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Learning Theories and Digital Based Game Design By: Debbie Turner Edtech 504 Boise State University

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Abstract Educational computer games, also known digital-based games, are slowly becoming a part of the curriculum. As educational games evolve, learning theories utilized during the design process have also evolved. Within digital based games, technology typically drives the learning theory. Instructional objectives and game design are often seen to be two different entities. However, much research has been conducted on the importance of applying learning theories when designing educational games. The objective of this paper is to discuss how learning theory has been applied to digital-based games. Flow theory, situated learning theory, constructivist theory, activity theory, motivation theory, and behavioral learning theory are discussed as well as the implications for the use of each theory in digital-based game design.

Keywords: digital-based game design, learning theories

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Introduction Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources (Richey, 2008). Educational technology can also be thought of as a variety of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning. Technology can be used not only as an information management tool, but also as a means of reaching students of diverse backgrounds (Sianjina, 2000). One tool that is slowly becoming a part of the curriculum in the classroom today is the educational computer game. Educational games are often referred to as digital game- based learning tools. Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL) is a term used to denote the use of computer games in delivering educational content (Prensky, 2001). Many educators are reluctant to use computer games in their classrooms because they do not see the educational value of using such tools. However, when games are designed using best practices, instructional strategies, and learning theories, they can be a valuable asset to any curriculum. Educational games that are built on sound educational theories could be seen as instruments that promote the use of modern educational theories in the classroom (Amory & Seagram, 2003). Because of the evolution of technology in the recent years, there has been much research on how to effectively design educational computer games. In the past years, numerous games have been designed and best practices have come forth from the design processes (Quinn, 1994). Instructional designers have become more adept at using learning theories and designing games for instructional purposes. The inherent learning features of computer games should be maintained when designing and thinking about educational game titles (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2005). The evidence of the application of learning theories can be seen in many well designed educational games. For games

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to successfully support learning and teaching, they should be designed as complex games and function as tools to mediate learning outcomes. Designing an educational game requires even more skill and creativity than other forms of game design because the purpose of the game is more than diversion or enjoyment . The outcome includes learning. Flow Theory Flow Theory is often applied to the study of a variety of challenging endeavors, including computer games (Chen, 2008). Flow is a deep focus on the activity that you are performing. You often hear people say that they are in the moment. In flow, a persons thoughts, intentions, feelings, and the senses are focused on the same goal (Czikszentmihalyi, M. ,1996). In flow, a person is deeply engaged in an activity. They have become submersed in task that they are performing. In flow, a person is so engaged in an activity that they are often unaware of external stimuli. The activity that the person is engaged in is neither too difficult, nor too easy. The task is aligned to the individuals ability. The individual becomes so absorbed in what they are doing that they lose track of the time. Flow has also been associated with feeling a sense of pleasure. Flow Theory has been shown to be useful in fostering intrinsic motivation in both computer games and tasks. Some of the conditions that facilitate flow are: "a challenging activity, clear goals, clear feedback," and "the paradox of having control in an uncertain situation (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). Therefore, if the goals of a game are clear and relevant, and the skill/difficulty balance is appropriate for the learner, then it can be expected that the learner will experience flow. Because flow is associated with higher levels of cognitive processing and higher levels of concentration during tasks, flow has been applied in many games that involve

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challenging tasks. The flow state has a positive impact on learning and thus should be the desired outcome of a game (Webster et al., 1993). Situated Learning Theory Situated learning can be thought of as learning by doing. Situated learning is often referred to as cognitive apprenticeship. Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning by enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic activity. Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). This type of learning is similar to a prospective doctor completing an internship in a hospital. The intern learns about medicine within the environment of the hospital under the watchful eye of a skilled physician. The intern is confronted with real problems and learns through addressing and experiencing these problems. Educational games that involve simulation enable students to use cognitive tools in an authentic environment. Interactive networked simulations, or video games, are an emerging technological medium shaping contemporary theories of learning and instruction (Barab & Roth, 2006). In these simulated learning environments, students interact with different parts of the learning environment. They ask questions of the characters, and work to solve a problem. As learners interact within the game environment, they appropriate information and adapt new knowledge to fit what they already know, which are also key elements of situated learning environments (Kirshner & Whitson, 1998). When using the situated learning model to create digital-based games, there are many elements that they must consider. The eight key elements present in situated learning environments include: stories, reflection, cognitive apprenticeship,

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collaboration, coaching, multiple practice, articulation of learning skills, and technology (McKellan,1985). Each of these key elements can be found in well-constructed digital gamebased learning tools. Constructivist Theory In the constructivist theory, students construct their own knowledge by testing their ideas and applying these ideas in newly-encountered situations. The constructivist theorists believe that learning is achieved by exploration. The central idea behind the constructivist theory is that learning is a process where individuals create meaning from his or her own experiences with the world. Discovery learning is an approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments (Loyd, 2000).The instructor provides the necessary tools and serves as a guide. Often times in classrooms the teacher stands in front of the room and simply lectures. Constructivists believe that the instructors role is to facilitate learning. Constructivists believe that learners should learn how to learn so they can apply problem solving skills to other learning situations. Constructivists believe that once a student can logically problem solve, they are more apt to perform effectively in all subject areas. Computers take discovery learning to a higher level with the advent of games and simulations. In all forms of digital games, players are not lectured about what they need to do in the games. They learn by doing and making mistakes. They literally construct the knowledge internally by immersing themselves into the virtual world. In most of the adventure games, players are given brief visual or/and verbal instructions on the very basic rules of the game. The players venture into the virtual world and learn more about it. When they encounter new things, they learn to adapt it to their existing knowledge by trial and error or mental reflection. Using the constructivist theory, designers must ensure that the learner

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can discover and manipulate complex information. The learner must be able to check new information against old rules and revise the old rules when they no longer work. Activity Theory The focus of the Activity theorist is the relationship between the learners and their tools. When we think of tools, we tend to think of hammers, screwdrivers, drills and other types of simple machines. However, with the Activity Theory, tools may include processes that are internalized within individuals. Individuals use tools to think and learn. At a primary level, these tools are material objects such as hammers, books, clothing, computers, and telecommunications networks. But we humans also fashion and use tools at a secondary or "internal" level language, concepts, scripts, and schemas (Wartofsky 1979). Both kinds of tools are used to act on the environment collectively. The Activity Theory focuses on repeated social interactions with other people and their tools. Learners learn in environments that involve others. These environments include other people with tools that both help and hinder their actions. The activity theory usually involves a social aspect. The tools are manipulated by one or more individuals within an activity system to cause a transformation. An example might be an individual taking a golf lesson. The learner would learn by watching the instructor (using vision as a tool), by listening to words (using hearing as a tool), and by being physically involved in the activity. Hopefully, through repeated interactions with the instructor and their tools, their golfing ability would begin to change over time. Activity theory (AT) has for many years been used in studies of human computer interaction, such as computer interface design and computersupported cooperative work (Nardi, 1996). With the respect to the use and design of digitalbased learning games, if the game is used as a tutor, it is not viewed as a tool. The learner is learning from the game. If the game is used to mediate or assist with learning outcomes, then the

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game functions as a tool. Designers wishing to utilize the activity theory should ensure that the digital game can be utilized as a tool. Motivation Theory The motivation to learn is critical for student success. The motivation to learn is personal and comes from within an individual, but can be influenced by external factors. Motivation is an internal drive that directs an individuals behavior toward an ending goal. Motivation is the internal process that activates, guides, and maintains behavior over time (Prensky, 2001). Individuals will work longer and harder when they are motivated. There are many factors that can influence an individuals motivation. Instructors are often faced with having to increase the motivation of their students. There are a number of motivational techniques that can be applied when designing instruction. One such technique is The ARCS Model of Motivational Design. This model views motivation as a sequence of events. The learner gains confidence and increases motivation as the process unfolds. The satisfaction of the new knowledge provides motivation to continue learning. (Driscoll,1994). It is commonly assumed that computer games are a useful educational tool because students find them motivating. Motivation is a driving agent behind both participation and progression in gaming environments (Konetes, 2010). A key part of game design is having challenges which are often enhanced through competition among players of different skill levels. Some digital games are based on external motivation, where students receive particular rewards for playing the game. These rewards motivate the learner to continue practicing learning. Games are also examined as an intrinsically motivating activity that people do for its own sake (Malone 1981). Motivation is driven from our belief about how good we will be and our interest in and the value of the goal (Jalongo, 2007).

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Behavioral Learning Theory Behaviorism is the belief that anything that a learner does is a behavior. These behaviors can be measured and altered. The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). The theory suggests that behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning involves pairing stimuli and responses. A behavior is a response to a stimulus. Behaviorism suggests that learning occurs through the application of reinforcement, either positive, or negative, to a certain behavior. Behaviorists believe that we can understand human behavior by a meticulous study of particular behavior (Ozman & Craver, 1992, p. 208). This theory has had a many implications to learning in the gaming environment. Perhaps the unique value of the engagement factor within digital games is the ability to sustain engagement and motivation across time, particularly with more challenging learning tasks and without the teacher needing to be a superstar (Gee, 2003). Most digital games require sensorimotor and eye-hand coordination skills. Behavioral learning is required to develop the skills needed to play the game. In games, such as action games, fighting games, and sport games, players act and react in response to stimuli. In action games, where the user is required to maneuver to avoid negative characters, they are also responding to stimuli. These unconditioned responses are learned. There are two kinds of behavior: respondent behavior, which is elicited by a known stimulus, and operant behavior, which is not elicited by a known stimulus but is simply emitted by the organism (Hergenhan, 2001). Most digital games involve this kind of trial-and-error learning, in which reinforcement is used to shape the learners behavior.

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Discussion Incorporating educational technology into classroom instruction, or even at home, is proving to be beneficial for many in the education field. In this ever-evolving world of technology, it is crucial for students to continue to grow in their academics and boost their knowledge in a variety of school subjects. Allowing students to engage in academics through fun learning activities increases the desire to learn. It is important for educators and students to adapt to new means of learning, and to utilize the many technological resources available today. Computer-based games have become a popular form of instructional media. While the use of computer based games has increased in popularity, there has been much research behind the theoretical perspectives used to design and develop technology based tools. Instructional-based game designers have realized that they must combine learning theories, along with design, to enhance learning. The emerging theoretical approaches, and the simulations and games derived from them, show promise for helping educational technologists reach their goals of efficient, effective, and appealing instruction for complex material (Shelton, 2003).

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