal to the aiming axis fictitious measuring staff (MF). S H 2 LAB
Aiming axis

MR S M H H 2

J MF

i A ZA

LAB

B D ZAB ZB

DAB Zero level Figure 28. Tachymetry with vertical measuring staff and slanted aim It results that: LAB = KH

79

But from SSM: H 2 cos = -----H 2 => H = H cos LAB = KH cos But DAB = LAB cos DAB = KH cos2 The method allows the computation of the altitude difference (ZAB), too, noticing that: i + h = ZAB + M i: the height of the device in the station; h: the smaller leg of the right-angled triangle with hypotenuse LAB; M: the reading at the level wire (central) ZAB = h + (i M) But h = LAB sin h = KH cos And replacing h = KH sin cos In the end ZAB = KH sin cos + (i M); And, of course ZB = ZA + ZAB If the aim on the measuring staff (stadia) is performed such that M = i, then we shall obtain the following relation: ZAB = KH sin cos Taking into account that usually K = 100, and the smallest approximate value on the measuring staff is 1 mm, the precision for determining the distance using this method is 100-200 mm/100m measured distance, which makes this method useful for planimetric surveys, but not for measuring support bases.

In conclusion:

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SELFREDUCING TACHEOMETER WITH DIAGRAM These are devices that are used for measuring horizontal distances and altitude differences directly on a specially constructed measuring staff. From among them, in our country, the best known is DAHLTA 020 (figure 29). This is a THEO 020 theodolite, which has a glass disk on which the diagram is traced out. The disk is concentric with the vertical circle and is fixed in the moment of inclining the telescope under a given angle. The image of the diagram appears in the field of the telescope, overlapped on the rod image. In the plan of the image the following curves appear, forming the diagram:

Fs Cd -10 Ch -10 Ch
L
d

-20 Lh Ch

Cd

C0
L0 =1.400m

C0

Figure 29. The field of the telescope of a Dahlta 020 tacheometer - The basic zero curve (C0); -

Figure 30. The reading on the measuring staff for the Dahlta 020 tacheome ter

The distance curve (Cd), having the multiplication constant Kd = 100; The altitude difference curves (Ch), symmetric pairs with + or sign, depending on the declivity angle of the telescope, having the multiplication constants Kh = 10, 20, 100.

Two short stadia hairs with constant Kd = 200 appear in the upper part of the image, being used for measuring slanted distances (Fs). If the readings on the DAHLTA 020 measuring staff (figure 30) are ld for horizontal distances and lh for altitude differences: DiJ = Kd ld

81

ZiJ = Kh lh It can be seen that in order to apply the method correctly, the basic curve will overlap the zero mark of the measuring staff, situated at 1.400 m from the basis of the measuring staff. Computing the height of a point (figure 31) results from the following equivalence:

L0 =1.400

h 1 i i ZA1 ZA A Z1

Figure 31. Computing the he ight of a point using the method of diagram tachyme try
h + i = ZA1 + l0 ZA1 = (i l0) + h where h is the altitude difference read on the measuring staff. The height of the measured point will be obtained as: Z1 = ZA + ZA1 Z1 = ZA + (i l0) + h The precision for determining horizontal distances and altitude differences depends on the constant of the device and the precision of estimation of the value read on the measuring staff: For distances, the precision is 10 20 mm/100 m;

82

For altitude differences the precision will be: < 5 cm for Kh = 10; 5 cm 10 cm for Kh = 20; 10 cm 20 cm for Kh = 100.

SELFREDUCING TACHEOMETERS WITH REFRACTION OR DIVORCED IMAGE The distance is determined on horizontal graduated measuring staffs, by the coincidence of a divorced image, split through refraction (figure 32).
V T acheometer P M 1 2

L A1 LA1

V A Figure 32. The principle of re fraction tachyme try

The prism P situated in the plan of the image will split the aimed rod image into image 1 (of point M), free image, and image 2 (of point M), imagine deviated. The deviation angle is constant, determining the proportionality between LA1 and H (the rod reading). LA1 = LA1 + c where c is the constant of the device; LA1 = H ctg

83

But ctg = 100 and c = 0 due to the construction of the device, and of the measuring staff, respectively: LA1 = LA1 + c = LA1 = H ctg = 100 H

THE SELFREDUCING REFRACTION TACHEOMETER REDTA 002 It is the most know device of this type in the countries of the former soviet block (supplied with equipment produced in the former GDR by Carl Zeiss Jena). The tacheometer REDTA 002 is a theodolite of type THEO 020 having assembled an optical-mechanical and reducing gear in the front of the telescope, with the use of which we could measure distances with a precision of 2 cm / 100 m of measured distance.

T RD RDP RO 0 P PC

M0 Figure 34. Optical coincidence micrometer

The tacheometer is equipped with an optical micrometer, which consists of a graduated drum (T) and a rhombic prism (PC) fixed in front of the upper half of the lens

84

(figure 34). It can be rotated around a vertical axis, with the use of the drum (T), obtaining: R0: the direct radius; RD: the radius deviated by the prism PC by operating the drum T; RDP: the radius moved with the use of the prism PC by operating the drum T. The image of the reading microscope for such devices contains the tangent of the declivity angle of the telescope under the image read on the vertical circle. We also present the images of the REDTA measuring staff, the visual field of the REDTA device during measurements and of the graduated drum, in order to explain the method used for measuring distances and altitude differences. B0=2.000 m

1 6 X 2.090 5 8 0 1 2 3 4 3 5 6 9 7 8 X

7 2 X vernier image Reading 3 divisions x 20cm = 0.600 m

rod image

10

drum reading 0.065 m

Figure 35. The REDTA measuring staff

The REDTA measuring staff: 1 centimetric graduated support;

85

2 trivet; 3 REDTA measuring staff; 4 internal vernier for measuring distances up to 130 m; 5 external vernier for measuring distances up to 180 m; 6 benchmarks for parallactic measurement of distances; 7 collimator; 8 aiming benchmarks for the zenithal angle. The order of operations will be the following: Install the device in the station, center and horizontally set it, read the height i; Install the measuring staff in the aimed point, centering it at the height i of the tacheometer in the station, brought to horizontal with the spherical level from the support and normal to the direction between the two points (station point and aimed point); Aim approximately the measuring staff (as in the case of aiming signals with the THEO 020 CZJena theodolite), clarify the image, aim exactly operating the refined movement screws; Operate the drum of the device, until a gradation from the vernier (the third one, in this case) coincides with a gradation from the measuring staff. Perform the readings: Horizontal angle, zenithal angle and the tangent of the declivity angle of the telescope from the reading microscope of the device; Read the value H (a division on the measuring staff = 2 m); Find the vernier reading (a division = 20 cm) which coincide with a gradation on the measuring staff (the third one on the vernier); Read the value on the drum.

i L A1 i A
86 Figure 36. The relation between LA1 and ZA1

1 L A1 ZA1

DA1

In this case: LA1 = the rod reading H + the vernier reading + the drum reading. ZA1 tg = --------LA1 ZA1 = LA1 tg where tg is read in the visual field of the microscope of the device. OPTICAL TELEMETERS These are the only devices that can be used for the optical measurement of distances between the station and an aimed point, without requiring beaconing the aimed B point with a measuring staff. The most used devices have an enclosed variable base, the aiming being performed by splitting the image of the aimed point (half of the image is right, half is deviated under a constant angle ). This angle is called parallactic angle (). Right image Deviated image

LAB

P1

P2

87 Figure 37. The principle of the telemeter with constant parallactic angle

From figure 37 it can be seen that if the right image of the point is obtained through a prism P1, and the deviated image through a (mobile) prism P2, moving this prism along the external base of the device, the coincidence of the two half images can be reached. The base is graduated in such a way that reading the distance can be done directly on it, through a reading microscope assembled on the prism P2. It can be seen that: LAB = b ctg. But ctg = 200 (by construction) LAB = 200 b b is the reading on the base of the device. The device from this category most known in our country is: THE SELFREDUCING TELEMETER BRT 006 The distance read on the base will directly be the horizontal distance (if the reducing gear is coupled) or the slanted distance if we do not couple this device. The base of the device has 30 cm; The multiplication constant K = 200; The deployment domain: distances up to 60 m, using the device, and up to 180 m, using coincidence marks installed in the aimed point. The precision of measuring distances can reach values of 6 cm / 100 m. PARALLACTIC MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES Before electronic devices for measuring distances appeared, the direct measurement of distances (clumsy and time-consuming) could not be matched by indirect

88

methods, from the precision point of view. And all this because the value of the (inclined or horizontal) distance was obtained by applying a multiplication factor (K = 100; 200) on a read gradation (whose least estimated value can be 1 mm). Parallactic measurement of distances transforms measuring the distance in measuring a horizontal angle (: the parallactic angle). The principle (figure 39) consists in placing (centering, horizontally setting) a theodolite in one of the points (e.g. A) and building a basis normal to the measured alignment (MN BA), of known (measured) length b.

M 2 A DAB Figure 39. The parallactic principle

It results: DAB = b ctg The angle is obtained from the difference of the directions AN and AM, and the basis is built equally distant from the central point B left right.

b 2

B b

M A A A DAP N DAB DPB P b B B A

B B

DBC

b b)

a) Figure 40. The parallactic method

a) with89 asuring staff in the middle b) with helping bar me

It is obvious that the construction precision of the base b can be very large (up to 2mm / 10 m of base), which can lead to a parallactic distance measuring precision of 20mm / 100 m, comparable to that of direct distance measuring. In order to facilitate the application of the method, a special measuring staff was built (similar to the REDTA measuring staff, but not graduated), with base b = 2.000 m. In this case, for an angle measuring error e = 2cc, it corresponds a distance measuring error eD = 15 mm / 100 m. There are mentioned extensions of the method for bigger distances between the ends of the measured panel or other causes that limit the method (figure 40) (e.g. the lack of visibility on the left of the point B case b). TRIGONOMETRIC METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES

C
B

DCB

DAB B
C

A A

DAC

Figure 41. The trigonometric method for measuring distances

The trigonometric method is an extension of the previous method, having the advantage that the aimed point does not have to be accessible (figure 41).

90

In this case, an auxiliary base DAC is built, designating the point C (required to be the mobile station with the theodolite). The horizontal angles A, B are measured (ideally B, too, case in which the angles from ABC can be compensated), resulting the sinus theorem: DAB DAC DCB ----------- = ----------- = ----------sinC sinB sinA From where sinC DAB = DAC ---------sinB

where B is measured or computed B = 200 - ( A + C). INSTRUMENTS AND DEVICES FOR TRANSMITTING POINTS ON THE VERTICAL These are instruments for which aiming is performed on the vertical towards ZENITH (Z), towards NADIR (N) or in both directions. They have a determining/transmitting precision on the vertical up to 1mm / 100 m.

91

CHAPTER VI PLANIMETRIC SURVEYS

The TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY is the totality of topographic works performed in a certain area, having the purpose of compiling the TOPOGRAPHIC PLAN or MAP. The PLANIMETRIC SURVEY refers to collecting the necessary data from the field in order to establish the position in the plan (the coordinates Xi, Yi) of the characteristic points of the (natural or artificial) measured details. The LEVELING SURVEY has the purpose of emphasizing the third coordinate of the measured points, the spatial coordinate (Zi), by determining the heights of the measured points, emphasizing the relief of the measured area.
Z X (N) ZAB ZB ZA ) B N AB

L AB A

XA 0

XB D AB YA YAB A
0

B0

Horizontal projection plan X AB

YB

Figure 1. The absolute (Xi, Yi, Zi) and relative ( Xiy, Yiy , Ziy) position in space of topographic points For the entire package of obtained data to have a common denominator, all topographic measurements are performed in a chosen coordinate system:

92

X0Y for plan coordinates, Z0: an origin for measuring heights, for Romania, since 1970, the zero height of the level of the Black Sea. 0 is chosen in such a way that all coordinates Xi and Yi, to be positive, on the entire marked territory.
Z B L AB A ZA a) DAB ZB Z0 0 b) YA ZAB X X XB XAB XA N AB A0 YAB YB Y c) A AC C B0 ABB DAB N B

D AB

Figure 2. Establishing the position of a measured point with respect to the survey base (j, Diy) or absolutely (Xy, Yy).

Assuming that the coordinates of the point A are known in this system: (XA, YA, ZA), the orientation AC towards another point C, where A and C are bearing points in the chosen coordinate system, that is, points materialized in the field, and that the slanted distance LAB towards the surveyed point B and the angle B formed by the direction between the benchmark A and the point C with known direction are measured, the position in space of the point results studying figure 2: THE RELATIVE POSITION WITH RESPECT TO THE BASIS AC: (B, DAB), where DAB = LAB cos (figure 2.a) (1)

THE ABSOLUTE POSITION IN SPACE, WITH RESPECT TO THE X0Y SYSTEM and THE ORIGIN HEIGHT Z0 will be: XB = XA + XAB YB = YA + YAB ZB = ZA + ZAB (figure 2.a) (figure 2.b)

where XAB = DAB cos AB, where AB = AC + B (figure 2.c) YAB = DAB sin AB ZAB = LAB sin tg (figure 2.b) (figure 2.a)

93

The basic elements in topographic surveys were presented in chapter III: the topographic elements of the terrain, details, characteristic points, coordinates and orientations. The methods used for planimetric survey will be detailed in the sequel. Remark: in this chapter there will be discussed only the study of the planimetric position of the measured points, without details concerning their height.

PLANIMETRIC CONTROL NETWORKS

The planimetric control system X0Y must be represented at the level of the terrain by a geometric network consisting of points designated in the field with coordinates known in that system. The shape and size of this network depends on: The shape and size of the surveyed surface, and its relief; The covering degree of the surface with natural and artificial details; The scale of the topographic plan compiled in the end. planimetric representation of a surveyed surface is UNITARY,

The

HOMOGENEOUS, CONTINUOUS AND ACCURATE only if adequate measurement methods are used, based on a correctly performed geometric network. In order to ensure the UNITY of topographic measurements on the entire national territory, there was created (in all countries) a STATE GEODETIC CONTROL NETWORK, which covers the entire state territory with a control network consisting of triangles with apexes of known coordinates (TRIANGULATION NETWORK). There also exist LOCAL CONTROL NETWORKS, on which planimetric measurements can be supported, the fundamental condition being the existence of the connection between the LOCAL SYSTEM and the NATIONAL SYSTEM, that is, to have the possibility to TRANSLATE the local coordinates into the national system. THE GEODETIC CONTROL NETWORK THE GEODETIC CONTROL BASIS It is built based on the following principles: The geodetic basis of planimetric surveys consists of:

94

The network of triangulation points; The network of traverse (polygoniometry) points;

The cartographic projection applied: STEREOGRAPHIC 1970, secant plan; The origin height for LEVELING: THE BLACK SEA 0 HEIGHT, fundamental benchmark; Reference ellipsoid used: KRASOVSKI;

THE STATE GEODETIC TRANGULATION NETWORK It is composed of a network of triangles structured on five orders: ORDERS I, II, III, IV that represent the SUPERIOR ORDER V that represents the INFERIOR ORDER

ORDER TRIANGULATION; TRIANGULATION; The basic condition: cover the entire national territory with known points through the created triangles; It is carried on through chains of triangles, along meridians and parallels, at an average interval of 200 km, with triangle sides lengths of 20-60 km (GEODETIC TRIANGULATION CHAINS);

95 Figure 3. Geodetic triangulation chains

A basis is established in each intersection of two chains (6-12 km), which is measured; In each intersection of chains, the azimuth of the measured geodetic basis and the measured geographic coordinates of one of the ends of the basis are measured astronomically;

The intermediary areas of the triangle chains are covered with triangles with sides of 20-60 km, too, the entire created network representing the GEODETIC TRIANGULATION NETWORK OF ORDER I;

Step by step, the triangles are thickened (triangle inside triangle) through points of order: ha). II: triangle sides of 10-20 km; III: triangle sides of 7-15 km; IV: triangle sides of 4-8 km; Thickening order V: sides of 1-2 km (1 point / at most 100

The computation of these points is performed in the following way: ORDER I: the network of points is transposed on the ELLIPSOID, computing the geographic coordinates ( , ), the points are transposed through CARTOGRAPHIC PROJECTION on the projection plan, computing the Cartesian coordinates X and Y. ORDER II, III, IV: the computation is performed in the projection plan, taking into account the terrestrial curvature, coordinates X and Y. ORDER V: directly in the adopted projection plan, coordinates X and Y. The POLYGONIOMETRY NETWORKS are rigorously measured and computed networks, which unite the triangulation points. The SURVEY NETWORK, made through the method of PLANIMETRIC TRAVERSING (figure 5), is built in the field in order to serve as basis for computing the details of the terrain.

96

Depending on the nature of the points that they are based upon, the traverses can be: MAIN TRAVERSES, based based upon on a TRIANGULATION TRIANGULATION or or POLYGONIOMETRY points (figure 4); SECONDARY TRAVERSES, POLYGONIOMETRY point, and a point from a main traverse, or, completely based upon points belonging to a main traverse.
V III V 7 6 4 IV 5 IV III

3 IV 1 2 V

Figure 4. Polygoniometry networks V

14

13 12 Main traverse 11 IV 1 2 V 97 21 Secondary traverse 22 3

Albacriver

Figure 5. Planimetric traverses

LOCAL CONTROL NETWORKS These are applied in the case when: There is no state triangulation or the number of points is not adequate in the SURVEYED AREA; The SURVEYED AREA is small (S < 100 km) and the connection to the national geodetic system is not justifiable. The local control network will be created in the following way: A polygon with visible diagonals is built (12,34); A base is measured (34): D34; The geographic (astronomic, magnetic) orientation of a diagonal is measured (12): 12; Arbitrary coordinates (X1, Y1) are assigned for point 1, such that the entire area to have bearing and characteristic points with positive coordinates in the chosen system (figure 6).

X(N) 3 N 1 3 3 12 D 34 4 4 1 2 2 4 2

1 X1

Y1

98

Figure 6. Creating the local control system

All the angles from the formed triangles are measured, correcting the measurement errors (the sum of the angles in each triangle should be 200g);

Compute all the orientations of the other sides, starting from 12 (e.g. 14 = 12 + 1), using compensated angles (i, i);

Compute the other sides of the triangle (D12, D14, etc.) using the sinus theorem; Compute the relative and absolute coordinates of the other points; DX12 = D12 cos 12 DY12 = D12 sin 12 X2 = X1 + X12 Y2 = Y1 + y12 (3) (2)

For example:

Beginning with this known polygon, the LOCAL PLANIMETRIC NETWORK IS BUILT through: 1) LOCAL TRIANGULATION NETWORKS (figure 7) are obtained at 23 km; 2) INTERSECTIONS 3) TRAVERSES there are obtained points at 0.51km; treated in the next chapters there are obtained points at 0.050.20 km.

Polygon with central point

Chain of polygons

Chain of triangles

Quadrilateral with visible diagonals

99Chain of quadrilaterals

Figure 7. Local tri angulation networks: characteristic types

On the whole, in the end, BEFORE BEGINNING THE PLANIMETRIC SURVEY OF THE AREA, all these point have to be sufficient to form the bearing support for measuring EACH CHARACTERISTIC POINT from the surveyed area. DESIGNATING AND SIGNALING THE POINTS OF THE PLANIMETRIC CONTROL NETWORK DESIGNATING the procedure of materializing the position of the topographic point in the field (temporarily or permanently). SIGNALING the procedure of marking the aimed points (temporarily or permanently). DESIGNATING POINTS TEMPORARILY: - for an interval of a few years (at most 5 years), it is performed with: Wood stakes (hardwood: beech, oak), 30-50 cm length, 3-5 cm square section, with a nail hammered at the superior end, in axis, marking the mathematical point (whose coordinates are computed), the inferior end is sharpened. Metallic pegs, 20-30 cm length, 1.5-2.5 cm section, hemispheric upper end with a chertat sign ( 1 mm) in the axis, which will represent the mathematical point. In both cases, the stakes will be beaten in the ground all the way, such that 2-5 cm will remain at the surface. Attention: the stakes must be fixed vertically in the ground. PERMANENTLY (MARKING THE POINTS): - marking with a longer usage period of the point;

100

It is performed using concrete (reinforced concrete) boundary marks, shaped as a truncated pyramid (upper side 10-20 cm, lower side 20-40 cm, height 60100 cm);

Engrave a metallic peg in the axis, with a hemispheric end, similar to the one presented previously; It is recommended that the marking to be performed underground, too, for the case when the boundary mark from the surface is destroyed, such that there would exist the possibility to reconstruct the mathematical point on the surface (figure 8).

2 1

20 - 30 cm Figure 8. Marking the points

Thus, after digging the marking ditch, the signal from the underground 1 (underground mark) is placed at the bottom, then a signaling layer (ground bricks) 2, then

101

10

20

30

30-60

20-30

the ditch is filled up with the soil resulted from the digging, framing the concrete boundary mark 4, by marking from the exterior. Remark: For the signal from the surface to be on the same vertical with the underground mark, an external marking is performed (figure 9), by intersecting the axes 13 and 24, obtaining the position of the mathematical point P (the axis of the boundary mark, for which the vertical VV with the plane coordinates Xp and Yp, are defined).

1 -2m

4 Figure 9. Marking the mathematical point

Protect the benchmark with a filling layer 5.

SIGNALING POINTS It is the operation by which aiming points from the station point is allowed, signaling the vertical VV of the measured topographic point or characteristic point. Signaling can be: Temporary, only during measurements, which is performed with the use of the wood or metallic peg (square, hexagonal, triangular or circular section, with 3-5 cm diagonal), 2 m length, painted alternating in white/red, sharpened at the lower end, in order to allow the correct placement on the measured point;

102

Permanent: with beacons, towers, pillar signals, called GEODETIC (TOPOGRAPHIC) SIGNALS (figure 10).

Signaling can be: Centric: the axis of the signal coincides with the vertical axis of the signaled geodetic (topographic) point (figure 10 c, d). Eccentric: there exists a measured distance e (the eccentricity of the signal) between the axis of the signal (VsVs) and the vertical axis of the signaled geodetic (topographic) point;
signal l V e V pillar theodolite

H H H platform

VS

a) beacon at the ground

b) beacon in the tree

c) tower at the ground

d) pillar signal

Figure 10.

Another element that has to be measured is the height of the signal (H) with respect to the height of the signaled mathematical point in the field.

In the case of the pillar signal, used in populated centers, the beacons are placed on the terraces (roofs) of buildings, on concrete pillars, which allow both stationing with the theodolite (after the signal was removed) and aiming the point by a signal. Therefore, it is a centric signal. Also, unstationable points can be used as signals, which will be used only as direction points: the peaks of the church spires, lightning rods on industrial buildings.

103

platform mount

Regardless of the signaling method, the GEODETIC (TOPOGRAPHIC) SIGNAL must be: visible and firmly fixed in the ground (tree, building). THE TOPOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF POINTS (THE MARKING FILE OF THE TOPOGRAPHIC POINT) It allows the identification of the position of a topographic point in the field, in the case when one wants to use it in topographic measurements (figure 11).

Nr .8 Nr .6 9.43

Botiz street Nr .4 4.75 b1 8.21 Nr .2 104 Alba Iulia street

16.25 Nr .3 Nr .5

Figure 11. The marking file of a topographic point The marking file of the point will contain: The coordinates (Xi, Yi), eventually (Zi) of the benchmark; The description of the used benchmark; At least TWO, optimally THREE distances with respect to known objects from the field (building corners, electricity or telephone poles, duct tops, etc.). The position of the topographic point can be reconstructed by linearly intersecting these distances, identifying it in the field.

COMPUTING THE COORDINATES OF CONTROL NETWORKS THE METHOD OF INTERSECTIONS DIRECT INTERSECTION The points A, B, and C are the geodetic (topographic) benchmarks known in the field. Therefore, there are known the following: (XA, YA,); (XB, YB); (XC, YC).

N C N AB AP 1 A 1 P 3 3 2 BP 2

BA

B Figure 12. Direct intersection The point P is the new benchmark, therefore there are performed measurements (the angles i, i) and computations in order to determine its coordinates (Xp, Yp). It can be seen that from any combination A and B, B and C, C and A, there result the coordinates of the point P, the computations being similar. Hence, for the first combination: AB is obtained from the coordinates:

105

YAB tgAB = --------------XAB BA = AB + 200g AP = AB + 1 BP = BA - 2 YAP YP - YA tgAP = --------------- = ------------XAP XP - XA YBP YP - YB tgBP = --------------- = ------------XBP XP XB (XP - XA) tg AP = YP YA (+) (XP - XB) tgBP = YP YB (-) (figure 12) (figure 12)

(4)

(5) (6) (7)

(8)

(9)

XP tg AP - XA tgAP - XP tgBP + XB tgBP = YP YA - YP + YB XP (tg AP - tgBP) = YB YA+ XA tgAP - XB tgBP YB YA+ XA tgAP - XB tgBP => XP = -------------------------------------------------tgAP - tg BP YP = YA + (XP XA) tgAP or YP = YB + (XP XA) tg BP This first alternative, resulting from the combination A and B, can be verified by the values obtained from the combinations B and C, and C and A. If the values are close (within the margins), then the most likely value of the coordinates of the new point will be the arithmetic mean of the values obtained from the three combinations (separately for XP and YP, respectively). (10)

106

It should be noticed that this method allows for a first adjustment of the measured values since the sum of the angles measured in the points A, B, and C must be equal to 200g. The difference (within acceptable margins) will be equally corrected on the six angles, satisfying the previous condition. RESECTION (INDIRECT INTERSECTION, POTHNOT PROBLEM, MAP PROBLEM) In this case, stationing in the new point P, aim three known points M, N, and R. Measure the angles formed in P by the directions towards the three known points (,,) (figure 13).
X M P N N

P M

R P R 0 Figure 13. Resection N Y

Write the analytic equations of the three right lines PM, PN, PR: (YM YP) = (XM XP) tgPM (YN YP) = (XN XP) tgPN (YR YP) = (XR XP) tgRN Choosing PM as unknown it can be seen that PN = PM - ( + ) 107

and replacing it in the group of previous equations, we obtain: 1. (YM YP) = (XM XP) tgPM; 2. (YN YP) = (XN XP)tg [PM - ( + )]; 3. (YR YP) = (XR XP) tg (PM - ). a system with 3 equations and 3 unknowns: Xp, Yp, tgPM. Choosing tgPM as the first unknown and solving the system: 1. YP = YM + (XP XM) tgPM; 2. YP = YN + (XP XN) tg [PM - ( + )]; 3. YP = YR + (XP XR) tg (PM - ). or: 1. YP = YM + (XP XM) tgPM; tg PM - tg( + ) 2. YP = YN + (XP XN) ---------------------------1+ tg PM tg( + )] tg PM - tg 3. YP = YR + (XP XR) ----------------------1+ tg PM tg subtracting the equations 2 and 3 from equation 1, we obtain: tg PM - tg( + ) 1) 2) = (YM + (XM XP) tg PM = YN + (XP XN) ------------------------ (12) 1+ tg PM tg( + ) tg PM - tg 1) 3) = (YM + (XM XP) tg PM = YR + (XP XR) -------------------1+ tg PM tg We proceed, trying to eliminate XP: tg PM - tg( + ) XPtg PM - XMtgPM + YM YN XP ---------------------------- + (11)

108

1+ tg PM tg( + ) tg PM - tg( + ) + XN ---------------------------- = XPtgPM - XMtg PM + YM - YR XMtgPM tg PM - tg tg PM - tg - XR ----------------------- + --------------------- = 0 1+ tg PM tg 1+ tg PM tg tg PM - tg( + ) XP[tg PM - ------------------------] = YN YM + XMtgPM + 1+ tg PM tg( + ) tg PM - tg( + ) + XN---------------------------1+ tg PM tg( + ) tg PM - tg XP[tg PM - --------------------] = YR YM + XMtg PM + 1+ tg PM tg tg PM - tg + XR ----------------------1+ tg PM tg We divide the two relations:
tg PM - tg( + ) tg PM - tg( + ) XP[tg PM - --------------------------] YN YM + XMtg PM + XN ---------------------------1+ tg PM tg( + ) 1+ tg PM tg( + ) --------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------tg PM - tg tg PM - tg XP[tg PM - --------------------] 1+ tg PM tg YR YM + XMtg PM + XR -----------------------1+ tg PM tg

(13)

(14)

and we obtained an equation with only one unknown tgPM. Denoting X = tgPM, we shall have: X- tg( + ) X - --------------------X - tg( + ) YN YM + XMX+ XN -------------------109

1+ X( + ) 1+ X tg( + ) ----------------------------- = ------------------------------------------------------- (15) X - tg X - tg X - --------------YR YM + XMX + XR --------------1+ X tg 1+ X tg X + X tg ( + ) X + tg ( + ) ------------------------------------------1 + X tg ( + ) ---------------------------------------------- = X + X tg + X tg ---------------------------1 + X tg
YN XYN tg ( + ) - YM - XYMtg ( + ) + XXM + XXMtg ( + ) + XXN - XNtg ( + ) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 + X tg ( + ) YR - XYR tg - YM -XYMtg + XXM + XXMtg + XXR - XRtg -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 + X tg

= -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (16)

X tg ( + ) + tg ( + ) --------------------------------- = X tg + tg
YN - XYN tg ( + ) - YM - XYMtg ( + ) + XXM + XXMtg ( + ) + XXN - XNtg ( + )

= --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------XXMtg + XXR - XRtg Solving the equation we obtain: (YN YM) ctg ( + ) + (YM YR) ctg + XR XN X = tg PM= -------------------------------------------------------------------(XN XM) ctg ( + ) + (XM XR) ctg - YR + YN and we replace it in the corresponding relations, and we obtain (XR, YR). (17)

COMBINED INTERSECTION Combining the previous methods, we obtain another method, in which the precision of coordinates computation can be improved, because there exists the possibility to adjust the measured angles (figure 14).

110

Therefore, the following three conditions must be satisfied: (1+1) + (2+2) + (3+3) = 200g ( 1 + 2 + 3) = 400g 1 + 2 + 1= 200g 2 + 3 + 2 = 200g 1 + 3 + 3 = 200g Only after the measured angular values have been adjusted such that the previously mentioned conditions to be satisfied, we can proceed to computations. (20) (18) (19)

B 2 A 1 1 P 2 1 3 3 3 2

0 Figure 14. Combined intersection

The

computation

of

coordinates

id

performed

through

DIRECT

INTERSECTION. The purpose if to thicken the control networks (triangulations, polygonations, intersections), in order to have the necessary number of known points in the field, on which the planimetric survey of the area to be based on. 111

CLASSIFICATION OF TRAVERSES A. TWO ENDS TRAVERSES, which can be: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1) A DA1 B A 1 2

12 1D

With two ends and two orientations; With two ends and one starting orientation; With two ends and one ending orientation; With two ends and no known orientation. With one end and one starting orientation; In closed circuit.

B. ONE END TRAVERSES, which can be:

C D 2C B C D A D A1 A B A 1

1 1 D 12 2

5)

2) 1 C 2 3)

6) 2 7)

A 1 A 1 A

2 4) 2

C C

B A E F

1
Node

C 3

Figure 15. Types of planimetric traverses and the measured elements

DESIGNING PLANIMETRIC TRAVERSES

112

The route of planimetric traverses, their shape and type, are chosen on a topographic plan of the studied area (scale > 1:5000). The following conditions will be respected for the design: The alignments of traverses should be near the details that will be surveyed and should cover the entire area; The traverse points should be situated in stable, non-circulated areas; There should be visibility between the neighboring points of the traverse, and from them towards the details; The length of traverse sides should be within the interval 50-200 m, with an optimum at 100-150 m, and a total length that should not exceed 3000m; The traverse sides should be close in length, and the traverse should be as linear as possible; The instruments for measuring angles and distances should be carefully chosen, and should be verified before usage. FIELD OPERATIONS DESIGNATING TRAVERSE POINTS MAIN TRAVERSES the ends of the main traverses will be included in the control network, and therefore, will be designated by concrete boundary marks (on the ground, under ground), and the signaling will be performed with a butterfly beacon. SECONDARY TRAVERSES designating will be performed with wood or metallic stakes (temporary designating), and the signaling will be performed with pegs. MEASURING TRAVERSE SIDES It can be performed directly with the steel tape or electronically. Directly, there is measured the tilted distance LiJ, which will be reduced at the horizon with the relation: DiJ = LiJ cos i

113

Each side will be measured back and forth, the difference between the value L iJ obtained measuring forth (from the point i towards the point J) and the value LiJ obtained measuring back (from J towards i) must be less than the margin Ti: Ti = 0.003L (22)

If this condition is satisfied, the most likely value of the length of the measured side will be the arithmetic mean of the two values: LiJ = LiJ + LJi (23)

LiJ will be corrected based on the principle of applying corrections for direct measuring of distances. MEASURING ANGLES FORMED BY THE TRAVERSE SIDES DECLIVITY ANGLES Back and forth, position I, position II (figure 16).

V J

Ji

iJ i Figure 16. Declivity angle

The two means obtained forth iJ and back Ji must be close in value, within the margin 1c. HORIZONTAL ANGLES In each traverse point, position I, position II.

114

All the horizontal angles are measured on the same side of the traverse, condition that is satisfied if each angle is measured from the back side, in right handed direction, towards the front side (figure 17).

i J i h J k

Figure 17.
Practically, both in the case of declivity angles and in the case of horizontal ones, the specifications from the chapter Measuring angles with the theodolite the case of one angle will be respected. COMPUTATIONAL OPERATIONS 1. TRAVERSE SUPPORTED IN BOTH ENDS Known elements: A, B, C, and D topographic benchmarks of given coordinates: (XA, YA); (XB, YB); (XC, YC); (XD, YD); 1, 2, new topographic benchmarks. Unknown elements: (X1, Y1); (X2, Y2); Remark: only two new points were chosen, to prevent the useless increase of performed computations; in the case when the traverse has more than two new points, the

115

computations are the same, adding the computational elements corresponding to the other points:

N 1

12

N CD 2C C C D 2 21
2C

A A BA

A1 1 D A1 1A D 12

C2

Figure 18. Traverse supported in both ends

Measured elements: Horizontal angle i (position I, position II); Declivity angle i (position I, position II, back and forth); Slanted distances LiJ (back and forth).

COMPUTATIONS THE MEAN OF THE MEASURED ELEMENTS The average length of the slanted distance LiJ = LiJ + Lji; iJ + Ji The average declivity angle iJ = ---------------(24) 2 i + I The average horizontal angle i = -------------2

In order to simplify the notations, these values will be denoted with (LiJ, iJ, i).

COMPUTING HORIZONTAL DISTANCES AND ALTITUDE DIFFERENCES 116

DiJ = LiJ cos iJ ZiJ = LiJ cos iJ a) COMPUTING SUPPORT ORIENTATIONS From the coordinates of the bearing points, analytically results: YAB YB - YA tg AB = ---------- = ------------ initial support orientation; XAB XB - XA (25) YCD YD - YC tg CD = ---------- = ------------ final support orientation; XCD XD - XC b) COMPUTING THE COARSE ORIENTATIONS OF THE TRAVERSE SIDES (figure 18) A1 = AB + A 400g (26)

Remark: Parsing the traverse in the mentioned direction, the orientation towards the front side will results as sum of the orientation towards the back side and the horizontal angle between the two sides; if by summing 400g is exceeded, than this should be subtracted from the sum. 1A = A1 + 200g (27)

Remark: the inverse orientation Ji will results as sum of the direct orientation iJ and 200g; the same specification for exceeding 400g in the sum. With these specifications: 12 = 1A + 1 400 g 21 = 12 + 200 g 2C = 21 + 2 400 g C2 = 2C + 200 g cCD = C2 + C 400 g (28)

117

 cCD is the value of the ending orientation obtained from the calculus. c) COMPUTING ERRORS, CORRECTIONS p: reading precision of the theodolite; n: number of stations. c1) ERROR OF CLOSING DISCREPANCY ON THE ORIENTATION

e = cCD - CD

(29), condition e < T = pn

Remark: the errors are differences between the erroneous value (affected by errors) and the correct value (initially given). c2) TOTAL CORRECTION ON THE ORIENTATION

C = - e
Remark: logical C + e = 0 c3) UNITARY CORRECTION ON THE ORIENTATION

Cu = -----n n: the number of measured horizontal angles, the number of stations.

(30)

Remark: the weight factor is the same, because the same device was used, in the same circumstances, with the same methods (number of measurements), with the same computational methods for determining the final values of the measured elements, and the operations were performed by the same devices. d) COMPENSATING ORIENTATIONS A1 = A1 + 1 x Cu X 12 = 12 + 2 x Cu

2C = 2C + 3 x Cu YiJ XJ CD = cCD + 4 x Cu = CD (COMPULSORY VERIFICATION) iJ XiJ e) COMPUTING COARSE RELATIVE COORDINATES (figure 19) iJ Xi i

Yi

118

YJ

Figure 18. Computing relative coordinates

It is known that: XiJ = DiJ cosiJ YiJ = DiJ siniJ and will result: XA1 = DA1 cosA1 YA1 = DA1 sinA1 X12 = D12 cos12 Y12 = D12 sin12 X2C = D2C cos2C Y2C = D2C sin2C f) COMPUTING THE ERROR OF CLOSING DISCREPANCY ON THE COORDINATES C (31)

eX = XiJ - XAC
A C

eY = YiJ - YAC
A

119

C Where XiJ = XA1 + X12 + X2C A C Where YiJ = YA1 + Y12 + Y2C A XAC = XC XA YAC = YC YA Remark: The measuring margins should be respected.

e = e2X + e2Y, the total closing discrepancy error

C

(32)

iJ
C A

T = 0.003 iJ + -----------500 the closing tolerance on coordinates, where

A C

(33)

iJ = DA1 + D12 + D2C [m]

A

(34)

g) COMPUTING THE CORRECTIONS IN RELATIVE COORDINATES g1) CAX = - eAX total corrections CAY = - eAY g2) Unitary correction: CAX CuAX = ------------C

(35)

iJ
A

(36)

120

CAY CuAY = ------------C

iJ
A

h) COMPENSATING RELATIVE COORDINATES XA1 = XA1 + CuAX DA1 YA1 = YA1 + CuAY DA1 X12 = X12 + CuAX D12 Y12 = Y12 + CuAY D12 X2C = X2C + CuAX D2C Y2C = Y2C + CuAY D2C CONTROLLING COMPUTATIONS
C

(37)

XiJ = XAC
A C

YiJ = YAC
A

i) COMPUTING THE ABSOLUTE COORDINATES OF THE TRAVERSE COORDINATES X1 = XA + XA1 Y1 = YA + YA1 X2 = X1 + X12 Y2 = Y1 + Y12 VERIFICATION: XCC = X2 + X2C = XC

121

YCC = Y2 + Y2C = YC

(38)

Remark: the computation of the heights of the points is performed in the following way: Coarse relative heights ZA1 = DA1tg A1 Z12 = D12tg 12 Z2C = D2Ctg 2C Closing discrepancy error on heights:
C

(39)

eZ = ZiJ - ZAC
A

(40)

Correction on relative heights: CZ= - eZ (41)

Unitary correction: C Z CuZ = ----------C

(42)

YiJ
A

Compensating relative heights: ZA1 = ZA1 + CuZ DA1 Z12 = Z12 + CuZ D12 Z2C = Z2C + CuZ D2C

Computing absolute heights: Z1 = ZA + ZA1 Z2 = Z1 + Z12 (43)

Verification:

122

ZCC = Z2 + Z2C = ZC, where ZC is the height of the point C, from the initial data. 2. COMPUTING TRAVERSES WITH TWO ENDS AND ONE STARTING ORIENTATION The same field and computational steps are parsed, until point c of the previous case, because we have no ending orientation. Therefore, steps c, d are not parsed. Having the coarse values of the orientations, we move to the computation of step e and we parse the same computational steps until the end, including the one for the heights Zi. 3. COMPUTING TRAVERSES WITH TWO ENDS AND ONE ENDING ORIENTATION This case is treated as the previous one, computing the coarse orientations from C towards A: C2 = CD - C, 21 = 2C - 2, 11 = 12 - 1. 4. COMPUTING TRAVERSES WITH TWO ENDS, WITH NO KNOWN ORIENTATIONS (MINING TRAVERSE)

N N

N 2

23

N 3C 3 3 32 D 3C C3 C

1 1

12 D 12 1A

2 21

D 23

Figure 20. Mining traverse

123

A and C are existing bearing points, (XA, YA), (XC, YC) are known, 1, 2, 3, are new bearing points, (X1, Y1), (X2, Y2), (X3, Y3) are required, (i, i, LiJ) will be measured, data processing in the field will be performed as in the first presented case. Because we have no starting orientation, and no ending orientation, we have no possibility to compute any orientation. We apply a preliminary computation method: We assume that:

P11 = 100g00c00cc
XPA = 1000.000 m YPA = 1000.000 m This allows us to compute: (44)

P1A = PP1 + 200g P12 = PP1 + 1 - 400g P21 = P12 + 200g P23 = P21 + 2 - 400g P32 = P23 + 200g P3C = P32 + 3 - 400g
Preliminary coordinates: XPA1 = DA1 cos PA1 YPA1 = DA1 sin PA1 XP12 = D12 cos P12 YP12 = D12 sin P12 XP23 = D23 cos P23 YP23 = D23 sin P23 XP3C = D3C cos P3C YP3C = D3C sin P3C

124

Preliminary absolute coordinates: XP1 = XPA+ XPA1 YP1 = YPA+ YPA1 XP2 = XP1+ XP12 YP2 = YP1+ YP12 XP3 = XP2+ XP23 YP3 = YP2+ YP23 XPC = XP3+ XP3C YPC = YP3+ YP3C

The orientation between the assumed bearing points will result from: YPAC YPC - YPA tg PAC = ------------ = ------------- XPAC XPC - XPA (45)

The orientation between the bearing points, from the initial data, will be: YAC YC - YA tg AC = ------------ = -------------XAC XC - XA (46)

The difference on orientations: = PAC - AC (47)

will be the rotation angle of the entire system arbitrarily chosen, therefore the correct orientations will be:

A1 = PA1 + 12 = P12 + 23 = P23 + 3C = P3C +

From this step, assuming that the orientations computed before are the compensated (correct) ones, the same steps will be parsed, beginning with step e, as in the first presented case, including for heights (if it is the case).

125

SURVEY OF PLANIMETRIC DETAILS

Initially, prepare a schema containing the details measured in the station see figure 21.

9 10

12 13

8 Control network 22 12

3-12

11

14 Detail

19 21 20
Measurement direction

15 16

Characteristic point

17 Figure 21. Survey of details

METHOD USED: the method of radiation, hence a method with polar coordinates (12, D3.12) of the position of the characteristic point, with respect to a support base (e.g. the position of the characteristic point 12 with respect to the support base 32). Parsing the steps of details survey in the field will respect the following specifications: The maximal distance bearing point characteristic point is 100 m; The number of points measured from one station should be less than 100; The measurement of characteristic points will be performed in right handed direction, starting from the support base, in one position of the telescope (position I); The first and last aim will be towards the bearing point (e.g. from station 3 towards point 2);

18

126

For each characteristic points, measure the following elements: distance DiJ). The horizontal angle i; The declivity angle of the terrain i; The slanted direction LiJ (or, directly, the horizontal

Distances can be measured directly (with the measuring reel) of indirectly (tacheometrically or electronically). OFFICE COMPUTATIONS (e.g. point 12, station 3, base aim 32): Reducing the distances at the horizon D3.12 = L3.12 cos 12 Computing the altitude difference Z3.12 = L3.12 sin 12 Computing the planimetric relative coordinates: X3.12 = D3.12 cos 3.12 Y3.12 = D3.12 sin 3.12 where 3.12 = 32 + 12 Computing the absolute coordinates: X12 = X3 + X3.12 Y12 = Y3 + Y3.12 Z12 = Z3 + Z3.12 COMPILING THE PLANIMETRY It represents the operations by which the bearing points and characteristic points measured in the surveyed area are repeated on a sheet of paper (tracing paper). The order of the operations for compiling the plan is the following: The layout of the paper sheet for representing the plan is chosen based on the shape and size of the measured area and on the repeating scale; The exterior frame (representing the final contour of the plan) is traced at 1-2 cm from the edge of the paper sheet; There are traced the border of the plan and the index containing: drafting date, implied factors (institutions, persons, the beneficiary of the work), repeating scale, specifications concerning the measured area (locality, county); (52) (51) (50) (48) (49)

127

The graticule of the plan is traced (every 5 cm, or every 10 cm), in the coordinate system in which the work was performed (X0Y); Repeat through Cartesian coordinates the points of the control network and other points for which these coordinates were computed; Repeat through polar coordinates (i, DBENCHMARK.i) the characteristic points, the angle with the use of a protractor with centesimal gradations, the distance: DBENCHMARK..i dBENCHMARK.i = ------------------N (53)

N is the denominator of the plan scale, with a graduated bar. Attention: the repeating precision will be 0.1g - 0.2g for angles and 0.1 - 0.2 mm for distances; The helping points and lines are erased; The details are contoured, uniting the characteristic points with each other, according to the terrain schema; The plan is finished: inscriptions, names of natural and artificial details; the writing is done on the west-east direction, eventually along the drawn details (for natural details); Indicate the direction of the geographic north; Compile the legend of the plan, the graphical scale.

The operations mentioned before refer to the manual compilation of the plan, but nowadays most field operations are performed with the complete topographic station, data processing is performed automatically, based on some specialized programs, the compilation of the plan is performed with the computer, with the use of horizontal or vertical plotters.

128

CHAPTER VII LEVELING SURVEYS

THE LEVELING
Studies the methods and instruments that are used for determining the heights (altitudes, level) of leveling bearing points and leveling characteristic points. Leveling survey obtains data that completes the topographic plans with data concerning the relief of the surveyed area, offering a better perception over the its actual aspect.

HEIGHTS, LEVEL SURFACES

The level surface is the surface normal in each point to the vertical direction of the location (of the plumb-bob wire, the direction of the gravity force). The zero level surface, on the entire planet, is called GEOID. The GEOID is the surface of the planet obtained extending the seas and oceans beneath the continents and removing the dry land. The zero level surface is particular for each state, for Romania, since 1970, being the Black Sea (until then, it was the Baltic Sea). Since the sea level varies in time, in order to designate the origin height, for each country, there is built a FUNDAMENTAL ORIGIN BENCHMARK for heights. For our country, this benchmark is incrusted in the dam from Constanta, on the Black Sea shore. This point represents the basis for computing the heights of all (bearing or characteristic) points on the entire national territory. For each bearing (or characteristic) point, a level surface can be defined (e.g. for A or B figure 1).

129

The ABSOLUTE HEIGHT represents the distance measured on the vertical between the zero level surface and the level surface that passes through the computed points (e.g. ZA, ZB). The RELATIVE HEIGHT (ALTITUDE DIFFERENCE) represents the distance measured on the vertical between some two level surfaces (e.g. ZAB). B B level surface A A level surface ZA Zero level surface ZB Z AB

The level of the zero level surface extended beneath the continent

Figure 1. Abrupt, relative heights, level surfaces The basic computational relation in LEVELING is: ZB = ZA + ZAB Where:ZA is a known height, from previous works; ZAB is the altitude difference determined by a leveling measurement method; ZB is the newly computed height. (1)

130

THE EFFECT OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE EARTH CURVATURE AND THE ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
Let us take two points A and B on the surface of the Earth and build level surfaces through these points. Through A we can build a horizontal (plan) surface that we call APPARENT LEVEL. At distance D (apparently DAB), the effect of the Earth curvature will be C 1 = PP0.

B level surface Apparent level A level surface

R R D

AB

B P P P0 C
2

C C Z AB

Fi g ure 2 . The i nfl uence of the Earth curvatur e and of atmos pheri c re fracti on

Practically, instead of determining the actual altitude difference ZAB, the apparent altitude difference ZAB is determined. From AP0: (R + C1)2 = R2 + D2 R2 + 2 RC1 + C21 = R2 + D2 D2 From where: C1 = ----------2R + C1 (2) (3)

(4)

131

At the denominator it is insignificant in comparison to R, therefore the relation becomes: D2 C1 = ----2R R 6379 km (for Romania), hence for D = 1 km, the correction can exceed 70 mm. Because of atmospheric refraction, the aim from A towards B experiences a deviation, going on the AP trajectory, a second correction C2 will result, with opposite sign in comparison with the first one: D2 C2 = ----- K 2R K is the atmospheric refraction coefficient, K 0.13 (for Romania) D2 C = C1 C2 = ----- (1 - K) 2R C is always positive, and for D = 1 km it can exceed 60 mm. Hence, the corrected value of the altitude difference will be: ZAB = ZAB + C (8) (7) (6) (5)

LEVELING TYPES
We have seen that the element measured in leveling is the altitude difference Ziy, the height being a computational element (Zy = Zi + Ziy). The altitude differences can be determined by means of many methods, but in practice the following ones are used: GEOMETRIC LEVELING (figure 3); TRIGONOMTRIC LEVELING (figure 4);

and less used:

132

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC LEVELING, in which the altitude difference is determined studying the images of the points using the stereographical principle;

AUTOMATIC LEVELING: devices assembled on vehicles that parse a route, constructing automatically the profile of the terrain.

Horizontal plan

b a

Z AB

Z AB= a - b
Figure 3. Geometric leveling

ZAB = LABsin AB ZAB = DABtg AB

B
L AB AB

Z AB

DAB Figure 4. Trigonometric leveling

133

LEVELING NETWORKS
As in the case of planimetry, a leveling control network is built on national level, representing the base of all leveling surveys in the territory. The leveling geodetic network consists of 4 orders: ORDER I: ORDER II: Total error less than 5 mm L km; Developed through polygons with lengths up to 600 km, Must cover uniformly the entire surface of localities, Accidental mean square error 0.5 mm/km of traverse; Systematic error 0.5 mm; Consists of closed polygons, with lengths up to 1500 km,

developed along the main traffic routes of the country.

along traffic routes; distributed in such a way that the distance between them would not exceed 2 km, and 3-5 km outside localities. ORDER III: Total error less than 10 mmL km; Should cover homogeneously the entire surface of

localities, the maximal distance between benchmarks being 200-800m. Remark: for the first three leveling orders, for computing heights we should take into account the lack of parallelism of level surfaces (figure 5).
B level surface B II A level surface ZAB A ZBA A level surface

Figure 5. Non-parallelism of level surface s

134

The level surfaces are not parallel because the distance between two level surfaces is maximal at the equator and minimal at the poles; The leveling for orders II and III is compulsorily executed on back and forth routes.

ORDER IV is accomplished through middle geometric leveling traverses, supported at both ends on higher order points, executed only forth.

DESIGNATING AND SIGNALING LEVELING POINTS

The leveling points are designated in the terrain respecting the following conditions: To be solidly built (benchmarks, boundary marks); To be placed in stable areas (building wall, stable ground safe of land slides, settlings, vibrations); To allow signaling with a measuring staff, in the moment of measurements. Leveling boundary marks, made of concrete (reinforced concrete), with metallic coupon with hemispheric head at the upper end, protected at the surface end (filling or lid); Benchmarks placed in the nodes of buildings (for which the settling process has stopped practically, buildings older than 10 years), metallic, with circular or hemispheric head, the upper part having specified height; Temporary benchmarks: wood or metallic stakes, similar to those used in planimetry, points of temporary interest; Leveling benchmarks can be:

135

Leveling broaste: passing points, signaled by devices on which the measuring staff could be placed, and which can be temporarily fixed in the ground (the lower part can be planted in the ground).

GEOMETRIC LEVELING
It creates a reference horizontal surface during measurements, generated by moving the TOPOGRAPHIC LEVEL around the vertical axis. The altitude difference between the two points is computed with respect to the distances from the measured points to this surface.

MIDDLE GEOMETRIC LEVELING

If A is a benchmark of known height and B is a point of unknown height (in general, a surveyed point). LEVELS SPAN SPAN Forward measuring staff B Si Zi A Z NMN Figure 6. Middle geometric leveling 136 ZAB ZB

Backward measuring staff

The absolute height of the point A is known: ZA. The rod readings a, b are measured (level wire) in order to determine the distances DSA, DSB and in order to verify the readings on the level wire there can be performed readings on the stadia hairs (upper-lower), too.

Upper hair

18

1786

Level hair

1725

Lower hair

17

1664

J S+J Verification M = -----2

Figure 7. Performing rod readings

S A

B Mediatrix of distance AB

137

The distance device-measuring staff will result from the relation: Dsi = K.H = K (Si Ji) Usually on levels K = 100. Therefore, the height of the measured point B: ZB is required, and will be obtained from the relations: ZAB = a b ZB = ZA + ZAB Or, Zi = ZA + a ZB = Zi - b The second computational method is preferred in the case when the heights of many points are computed from a station (leveling radiation). It should be noticed that using middle geometric leveling eliminates the errors determined by the inclination from the horizontal of the aim towards the two points (given by the device, incorrect horizontal setting of rigid devices, atmospheric refractions), therefore the use of this method is recommended whenever it is possible. (the height of the station horizon) (11) (10) (9)

END GEOMETRIC LEVELING

Level Level = span Shortened span b i S A ZA a) Zi ZAB ZB B a Zi ZAB ZB Long span

ZA

b) Figure 9. End geometric leveling, above or near the point of known height

138

When middle geometric leveling cannot be applied, there can be applied this method, which presents the following disadvantages: The height of the instrument in the station can be measured with an approximate error of 5 mm (larger than the reading error of the measurements a, b, which is around 1-2 mm), error that can be eliminated applying the method presented in figure 9, point b. The errors of the inclination of the aiming axis are not eliminated, and they affect the results of measurements. The computations are similar to those presented at middle leveling, for the case a), replacing a by i in the calculus.

MIDDLE GEOMETRIC LEVELING TRAVERSES

Their purpose is to thicken the leveling control network to the level where there exists a sufficient number of points of known height in the altimetrically surveyed area, which are needed to measure the heights of all leveling characteristic points. The geometric leveling traverse creates a leveling network (which can coincide with the planimetric one).
S3 A S1 A S4 3 S3 S1 1 S2 2 S3 3 A S1 S2 2 1 S2 1 6 7 8 S1 1 2 3 NODE P B A 9 P NODE 5 2 3 S4 1 B S1 10 2 3 4

11

Figure 10. Leveling traverses

139

Leveling traverses supported on points from the state leveling network form order V networks and must satisfy the following conditions: The length of the span 10-150 m; The aiming radius should not get closer than 0.5 m to the surface of the ground; The devices used should be verified and rectified and should have the magnifying power of the telescope at least 20X; The routes of leveling traverses for order V will be compulsorily supported on points of order I-IV; The length of the traverse should not exceed 10 km; Designating the points should be stable, solid, not variable as position in time; The route of the traverse should not include abrupt slopes (which require short spans); The device will be protected during measurements against the action of sunlight (a field umbrella will be used); The measuring staffs should be vertical (with the plumb-bob wire or spherical level of the equipment); Repeated stations will be performed (at least two for each level), in order to have a verification of measurements and to improve the measuring precision.

CLASSIFICATION OF GEOMETRIC LEVELING TRAVERSES

A. BY THEIR SHAPE: Isolated traverses; Linked traverses, forming real leveling networks, by the means of some common points, called NODES. B. BY THE MEASUREMENT METHOD: Traverses with one horizon (only one station for each level); Traverses with two horizons (in each station, after measurement, the station is refreshed the device is recoded and the measurements are repeated).

140

C. BY THE WAY OF SUPPORTING AND DISPOSAL IN THE FIELD (figure ?) 1. 2. 3. 4. heights; 5. heights. Remark: in order to present the methods of geometric leveling in a unitary manner, we shall denote the points of known height with A, B, , and the new points with 1, 2, , P being the node of the networks for the traverses of type 4 and 5. Bounded leveling networks, supported on points of known Traverses supported at both ends; Traverses in closed circuit; Floating traverses, supported only at one end; Free leveling networks, not supported on points of known

MIDDLE GEOMETRIC LEVELING TRAVERSE SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS

Let A and B be points of known heights ZA, and ZB. The new points of the traverse are 1, 2, 3, and 4, for which the new heights Z 1, Z2, Z3, Z4 will be computed. D2 D1 S1 b1 ZA1 A ZA a2 b2 Z12 2 Z1 Z2 S4 Z3 S5 a3 b3 a4 b4 a5 Z34 4 Z4 B Z4B B ZB b5 S2 D4 S4

D3 S3

D5 S5

a1

Z23 3

N.M.N. S2

D1 = DS1A + DS1B A S1

S3

Figure 11. Middle geometric leveling traverses supported at both ends 141

The route of the traverse is parsed continuously from a point of known height A towards another point of known height B, successively measuring the points A and 1 from station S1, 1 and 2 from S2, and so on (figure 11). Each station will be done with the first aim backward (to the left on the schema e.g. in station S3, first aim the point 2, then the point 3). It is required that the values on the measuring staff at stadia hairs to be read, in order to compute the distance stations aimed points, needed to establish the weight element in correction distribution. Thus, if the readings in station S1 will be: Toward A: SA1, a1, JA1 (SA1 the reading at the upper hair, a1 the reading at the level wire, JA1 the reading at the lower hair); We shall use the extreme readings: SA1 + JA1 For verifying the median reading a1 = ------------------- 1 2 mm; 2 Computing the distance station S1 point A: DS1A; DS1A = KHA = K (SA1 JA1) Similarly: DS11 = KH1 = K (S11 J11) and the weight distance of the first level will be: D1 = DS1A + DS11 (14) (13) (12)

COMPUTING THE TRAVERSE

a) COARSE ALTITUDE DIFFERENCES DZA1 = a1 - b1 DZ12 = a2 - b2 DZ23 = a3 - b3 DZ34 = a4 - b4 DZ4B = a5 - b5

142

b) ALTITUDE DIFFERENCE ERRORS

B

e2 = ZiJ - ZAB
A B

Where ZiJ = ZA1 + Z12 + Z23 + Z34 + Z4B

A

(15) (16)

ZAB = ZB - ZA c) TOTAL CORRECTION ON ALTITUDE DIFFERENCES CZ = - e2 d) UNITARY CORRECTION ON ALTITUDE DIFFERENCES C2 CuZ = -----------B

(17)

Di
A B

Where Di = D1 + + D5
A

(18)

e) COMPENSATING ALTITUDE DIFFERENCES ZA1 = ZA1 + CuZ D1 Z12 = Z12 + CuZ D2 Z23 = Z23 + CuZ D3 Z34 = Z34 + CuZ D4 Z4B = Z4B + CuZ D5 f) COMPUTING ABSOLUTE HEIGHTS Z1 = ZA + ZA1 Z2 = Z1 + Z12 Z3 = Z2 + Z23 Z4 = Z3 + Z34 143

calc

VERIFICATION: ZB = Z4 + Z4B = ZB satisfy the condition:

(initially given)

(19)

Remark: the closing discrepancy error on altitude differences will be verified to

e2 T2
Where T2 = e2 D km

(20) (21)

ekm is the error per km given by the instructions for the performed measurement
class.

COMPUTING THE LEVELING TRAVERSE IN CIRCUIT

It is performed in the same way, with the specification that if the ending point coincides with the starting point, at point b) of computation:
A

e2 = iJ
A

(22)

Since AA = 0

COMPUTING THE FLOATING LEVELING TRAVERSE

No compensations are done, since there is no closing element; Therefore, there will be applied the computational steps a and f.

COMPUTING LEVELING NETWORKS

It is a complex method, which goes beyond the framework of this lecture, these operations being performed by specialists with level A (networks) certification, using geodetic methods for measuring and processing data.

144

LEVELING SURVEY OF SURFACES THROUGH GEOMETRIC LEVELING

The details and characteristic points of the measured area are identified and one of the presented methods is applied, depending on the conditions in the field.

LEVELING RADIATION
Based on the principle of middle geometric leveling, from a leveling station Si, determined the heights of characteristic points from within the area of the station, with respect to the known heights ZA of a leveling benchmark.

b1 b2 1 3 2 N.M.N. 1 2 Z2 Z3

b3

b4

A ZA Z1

Zi

4 Z4

3 4

Figure 12. Leveling radiation Thus, the station will be placed in the gravity center of the measured area, at a distance of at most 50-100 m from the benchmark of known height ZA. Perform the rod readings a, b1, , and compute the heights based on the relations: i = A + a 145 (23)

1 = i b1 If the topographic level that is used has a horizontal circle, then the measurement can be completed with planimetric details concerning the measured points: readings at the stadia hairs in order to determine the horizontal distances device-aimed point, and at the horizontal circle in order to determine the directions station-aimed point. Remark: in this last case, the utility of measuring distance and angles is not stressed out, unless the station and the point of known height have known plan coordinates or if the point of known height has known plan coordinates and we are stationing in it (the case of the complete topographic station).

THE METHOD OF SQUARES

It is a method applied for leveling survey of some surfaces that are less rough (agricultural, horticultural, vegetable gardening, rice paddies, areas intended for some civil, agricultural, industrial construction works: airports, arenas, industrial complexes, etc.). Depending on the degree of roughness of the terrain, its size, the degree of detail coverage, the necessary precision, surface leveling can be executed through small squares or large squares.

SURFACE LEVELING THROUGH SMALL SQUARES

It is applied in less rough terrains, with declivities < 5%, visibility from the gravity center of the terrain over the entire surface, surveyed surface of order of some hectares (at most 4); The sides of the squares will have the order of 5-25 m (5, 10, 20 m optimally); Choosing the way to divide the surface into squares, the size of the square side, the number of squares on an axis and on the perpendicular axis is performed depending on: the precision required for knowing the relief of the area, the scale of the plan, the degree of roughness of the terrain; 146

The working steps are (figure 13): 3, 7, 11; etc. From B, trace the point D, pegging out the points 6, 10, 14; From C, aiming D, peg out the points 15, 16; From 15, aiming 1, peg out the interior points 12, 8, 4, 1, Identify the area of study; Build a basis AB along one side of the area, which will be Levels with graduated horizontal circle or a theodolite are Trace the point C, pegging out the AC axis with the points

pegged out at equal distances, obtaining the points 1, 2; used for pegging out the squares;

A B

3 6

8 10

Y Y

Studied area S1 S1 9

11 14

12

13

15 18

16

147

17

Figure 13. Leveling through small squares

Pegging out is done with wood stakes, on which, the number of the point can be written on the upper part. Stationing in the gravity center of the measured area, aim, starting from the benchmark of known height, which can be found in that area (or close by), in horizon tour, (or scanning the horizontal surface), all the corners pegged with squares; For verification and for avoiding any confusion, I recommend to perform all the three readings on the measuring staff (up, level wire, down) and to station in the close vicinity of a square corner (e.g. 8 or 9); The procedure can be repeated, from a new station S1. Computing the heights of the square corners will be performed similarly to those from leveling survey: Compute the height of the instrument horizon: Zi = ZRN27 + a Compute the height of the radiated points: Z 1 = Z i - b1 If, for certain reasons: The maximal aim station-aimed measuring staff of 150 m is exceeded; Obstacles from the area (vegetation, buildings) impede the aims towards certain points; There are too many squares visionable from one station (at most 40) which means more than 80 points aimed from one station, then there can be used other methods for the leveling survey of square corners: routes. Traverses in closed circuit with radiations; Compensated traverses, combined with radiations, on more (25) (24)

148

The computation of heights in the case of traverses is done similarly as in the case of leveling of surfaces through large squares.

SURFACE LEVELING THROUGH LARGE SQUARES

It is performed on larger areas (4-100 ha), choosing sides of 50-200 m (50, 100, or 200 m, optimally). It can be applied only in the case of plain fields or of terrains with constant declivity on a direction. Tracing alignments and pegging out square corners can be done as in the previous case, but it is recommended to use a theodolite-tacheometer for tracing directions, which can be used also for tracing directions (a precision of 0.1 0.2 m/100 m is enough).

RN17

Y
6 S1

Y
7 S2

Y S 83 Y
13

Y S4 9 Y S5 14 Y S6 19 Y S9 24 Y S10 29
15 10

Y
11 S16

Y
12

Y 16 S15 Y 21 S14 Y 26 S13

Y
17

Y
18

20

Y
22

Y
23

25

Y 27S12

Y S 2811

30

Figure 14. Surface leveling through large squares

149

Depending on the number of squares station in the center of each square or in contour squares (e.g. squares 78.12.13, 17.18.23.22, etc. do not have to be stationed, because the heights of the corners can be computed from the other squares). Data processing is done in the following way: Consider the traverse in closed circuit: RN17 12345.10.15.20.25.30.29.28.27.26.21.16.11.6. RN17, which is compensated and computed, computing the heights of the points included in the traverse. The heights of the other points is computed as in the case of traverses supported at both ends: E.g. the traverse 6.7.8.9.10, with previously computed end points 6, 10 and new points 7, 8, 9, etc. The surface can be parsed through independent traverses, too, including some of the square corners through various routes. The heights of the other corners can be computed by leveling radiation. For example, if, from station S9, the points 20 and 25 were included by leveling traverse, and their heights were computed using this method, then the heights of the points measured from S9, not included in the traverse (in this case 18 and 24), can be computed through leveling radiation, taking into consideration the known height Z20.

THE PRECISION OF GEOMETRIC LEVELING

For geometric leveling of order IV, the tolerance is T = 20 mmD (km), and for geometric leveling of order V, the tolerance will be T = 30 mmD (km), where D is the length of the traverse, in km. A useful application of surface leveling through small or large squares is embankment cartogram. Practically, after computing the heights of the graticule corners, which cover the studied area, different studies can be conducted concerning the arrangement of this surface.

150

The arranged terrain presents a leveling of the entire surface (on which a certain objective will be performed), either as a horizontal platform, or as a platform inclined on one or more directions. In all these cases, the heights arranged in each square corner can be computed. For simplification, we assume that the entire platform will be arranged at a designed height Zp. We would like to establish which is the nature (digging cutting or filling up embankment) and volume of embankment works, in order to get from the natural terrain to the terrain arranged at the height Zp. After computing the height of each square corner, compute the altitude differences (the execution height): Zip = Zp Zi (26) Z If Zip > 0 in 1the area of that point, we shall have an EMBANKMENT volume Z1p 1 2 3 4 5 (filling up codified with E in the schema). If Zip < 0, then there will be a CUTTING volume (digging codified with C). E E E E C
6 7

C
8

C
9 10

E C
11 12

E C
13

E C

E C
14 15

E C
16 17

E C

E C
18

E C
19 20

E C
21 TOTAL
Embankment Cutting Difference

E C
22

E C
23

E C
24 25

GENERAL TOTAL

Zp: designed height

151 Figure 15. Embankment cartogram

After computing the values of the execution heights Zip, then we can compute the embankment volumes (E/C or E + C) for each square. The case presented in figure 16a is an integral cutting, because in all the four corners of the square Zip > 0. In this case, the embankment volume (E) will be computed in the following way: Sp = l l = the side of the square; Sp = the surface of the square (in horizontal projection). Z1P + Z2P + Z7P + Z6P Z1276 = ------------------------------------4 E1276 = Z1276 Sp
a 1
ZP

(27)

(28) (29)

b 2
Z 2P

8
SP Z14P Z 8P

c 9
Z9P

17 17 N 18 18

l 17 22 d
Z M d 17P 17

Z1P

1 6
Z6P

14

SP Z 7P

13 8
Z13P

22

M
SDP ZP

SRP

ZP

9 22

23 23

Z22P

14

13

22

Figure 16. Computing embankment volume

The value will be written in the E box from the center of the square. (The C box will remain empty, because we have no digging volume in the area). The case presented in figure 16b is an integral cutting, because Zip < 0 in all the four corners. After computing Sp and the mean value ZiJkl, the volume C will result in a 152

similar manner, the value obtained being written in this case in the C box, and the R box remaining empty this time. The case presented in figure 16c, and 16d is more complex, because the natural surface is situated at heights partially greater, partially lower than the designed height Zp. In this case, there should be found the position of the boundary line MN, which separates the E volume and the C volume by an axis of height Zp. From figure 16d it results: d + d = l Z22P d -------- = -----Z17P d equation with two unknowns d, d, and dIII, dIV, respectively, for the axis 23.18. After determining the two distances, we shall compute: (d + dIII)l S P = -------------2
C

(30)

(31)

(d + dIV)l S P = -------------2
E

surfaces afferent to the cutting/embankment for the studied corner: Z22P + 0 + 0 + Z23P Z22MN23 = ------------------------------4 Z17P + 0 + 0 + Z18P Z17MN18 = ------------------------------4 because ZM = ZN = ZP The values C and E will similarly result from the relations: C = SCP Z22MN23; E = SRP Z17MN18; And will be written into the corresponding boxes for the studied square 17.18.23.22. (34) (32)

(33)

153

After completing all the E/C boxes, then we can centralize the data, summing up on the vertical and then on the horizontal, in the end obtaining the total volume of embankment and cutting and the difference between them. It is recommended that: The E volume and the total volumes to be as small as possible; The two final values to compensate each other (E ~ C).

SURFACE LEVELING THROUGH PROFILES

It is applied in the case of investment works performed on large distances (km, tens of km), having reduced widths (tens of meters): traffic routes (roads, railways), hydrotechnical works (channels, arrangements), land reclamation works (irrigation ditches, draining off, damming up), main ducts (oil, methane gas, water supply, sewer). The technical documentation necessary for the optimal design of such works includes: 1. THE GENERAL LOCATION PLAN, SCALE 1:N; 2. THE LONGITUDINAL PROFILE, DISTANCE SCALE 1:N, HEIGHT SCALE 1:M (M can be N/10, N/20); 3. TRANSVERSAL PROFILES, DISTANCE SCALE = HEIGHT SCALE = 1:P (P can be equal with M);

RN1 S1

11 1 11 S2 Y 2 12 13 2 14 RN3 15 PX 16 PL B RN 2

A 11 11 3 11 4

PT1 1

Figure 17. Surface leveling through profiles 154

The general location plan represents a larger area, because for optimal design of the investment, there should be analyzed more possible routes. Leveling for collecting the data necessary for drafting the profiles will contain the following steps: Materialize the support benchmarks for leveling RNi in the field, which will connect to the state geodetic network for leveling. The number of support benchmarks will be established depending on the length of the route: one at each end (origin A, destination B), and one for at most 2-5 km, depending on the roughness degree of the terrain; Peg out the characteristic points: declivity changes, route changes, thickening points (if the distances between the first two categories exceed 50 m); Maybe, determine the planimetric position of pegs, through a planimetric traverse; Otherwise, determine only the distance between the pegs; Designating pegs will be performed with two stakes (one designating the peg, the other the control peg, having written the number of the peg within the route). The route is parsed by middle geometric leveling traverses supported (through RNi benchmarks) at both ends. Also, radiations are performed in the traverse towards the other points of the longitudinal profile, which are not included in the route, and towards the points of the transversal profiles. The purpose of the operations is to determine: The heights of all points of the longitudinal profile (Zi); The distances between the pegs of the longitudinal profile (DiJ); The heights of all points of the transversal profiles (Zt); The distances between the points of the transversal profiles (Dtv);

It can be seen that the central point of the transversal profiles will be compulsorily included in the longitudinal profile (if this is one of the pegs).

155

Having these data, we can begin drafting the longitudinal profile and the transversal profiles. (See chapter 8: PLANS AND MAPS). Remark: this topic is largely discussed in the chapter TOPOGRAPHIC WORKS FOR DESIGNING TRAFFIC ROUTES in our work ENGINEERING TOPOGRAPHY.

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
Consists in determining the altitude difference between two points, based on the horizontal (or slanted) distance, measured or known (e.g. from coordinates), between the two points and the declivity angle of the terrain (alignment) or the closing angle of the theodolitic telescope. In the first case (figure 18), the signal from point 1 (Z1 the required absolute height) will be aimed at the height of the instrument in point A (ZA the known height): In this case, the declivity angle of the telescope L will be equal to the declivity angle of the terrain , and the hypotenuse distance (h) of the formed triangle (aiming axis, DA1, h), will be equal to Z A1, h = LA1 sin L = LA1 sin ZA1 = h = LA1 sin Z1 = ZA + ZA1 (35) (36) (37)

In the case when we cannot aim at the height of the instrument (i) or in the case of trigonometric leveling on large distances (case in which [DAB = XAB + YAB]), the signal from B is aimed at a measured height s.
DA1

h i

L A1 A ZA N.M.N. ZA1

Z1

156

Figure 18. Trigonometric leveling with aim at the height of the instrume nt

If DAB is electronically measurable or can be deduced, then: h + i = ZAB + s ZAB = h + (i s) h = DAB tg L ZAB = DAB tg L + (i s) ZB = ZA + ZAB ZAB = ZAB tg L + (i s) LAB = DAB + ZAB with two unknowns ZAB, DAB.
DAB

(38) (39) (40)

(41)

If L AB , i, s, L are measured, the following equations will be taken into account: (42)

L i A ZA N.M.N. Figure 19. Trigonometric leveling with aim at some height ZB LAB

ZAB

157

In the case when the declivity of the terrain is negative ( < 0) and the inclination of the telescope is negative ( L < 0) (figure 20): ZAB + i = h + s ZAB = h + (s i) h = DAB tg L ZAB = DAB tg L + (s i) And if LAB, i, s, are measured, then apply the system (46). In this case ZB = ZA - ZAB and atmospheric refraction error, which will be corrected with the value: D C = (1 - K) -------2R where K: the atmospheric refraction coefficient (0.13 for Romania); R: the average radius of the Earth (6379 for Romania). (48) (47) In the case when D > 500 m, there appears the influence of the Earth globosity (43) (44) (45) (46)

! c > 0 and it is added to ZiJ.

DAB

i L
AB

h i

ZAB ZAB

ZA N.M.N. ZB B

Figure 20. Trigonometric leveling with aim at some height with < 0, < 0 158

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING TRAVERSES

The development of modern methods for precise measuring of distances by electronic means has extended the applicability scope of some methods, less used before. Among them is the method presented in the sequel, which has the advantage of performing planimetric and leveling measurements simultaneously, being a combination of planimetric traverse and leveling traverse. There are given: A, B, C, and D mix topographic benchmarks; (XA, YA, ZA); (XB, YB, ZB); (XC, YC, ZC); (XD, YD, ZD); ZB and ZD do not have to be necessarily known, because they do not intervene in the computation.

s3

sC

1A i1 sA ZM A ZA N.M.N. DA1 B A A1 D A1 D 1A A iA 1A i1 1 1 D 12 D21 21 2 i2 D12 2 1 Z12 Z1 2

s2 3 Z3C C Z3 D23 D23 D 32 32 3 D3C D D3C 3 i3 3C DC3 ZC

Z23

Z2

C C3 C iC

23

Figure 21. Trigonometric traverse

159

In each station J with aims towards the points i (backward) and k (forward), measure the following elements: iJ: the height of the instrument in the station; Di, sk: the aiming height of range poles (benchmarks, reflectors) from the points i and k; DJi, DJk: the horizontal distances (electronically or LJi, LJk directly); Ji, Jk: the declivity angles of the telescope of the device towards the two points; J: the horizontal angle formed by the directions Ji and Jk. Remark: in the case of complete topographic stations, after horizontal setting and centering of the device in station J, introduce iJ, si, sk, the names of points i, J, k, all other data being automatically collected after aiming the two points. Data processing: 1. PROCESSING MEASURED DATA a) HORIZONTAL DISTANCES:

DiJ + DJi DJi = -----------(50) 2 b) HORIZONTAL ANGLES: the average of the two positions (position I, position II); c) VERTICAL ANGLES: by computation (the average of the two positions), the vertical angle (declivity angle of the telescope) will be used for computing the altitude difference Z Ji, and Z Jk, respectively. Thus: ZJi = DJi tg Ji + (iJ - si) And the corresponding value ZiJ: ZiJ = DiJ tg iJ + (ii sJ) The most likely value is: ZiJ - ZJi ZiJ = -------------------2 since ZiJ - ZJi. (53) (52) (51)

160

Having the values (Ji, DJi), we can begin data processing for the planimetric part (see PLANIMETRIC TRAVERSE SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS). Having the values (ZJi, DJi), the leveling part can be compensated, using the computational method from MIDDLE GEOMETRIC LEVELING TRAVERSE SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS. In the end, the coordinates of the measured points will be obtained: (XJ, YJ , ZJ).

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING RADIATION

Together with the development of complete topographic stations, this method received maximal importance, because it is fast, precise, easy. The method can be applied simultaneously or separately from trigonometric traverse. In the case when radiation is performed simultaneously with traversing, first all the traverse data will be recorded, and then will detail measurement be performed.

1 B DA1 1 A1 4 10 A 9 8 5 7 6 C 2 3

11

Figure 22. Trigonometric radiation

Detail measurement is performed in non-compensated horizon tour, starting with the back base, in position I of the device.

161

The following data is collected for each radiated point: The reading on the vertical circle (for computing the declivity angle of the telescope); The reading on the horizontal circle (for computing the horizontal angle 1); The horizontal distance DA1 (electronically or directly); The aiming height of the signal (if the measurement if electronically performed, the height will be constant or equal to i); The previously mentioned data are sufficient for computing: Polar coordinates ( 1, DA1) for repeating the point on the plan, Z1; And/or Cartesian coordinates (X1, Y1) and Z1, for automatic repeating.

TACHEOMETRIC LEVELING
Before complete topographic stations were developed, tacheometric survey of details performed simultaneously for planimetry and leveling was done through its methods: diagram tachymetry and stadimetric tachymetry with vertical measuring staff, the most frequent procedure applied for measuring terrestrial surfaces in order to compile a topographic map or plan. Mainly, besides the way to obtain the primary elements: horizontal distances and altitude differences (discussed in detail in the chapter concerning tacheometers as topographic instruments), this method represents, in fact, a radiation supported on one base (side or traverse, e.g. AB or AC), measuring the characteristic points from the area in non-compensated horizon tour. With the use of the graphical scale, actual (field) values of some distances presented in the plan can be determined or distances can be repeated on the plan scale, on the MAP/plan; The method consists in comparing a distance obtained with the distance gauge on the map/plan to the graphical scale, placing one of its ends on one of the gradations of the base, and the other end on the talon, the distance resulting as the number of the two graphically determined values (figure 1/chapter VIII).

162

In the case of TRANSVERSAL GRAPHICAL SCALE (figure 2/chapter VIII), a differentiated talon being used, the precision obtained is tens of times better than in the previous case.

GRAPHICAL PRECISION OF TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS

It is recommended that the measuring/repeating precision of a distance from/on a map or plan to be: e = 0.1 0.2 mm e = graphical error. The graphical precision of the map/plan will be expressed: Ps = e n 103 n = the scale denominator of the map/plan; Ps allows choosing the plan scale depending on the size and shape of the details that will be represented. (54)

CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS AND PLANS

The scale on which topographic plans are drafted varies within the interval 1:100 1:10,000, therefore the plans can be: Basic topographic plans (1:2000; 1:5000; 1:10,000), which are plans drafted on the entire territory of the country, in one cartographic projection system; Special topographic plans, with different distances used especially in investments. The maps can be: Topographic maps, performed on large scale (n < 100,000), from among which the basic map of the country, on the 1:25,000 scale (with extension in some area to 1:5000); General topographic maps (1:20,000 1: 1,000,000); Geographic maps (n > 1,000,000).

163

TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS
Details representation, in the case of topographic plans, is performed by geometrizing (replacing with characteristic points), repeating on a horizontal projection plan and scaling down. The image obtained will be similar with that of the represented detail. In the case of topographic maps, their content of natural and artificial details is graphically expressed by symbols. Symbols should be illustrative (that is, to suggest the nature of the presented element), easy to draw, explicit. For PLANYMETRY, the symbols are: Contour symbols, used for representing the contour of the represented detail, without other details concerning the position or size of details from within the represented contour (e.g. forests, orchards, waters, etc.); Scale symbols, which indicate exactly the position on the map of a detail, in its axis, without specifying the contour or any information concerning the content of the detail (e.g. communes, towns, churches, etc.); Explicative symbols, which give details concerning the nature of the represented elements (e.g. the nature of the detail is specified inside the contour used to represent an orchard: the species and the average size of trees).

LEVELING SYMBOLS
Are used to represent the relief on the map or plan (in general, contours, nuances, shades used to suggest the relief, also specifying details concerning them: heights, the shape in plan and space). REPRESENTING RELIEF The main method for representing the relief, a simple, explicit, suggestive method, is the method of CONTOURS. 164

The contour represents the intersection of the terrain with a horizontal section plan, practically the curve that unites all the points having the same height in the field. In order to homogenously and coherently represent the relief, the contours are equidistant, that is, between the horizontal section plans there is an equal distance E, called the EQUIDISTANCE (of the contour). The equidistance is equal to an integer multiple of meters: 1, 2, 5, 10, 10, 50, etc. Choosing the size of E depends on the nature of the terrain (the roughness degree) and on the plan scale (e.g. mountainous terrain, scale 1:25,000, E = 2 m, plain E = 5 or 10 m). The equidistance E, scale down on the plan scale is: e=En e the graphical equidistance. The contours can be: Normal contours, traced in a continuous and thin line, at the equidistance E, on the entire plan or map; Main contours, traced in bold at 5 E, which will be connected to the state geodetic network for leveling. The number of support benchmarks will be established depending on the length of the route: one at each end (origin A, destination B), and one for at most 2-5 km, depending on the roughness degree of the terrain; Peg out the characteristic points: declivity changes, route changes, thickening points (if the distances between the first two categories exceed 50 m); Maybe, determine the planimetric position of pegs, through a planimetric traverse; Otherwise, determine only the distance between the pegs; Designating pegs will be performed with two stakes (one designating the peg, the other the control peg, having written the number of the peg within the route). The route is parsed by middle geometric leveling traverses supported (through RNi benchmarks) at both ends. (55)

165

Also, radiations are performed in the traverse towards the other points of the longitudinal profile, which are not included in the route, and towards the points of the transversal profiles. The purpose of the operations is to determine: The heights of all points of the longitudinal profile (Zi); The distances between the pegs of the longitudinal profile (DiJ); The heights of all points of the transversal profiles (Zt); The distances between the points of the transversal profiles (Dtv);

It can be seen that the central point of the transversal profiles will be compulsorily included in the longitudinal profile (if this is one of the pegs). Having these data, we can begin drafting the longitudinal profile and the transversal profiles. (See chapter 8: PLANS AND MAPS). Remark: this topic is largely discussed in the chapter TOPOGRAPHIC WORKS FOR DESIGNING TRAFFIC ROUTES in our work ENGINEERING TOPOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER VIII PLANS AND MAPS

8.1. THE ELEMENTS OF PLANS AND MAPS
DEFINITIONS THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP standard representation of some large surfaces, with little details, presenting a general view of that surface of terrain, a generalized image on reduced scale, taking into account the terrestrial curvature. THE TOPOGRAPHIC PLAN standard representation of some small surfaces, whose details, projected on a horizontal plan, are presented reduced and proportional, without taking into account the terrestrial curvature, on a large scale. SCALES The scale represents the constant ration between a distance diJ between the points i and J represented on a map/plan and its correspondent DiJ in the field. 166

NUMERICAL SCALES d = 1 D n n: the denominator of the plan scale (e.g. large scale 1:1000 one mm on the plan corresponds to 1000 mm on the terrain, that is, to 1 m, small scale 1:100,000 one mm on the plan corresponds to 100,000 mm on the terrain, that is, to 100 m). GRAPHICAL SCALES It is drawn on the MAP/PLAN, being a graphical representation of the numerical scale. (1)

SIMPLE GRAPHICAL SCALE (figure 1)

Sc. 1:10,000
100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

D = 900 + 65 = 965 m talon base Figure 1. Simple graphical scale Actual (field) values of some distances presented in the plan can be determined or distances can be repeated on the plan scale on the map/plan with the use of the graphical scale; The method consists in comparing a distance obtained with the distance gauge talon on the map/plan base graphical scale, placing one of its ends on one of the to the Sc. 1:1000 gradations of the base, and the other end on the talon, the distance resulting as the number of the two graphically determined values (figure 1).

20

10

20

40

60

80

167

D = 80 + 15.40 = 95.40 m

Figure 2. Transversal graphical scale

In the case of the TRANSVERSAL GRAPHICAL SCALE (figure 2), a differentiated etalon is used, therefore the precision obtained is tens of times better than in the previous case. THE GRAPHICAL PRECISION OF TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS It is recommended that the measuring/repeating precision of a distance from/on a map or plan to be: e = 0.1 0.2 mm e = graphical error. The graphical precision of the map/plan will be expressed: Ps = e n 103 n = the scale denominator of the map/plan; Ps allows choosing the plan scale depending on the size and shape of the details that will be represented. CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS AND PLANS The scale on which topographic plans are drafted varies within the interval 1:100 1:10,000, therefore the plans can be: Basic topographic plans (1:2000; 1:5000; 1:10,000), which are plans drafted on the entire territory of the country, in one cartographic projection system; (2)

168

Special topographic plans, with different distances used especially in investments.

The maps can be: Topographic maps, performed on large scale (n < 100,000), from among which the basic map of the country, on the 1:25,000 scale (with extension in some area to 1:5000); General topographic maps (1:20,000 1: 1,000,000); Geographic maps (n > 1,000,000).

TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS Details representation, in the case of topographic plans, is performed by geometrizing (replacing with characteristic points), repeating on a horizontal projection plan and scaling down. The image obtained will be similar with that of the represented detail. In the case of topographic maps, their content of natural and artificial details is graphically expressed by symbols. Symbols should be illustrative (that is, to suggest the nature of the presented element), easy to draw, explicit. For PLANYMETRY, the symbols are: Contour symbols, used for representing the contour of the represented detail, without other details concerning the position or size of details from within the represented contour (e.g. forests, orchards, waters, etc.); Scale symbols, which indicate exactly the position on the map of a detail, in its axis, without specifying the contour or any information concerning the content of the detail (e.g. communes, towns, churches, etc.); Explicative symbols, which give details concerning the nature of the represented elements (e.g. the nature of the detail is specified inside the contour used to represent an orchard: the species and the average size of trees).

169

LEVELING SYMBOLS Are used to represent the relief on the map or plan (in general, contours, nuances, shades used to suggest the relief, also specifying details concerning them: heights, the shape in plan and space). REPRESENTING RELIEF The main method for representing the relief, a simple, explicit, suggestive method, is the method of CONTOURS. The contour represents the intersection of the terrain with a horizontal section plan, practically the curve that unites all the points having the same height in the field.

220 215 210 205 200 200

E E E E E

Figure 3. Obtaining contours

In order to homogenously and coherently represent the relief, the contours are equidistant, that is, between the horizontal section plans there is an equal distance E, called the EQUIDISTANCE (of the contour). The equidistance is equal to an integer multiple of meters: 1, 2, 5, 10, 10, 50, etc.

170

Choosing the size of E depends on the nature of the terrain (the roughness degree) and on the plan scale (e.g. mountainous terrain, scale 1:25,000, E = 2 m, plain E = 5 or 10 m). The equidistance E, scale down on the plan scale is: e=En e the graphical equidistance. The contours can be: Normal contours, traced in a continuous and thin line, at the equidistance E, on the entire plan or map; (3)

V peak

leg Main contours, traced in bold at 5 E. On them is written the value of the
height that they represent. Auxiliary contours, traced in discontinuous lines, at E, in the case when E is

side

leg

160 180

side

ridge line 200 Bergstrich large to correctly present the represented relief; too V 220 slope index - Accidental contours, traced in discontinuous lines, at E, to represent some 320 a. Peak mamelon
agglomerated, rough relief areas. Figure 4 presents some relief forms, represented by contours.

edge bottom F

V1

V2

wall
230 V1 220 210 200

F 235 d.Hollow
240

V2

e. Saddle

+24

hillock

origin

side

draught
200 180 160 140

pit

thalweg
-32

c. Shaded representation of the relief

171

f. Valley

8.2. USING MAPS AND PLANS

1. DETERMINING THE GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES OF A POINT ON THE MAP The left lower corner of the map (figure 5) has the values of geographic coordinates, latitude, longitude, written on it, from which the representation of the A (A ,A) area is started. A d
A

60= 1

d0

45 00 45 25 60 = 1 d0 172 Figure 5. Determining the geographic coordinates of a point on the map A dA

In this case:

0 = 450000; 0 = 242500.

Interpolating, we can determine the geographic coordinates of any point on the map. Hence, for A: A = 450000 + 1 + A, where d A = -------- 60, and A = 242500 + 1 + A, respectively, where d 0 dA = -------- 60 d0 (4)

2. DETERMINING THE CARTESIAN COORDINATES OF A POINT ON THE MAP/PLAN

4800 Y dX

We proceed in a similar manner, projecting the point on the coordinate axes, A

0 X0 towards the closest graticule left/lower corner (M). X

4700 y = 9200

dYA 9300

dY0 9400

x = 4600

Y0 Sc .1:n Figure 6. Determining the Cartesian coordinates of a point on the map/plan

173

XA = XM + X YA = YM + Y dxA X = -------- X0 dx0 dyA Y = --------- Y0 dy0 with respect to the map/plan scale 1:n. The significance of the notations results from figure 6. In the case of high precision measurements, the distortion in time of the paper of the plan/map, expressed on both directions (X and Y), should be taken into account. D Kx = -------; dx0 D Ky = ------dy0 (7) (8) (5)

(6)

where Dx0 = dx0 N; Dy0 = dy0 N In this case: dxA X = Kx ------- X0 dx0 dyA Y = Ky ------- Y0 dy0

and D is the theoretical distance that should be between the lines of the graticule.

(9)

(10)

174

3. REPEATING A POINT ON THE MAP/PLAN THROUGH CARTESIAN COORDINATES Repeating a point A of coordinates XA, YA on the map or plan is the inverse operation of determining the Cartesian coordinates. Compute: XMA = XA - XM YMA = YA - YM where M is the left/lower graticule corner that is closest to the point A. XMA Then: dxA = ---------; n YMA dyA = ----------; n (11)

n: the plan scale denominator.

N B 4600 AB XAB dYA YMA A aXA XMA M 6200 6300 YAB 6400 Sc.1:2000 D AB

4500

Figure 7. Some planimetric problems solved on maps or plans Drawing perpendiculars from the graticule axis towards the values dxA, dyA, the point A will result at their intersection.

175

Attention: all graphical operations of measuring or repeating on the map or plan will respect the graphical precision. 4. DETERMINING THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE MAP/PLAN a. Graphical method (figure 7) Measure the distance dAB on a map/plan sheet and compute the equivalent in the field: DAB = dAB n b. Analytical method (figure 7) It can be seen that: DAB = X2AB + Y2AB Where XAB = XB XA, YAB = YB YA 5. DETERMINING THE ORIENTATION OF A DIRECTION ON THE MAP/PLAN a. Graphical method (figure 7) The orientation can be obtained directly by measuring with the protractor (sexagesimal or centesimal). The determining error reaches values of 10 20. b. Analytical method (figure 7) From the coordinates of the points: YAB tg AB = ---------XAB 6. THE ORIENTATION IN THE FIELD OF MAPS AND PLANS It can be performed in two ways: (15) (13) (14) (12)

176

Based on the details from the terrain, for example orienting the map with the use of the represented detail (e.g. railway) along the detail from the terrain; With the use of the compass, orienting the 0X direction on the map/plan on the direction of the magnetic north indicated by the compass index.

7. DETERMINING SURFACES ON MAPS/PLANS NUMERICAL METHODS GEOMETRIC METHODS

N N

Figure 8. The field orientation of maps and plans 2

1 A c B b B C C 4 5
177

3 a

Figure 9. Dividing up a surface into geometric shapes

These methods are used in the case when the surface can be divided up into known geometric shapes (see figure 9), usually triangles, and we apply the known relations for each area: S = p(p-a)(p-b)(p-c) a+b+c where p = -------------, the semi-perimeter of the triangle, 2 a, b, and c are the sides of the triangle, or BI S = -------2 B: the base, I: the height of the triangle. TRIGONOMETRIC METHODS Are used when sides and angles of the triangle are known, the area resulting from one of the relations: bc ca ab S = ------ sin A = ------- sin B = -------- sin C 2 2 2
X X2 THE ANALYTICAL METHOD Xi - 1 2 X X i i

(16)

(17)

Xi + i+1 A relation for the analytical computation 1of surfaces from maps or plans will be i-1 1 proven, the condition being that the surface should be polygonal (or polygonable) and

that the Cartesian coordinates of all apexes should be known.

X3 Y2-Y1 3

X1

Y1

Y2

Y3

178
b

Yi - 1 Yi

Yi + 1

Figure 10. The analytical method for computing surfaces

The relation will be proven on the surface of a triangle and then it will be generalized. It can be seen that: S123 = Sy112y2 + Sy223y3 Sy113y3 (18)

(x2 + x1) (y2 - y1) (x2 + x3) (y3 y2) (x1+ x3) (y3 y1) S123 = ------------------------- + ------------------------ - -----------------------2 2 2 S123 = 1/2(x2 y2 - x2 y1 + x1 y2 x1 y1 + x2 y3 - x2 y2 + x3 y3 x3y2 - x1y3 + x1y1 x3y3 + x3y1) = 1/2 [x1(y2 y3) + x2 (y3 y1) + x3(y3 y2)] It can be seen that 3 is after 2 (2+1), 1 is before 2 (2-1), and if we replace 2 with i then we obtain a general relation: 3 S123 = 1/2 Xi (yi+1 yi -1) 1 becomes: n S = 1/2 Xi (yi+1 yi -1) 1 or its equivalent: 179 (20) (19)

which, for a given number n of apexes of closed polygon, whose area is computed,

3 S123 = 1/2 Yi (xi-1 xi +1) 1 one arbitrarily chosen apex, denoted with i. Similar relations can be obtained using determinants, knowing that: x1 2 S123 = x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 1 1 1 (21)

The contour of the polygon will be parsed in right-handed direction, starting from

GRAPHICAL METHODS If we known sides/angles of the geometric shapes that compose the surface whose area has to be computed, then there exists the possibility to graphically measure these values and then to apply geometric or trigonometric relations. The graphical methods that use parallels or squares are fast, the precision being in strong correlation with the distances between the parallels/sides of the squares. S1 S2 S np

=square ln a

l1 l 2

n a S

a Figure 11. Graphical methods

In the case of the method of parallels (figure 11), the surface S is covered on the map/plan with a network of parallels (on a tracing paper) and the distances li are measured. If a is the distance between the parallels, the plan/map scale 1:n, then: 180

A=an Li = li n It can be seen that: L1 A S1 = ---------2

(22)

(if it can be approximated this way)

(L1 + L2) A S2 = -------------------2 Ln A Sn = ------------2 (if it can be approximated this way)

(23)

n n From where: S = Si = A Li 1 1 with height A, they are computed separately.

(24)

In the case when end surfaces cannot be conveniently approximated by triangles The method of squares (figure 12) is similar, but the surface S is covered by a network of squares with sides equal to a. Count ni (the number of integer squares included in the surface), and the parts left outside are grouped by two or three to form integer squares (as good as possible), obtaining a number of squares np. Therefore, the total number of squares will be: N = ni + np The area of a square will be: Sv = A2 A=an Thus, the total area will be: S = N Sv THE MECHANICAL METHOD It is used especially to determine the surfaces with sinuous contour, with the use of a mechanical instrument, called POLAR PLANIMETER (figure 13). Determining surfaces with the planimeter consists in parsing the perimeter of the surface in one direction (usually, in right-handed direction), starting from some point on the contour and ending in it. 181 (27) (25) (26)

When the pole P of the planimeter is in the exterior of the surface that has to be determined (figure 13a), the surface is obtained from the relation: S = Ks N = Ks (C2 C1) the surface is obtained by the relation: S = (C n) Ks (29) Where: Ks: the constant of the polar planimeter, which is determined in the following way: Fix the pole P in working position, fix the graver M of the planimeter to a known radius of the bar and planimeter many times the circle with that radius. The constant will be: R2 Ks = ----------(C2-C1) R is the radius of the circle whose perimeter was parsed; C2 , C1 represent the initial and final readings on the bar of the device. 0 (28)

And when the pole of the planimeter is in the interior of the surface (figure 13b),

(30)

S
P P

0 M

Figure 13. Measuring surfaces with the polar planimeter

182

If Ks is obtained as a decimal number, and not as an integer, then the length of the tracing arm should be adjusted, with a new length L: Ks L = L -----Ks Where:Ks, Ks are the constants with and without decimals; L is the initial length of the tracing arm; C: is the constant of the planimeter, that is, the surface of the base circle, depending on the length of the arms; n = C2-C1 THE PRECISION OF THE METHOD Ks 0.02 S (cm) The tolerance admitted between two planimetry determinations of the same surface S. LEVELING PROBLEMS DETERMINING THE HEIGHT OF A POINT on a map/plan with contours. Draw the line with the greatest slope, through the point (figure 14) towards the contours neighbor to the point and measure , d.
210 200 P E
Z

(31)

210 N d x 200 d M M

D D

183 Figure 14. Determining the height of a point

From the figure it results: Z D ---- = ----E D Or D d n d Z = E ------ = E ----------- = E ----D dn d (32)

(33) (34)

And the height of the point will be ZP = ZM + Z where M is the point situated on the contour inferior to the point P.

DETERMINING THE DECLIVITY OF THE TERRAIN BETWEEN TWO POINTS SITUATED ON A MAP/PLAN The declivity of the terrain between two points is given by the relation: ZiJ p = tg = --------DiJ where ZiJ = ZJ = - Zi DiJ = diJ n (36) (35)

U 20 0

DUV 21 22 0 0 23 0 V 24 0 25 0 U ZU DUV

ZUV

ZV

Figure 15. The declivity of an alignment (slanted distance) 184

Percent values are also used: 100ZiJ p% = 100 tg = -------------DiJ 1000ZiJ p% = 1000 tg = -------------DiJ (37) (e.g.: roads, ducts)

(38) (e.g.: railways, subway)

It can be seen that there exists a relation of converse proportionality between p and DiJ, which means that the greater the altitude difference between the ends of a small distance on the map, the more abrupt the terrain is in that area. Remark: in order to study the declivity along a given alignment, we have first to section the route into areas with approximately constant declivity with the same sign (positive or negative) (figure 16). Therefore, parsing the route from A towards B, we could find four area of approximately constant declivity: AC: small positive declivity; (ZC, ZA, large distances between two neighbor contours); CF: great positive declivity; (ZF, ZC, small distances); FD: great negative declivity; (ZD, ZF, small distances); DB: small negative declivity; (ZD, ZF, large distances).

F x 410

185
Figure 15. Characteristic declivities on a given alignment AB

TRACING A LINE WITH CONSTANT DECLIVITY BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE MAP OR PLAN From the declivity relation: 100E p0% = ---------d0 n 100 E d0 = ----------p0% n B 220 (39)

d0 d0

d0

d0

d0

d0

210 d0

A Figure 17. Tracing a line with constant declivity

186

d0: the distance between two neighbor contours, such that the declivity of the line that unites the two contours, of length d0, to be the required declivity p0%. The tracing is performed with a compass with the span of the arms equal to d0, from A to B. THE TOPOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE TERRAIN BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON THE MAP/PLAN After tracing the alignment, by uniting its ends (e.g. A and B), number each intersection with a contour (1, 2, ), measure the horizontal distances diJ between neighbor points (dA1, d12, ) and record the height of each point (ZA = 220, Z1 = 221, ) Having these values, build the profile, on scale: For the distance 1:m, usually m = n, where 1:n is the map/plan scale; For heights 1:c, usually c = 10m.

Z B 226 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 A
224

TOPOGRAPHIC PROFILE AB DISTANCE SCALE 1:m HEIGHT SCALE 1:c

220

225 224 223 222 221 220 219 218

Point number Partial distances (m) Cumulated distances (m) A 220 221 1 2 222 3 223 224 4 224 5 223 6 222 7 221 8 220 9 219 B

12,40

10,60

8,70 7,40 6,20 4,10 5,10 14,30 18,30

12,20

Scale 1:n

Declivities %

Figure 18. Topographic profile of the terrain based on a given alignment

187

109.60

23.00

31.70

45.30

49.40 54.50 68.80

12.40

39.10

97.40

188