Combustion in

Spark-1 ition Engines

6.1 INTRODUCTION
When combustion is
tion is initiated by a bot
conditions, the combnstion
tion is with and mn.mn2-on.
of abnormal combustion. In
an ignition source.
The combustion of fuel-air mixture depends oo chain only a
constituents surrounding the ignition point cause reactions. These in tum gem::rate all
active constituents to cause reactions. Soon a point is reached where the chain breMW:11
dominate the chain forming reactions. In the flame front, tbe chain formins
reach a certain distance into a relatively cool, unburned charge before they are broken and
definite flame boundary is established. However. if the unburned hot
sustain chain reactions. the remaining will suddenly au{!o-utmt.e.
6.! NORMAL coueusnoN
Towards the end of the compression stroke the cylinder contains more or a
mixmre of vaporized fuel, air and residual gases. A single intense and high temperature
produced between the spark plug electrodes and as it passes from one electrode to the
leaves a thin thread of flame. Combustion spreads to the envelope of the mixture containing
thread at a rate depending primarily on the temperature of the flame front and secondarily on
158
and density of the surrounding envelope. Thus a small hollow nucleus of flame at first
gradually and as the flame front expands with steadily increasing speed it travels across
amber until finally the whole of the mixture is engulfed. Depending on the degree of turbu-
in the cylinder, the flame front wrinkles, thus presenting a greater area from which
radltatet:J; hence flame speed is increased enormously, and this up the combustion
theoretical pressure-crank angle (p-8) diagram in an ideal four-stroke SI engine is shown
6.1. In an ideal engine, compression and expansion take place during 180 of crank
and combustion takes place instantaneously at TDC. During combustion the volume
constant and is a sudden pressure rise.
0"
Flgura6.1
180"
roc
Cnmk e
160 fundamentals of Internal Combustion
50
40
30
20
10
The first stage (AB)
N=3000rpm
r 8.5
1.0
80 120
ATDC
stage is called or preparation phase. It to the time
and development self-propagating nucleus the flame. The starting point of the first
the point A, where the spark is produced and the end the is marked with point
the first measurable pressure against the motoring curve is observed. The first stage is
a chemical process and depends on the nature of the fuel, temperature and pressure of the
mixture, the concentration of the residual from the previous cycle present in the cylinder and
chemical reaction rate. It is also influenced by local turbulence.
Although the first stage of combustion is called the ignition lag, as it is analogous to the
period of compression*ignition engine, and actually the nucleus of combustion appears
neously near the spark plug electrodes; initially the flame spreads very slowly and the
the burned mixture is very little, so there is no appreciable pressure against the
curve.
The second stage (BC)
This stage is called the main stage. It corresponds to the propagation of the flame practically
constant speed. The starting point of the second stage is taken as point B, where the first
161
pressure rise against the motoring curve is observed. The end of the second stage is marked
point C, where the maximum pressure is attained. This stage is both a physical and a chemi-
process. The heat release depends on the chemical composition and on the prevailing tempera-
and pressures and the degree of turbulence in the cylinder. During this stage heat transfer to
cylinder wall is low, since the burning mixture comes in contact with a small part of the
wall. The rate of pressure rise is almost proportional to the rate of heat release because
this stage, the combustion chamber volume does not change much.
stage is called afterbuming. Although the point C indicates the completion of the flame travel,
not follow that whole of the heat of the fuel has been liberated at this point. after
passage of the flame, during expansion some of the constituents re-associate and liberate heat
starting point of the third stage is usually taken at the instant wben maximum pressure is
on the indicator diagram (like the point C). The end of this stage is marked with point D.
point corresponds to the point where equilibrium is reached and after which the products of
are assumed to be frozen. During this the flame speed decreases and the rate of
is slow. Since the expansion stroke starts before this with the piston moving
from me. there will be pressure fall during this
It
162 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion
1.
2.
3.
4.
The
8.2.3 Fraction of Burned Maaa
6.4 'mass tractton
0 20
me
Crank angle (deg.)
Figure 6.4 'Mass fraction burned' as a function of 'crank angle'.
Mass fraction burned, xb = _..::..._
mb+mu
mb is the mass of the burned charge and mu is the mass of the unburned charge.
163
The 'mass fraction burned' follows the same pattern as the flame speed. Initially the flame
is low, so the 'mass fraction burned' is also less. As the flame speed during the second stage
incr-eas,es the fraction burned' also increases rapidly. The major portion of the mass is
burned during this During the last stage the flame speed reduces again, so the remainder of
the unburned charge which is very little gets burned too.
Pressure and Temperature Variation as a Function of
Crank Angle
shows the variation pressure and temperatnre with respect to the crank angle. The
cylinder wall farthest from the spark plug about after TDC. At this point the
pressu1re Pmax is reached, but the combustion is not it continues around
chamber periphery for of crank angle, so the maximum tempera
is obtained about 10 is reached. Both and
durin.g the remainder of the
Effect of Spark Timing on Indicator Diagram
164 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion
40
30
advance
on the
distance of the flame travel path across the
tion chamber.
Figure 6. 7 shows the of spark advance on
brake torque at constant speed and air/fuel ratio at
wide open throttle. With optimum spark timing tbe
maximum pressure occurs at about 15 after TDC and
half the charge is burned at about 10 after TDC.
advance
Flgure6.7
6.2.6 Effect of Fuel/Air Ratio on Indicator Diagram
advance
Figure 6.8 shows the effect of mixture strength on indicator diagrams. The fuellair ratio of
charge influences the rate of combustion and the amount of heat evolved. The maximum
speed occurs when the mixture strength for hydrocarbon fuels is about 10% rich. When
mixture is made leaner or is further enriched, the flame speed deceases. Lean mixtures release
thermal energy, resulting in lower flame temperature and hence lower flame speed. Very
mixtures suffer incomplete combustion, hence release less thermal energy resulting in low
speed. Indicator diagrams for.rich, stoichiometric and weak mixtures correspond to "'n''"""'
ratio 1.1, 1.0, and 0.9 respectively.
165
p
S-spark
Stoichiometric
e,g -angle of ignition
Stoichiometric
B ~ g TDC
Crank angle, 8
Figure U Effect of mixture strenglh on p-vand p-8 diagrams.
FACTORS AFFECTING IGNITION LAG
-------
I..ean- : -Rich
60 80 1.00 120 140 160 180 200
Temperature and Pressure
to a extent on
I 66 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion
6.3.3 Compression Ratio
6.3.4 Spark Timing
6.3.6 Electrode Gap of Spark Plug
A suitable spark plug gap is necessary to
establish the flame If the gap is too small,
quenching of the flame nucleus may result and if the
gap is too large, the spark intensity is reduced. In both
the cases the range of the fuel/air ratio is reduced for
the development of the flame nucleus.
Figure 6.10 shows the range of equivalence ratios,
which could be used for different electrode gaps and
for different compression of the engine. the
compression ratio is increased, the range of the
equivalence ratio also increases for a given electrode
gap. A higher electrode gap is reqUired for an engine
with lower compression ratio. For an engine having
compression ratio 9.0, the spark plug electrode gap
ranging from 0.8 mm to 0.9 mm is quite satisfactory.
.2
! 1.4
0.8 '----L---J...---JL---
0 0.25 0.50 0.75
Electrode gap (mm)
Figure 8.10 Effect of eleclrode gap on the
lence ratio for diffellnt ratios.
FACTORS AFFECTING COMBUSTION IN SPARK-IGNITION
ENGINES
is affected by the
167
amount of heat evolved,
the
fundamentals of lntemaf Combustion
6.4.5 TUrbulence and Shape of Combustion Chamber
starts as it enters into the
Turbulence can be
17 0 fundamentals of lntemal Combustion
50
40
10
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Crank angle (deg.)
Figure 6.14 Pressur&-erank angle diagram for cflfferent rates of combustion.
TDC
e-
Normal combu.stion
Combustion with detonation
me
e-
Combustion with detonation
171
fundamentals of Internal Combustion
6.8
Detonation mcreases
in rate of heat trAlru:hr
to rapid completion
of not>ti .... ,.
17 4 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion
6.10
6.10.1 Temperature, Pressure and Density Factors
As the temperature of the charge is increased, the flame and the possibility
end-gas to critical temperature autoignition This mcreases
tendency to knock. An in period of the last part of th
as this part of the is subjected to a in density of the
increa::.e the possibility knocking by the prefiame reactions in
releasing higher energy. The following factors too tend to affect the tendency to knock:
175
As the compression ratio is increased, the " ' ' ~ " " " " " ' ' " '
the
I 7 6 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion
6.10.2 Time Factors
Flame travel distance:
and
the centre. distance increa1ses
across the combustion chamber. This
knocking The following
Combustion chamber shape: In a compact combustion chamber, the normal
made to reach the last part the charge more quickly, so the combustion will
Further, if the combustion chamber is highly turbulent, the combustion rate is and
bustion time is further reduced. Thus a compact combustion chamber """v"'""""''
Engine Large operate at low rpm, while the small engines operate
Thus the piston speed, turbulence and the flame speed are almost same in simil
ree::ardlless of the the time required for the flame to travel across
space would be longer in the larger engines. The delay period is not much affected by
larger cylinders will therefore be more likely to knock.
177
plug: A spark plug which is centrally located in the bead of the combus-
minimum tendency to knock, since the flame travel distance is minimum.
distance can further be reduced by using two or more spark plugs.
Location of valve: The exhaust valve should be located close to the spark plug.
starts from the spark plug, therefore the is far away from it. the
near the spark plug means that the exhaust is also not near the
So, the temperature of the end-gas will not increase due to bot exhaust valve,
period will also remain long. A delay period means that is a chance of
structure
178 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion
which the best power
and minimum
Fuel additives: have found
and octane when added to petrol in a
'I)'pical of these include benzole, ethanol, me'thaJrtol, acetuue, nitt.robelltzetu:
ethyl etc. 'rpe most important of these is tetra ethyl lead Pb[C
2
H
5
]
4
, which is in
and enables high compression ratios to be used compared to those with the petrol alone. A
tion of ethylene dibromide is added to tetra ethyl lead in to prevent deposition
inside engine. The lead and bromine (expeUed with the exhaust gas as bromide)
and greatly reduce the amount of the deposits but some part of the deposit may still be
cooler part of the exhaust system.
In recent years, the use of leaded fuel has been restricted, since it pollutes the atmosphere
destroys the effectiveness of the noble metal of catalytic converters, used
the air pollution from the exhaust of the The other drawbacks, with
prolonged use of leaded fuels, are the deposition of lead salts upon the spark plugs, exhaust
and combustion chambers.
179
Effect of Design
kn<)Cking tendency of the engine is affected by the following design considerations:
Effect of shrouded inlet valve: Plain valves and shrouded inlet valves are shown in
and 6.16(b} The use a shrouded inlet provides the
direction, so that the combustion time is reduced. This will reduce the ten-
Figure6.16
shrouded valve also tends to reduce the especially
tangential flow into the cylinder.
(b)
Plain valves and shrouded inlet valves
Valve shroud
Direction of
swirl
EVExhaust
180 Fundamentals of Internal Combustion
a summary of the factors that
Table6.1
Variable
ratio
Mass of inducted Pressure and Reduce
Reduce
Reduce
Retard Yes
Reduce Yes
Reduce Yes
variation
Carbon aetlOSitS
Turbulence
Pressure Reduce No
Flame travel distance
Octane of fuel
Fuel/air ratio

Dilution of
Time
Time
Time
Reaction time
and time
Reaction time
6.11 DETECTION OF KNOCKING
Reduce
Increase
Increase
Reduce
Use very rich or
lean mixture
Increase
Reduce
More
Detection of knocking is very important. Once knocking is recognized. control measures can
applied before the damage is done. The following simple methods can be used to detect mocm
t Knocking sound can be heard in engines fitted with the silencer the ,,,,,..,.,.,.,,,.
loud exhaust or propeller noise. it is often impossible to detect knocking.
2. The temperature measurement of a spark-plug by a thermocouple embedded
it can indicate the knocking. A sudden or abnormal temperature rise under
ditions shows the of possible knock. Steady operating conditions are nec:ess:ary
spark plug gasket temperature may also be affected by changing the air/fuel
speed, the manifold pressure, and the rate of cooling, etc.
lit
m t e ~ n s t t y can be detected by a pressure transducer which is flush mounted in the
Wll<tvu"-.'""' chamber. It is a pressure sensitive unit in which the diaphragm is exposed to the gases
cylinder and the pressure signals are converted to electrical signals. This electrical signal is
amPllttea and recorded on a knock meter. With increasing amplitude of the signal, the scale reading
knock meter and a relative measure of knock intensity is obtained. This unit can
to apply knocking control measures automatically.
4. It is often possible to detect knocking by the presence of intermittent puffs smoke
""""'"'"''"' which appear bright yellow flashes when the test is out dark.
fuel-air mixture is ignited by a hot spot in the Initiation
"'"'""'"""'other than spark. is called ignition. It comes under
con11bustion. The hot surface might be the
combustion deposits on the combustion chamber cntrr"'r"'"
the and that tv>rn1"1'1no:
are