320 Educational Systems and Current Issues in Education

Lectures about THE ANCIENT EDUCATION

A. Primitive Education B. Education in Ancient China C. Education Ancient Egypt D. Education in Ancient India E. Education in Ancient Greece 1. Spartan Education 2. Athenian Education F. Education in Ancient Rome 1. The Republic 2. The Empire G. Ancient Jewish Education

-1-

ANCIENT EDUCATION
Karl Marx (1963) once wrote, Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstances directly encountered, given, and transmitted from the past. History provides not only with a chronicle of the past but with a deep understanding of the present. It also generates a means of predicting the future. The historical perspective is essential not only because it gives one a grasp of ones heritage but also because it empowers one to envision the possibilities of the future. Christopher Lasch (1983) The Culture of Narcissism

The schools look and work the way they do because of complex historical events and processes. To understand the educational problems of today, we must first have a perspective from which to comprehend these historical processes. This is the value of purpose of the history of education. It is often said that people who do not understand the history are doomed to repeat the mistakes of the past. Although we do not claim that the study of history of education will make educators capable of eliminating mistakes altogether, and although the history of education suggests that people indeed tend to repeat some mistakes, we nonetheless believe that an ignorance of the past is a major barrier to educational improvement. This unit provides the historical background of education in view of the different early cultures of the world. This includes the ancient education during the primitive period, ancient Oriental (China, Japan, Egypt, and Indian), Greek, Roman and Jewish education. Our instruction begins when we begin to live; our education begins with our birth; and our first teacher is our nurse. Rousseau

-2-

Lecture 1 Primitive Education

Primitive Culture The primitive culture was relatively simple. Primitive people had simple activities which are confined to the necessities of life food, clothing, shelter, and protection. People lived in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. Social contact was very limited only to his band or tribe. Because of a narrow socialization, they were conservative and prone to superstitions. They believed in the unseen beings like ghosts, spirits, and deities. Famines, storms, accidents, sickness, and failures are attributed to these unseen beings. The safety and security of the tribe was dependent on their religious or ceremonial performances led by a priest or a witch doctor. Though they have a culture of their own and possessed arts and information, they did not have cultures of writing and reading. Aims and Contents of Primitive education The term education can be applied to primitive cultures only in the sense of enculturation, which is the process of cultural transmission. The general theme or goal of primitive education is for security, survival, or selfpreservation. To survive, preliterate or primitive people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational patterns. For a particular groups culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes involved sharing of information about gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. There is no formal education, nor system of reading and writing. Another purpose of primitive education is to guide children to becoming good members of their tribe or band, thus, conforming to the tribe which they belong. There is a marked emphasis upon training for citizenship, because primitive people are highly concerned with the growth of individuals as tribal members and the thorough comprehension of their way of life during passage from pre-puberty to postpuberty. Because of the variety in the countless thousands of primitive cultures, it is difficult to describe any standard and uniform characteristics of pre-puberty education. Nevertheless, certain things

-3-

are practiced commonly within cultures. Children actually participate in the social processes of adult activities. Agencies and Methods of Primitive Education Primitive children, before reaching puberty, learn by doing and observing basic technical practices. Their teachers are not strangers but, rather, their immediate community. Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would need as adults. The simplest methods of learning exist. Since they lived before the invention of writing, primitive people used an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. Other methods include trial and error, observation of elders activities, demonstration of how things are done, and actual participation of the young in survival activities. The closest to an educational program is the participation of the young in initiation activities of the family and tribe. The earliest form of apprenticeship can be deducted from such activities. The initiation curriculum does not usually include practical subjects. Instead, it consists of a whole set of cultural values, tribal religion, myths, philosophy, history, rituals, and other knowledge. Primitive people in some cultures regard the body of knowledge constituting the initiation curriculum as most essential to their tribal membership. Within this essential curriculum, religious instruction takes the most prominent place. In contrast to the spontaneous and rather unregulated imitations in prepuberty education, postpuberty education in some cultures is strictly standardized and regulated. The teaching personnel may consist of fully initiated men, often unknown to the initiate though they are his relatives in other clans. The initiation may begin with the initiate being abruptly separated from his familial group and sent to a secluded camp where he joins other initiates. The purpose of this separation is to deflect the initiate's deep attachment away from his family and to establish his emotional and social anchorage in the wider web of his culture.

-4-

SUMMARY: Primitive Education Aims For security, survival and self-preservation For conformity, that is to guide children to becoming good members of their tribe or band Types Theoretical about cultural values, tribal religion, myths, philosophy, history, rituals, and other knowledge Practical domestic and religious training Ritualistic and prescriptive Contents gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. Agencies and teachers The parents, elders, and priests served as teachers. No formal school.

Methods Story telling trial and error observation of elders activities demonstration of how things are done actual participation

Lecture 2 Education Ancient China

The ancient Chinese educational activities could perhaps be described as the earliest in human history. It stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion. These were taken mostly from the teachings of philosophical masters or sages like Confucius and Lao Tzu, and other Chinese philosophers. Confucianism and Taoism teach the ethical life and harmony of nature respectively.

-5-

The roots of a system of formal Nearly 3,000 years ago when education in China can be traced back intrigue and vice were rampant in feudal China, the philosopher at least as far as the 16th century B.C. Confucius taught principles of later Shang Dynasty (1523-1027 B.C.) proper conduct and social relationships that embraced high Throughout this period education was ethical and moral standards. the privilege of the elite few, and for no Confuciuss teachings and other purpose than to produce wisdom were standard scholarly education for the bureaucrats government officials. Early on, the who administered the country. curriculum centered on the so-called Six The Confucian tradition, which encompasses education, wisdom, Arts: Rites, Music, Archery, Chariot-Riding, History, and and ethics, persists in China. Mathematics However, based on the teachings of Microsoft Encarta Premium Confucius (551-479 B.C.) during the Spring and Autumn Suite 2005. 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. and Warring States periods (770-221 B.C.), the curriculum gradually became based on The Four Books and The Five Classics. These works outlined the principles of society and government, as well as codes for personal conduct that collectively define Confucian philosophy, which exerted a fundamental influence on virtually all aspects of life, and certainly on education. Chinese ancient formal education was distinguished by its markedly secular and moral character. Its paramount purpose was to develop a sense of moral sensitivity and duty toward people and the state. Even in the early stage of civilization, harmonious human relations, rituals, and music formed the curriculum. Formal colleges and schools probably existed in the Chou dynasty of the 1st millennium BC, at least in the imperial capitals. Local states probably had less-organized institutions, such as halls of study, village schools, and district schools. With regard to actual methods of education, ancient Chinese learned from bamboo books and obtained moral training and practice in rituals by word of mouth and example. Rigid rote learning was the basic teaching method. Education was regarded as the process of individual development. It could be noted that writing was practiced during the Shang Dynasti (1766-1122 BC).In 770-256 BC, Chinese literature blossomed. The first school, (philosophical school) was formed from the 5th to 3rd century BC. The Chinese system of civil-service examination, which originated more than 2,000 years ago and was used in China until the 20th century, made it possible to select the best scholars for important posts in the government.

-6-

The Chinese have given us filial piety (respect for elders), civil service, selfless and honest service in the government, reverence for the teacher, golden rule, scholarship (earnest learning), and even the earliest form of education for all or democratic education. Great Contributions of Ancient China Civil Service Examinations Honest service in the government Coinage standardization Paper money Building of Great Wall

SUMMARY: Education in Ancient China Aims to produce government officials. to develop a sense of moral sensitivity and duty toward people and the state. Types philosophical, government-centered Contents philosophy, poetry and religion Arts Music History Math Secular and Moral Character Agencies and teachers Formal colleges and schools, halls of study, village schools, and district schools Teachers are the philosophical masters or sages (like Confucius and Lao Tzu, and other Chinese philosophers) Methods Rote memorization Reading Lecture

-7-

Lecture 3 Education in Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian education covered both the general upbringing of a child and their training for a particular vocation. Parents would instill in their children various educational principles, moral attitudes, and views of life from a tender age. They would receive their basic education in the bosom of the family. This was about all of the schooling that girls would get; for boys it would be supplemented by proper training in whatever line they chose, or was chosen for them. The upbringing of boys was left mostly in the hands of their fathers; the mothers were responsible for the upbringing of the girls. Parents made their children familiar with their ideas about the world, with their religious outlook, with their ethical principles, with correct behavior toward others and toward the super-natural beings whom everyone believed in. They taught them about folk rituals and so forth. The educational principles of ancient Egypt were written on papyrus commonly known as the Books of Instruction. The advice given in these "books" was designed to make sure of personal success in agreement with the needs of the state and the moral conduct. The Books of Instruction had rules for the well-ordered life and elements of morality that include justice, wisdom, obedience, humanity and restraint. The books mostly took the form of verses addressed by a father to his son as he stepped into his shoes or started to help his aging. Most of these books were put together by senior officials or scribes. Many copies of these scrolls have been made since they also served as teaching texts in the schools for scribes. Egyptian culture and education were preserved and controlled chiefly by the priests, powerful intellectual elite in the Egyptian theocracy who also served as the political bulwarks by preventing cultural diversity. The humanities as well as such practical subjects as science, medicine, mathematics, and geometry were in the hands of the priests, who taught in formal schools. Vocational skills relating to such fields as architecture, engineering, and sculpture were generally transmitted outside the context of formal schooling. Egyptians developed two types of formal schools for privileged youth under the supervision of governmental officials and priests: one for scribes and the other for priest trainees. At the age of five, pupils entered the writing school and continued their studies in reading and writing until the age of 16 or 17. At the age of 13 or 14, the schoolboys were also given practical training in offices for which they were being prepared. Formal vocational training also existed along with scribal and at-home teaching. An official took on his son as an assistant, so that the son would have "on-the-job" training and the succession become almost automatic. On the other hand, priesthood training began at -8-

the temple college, which boys entered at the age of 17, the length of training depending upon the requirements for various priestly offices. Rigid method and severe discipline were applied to achieve uniformity in cultural transmission, since deviation from the traditional pattern of thought was strictly prohibited. Drill and memorization were the typical methods employed. But, as noted, Egyptians also used a work-study method or internship in the final phase of the training for scribes. Young men did not usually choose their own careers; instead, they often followed in the family trade or profession, even up to the highest offices in the land. The king was the only one who did not personally tutor his children. He had royal tutors for his children. The princes and princesses learned literature, mathematics, writing, and grammar. Girls from less lofty families learned how to manage a household, and how to sing, dance and play musical instruments. These last would be important if the girl took on temple service as a singer or musician. The children of farmers and fishermen had even less formal education. They learned how to sow, glean, and harvest, tending poultry and cattle, make nets and catch and prepare fish. Children were often included in scenes of harvesting, fishing, or caring for cattle.

Egyptian Inventions and Contributions A. Writing 1. Hieroglyphics (form of picture writing). The Egyptians developed one of the first systems of writing, hieroglyphics - a word meaning sacred carvings or priestly writings. Hieroglyphics are picture symbols that represent objects, ideas, or sounds. First inscribed on stone, these symbols were later written in ink

-9-

on specially prepared plant material called papyrus (the origin of our word "paper"). 2. The use of paper in writing. On papyrus scrolls the ancient Egyptians recorded their history, literature, mathematics, scientific knowledge, and government records such as tax lists and treaties. 3. Establishment of the first libraries. To house their papyrus scrolls, the Egyptians established the first libraries. The scribes undertook the reading, writing, and record keeping in ancient Egypt. They developed a simpler form of writing for everyday use called demotic. B. Medicine The Egyptians had knowledge of the human body, treated illnesses, prescribed medicines, set broken bones, and performed surgery. C. Astronomy The Egyptians devised the first calendar that divided the year into 365 days. It was more accurate than the previous lunar calendar, based on revolutions of the moon around the earth. Introduced about 4200 B.C., the Egyptian solar-year calendar is the basis of the calendar we use today. D. Math The Egyptians developed a number system based on 10 (similar to our decimal system). E. Architecture and Engineering The Egyptians excelled in working with stone and constructed gigantic pyramids (80 are still standing today) and temples. The temples featured vast halls lined by massive colonnades (rows of columns). Egyptian engineers also build dams and irrigation canals. E. Art The Egyptians were accomplished sculptors who created huge stone statues. On the stone walls of temples and tombs, artists carved and painted domestic and historical scenes. Egyptian drawings are distinctive with the head shown in profile, shoulders facing forward, feet in profile. Egyptian workers skillfully designed delicate metal jewelry, elaborate wood furniture, and beautiful pottery.

- 10 -

SUMMARY: Education in Ancient Egypt Aims to preserve and perpetuate culture (cultural) to transfer skills from father to son so that he could run his daily life (utilitarian) Types moral training, domestic training, religion vocational-professional types (for boys only) Mathematics, astronomy, physics, architecture, and embalming Contents science medicine mathematics geometry astronomy art architecture engineering sculpture Agencies and teachers The home provided basic education; parents were the first teachers Writing school; teachers were government officials and scribes Temple school; teachers were priests The king did not personally tutor his children. Princes and princesses learned literature, mathematics, writing, and grammar through the tutelage of royal tutors. Methods Dictation Memorization Imitation Drill Telling and retelling of stories, myths, and legends Observation and participation Internship or apprenticeship

- 11 -

Lecture 4 Indian Education

India is the site of one of the most ancient civilizations in the world. About the 2nd millennium BC the Aryans entered the land and came into conflict with the local, dark-skinned people they called dasas (servants). They defeated them, spread far and wide in the country, established large-scale settlements, and founded powerful kingdoms. In the course of time, a section of the intellectuals, the Brahmans, became priests and men of learning; another group, nobles and soldiers, became Ksatriyas; the agricultural and trading class was called Vaisyas; and finally the dasas were absorbed as Sudras, or domestic servants. Such was the origin of the division of the Hindus into four varnas, or classes. By about 500 BC the classes became hardened into castes. Religion was the mainspring of all activities in ancient India. It was of an all absorbing interest and embraced not only prayer and worship but philosophy, morality, law, and government as well. Religion saturated educational ideals, too, and the study of Vedic literature was indispensable to higher castes. The stages of instruction were very well defined. During the first period, the child received elementary education at home. The beginning of secondary education and formal schooling was marked by a ritual known as the upanayana, or thread ceremony, which was restricted to boys only and was more or less compulsory for boys of the three higher castes. The Brahman boys had this ceremony at the age of eight, the Ksatriya boys at the age of 11, and the Vaisya boys at the age of 12 years. The boy would leave his father's house and enter his preceptor's asrama, or home., The Gurukul system of education was prevalent. The teacher was the Guru and the disciple was the Sishya. The disciples lived in the Guru's asrama during the course of their training and in turn offered their services. This period of learning of about 12 years, was considered as a great sacrifice or a penance. The Guru identified the capability of his Sishya and accordingly imparted knowledge. The sishyas learned amidst the natural surroundings of the asrama, in open air, in close contact with nature. The Guru would treat a boy as his own child, give him free education, and not charge anything for his boarding and lodging. The pupil had to tend the sacrificial fires, do the household work of his Guru, and look after his cattle. The study at this stage consisted of the recitation of the Vedic mantras, or hymns, and the auxiliary sciencesphonetics, the rules for the performance

- 12 -

of the sacrifices, grammar, astronomy, prosody, and etymology. The characteristic of education, however, differed according to the needs of the caste. For a child of the priestly class, there was a definite syllabus of studies. The trayividya, or the knowledge of the three Vedas, the most ancient of Hindu scriptures, was obligatory for him. During the whole course at school, the student had to observe brahmacharyathat is, wearing a simple dress, living on plain food, using a hard bed, and leading a simple life. As mentioned, the period of studentship normally extended to 12 years. For those who wanted to continue their studies, there was no age limit. After finishing their education at an asrama, they would join a higher center of learning or a university presided over by a kulapati (a founder of a school of thought). Advanced students would also improve their knowledge by taking part in philosophical discussions at a parisad, or academy. Education was not denied to women, but normally girls were instructed at home. The method of instruction differed according to the nature of the subject. The first duty of the student was to memorize the particular Veda of his school, with special emphasis placed on correct pronunciation. In the study of such literary subjects as law, logic, rituals, and prosody, comprehension played a very important role. A third method was the use of parables, which were employed in the personal spiritual teaching relating to the Upanishads, or conclusion of the Vedas. In higher learning, such as in the teaching of dharmashastra (righteousness science), the most popular and useful method was catechismthe pupil asking questions and the teacher discoursing at length on the topics referred to him. Memorization, however, played the greatest role. The Kings sent their princes to gurus for training on the art of using weaponry, Vedas, music, art and physical forms of exercising and defense. At the end of their training, the disciples thanked their gurus with a gift in the form of a gurudakshina which literally means offerings to the guru.

The introduction of Buddhist influences By about the end of the 6th century BC, the Vedic rituals and sacrifices had gradually developed into a highly elaborate cult that profited the priests but antagonized an increasing section of the people. Education became generally confined to the Brahmans, and the upanayana was being gradually discarded by the non-Brahmans. The formalism and exclusiveness of the Brahmanic system was largely responsible for the rise of two new religious orders, Buddhism and Jainism. Neither of them recognized the authority of the - 13 -

Vedas, and both challenged the exclusive claims of the Brahmans to priesthood. They taught through the common language of the people and gave education to all, irrespective of caste, creed, or sex. Buddhism also introduced the monastic system of education. Monasteries attached to Buddhist temples served the double purpose of imparting education and of training persons for priesthood. A monastery, however, educated only those who were its members. It did not admit day scholars and thus did not cater to the needs of the entire population. One of the most ancient universities of India is in Nalanda near Patna. Founded in the 5th Century AD, this great seat of learning flourished until the 12th century AD. The founder of Buddhism, Gautam Buddha and Jainism, Parsvanath Mahavir are believed to have visited Nalanda. The Chinese chronicler Huen Tsang spent many years here both as a student and as a teacher. Nagarjuna, the Buddhist Mahayana philosopher, Dinnaga, the logician and Dharmapala, the Brahmin scholar taught here. Besides religious texts, students in the ancient universities learned about Ayurveda (Medicine), Ganitha (Mathematics), Arthashastra (Political science), Jyothisha (Astrology), Vyakarna (Grammar), Shilpathana Vidya (Art and Crafts), and Adyatma Vidya (Philosophy).

SUMMARY: Education in Ancient India Aim to preserve and perpetuate culture and religion Type (Systems/Organizations) Gurukul System - The teacher was the Guru and the disciple was the Sishya. The disciples lived in the Guru's asrama or house Monastic System - Monasteries attached to Buddhist temples served the double purpose of imparting education and of training persons for priesthood. Contents Vedic literature and mantras, auxiliary sciences like phonetics, the rules for the performance of the sacrifices, grammar, astronomy, prosody, and etymology. Trayividya or the knowledge of the three Vedas (for Bhramin students only)

- 14 -

SUMMARY: Education in Ancient India Agencies and teachers The home provided the elementary education; parents were the first teachers. The secondary education is spent at the Gurus house (asrama or forest school) for about 12 years of great penance. The higher education is spent in a university presided by a kulapati.

Methods Memorization played the greatest method, use of parables Catechism

Lecture 5 Education in Ancient Greece

Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education. Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis, such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. EDUCATION IN SPARTA Sparta was basically a military state and so, it stressed military education. Physical education was equally enjoined by both sexes; but military and civic education dominated, as it was expected that the citizen-soldier be ready to fight and, if necessary, to die, for his country. Arts and sports gave way completely to an education appropriate to men of a warrior caste. The aim of education was to prepare the boys for citizenship and military services and the girls for their future function as wives and mothers. Spartan education was utilitarian which was designed for the State and not for the individual. Courage, respect for elders, subjection to the state, loyalty and obedience to authority were rigidly inculcated. Family life, including marriage was under the control of the State. All children belonged to the State.

- 15 -

The State took a complete control of training the children from birth. Sickly and deformed children were eliminated. If healthy, newly born infants were returned to mothers who were also state nurses. Up to the age of seven, children were brought up by the women, already in an atmosphere of severity and harshness. Boys were trained to control their feelings, their appetites, and habits. They were also taught to be obedient, respectful, modest and reserved. Girls were trained to be healthy and courageous so that they could bear healthy children. The education or agoge, lasted from age seven to 18-20 and was entirely in the hands of the state. The male youth of Sparta were enrolled into formations corresponding to successive age classes, divided into smaller units under the authority of training official called paidonomous. It was a collective education, which progressively removed them from the family and subjected them to garrison life and lived in barrack-typed school. Everything was organized with a view to preparation for military service: lightly clothed, bedded on the bare ground, the child was poorly fed, told to steal to supplement his rations and not to be caught, and subjected to rigorous discipline. He was also, of course, directly apprenticed to the military craft, using arms and maneuvering in close formation. The Spartan was trained under a strict discipline to obey blindly the orders of his superiors. The child was at the same time trained to lying and to theftall virtues when directed toward the foreigner. At 20, boys were dispersed to military camps and at 30, they became full-pledged citizens and were required to marry.

- 16 -

SUMMARY: Education in Sparta Aims to prepare the boys for citizenship and military services and the girls for their future function as wives and mothers. Types physical education military and civic education

Contents military exercises and practices

Agencies and teachers The home provided the initial education of young children under the harsh training of mothers who were also state nurses. At the age of seven, boys would stay and be trained in a barrack-type of school under a paidonomous. Methods Training rather than instruction Corporal punishment Cruel and harsh discipline Learning facilitated by activities and ceremonies led by elders and military leaders.

EDUCATION IN ATHENS Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. The educated women were called heterae who participated in social life and intellectual discussions of the

- 17 -

upper class males. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little. Athens, in contrast to Sparta, became the first to renounce education oriented toward the future duties of the soldier. The Athenian citizen, of course, was always obliged, when necessary and capable, to fight for the fatherland, but the civil aspect of life and culture was predominant. Armed combat, for them, was only a sport. The evolution of Athenian education was moving toward increasing democratizationthough it should be noted that the slave and the resident alien always remained excluded from the body politic. Athenian culture continued to be oriented toward the noble life that of the Homeric knight, minus the warrior aspect, and this orientation determined the practice of elegant sports. Some of these, such as horsemanship and hunting, always remained more or less the privilege of an aristocratic and wealthy elite; the various branches of athletics, however, originally reserved for the sons of the great families, became more and more widely practiced. Education of youth There was no single institution; rather, each activity was carried out in a separate place. At the age of seven the young boy, of privileged family would be taken by a paidagogos, who was generally a respected and learned slave within the parents' household. The elements of literacy were taught by the writing master, known as a gramatist or grammatistes (teacher of letters). The child was learning his letters and numbers by scratching them on a wax-coated wooden tablet with a stylus. More advanced formal literacy, basically about poets, playwrights, and historians, was given by the grammatikos, although this was restricted to the genuinely leisured. Supremely important was instruction in the mythopoeic legends of Hesiod and Homer, given by the lyre-playing kitharist or kitharistes (teacher of music). The paedotribe was also another teacher who was in charge of gymnastics. The moral aspect of education was not neglected. The Athenian ideal was that of the kalos k'agathos, the wise and good man. The teachers were as much preoccupied with overseeing the child's good conduct and the formation of his character as with directing his progress in the various subjects taught him. At 14, his education was over. The boy could then go to the palestra which was a public gymnasium to develop his physical prowess. He could also hear and participate in the activities of the state, go to assemblies and hear debates, listen to the classics and histories of peoples at the theater and witness and join in the Olympic Games. The boy was trained in - 18 -

the palestra until the age of 18 and thus ready for military life. He then became an ephebos, an apprentice militiaman. Philosophers/Teachers/Thinkers In the 400s B.C., the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win arguments than in teaching principles of truth and morality. Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 B.C., claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic Method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In 387 B.C. Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy. Platos Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republics second class of people. The lowest class, the workers, provided food and other products for all the people of the republic. In Platos ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 B.C. Platos student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes. In the 4th century B.C., Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials. Isocrates students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates methods of education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian

- 19 -

SUMMARY: Education in Athens Aims to produce an excellent man both in body and mind who would take active part in the business of state. to produce a well-rounded man, wise and good, beautiful in and out. Types civic training, physical training, moral training, intellectual training Contents reading, writing, arithmetic, music, art, poetry, games and sports. Military skills and civic virtues necessary to his role as a citizen in a democratic state. Agencies and teachers Education was supervised by the state. Paidagogus a learned and respected slave who was assigned to teach the boy from the age of 7-14 with morals and good manners. Other teachers include: gramatist or grammatistes - teacher of letters kitharist or kitharistes - teacher of music paedotribe - teacher of gymnastics.

Teachers/Philosophers/Thinkers Sophists wandering scholars. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. Socrates - forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice by asking probing questions (Socratic Method). Plato established a school called the Academy; described his educational ideal in the Republic. Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials.
Methods Imitation from a living model Reading and Memorization Severe discipline and corporal punishment Under the Sophists: Speech training: grammar, rhetoric, and oratory Development of critical thinking

- 20 -

Lecture 6 Education in Ancient Rome

The Ancient Roman history and education can be divided into the Republic and the Empire, into purely Roman and Greco-Roman. THE REPUBLIC (509-23 B.C.) The Republic was a mixture of oligarchy and democracy with two distinct classes of people: patricians and plebians. The patricians were the aristocrats and the plebians were soldiers, traders, farmers, artisans, and other free men who did not belong to the nobility. During this period, the Romans were already noted for their social organization and law. They already practiced the electoral system, legislation, political machineries, veto, lobbying, taxation system, and other political ideas that we have today. As with most societies, the internal dynamics of society were dominated by the struggle for power and control of government. By and large power was controlled by the upper class Patricians. During the times of the Republic, a two party system developed which provided for a fairer sharing of government and rights. The two parties were called the "Optimates" and "Populares" and respectively stood for the conservative Patricians versus the social reformist commoner Plebians. Because of the plebian power, plebians were allowed to participate in the electoral system. This obviously initiated popular elections. Another plebian power has led to the codification of law where plebians could expect due process in trial and could only be punished for violation of laws. Once, intermarriage was prohibited but later, plebians were allowed to intermarry with patricians. The result of the Republican system was a degree of fairer share of power. The seats of government which at first could only be held by Patricians were now shared or new ones created to allow a more equitable balance in power across society. The Patricians had the Senate and the Plebeians had the Assembly. There were two Consuls ruling the city and one had to be Patrician and the other had to be Plebeian. Early Roman education was distinctly for practical life. It aimed to develop the vir bonus, a man who possessed the virtues essential for the exercise of his rights and the discharge of his duties and obligations. Education had a practical aspect, involving instruction in such farm management concerns as how to oversee the work of slaves and how to advise tenant farmers or one's steward. It had a legal aspect; in contrast to Athenian law, which relied more on common law than on codified law. Roman justice was much more formalistic and technical and demanded much more study on the part of the citizen. Education also had a moral aspect, aiming at inculcating

- 21 -

rural virtues, a respect for good management of one's patrimony, and a sense of austerity and frugality. Roman education, however, did not remain narrowly utilitarian; it broadened in urban Rome, where there developed the same ideal of communal devotion to the public. The interests of the state constituted the supreme law. A nation of small farmers, Rome was also a nation of soldiers. Physical education was oriented not toward selfrealization or competitive sport but toward military preparedness: training in arms, toughening of the body, swimming across cold and rapid streams, and horsemanship, involving such performances as mounted acrobatics and cavalry parades under arms. Differing from the Greeks, the Romans considered the family the natural milieu in which the child should grow up and be educated. The role of the mother as educator extended beyond the early years and often had lifelong influence. The boy at seven years of age was allowed to move away from the mothers exclusive direction. He came under the control of his father. The Roman father closely supervised the development and the studies of his son, giving him instruction in an atmosphere of severity and moral exigency, through precept but even more through example. The young Roman noble accompanied his father and imitated in all his appearances, even within the Senate. Familial education ended at 16, when the adolescent male was allowed to wear adult dress, the pure white woolen toga virilis. He devoted one year to an apprenticeship in public life, no longer at his father's side but placed in the care of some old friend of the family, a man of politics laden with years and honors. Then came military service, first as a simple soldier (it was well for the future leader to learn first to obey), encountering his first opportunity to distinguish himself by courage in battle, but soon thereafter as a staff officer under some distinguished commander. Civil and military, the education of the young Roman was thus completed in the entourage of some high personage whom he regarded with respect and veneration. The young Roman was brought up not only to respect the national tradition embodied in the example of the illustrious men of the past but also, very specifically, to respect the particular traditions of his own family, which, too, had had its great men. If ancient Greek education can be defined as the imitation of the Homeric hero, that of ancient Rome took the form of imitation of one's ancestors. THE EMPIRE (23 B.C. 476 A.D.) As the Roman Republic engaged in its continuous conquests, it eventually became a powerful empire. Greece was one of its conquests. Thus, the purely Roman became - 22 -

Captive Greece took captive her capturer. - Horace

Graeco-Roman. The Romans transported not only the Greek language but also art treasures, scholars, and libraries. Three types of schools appeared corresponding to the states for the boys training: Literary School (Ludus literarius). Children at six or seven entered the ludus (which means play or sports). It was an elementary education where the child learned the 3Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic) and athletics. The first reading book was the Odyssey in Latin. Writing was done with a sharp stick called a stylus to etch into a waxed board. In this manner the writing could be rubbed out and written over. A clean wax board was called a "tabula rasa". There was a severe discipline in the elementary school and the rod was not spared. The teacher received fees and he had to provide his own classroom. Education in ludus lasted for six years. The teacher in the ludus is called ludi magister. Grammar School. Secondary education was offered in the grammar school where students about 13-16 studied two languages: Greek and Latin. The teacher in the grammar school is called grammaticus. Later the Quadrivium was offered. It is consisted of arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. Secondary education was completed when the Roman boy assumed toga. From here, the Roman could either go to military service, a calling, or enter rhetorical schools to become a statesman. Rhetorical school. After the grammar school the student would move on to learn the art of oratory - to speak in public. This was between the ages of 16 and 18 Education in the rhetorical school lasted for two or three years. It aimed to develop the student for argumentation and debate. The oratorical power was a Roman boys instrument for his success in law and public life. In addition to this, a student was also required to read widely and become familiar with the essentials of mathematics, science, law, and philosophy in order that his training be truly liberal. Later, the rhetorical school became known as the Athenaeum. Roman Educators Cato (234-149 B.C) the conservative side of Roman education is represented by Cato. His work De Liberis Educandis (Books of Education), considered as the first Latin treatise on education, was written as a protest against the Greek idea of culture. He aimed to counteract the growing tendency to propagate studies made popular by the Greeks especially music and literature. He believed that Greek literature to pernicious and claimed that its dissemination would ruin the traditional fabric of Roman society. Before he died, however, he

- 23 -

realized the Greek influence had become into Rome to stay and in the end he himself studied Greek. Cicero (106-43 BC) A famous orator, Cicero embodied the Roman ideal of a statesman. His eloquence in the Senate was both admired and feared by colleagues. His main work De Oratore (Orator) and numerous literary works attest to the high level of literature of the period. He described the accomplished orator as knowledgeable o many subjects especially liberal arts. Plutarch (46-120 A.D) In his work The Education of Children, Plutarch laid down his educational theories. He stressed that moral education and habit training must start from childhood. He pointed out the importance of good surrounding in the early process of education. He also emphasized learning by motives rather than by punishment. Quintilian (35-118 A.D) He wrote De Institutione Oratoria (Oratorical Instruction) which is the exposition of the Roman idea of complete education, that is education from infancy onward. He believed that the early years are critical in the overall formation of the individual and that the parents have great responsibility in the early education of their children. He disapproved corporal punishment which is a disgraceful form and fit only for slaves. He advocated that the school must not be rigid. There must be time allowed for the students to relieve the strain of studies by means of play and games. He also advocated classroom instruction over private education because he saw the social dimension of learning. Roman Contribution to Education Latin Language Bilingualism and Cross-cultural studies Social and Political Organization and Law The works of Roman Educators Cato, Cicero, Plutarch, and Quintilian

- 24 -

SUMMARY: Education in Rome

THE REPUBLIC Aims to develop a good citizen, a good soldier and a good worker of the state: vir bonus. Types practical education Contents practical aspect: involving instruction in such farm management concerns as how to oversee the work of slaves and how to advise tenant farmers or one's steward. legal aspect: the law moral aspect: good virtues physical education Agencies and teachers Education was familial. The parents were the teachers. Methods Imitation of a living model and of ones ancestors. Apprenticeship THE EMPIRE Aims to produce a man who has an excellence in public speaking and debate. Types oratorical training Contents reading, writing, arithmetic, athletics, Greek and Latin, Quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy), oratory Agencies and teachers Ludus literarius - ludi magister Grammar School - Grammaticus Rhetorical school Methods Memorization Corporal punishment

- 25 -

Lecture 7 Ancient Jewish Education

Jewish education can be described in terms of its history which is divided into four periods: Patriarchal Period (from the call Abraham to Moses), Tribal Period (from Moses to monarchy), Royal Period (from King Saul to the Babylonian captivity), and Period of Restoration (from Babylonian captivity to the time of Jesus Christ). Ancient Israel first experienced a type of education that was essentially familial. Education focused on obedience to the Law through oral instruction in the home. The mother taught the very young and the girls, while the father assumed the responsibility of providing moral, religious, and handcraft instruction for the growing sons. This characteristic remained in Jewish education, for the relation of teacher to pupil was always expressed in terms of parenthood and filiation. Education, furthermore, was rigid and exacting; the Hebrew word musar signifies education and corporal punishment together. Da'at means knowledge while shevet (rod or staff) are used by parents to discipline their children. Once they were established in Palestineat the crossroads of the great literate civilizations of the Middle East, in the beginning of the 1st millennium B.C.the Jewish people learned to develop a different type of education one that involved training a specialized, professional class of scribes in a then rather esoteric art called writing, borrowed from the Phoenicians. Writing was at first practical: the scribe wrote letters and drew up contracts, kept accounts, maintained records, and prepared orders. Because he could receive written orders, he eventually became entrusted with their execution. The training given to these scribes, moreover, included training of character and instilling the high ideal of wisdom. Writing also found another avenue of application in Israelin religion. The scribe was the agent of education. He was the man who copied the sacred Law/Torah faithfully and established the canonical text. He was the one who read the Law to himself and to the people, taught it, and translated it when Hebrew ceased to be the vernacular or living language (into Greek in Alexandria, into Aramaic in Palestine). He explained it, commented on it, and studied its application in particular cases. Talmud was the written commentaries on the Law/Torah. After the downfall of Israel in 722 721 BC and Judah in 586 BC and their subjection to foreign rule, Jewish education became characterized more and more by this religious orientation. The synagogue in which the community assembled became not merely a house of prayer but also a school, with a

- 26 -

house of the book (bet ha-sefer) and a house of instruction (bet ha-midrash) corresponding roughly to elementary and secondary or advanced levels of education. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah Girls, however, continued to be taught at home. Although a pupil might learn to read aloud, or rather to intone his text, his main effort was to learn by heart fragment after fragment of the sacred Law. Alongside to this written Law, however, there developed interpretations of it, which at first were merely oral but which progressively were reduced to writingfirst in the form of memoranda inscribed on tablets or notebooks, then in actual books. The diffusion of this religious literature called for an expansion of programs of instruction, evolving into diverse stages: elementary, intermediate, and advanced. This religiously based education became one of the most important factors enabling Judaism to survive the national catastrophes of 70 and 135 AD, involving the capture and subsequent destruction of Jerusalem. In their dispersion, the Jews clung to Hebrew, their only language for worship, for the study of the Law, for tradition, and consequently for instruction.

SUMMARY: Ancient Jewish Education Aim to teach the Law/Torah Types religious in orientation Contents Torah and Talmud Vocational skills

Agencies and teachers Education was familial. The parents were the teachers. The Scribes were also teachers teaching the Torah and the Talmud Rabbis The synagogues served as the school
Methods memorization corporal punishment

- 27 -

Lecture 8 Education Under Jesus Christ

Jesus Christ was born to Jewish parents in 4 B.C. during the reign of Augustus. Christianity came from Christ, the Greek word for Messiah. Jesus taught new principles of human relations based on universal love. The most frequent title of Jesus in the Gospels is teacher (Rabbi, Master). He taught practically everywhere. He taught by personal example as a very evident in His words, Love one another as I love you. There is no doubt that Jesus Christ was the greatest Teacher the world has ever known. When He spoke, "..they were astonished at His teaching, for He taught them as one having authority." (Mark 1:22). The life, teachings and example of Jesus Christ have profoundly influenced the whole development of education worldwide. The Great Commission of our Lord Jesus Christ was to "make disciples of all the nations..teaching them." (Matthew 28:19 20). The Apostles took the example and commands of the Lord Jesus Christ seriously, "..they did not cease teaching." (Acts 5:42). One of the Biblical requirements for a Christian leader is that he must be "able to teach" (1 Tim 3:2). He taught everyone without discrimination, a true example of education for all. In teaching that God is the Father of mankind, He removed racial discrimination, class distinctions and castes which paved way for a universal and democratic education to every man, woman, and child. He even reached those whom society thought of as outcasts: blind beggars, people subject to epileptic fits (who were regarded with fear and horror because they were thought to be possessed by demons), and even lepers, who were banished by [Jewish] Law from all normal human contact. The persistent theme of His teachings is salvation or liberation from sin to gain eternal life in the kingdom of God. He dealt with the fundamental universal truths. He practiced what he taught; his life was His curriculum. He used no textbooks. As a teacher, he did not organize a school or an institution because he taught everywhere. He talked to people whenever and wherever he found them. He taught without expecting any payment. Among others, his more popular methods were: Conversational method it was informal and intimate. It was direct,

- 28 -

natural, and familiar. Gnomic method the use of gnomes or proverbs Use of parable - which is a comparison or analogy.

SUMMARY: Education Under Jesus Christ Aim to teach salvation and eternal life in the Kingdom of God Types free from discrimination Contents liberation from sin; salvation eternal life Gods Kingdom Agencies and teachers Education was everywhere; there was no organized institution . Jesus was the teacher or Rabbi

Methods Conversational Gnomic Use of parables

- 29 -

Something to ponder.. 1. What are the ancient educational practices that are similar to our present educational system? 2. Corporal punishment was practiced in ancient times. Considering the increasing cases of juvenile delinquency at the present times, do you think we need to apply corporal punishment?

References
Forward to the Past: THE CULTURAL CONTEXT OF ANCIENT ISRAEL http://www.1bread.org/bethlechem/Teachings/AncientIsrael.html History of Education. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved October 28, 2005, from Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=108329 History of Education. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561415/History_of_Education.html http://www.crystalinks.com/greekeducation.html Microsoft Encarta Premium Suite 2005. 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Sadovnik, Alan R. et. al. (2001) Exploring Education: An Introduction to the Foundations of Education 2nd edition. Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA, USA San Mateo, Rosalinda A. & Tangco Maura G. (2003) Foundations of Education II. Katha Publishing, Co., Inc., Quezon City Surowski, David B., History of the Educational System of China http://www.math.ksu.edu/~dbski/publication/history.html

- 30 -

ED 320 Educational Systems and Current Issues in Education

Lectures about THE MEDIEVAL EDUCATION

A. Early Christian Education B. Monasticism C. Scholasticism D. Chivalric Education E. The Guild System of Education F. Saracenic Education

- 31 -

THE MEDIEVAL EDUCATION

During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry. Only a minority of people went to school during the medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate In the early Middle Ages the Roman school system had disappeared. Mankind in 5th-century Europe might well have reverted almost to the level of primitive education had it not been for the medieval church, which preserved what little Western learning had survived the collapse of the Roman Empire. Cathedral, monastic, and palace schools were operated by the clergy in parts of Western Europe. Most students were future or present members of the clergy, though a few lay students were trained to be clerks. Unlike the Greek and Roman schools, which sought to prepare men for this life, the church schools sought to prepare men for life beyond the grave through the contemplation of God during their life on Earth. The schools taught students to read Latin so that they could copy and thereby preserve and perpetuate the writings of the Church Fathers. Students learned the rudiments of mathematics so that they - 32 -

could calculate the dates of religious festivals, and they practiced singing so that they could take part in church services. Unlike the Greeks, who considered physical health a part of education, the church considered the human body a part of the profane world and therefore something to be ignored or harshly disciplined. The students attended schools that were dreary and cold, and physical activity was severely repressed. Schools were ungraded a 6-year-old and a 16-year-old (or an adult for that matter) sometimes sharing the same bench. Childhood as it is known today literally did not exist. No psychological distinction was made between child and adult. The medieval school was not really intended for children. Rather, it was a kind of vocational school for clerks and clergymen. A 7-yearold in the Middle Ages became an integral part of the adult world, absorbing adult knowledge and doing a man's work as best he could during what today would be the middle years of elementary education. It was not until the 18th century that childhood was recognized; not until the 20th that it began to be understood. The 12th and 13th centuries, toward the end of the Middle Ages, saw the rise of the universities. The university curriculum in about 1200 consisted of what were then called the seven liberal arts. These were grouped into two divisions. The first was the preparatory trivium: grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The second, more advanced division was the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. For the Middle Ages, knowledge was an authoritative body of revealed truth. It was not for the scholar to observe nature and to test, question, and discover truth for himself but to interpret and expound accepted doctrines. To the credit of medieval education, by the 12th century the education of women was no longer ignored, though only a small percentage of girls actually attended schools. Most convents educated women. Early in the 12th century, girls from noble families were enrolled at Notre Dame de Paris in the classes of the French theologian and philosopher Peter Abelard. Medieval education had its problems. There were many dropouts; the influence of the church sometimes drugged rather than enlivened the mind; and scholars were often expected to accept the unreasoned and the unproved. Materials were few and poor. Many university libraries had fewer than a hundred volumes. Because books were so scarce, lessons had to be dictated and then memorized. Nevertheless, medieval schooling ended the

- 33 -

long era of barbarism, launched the careers of able men, and sharpened the minds and tongues of the thoughtful and ambitious students.

Lecture 1 Early Christian Education

As the Roman Empire declined, Christianity became a potent force in the countries of the Mediterranean region and in several other areas in Europe. In the first two centuries after Christ, the Christians gained followers but they were still persecuted. It was only in 313 A.D through the Edict of Milan when Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity as the official state religion. Thus, began the rise of the Catholic Church. The primary aim of early Christian education was the moral regeneration of the individual. It confined itself to the training of converts before their baptism. Perspective converts were given basic training. For advanced training of converts, the catechetical school was organized. Soon, bishopries were put up and so with cathedral school was organized under them. The two types of education given to save individual souls and to convert their fellow men were moral and religious training. There were no physical or aesthetic training. However, musical training were present in relation to church services. In the beginning, there was no intellectual education but later on, the converts among the educated class were trained to meet opponents and heretics. The contents of the training include instruction that would prepare the candidate to be baptized. Basic elements of the church doctrine, church rituals, and moral virtues of Christlike living composed of the training. Early Christian education eliminated physical education, art, science, literature, and rhetoric because of the belief that their origins were pagan, full of vices and corruption. The earliest types of Christian education were the catechumenal, the catechetical and the episcopal or cathedral. An institution known as - 34 Emperor Constantine I

catechumenal schools were organized for the instruction of those who desired to become members of the church but lacked the requisite knowledge of church doctrine. These prospective members who subjected to receive instruction in religious discipline, moral values, and doctrine were called catechumens. The teachers were the more able members. Both boys and girls were admitted and given the sacrament of baptism and communion after several years of training. When Christianity began to make converts among the learned, the catechetical schools were organized. Those who sought to become members of the Christian Church went through a two to three year teaching programme where they were catechised. The schools were called catechetical because it used the catechetical or question-and-answer method. The schools were used primarily for the training of church leaders. Later, the church established bishoprics in these theological training schools. And so, the episcopal or cathedral schools were organized that trained priests. By the 4th century, church and cathedral schools taught Christian doctrine, grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. The cathedral schools became the higher schools for Christian education which were located in the cathedral and were under the direct instruction of the bishop. The method of instruction used was catechetical method. There was also rote recitation where the pupils memorized answers to questions. Amongst the many innovations in Christian education was that these Christian schools taught everybody, including girls and women. Formally educating both sexes was a Christian innovation. As W. M. Ramsy concluded: Christianity aimed at "universal education, not education confined to the rich, as among the Greeks and Romans .and it made no distinction of sex." St. Augustine observed that Christian women were better educated than the pagan male philosophers. Many monasteries or monastic schools as well as municipal and cathedral schools were founded during the centuries of early Christian influence. Collections or compendiums of knowledge centered on the seven

- 35 -

liberal arts: the trivium, composed of grammar, rhetoric, and logic, and the quadrivium of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. From the 5th to the 7th century these compendiums were prepared in the form of textbooks by such scholars as the Latin writer Martianus Capella from northern Africa, the Roman historian Cassiodorus, and the Spanish ecclesiastic St Isidore of Seville. Generally, however, such works disseminated existing knowledge rather than introducing new knowledge.

Lecture 2 Monasticism
Monasticism arose during the dark ages (400 A.D. to 750 A.D.) where invasions and destructions of barbarians spread throughout the empire. Only the church remained as the bastion of education. The term monasticism came from the word monos, which means alone or one who lives a solitary life. It is a mode of life practiced by people who have abandoned the world for religious reasons and devote their lives, either separately or in community, to spiritual perfection. The vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience under which Christian monastic clergy live are termed the evangelical counsels. A person bound by such vows is known as a religious (Latin, religare,to bind). A man who belongs to a monastic order is also called a monk. The regular clergy called the monks strictly adhered to the principles of monastic life obedience, simplicity, and industry. The aim of monastic education was the salvation of individual souls, a kind of moral and physical discipline based on bodily mortification and worldly renunciation for the sake of moral improvement. The virtue of a monk was measured by the ways he punished his body through fasting, very little sleep, wearing course clothes, and assuming painful bodily postures. World renunciation meant denying all claims of social and human institutions. This imposed upon the monks three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. The vow of chastity involved giving up the family, and all human relationships. The vow of poverty means rejection of all material interests in life. When one entered in the monastery he surrendered his right to property and all

- 36 -

claims to inheritance. The monastery could acquire the property by a monk had no personal claim to the wealth. The vow of obedience included renunciation of rank and distinction. A monk subjected himself to his superiors, surrendered his individual personality and negated social affiliations. The monastic education was confined to literacy activities and manual training. The monks copied manuscripts and produced original writings of religious or moral nature. They also became skilled artisans in wood, leather, and metal, skilled farmers, trained in agriculture and horticulture. The monks established the monastic schools in addition to the cathedral, parish, and other schools already existing. They instilled religious discipline for the clergy and the lay people. The parish schools taught the 4 Rs reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Monasticism reached its peak in St. Benedict, the founder of the Benedictine Order. Later on, monastic schools had the Seven Liberal Arts consisting of the Trivium (grammar, rethoric, and dialectic) and the Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music). Typical of Western monasticism were the abbeys, self-contained communities of monks ruled by an abbot or of nuns ruled by an abbess. Within the abbey walls were the abbey church, the dormitory, the refectory, or dining hall, and the guest house for travelers. The buildings enclosed a large courtyard that was usually surrounded by a cloister, or sheltered arcade. The abbeys of the Middle Ages were peaceful retreats for scholars and were the chief centers of Christian piety and learning. One of the oldest and greatest of the medieval abbeys was Monte Cassino, founded by St Benedict in 529.

One of the most valuable functions performed by monks in medieval Europe was the preservation of learning. Books were reproduced by monks who diligently copied entire texts in a monastery room called a scriptorium, which was designed for this purpose.

The monastic schools used catechetical method. Dictation was used and the pupils were made to memorize everything. Latin was used as a language of instruction. Meditation was also greatly emphasized. Discipline was very severe.

- 37 -

Lecture 3 Scholasticism
Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means "that [which] belongs to the school", and was a method of learning taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100 1500. Scholasticism originally began to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. It is not a philosophy or theology in itself, but a tool and method for learning which puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning. The primary purpose of scholasticism was to find the answer to a question or resolve a contradiction. It aimed to support doctrines of the church by rational argument. The aim was essentially intellectual discipline in nature; it was confined to religious and intellecual education. Scholasticism is most well known in its application in medieval theology, but was eventually applied to classical philosophy and many other fields of study. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae ("sum" total of Roman Catholic theology) of Saint Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teachers vocation as one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine. As the number of schoolmen increases, a broaden education at institution - 38 -

developed which was the medieval university under the control of a chancellor. The chancellor was givien the authority to issue a teaching license. The complete organization was known as Universitas Magistrorum et Scholarium. The entire student body was the stadium generale. Outside the lecture halls, students grouped themselves into nations, according to the place of their origin. Each nationl annually elected a councilor. Each group of teachers teaching the same subject was called facultas, and each of these annually elected a dean. The dean of facultas and the the councilors of nations made up the university coulcil which elected a rector who served as the chief executive officier of the university. In terms of methods, the scholastics would choose a book by a renowned scholar called auctor, as a subject of investigation, for example the Bible. By reading the book thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the auctor. Then other documents related to the source document would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters, anything written on the subject, be it ancient text or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between these multiple sources would be written down. These individual sentences or snippets of text are called sententiae. For example, the Bible contains apparent contradictions for Christians, such as the laws regarding what foods are kosher, and these contradictions have been examined by scholars ancient and contemporary, so a scholastic would gather all the arguments about the contradictions, looking at it from all sides with an open mind. Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out, through a series of dialectics the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. This was done in two ways. First, through philological analysis. Words were examined and it would be argued they could have more than one meaning, that the author could have intended the word to mean something else. Ambiguity in words could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements. Second, through logical analysis which relied on the rules of formal logic to show contradictions did not exist, but were subjective to the reader. Scholastic schools had two methods of teaching. The first is the lectio. A teacher would reade a text, expounding on certain words or ideas, but no questions were allowed, it was a simple reading of a text, the instructors explained, and silence for the students. The second is the disputatio which is at the heart of the scholastic method. There were two types of disputatios. The first was called the "ordinary" in which the question to be disputed was announced beforehand. The second was the quodlibetal in which the students would

- 39 -

propose the question to the teacher without any prior preparation. The teacher would then have to come up with a response. The teacher would cite authoritative texts such as the Bible and prove his position. Students would then rebut the response and this would go back and forth. During this exercise someone would be keeping notes on what was said, the teacher would then summarize the arguments from the notes and present his final position the next day, answering all the rebuttals.

Lecture 4 Chivalric Education

Chivalry is the generic term for the knightly system of the Middle Ages and for virtues and qualities it inspired in its followers. The word evolved from terms such as chevalier (French), caballero (Spanish), and cavaliere (Italian), all meaning a warrior who fought on horseback. The term came to mean so much more during medieval times. The chief chivalric virtues were piety, honor, valor, courtesy, chastity, and loyalty. The knights loyalty was due to the spiritual master, God; to the temporal master; and to the mistress of the heart, his sworn love. Love, in the chivalrous sense, was largely platonic; as a rule, only a virgin or another mans wife could be the chosen object of chivalrous love. Chivalric orders first appeared with military activities against nonChristian states. During the Middle Ages, Western Europe aggressively sought to expand its area of control. The first orders of chivalry were very similar to the monastic orders of the era. Both sought the sanctification of their members through combat against "infidels" and protection of religious pilgrims, and both had commitments that involved the taking of vows and submitting to a regulation of activities. For youngsters of the aristocracy in the Middle Ages of the 13th century, there was chivalric education. This was a kind of secondary education that young men received while living in the homes of nobles or at court. It included some poetry, national history, heraldry, manners and customs, physical training, dancing, a little music, and battle skills. Chivalric, secular education was governed by a code rather than a curriculum. Boys of the

- 40 -

lower classes could learn a trade through apprenticeship in a craftsman's shop. Knights were members of the noble class socially as bearers of arms, economically as owners of horse and armor, and officially through religious-oriented ceremony. But not all soldiers could become knights. While some were knighted on the battlefield, most spent long years as a squire, practicing the art of war while serving his master. Those lacking the equipment, status or wealth to join an order were usually denied. However, some from the poorer class could elevate their status and be accepted into knighthood through valor on the battlefield. As a system of education for the nobility, chivalry aimed to teach the best ideals by inculcating gallantry toward women, protection of the weak, honesty in everything, and courage at all times. Chivalric education was a form of social training. It emphasized military training and social etiquette. It taught young noble to manage his estate and acquire the class consciousness of superiority over the lower class. The home was responsible for the earliest education. But becoming a page was usually the first step most took in the path to knighthood. Training began at a very young age. At 7, the son of a medieval nobleman or knight would be sent off to serve as a page in a lord's castle. There, he would learn horsemanship, archery and swordsmanship, and perform various other duties around the castle. The lords and the ladies of the castle were the teachers. At 14 they trained as squires in the service of knights, learning horsemanship and military techniques. A squire's training concentrated on strength, fitness and skill with various weapons. Individual training was only part of the regimen, as knights also needed to know how to fight as part of a team of skilled horsemen. The squire would care for the knight's horse, clean the stables, polish the knight's armor and maintain his weapons. They would learn the chivalric codes of conduct and listen to epic tales of Roland, Charlemagne, Arthur, Percival and Lancelot. Troubadours, ministers, gazetteers served as agents of education and providers of entertainment. After years of training, and usually around the age of 21, the squire

- 41 -

would go through the dubbing ceremony. In the early Middle Ages, this was simply done with a brief, open-handed blow to the neck followed by an admonition to conduct himself with courage, bravery, skill and loyalty. After the 11th century, the Church expanded this ceremony to incorporate seeds of religious chivalry-needed to fight the Crusades-and promised in return, they would be guaranteed a place in heaven for their loyalty. The dubbing ceremony became much more elaborate during the 11th and 12th centuries. Some would pray alone in church the night before the ceremony, wearing simple clothes to prove humility before God. The priest would bless his sword, and when presented and presented the new knight. Girls were also educated in religious faith and ceremonies, dancing and singing, courtesy, handicraft, and management of household servants. While the fields of battle were the schools for the boys, the courts were schools for the girls. The methods used were those of imitation, example, and learning by doing. The motivation was the strong desire for social approval. Discipline was maintained through the ideals of obedience and sincere adherence to moral and social standards.

Lecture 5 The Guild System of Education

A "guild was, in medieval times, an association of craftsmen or merchants, formed for mutual aid and protection and to further their own professional interests. The medieval guilds were of two types, the merchant guilds and the craft guilds. Merchant guilds were associations of all (or most) of the merchants in a particular town or city, be local or longdistance traders, wholesale or retail sellers, for instance. A modern-day analogy might be a Chamber of Commerce. By the 13th century, the merchant guilds of Western Europe were officially recognized by many town governments, comprising of the wealthiest and most influential citizens in many towns and cities. In the larger towns, a Guildhall would often be provided by the merchants' guilds. They became intimately involved in regulating and protecting their members' interests, both in long-distance trade and local town business. Guilds came to control the distribution and sale of

- 42 -

food, cloth, and other staple goods, and so often gained a powerful monopoly. The medieval craft guilds, were associations of all the artisans and craftsmen in a particular branch of industry or commerce. For example, there were guilds of weavers, bookbinders, masons and architects in the building trade, painters, metalworkers bakers, dyers, embroiderers, leatherworkers, etc. The medieval craft guilds system became widespread in the 11th century in Europe, as towns and cities started to develop after the Dark Ages period. The word "craft" comes from the old English word "craeft", meaning "skill". The skilled craftsmen in a town usually consisted of a number of family workshops in the same neighborhood, with the masters or owners of such workshops related to each other, often sharing apprentices between them. These craftsmen would agree, as a group, to regulate competition among themselves, thus promoting their own and the town's prosperity. The craftsmen would agree on some basic policies governing their trade, setting quality standards, and so on. So, from local beginnings, the early guilds developed into larger, sophisticated associations of craftsmen. As the new middle class needed a kind of education that was practical, thus, vocational training was emphasized. Education aimed at preparing children for the requisites of commerce and industry. Elementary instruction in reading, writing and arithmetic were required as preparation of commerce and industry of the guilds. Masters were required to teach their apprentices their crafts and also to provide adequate religious instruction. Burgher schools were developed for the education of burgher children. These schools were supported and controlled by the cities and often taught by priests and lay teachers. There were also chantry schools which were supported by wealthy merchants for instruction of the children in the city. There were also guild schools for the children of the craftsmen. The members of a craft guild were divided into three classes: masters, apprentices, and journeymen. The master, who was a small-scale proprietor, owned the raw material and the tools and sold the goods manufactured in his shop for his own profit. The apprentices and journeymen lived in the master's house. The apprentices, who were beginners in the trade and learned it under the direction of the master, usually received only their board in return for the work they did. After an apprentice had completed his training he became a journeyman and was paid a fixed wage for his labor. He would travel as a paid laborer and do to the different masters. In time, after proving his worth, a journeyman might become a master and be a full-pledged member of the guild. - 43 -

Lecture 6 Saracenic Education

Saracens were the people of the Saracen Empire, another name for the Arab Caliphate under the rule of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The Saracens are credited with many mathematical advances and inventions used in the modern world, including table and bed linens, sherbet and ice cream, and cultivated peaches and strawberries. In the early centuries of the Roman Empire, the Saracens were a nomadic Arab tribe from the Sinai Peninsula, but later the Greek-speaking of the Empire applied it to all Arabs. After the rise of Islam, and especially at the time of the Crusades, its usage was extended to what today are called Muslims, particularly those in Sicily and southern Italy. The aim of education for the Saracens was primarily a search for knowledge and application of scientific facts to th affairs of daily life. For example, science was studied not merely for intellectual exercise but for its application to useful arts and crafts. Reading was studied as a necessity for progress. Medicine was stressed because it was necessary for the preservation of life. Astronomy was studied as an aid to geography and navigation. Islam was a simple religion emphasizing a high degree of tolerance with the faith. The memorization of Koran was required, then. There was very little need for much education, except for those training to be teachers of divinity or philosophy, so that education was free to devote itself to the improvement of life. As a result, Saracenic homes and cities were equipped with facilities and luxuries that their European neighbors had not even dreamed of. Vocational education was stressed. Intellectual training in the sciences was the basis for the professions. Education was universal, although not entirely democratic. Elementary education was open to all boys and girls, and higher education was open to rich and poor. Although the wealthy had some advantages, financial aid was provided to needy students so that in those times it would be difficult to find an illiterate Saracen. The curriculum of the Muslim school was the most complete and most carefully organized in the elementary, secondary and higher levels. In the elementary level, subjects were reading, writing, arithmetic, religion, grammar and science. At the higher level, it consisted of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, geography, astronomy, anatomy, pharmacy, medicine, surgery, philology, history, literature, logic, metaphysics, and law. - 44 -

What the Muslims studied and what they discovered were carefully recorded and classified in libraries. The Koran was taught at all levels. The early caliphs were instrumental in the founding of elementary schools, academies, universities, and libraries in their domain. The caliphs became ardent scholars themselves and they surrounded themselves with the most learned men. Each mosque established an elementary school. The rich Muslims donated large amount of money for education. Both universities and libraries were well-endorsed and were made available to all. In terms of methods, Muslim schools used the scientific method, the catechetical method, memorization, and lecture. Higher schools emphasized travel and explanation. In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averros had not preserved them. References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561415_2/History_of_Education.html http://www.ancientquest.com/embark/guilds.html http://www.leaderu.com/theology/jesusjew.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SaracenA Carpenter, Humphrey. Jesus. Past Masters series. Oxford University Press [http://www.oup.com]. 1980. cited in Microsoft Encarta Premium Suite 2005. 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. The Roots of Education TheRootsOfEducation.htm\Z]A http://www.christianaction.org.za/articles_ca/2004-4-

San Mateo, Rosalinda A. and Tangco Maura G. (2003) Foundations of Education II, 3 rd Ed, Katha Publishing Co.

- 45 -

ED 320 Educational Systems and Current Issues in Education

Lectures about PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

A. B. C.

Historical Perspective of Philippine Education Philippine Organizational Structure Legal Bases of Philippine Education

- 46 -

I. Historical Perspective of Philippine Education

A. Education in Pre-Hispanic Era
Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development from the pre-Spanish times to the present. In meeting the needs of the society, education serves as focus of emphases/priorities of the leadership at certain periods/epochs in our national struggle as a race. Spanish conqueror claimed that the ancient inhabitants of Philippines were illiterate. But as early as in pre-Magellanic times, our ancestors have education of their own which was informal, unstructured, broad, indefinite, and unwritten. Children were provided more vocational training and less academics (3 Rs) by their parents and in the houses of tribal tutors. Education aimed for survival and conformity. Education was a result of individual experiences and by product of the accumulation of racial experiences. Training were consisted of informal education through apprenticeship which started at home; domestic chores and practical/occupational honing of skills in hunting, etc.; and theoretical/moral and spiritual awakening like worship, laws, and codes. Education was done through tell me and show me or demonstration, observation and imitation, and indoctrination. Education was considered as preserver of their culture and transmitter of the knowledge acquired by earlier generation to their posterity and a vital factor in the propagation of their tradition.

B. Education During the Spanish Era

The pre-Spanish system of education underwent major changes during the Spanish colonization. The tribal tutors were replaced by the Spanish Missionaries. Miguel Lopez de Legaspi conquered the Philippine Archipelago in 1565. One his concerns was the establishment of schools for children with the objective of rearing the virtue and skills of the Spanish youth. Education was religion-oriented and aimed to propagate Christianity. Training was done formally through the following: Visitas which served as the first schools

- 47 -

Parochial schools established in the 19th century Secondary schools established such as the colegios, beaterios, and seminaries Institutions established for higher learning to provide church with centers of learning and the state with much needed judges and lawyers.

Education was considered as status symbol, a privilege and not a right. It was for the elite, especially in the early years of Spanish colonization. Teaching was done through dictation, memorization, and other techniques such as moro-moro, cenaculo, and other theatrical performances. Teaching consisted of Christian doctrine in the elementary level and ecclesiastical studies, classical courses and vocational education. Spanish and Latin were the media of instruction. Education was characterized by authoritarianism. Classroom were teacher-dominated and subject-centered. Severe discipline was imposed. Schools were under the direct control of the Roman Catholic Church and was dominated by the priests and clergy. To uplift the education in the country, the Royal Decree of 1863 (Education Act of 1863) was promulgated which provided for the following: Complete system of education Free system of education Establishment of normal school Reorganization of the school curriculum Government supervision and control of school thus breaking the 3-century church denomination in education.. Through the Royal Decree of 1863, access to education by the Filipinos was later liberalized which provided for the establishment of at least one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of the municipal government; and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers under the supervision of the Jesuits. Primary instruction was free and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory. Although religion was the core of the curriculum, the subjects included were reading, writing, arithmetic, history, Christian doctrine, the Spanish language, music, agriculture for boys and needlework for girls. Education during that period was inadequate, suppressed, and controlled. Secondary education was given at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran, Ateneo Municipal de Manila, and in seminaries. Collegiate instruction was provided by the University of Santo Tomas which offered courses in civil law, jurisprudence, canon law, philosophy and letters, medicine, pharmacy,

- 48 -

physics, and chemical sciences. For training of teachers, normal schools were established in Manila and Nueva Caceres.

C. Education During the American Era

Education totally changed the educational concepts introduced by the Spanish. Education aimed to promote democratic ideals and the way of life. Education became universal and free for all regardless of sex, age, religious and socio-economic status of the individual. n adequate secularized and free public school system during the first decade of American rule was established upon the recommendation of the Schurman Commission. Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley. Chaplains and non-commissioned officers were assigned to teach using English as the medium of instruction. A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine Commission by virtue of Act No. 74. The implementation of this Act created a heavy shortage of teachers so the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. They were the Thomasites. The high school system supported by provincial governments, special educational institutions, school of arts and trades, an agricultural school, and commerce and marine institutes were established in 1902 by the Philippine Commission. In 1908, the Philippine Legislature approved Act No. 1870 which created the University of the Philippines. Classes were done through the schools both public and secular manned by chaplains and military officers of the US army and the Thomasites. Teaching was done through democratic ways of teaching. The curricular programs were patterned from the US. Religious freedom was enforced which was an exact contradiction of Spaniards view of religion. The development of the intelligence, right attitudes and habits of children who were to become citizens of the future were emphasized. Citizenship training became important. Democratic ideal as a philosophy was emphasized. Supervision of schools took the role of guidance and consultancy.

- 49 -

Legal Mandates Laid the foundation of the Philippine public school system Reorganization Act of Povided the Filipinization of all department 1916 secretaries except the Secretary of Public Instruction Act No. 2957 (1921) Created the Board of Textbooks for the selection and adoption of textbooks for the public schools Act No. 3162 and 3196 Made possible the conduct of Monroe Survey and recommended the ff: Educational reforms regarding methods and techniques of teaching, supervision, teacher training and curriculum Evaluation of teaching and training Constitution of 1935 Mandated the establishment and maintenance of a complete and adequate system of public education, free public primary instruction, and citizenship training to adult citizens. Education Act of 1901 The Americans established the first primary schools in 1901 and intermediate schools in 1904. With the virtue of Act No. 372, all provinces were required to maintain a provincial high school. The Philippine Normal School (1901) and the University of the Philippines (1908) were founded for higher education. The Manila Business School (now PUP) was established in 1904). These schools patterned the US educational system. English was the medium of instruction.

D. Education During the Commonwealth Period

Education aimed to continue the promotion of democratic ideals and way of life. Training was done through the public schools and the private schools (sectarian and non-sectarian). Curricular emphasis was on character education and citizenship training. Legal Mandates Education Act of 1940, Provided for the: otherwise known as complete revision of the public elementary Commonwealth Act school system 586 shortening of elementary grades from 7 to 6 years adoption of double-single sessions in the primary grade with one teacher one class assignment of intermediate teachers. R.A. Act No. 4007 Completely abolished matriculation fees.

- 50 -

E. Education During the Japanese Era (1943-45)

Education aimed at the following: Making the people understand the position of the Philippines as a member of the East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (a Japanese version of the Monroe Doctrine established by US President James Monroe); Eradication of the old ideas of reliance upon western states; Elevating the moral of the people giving up over-emphasis on materialism Striving for the diffusion of the Japanese language in the Philippines and the termination of the use of the English language in schools; Inspiring the people with the spirit of love for labor.

Training was done formally through the schools, which gave more emphasis on vocational, technical, and agriculture. The curriculum was centered on values rooted on love for labor. It emphasized on vocational education; it diffused the use of Nippongo; and, it taught physical education and singing of Japanese songs. Legal Mandate Informed the people that the sovereignty of the US over the Philippines was over and that Martial Law was to reign Made the Philippines a member of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Proclamation No. 1

F. Education During the Third Republic (1945-71)

Education aimed at the full realization of the democratic ideals and way of life. The characteristics of which are: Democracy is predicted upon the intrinsic worth of the individual Individuals realize their capacities best in a social context Society is not separate from the individual Democracy thrives on change; it is dynamic and flexible Its fosters persuasion and consensus and rejects coercion and indoctrination Curricular content stressed Social orientation as manifested by the conservation of the Filipino heritage Training for occupation Promotion of democratic nation building

- 51 -

A new thrust on community development Legal Mandates Provided for: Creation of Board of National Education as the highest policy-making body of the Philippines R.A. No 869, known as Elementary Act of 1953, requiring every parent to enroll a child of age to finish elementary education Revision of Elementary Education Curriculum of 1957 to emphasize skill development and proper attitude for work Reduction of class enrollment to 40 Use f vernacular as the medium of instruction in Grades 1 and 2 in all schools, and English as medium of instruction from Grade 3-6.

Republic Act No. 1123

G. Education During the New Society (1972-1986)

When Martial Law was declared through the promulgation of Proclamation 1081 on September 21, 1972, an educational revolution started. The fundamental aim of education under the New Society is toward educational development. This aim is based on the Presidential Decree No. 6-A known as Educational Development Decree of 1972. This was adopted with aim to provide a broad base of general education for all citizens, train manpower in middle skills, develop professional competence that can provide leadership and advance knowledge and make education more relevant through an educational planning service. To accomplish the aims of Educational Development Decree of 1972, a ten-year program was launched by the Department of Education and Culture for educational development through the following means of action: Curriculum reorientation Selected admission Improvement of teachers in service Accreditation process Guidance and counseling program Improvement of instruction in Math and Science Upgrade secondary schools and colleges Government grants and loans to institutions and other agencies. Likewise, Department Order No. 16, s. 1972 was issued to enjoin school authorities to adopt work-oriented curriculum.

- 52 -

H. Education During the Present Period

See the succeeding lessons

II. The Philippine Organizational Structure

A. The Department of Education
From: http://www.deped.gov.ph EVOLUTION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
YEAR 1863 1901-1916 1916-1942 1942-1944 OFFICIAL NAME OF DECS Superior Commission of Primary Instruction Department of Public Instruction Department of Public Instruction Department of Education, Health and Public Welfare Department of Education, Health and Public Welfare Department of Public Instruction Department of Public Instruction and Information Department of Instruction Department of Education Department of Education and Culture Ministry of Education and Culture Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports Department of OFFICIAL TITULAR HEAD Chairman General Superintenden t Secretary Commissioner LEGAL BASES Educational Decree of 1863 Act. No. 74 of the Philippine Commission, Jan. 21, 1901 Organic Act Law of 1916 (Jones Law) Renamed by the Japanese Executive Commission, June 11, 1942 Renamed by Japanese Sponsored Philippine Republic Renamed by Japanese Sponsored Philippine Republic Renamed by the Commonwealth Government Renamed by the Commonwealth Government E.O. No. 94 October 1947 (Reorganization Act of 1947) Proc. No. 1081, September 24, 1972

1944 1944 1945-1946 1946-1947 1947-1975 1975-1978

Minister Secretary Secretary Secretary Secretary Secretary

1978-1984 1984-1986 1987-1994

Minister Minister Secretary

P.D. No. 1397, June 2, 1978 Education Act of 1982 E.O. No. 117. January 30, 1987

- 53 -

1994-2001 2001 - present

Education, Culture and Sports Department of Education, Culture and Sports Department of Education

Secretary Secretary

RA 7722 and RA 7796, 1994 Trifocalization of Education Management RA 9155, August 2001 (Governance of Basic Education Act)

Access to education by the Filipinos was later liberalized through the enactment of the Educational Decree of 1863. A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine Commission by virtue of Act No. 74. The Reorganization Act of 1916 provided the Filipinization of all department secretaries except the Secretary of Public Instruction. Japanese educational policies were embodied in Military Order No. 2 in 1942. The Philippine Executive Commission established the Commission of Education, Health and Public Welfare and schools were reopened in June 1942. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese - sponsored Republic created the Ministry of Education. Under the Japanese regime, the teaching of Tagalog, Philippine History, and Character Education was reserved for Filipinos. Love for work and dignity of labor was emphasized. On February 27, 1945, the Department of Instruction was made part of the Department of Public Instruction. In 1947, by virtue of Executive Order No. 94, the Department of Instruction was changed to Department of Education. During this period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of Public and Private Schools. In 1972, it became the Department of Education and Culture by virtue of Proclamation 1081 and the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1978 y virtue of P.D. No. 1397. Thirteen regional offices were created and major organizational changes were implemented in the educational system. The Education Act of 1982 created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports which later became the Department of Education, Culture and Sports in 1987 by virtue of Executive Order No. 117. The structure of DECS as embodied in EO No. 117 has practically remained unchanged until 1994 when the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and 1995 when the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) were established to supervise tertiary degree programs and non-degree technical-vocational

- 54 -

programs, respectively. The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) report provided the impetus for Congress to pass RA 7722 and RA 7796 in 1994 creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), respectively. The trifocal education system refocused DECS mandate to basic education which covers elementary, secondary and nonformal education, including culture and sports. TESDA now administers the post-secondary, middle-level manpower training and development while CHED is responsible for higher education. In August 2001, Republic Act 9155, otherwise called the Governance of Basic Education Act, was passed transforming the name of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) to the Department of Education (DepEd) and redefining the role of field offices (regional offices, division offices, district offices and schools). RA 9155 provides the overall framework for (i) school head empowerment by strengthening their leadership roles and (ii) school-based management within the context of transparency and local accountability. The goal of basic education is to provide the school age population and young adults with skills, knowledge, and values to become caring, self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens. DepEd MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE To carry out its mandates and objectives, the Department is organized into two major structural components. The Central Office maintains the overall administration of basic education at the national level. The Field Offices are responsible for the regional and local coordination and administration of the Departments mandate. RA 9155 provides that the Department should have no more than four Undersecretaries and four Assistant Secretaries with at least one Undersecretary and one Assistant Secretary who are career service officers chosen among the staff of the Department. At present, the Department operates with four Undersecretaries in the areas of: (1) Programs and Projects (2) Regional Operations (3) Finance and Administration (4) Legal Affairs; four Assistant Secretaries in the areas of:

- 55 -

(1) Programs and Projects; (2) Planning and Development; (3) Budget and Financial Affairs; and (4) Legal Affairs. Backstopping the Office of the Secretary at the Central Office are the different services, bureaus and centers. The five services are the 1. Administrative Service 2. Financial and Management Service 3. Human Resource Development Service 4. Planning Service 5. Technical Service. Three staff bureaus provide assistance in formulating policies, standards, and programs related to curriculum and staff development. These are the 1. Bureau of Elementary Education (BEE) 2. Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE) 3. Bureau of Nonformal Education (BNFE). By virtue of Executive Order No. 81 series of 1999, the functions of a fourth bureau, the Bureau of Physical Education and School Sports (BPESS), were absorbed by the Philippine Sports Commission (PSC) last August 25, 1999. Six centers or units attached to the Department similarly provide technical and administrative support towards the realization of the Departments vision. These are the National Education Testing and Research Center (NETRC), Health and Nutrition Center (HNC), National Educators Academy of the Philippines (NEAP), Educational Development Projects Implementing Task Force (EDPITAF), National Science Teaching Instrumentation Center (NSTIC), and Instructional Materials Council Secretariat (IMCS). There are four special offices under OSEC: the Adopt-a-School Program Secretariat, Center for Students and Co-curricular Affairs, Educational Technology Unit, and the Task Force Engineering Assessment and Monitoring. Other attached and support agencies to the Department are the Teacher Education Council (TEC), Philippine High School for the Arts, Literacy Coordinating Council (LCC), and the Instructional Materials Council (IMC). At the sub-national level, the Field Offices consist of the following: Sixteen (16) Regional Offices, including the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM*), each headed by a Regional Director (a Regional Secretary in the case of ARMM);

- 56 -

One hundred fifty-seven (157) Provincial and City Schools Divisions, each headed by a Schools Division Superintendent. Assisting the Schools Division Offices are 2,227 School Districts, each headed by a District Supervisor; Under the supervision of the Schools Division Offices are forty-eight thousand, four hundred forty-six (48, 446) schools, broken down as follows: 40,763 elementary schools (36,234 public and 4,529 private) 7,683 secondary schools (4,422 public and 3,261 private) * ARMM is included in the budget of the Department on the following: Creation of teaching and non-teaching positions; Funding for newly-legislated high schools; Regular School Building Program; and Certain foreign-assisted and locally-funded programs and projects.

B. The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)

From: http://www.tesda.gov.ph The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) was established through the enactment of Republic Act No. 7796 otherwise known as the "Technical Education and Skills Development Act of 1994", which was signed into law by President Fidel V. Ramos on August 25, 1994. This Act aims to encourage the full participation of and mobilize the industry, labor, local government units and technical-vocational institutions in the skills development of the country's human resources. The merging of the National Manpower and Youth Council (NMYC) of the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE), The Bureau of Technical and Vocational Education (BTVE) of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS), and The Apprenticeship Program of the Bureau of Local Employment (BLE) of the DOLE gave birth to TESDA. The fusion of the above offices was one of the key recommendations of the 1991 Report of the Congressional Commission on Education, which undertook a national review of the state of Philippine education and manpower development. It was meant to reduce overlapping in skills development activities initiated by various public and private sector agencies, and to provide national directions for the country's technical-vocational

- 57 -

education and training (TVET) system. Hence, a major thrust of TESDA is the formulation of a comprehensive development plan for middle-level manpower based on the National Technical Education and Skills Development Plan. This plan shall provide for a reformed industry-based training program that includes apprenticeship, dual training system and other similar schemes. TESDA is mandated to: Integrate, coordinate and monitor skills development programs; Restructure efforts to promote and develop middle-level manpower; Approve skills standards and tests; Develop an accreditation system for institutions involved in middle-level manpower development; Fund programs and projects for technical education and skills development; and Assist trainers training programs.

At the same time, TESDA is expected to:

Devolve training functions to local governments; Reform the apprenticeship program; Involve industry/employers in skills training; Formulate a skills development plan; Develop and administer training incentives; Organize skills competitions; and Manage skills development funds.

Overall, TESDA formulates manpower and skills plans, sets appropriate skills standards and tests, coordinates and monitors manpower policies and programs, and provides policy directions and guidelines for resource allocation for the TVET institutions in both the private and public sectors. Today, TESDA has evolved into an organization that is responsive, effective and efficient in delivering myriad services to its clients. To accomplish its multi-pronged mission, the TESDA Board has been formulating strategies and programs geared towards yielding the highest impact on manpower development in various areas, industry sectors and institutions. TESDA was created to mobilize the full participation of industry, labor, technical and vocational institutions, local government, and civil society for skilled manpower development programs. Mission: TESDA provides direction, policies, programs and standards towards quality technical education and skill development.

- 58 -

Vision: TESDA is the leading partner in the development of the Filipino workforce with world-class competence and positive work values.

C. The Commission on Higher Education (CHED)

http://www.ched.gov.ph The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) is the governing body covering both public and private higher education institutions as well as degree-granting programs in all tertiary educational institutions in the Philippines. The CHED was established in May 18, 1994 through Republic Act No. 7722 or the Higher Education Act of 1994. The creation of CHED was part of a broad agenda for reforms in the country's education system, outlined by the Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) in 1992. Part of the reforms is the trifocalization of the education sector. The three governing bodies in the education sector are the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) for tertiary and graduate education, the Department of Education (DepEd) for basic education, and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) for technical-vocational and middle level education. CHED Mandate: Promote quality education Take appropriate steps to ensure that education shall be accessible to all Ensure and protect academic freedom for the continuing intellectual growth, the advancement of learning, and research, the development of responsible and effective leadership, the education of high level professionals, and the enrichment of historical and cultural heritage. Four Goals of CHED 1. Quality and Excellence the provision of undergraduate and graduate education that meets international standards of quality and excellence. 2. Relevance and Responsiveness generation and diffusion of knowledge in the broad range of disciplines relevant and responsive to the dynamically changing domestic and international environment. 3. Access and Equity broadening the access of deserving and qualified Filipinos to higher education opportunities. 4. Efficiency and Effectiveness the optimization of social, institutional, and individual returns from the utilization of higher education resources. Strategies in Attaining the Goals of CHED: For promoting Quality and Excellence: - 59 -

Upgrading the HEI programs and standards towards global competitiveness Providing a program of assistance to prepare students entering the higher education system For promoting Relevance and Responsiveness Ensuring labor market responsiveness of higher education Strengthening the research and extension of HEIs For broadening Access Rationalization and expanding student financial assistance Expanding alternative modalities of higher learning For improving Efficiency and Effectiveness Rationalizing SUCs programs and resource allocation Strengthening the MIS and improving labor-market information Targets of CHED: Updated and regionally comparable standards in priority programs Increase in the number of faculty with MA/MS Increase in the number of accredited programs Improved performance of licensure examination in priority areas Increase in the number of intakes and graduates in priority fields Reduced dropout of lower income groups Significant increase in the number of beneficiaries of scholarships and other forms of student financial assistance Proportionate increase of total costs raised from non-public sources

III. Legal Bases of Philippine Education

A. The Philippine Constitution of 1987
Article XIV: Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture, and Sports Section 1. The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all. Section 2. The State shall: 1. Establish, maintain, and support a complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and society;

- 60 -

2. Establish and maintain, a system of free public education in the elementary and high school levels. Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their children, elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age; 3. Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs, subsidies, and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in both public and private schools, especially to the underprivileged; 4. Encourage non-formal, informal, and indigenous learning systems, as well as self-learning, independent, and out-of-school study programs particularly those that respond to community needs; and 5. Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with training in civics, vocational efficiency, and other skills. Section 3. 1. All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part of the curricula. 2. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and technological knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency. 3. At the option expressed in writing by the parents or guardians, religion shall be allowed to be taught to their children or wards in public elementary and high schools within the regular class hours by instructors designated or approved by the religious authorities of the religion to which the children or wards belong, without additional cost to the Government. Section 4. 1. The State recognizes the complementary roles of public and private institutions in the educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervision and regulation of all educational institutions. 2. Educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and mission boards, shall be owned solely by citizens of the Philippines or corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is owned by such citizens. The Congress may, however, require increased Filipino equity participation in all educational institutions. The control and administration of educational institutions shall be vested in citizens of the Philippines. - 61 -

No educational institution shall be established exclusively for aliens and no group of aliens shall comprise more than one-third of the enrollment in any school. The provisions of this subsection shall not apply to schools established for foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents and, unless otherwise provided by law, for other foreign temporary residents. 3. All revenues and assets of non-stock, non-profit educational institutions used actually, directly, and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from taxes and duties. Upon the dissolution or cessation of the corporate existence of such institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the manner provided by law. Proprietary educational institutions, including those cooperatively owned, may likewise be entitled to such exemptions subject to the limitations provided by law including restrictions on dividends and provisions for reinvestment. 4. Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants, endowments, donations, or contributions used actually, directly, and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from tax.

Section 5. 1. The State shall take into account regional and sectoral needs and conditions and shall encourage local planning in the development of educational policies and programs. 2. Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning. 3. Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to fair, reasonable, and equitable admission and academic requirements. 4. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement. Non-teaching academic and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the protection of the State. 5. The State shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available talents through adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction and fulfillment. Language: Section 6. The national language of the Philippines is Filipino. As it evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages. Subject to provisions of law and as the Congress may deem appropriate, the - 62 -

Government shall take steps to initiate and sustain the use of Filipino as a medium of official communication and as language of instruction in the educational system. Section 7. For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis. Section 8. This Constitution shall be promulgated in Filipino and English and shall be translated into major regional languages, Arabic, and Spanish. Section 9. The Congress shall establish a national language commission composed of representatives of various regions and disciplines which shall undertake, coordinate, and promote researches for the development, propagation, and preservation of Filipino and other languages. Science and Technology: Section 10. Science and technology are essential for national development and progress. The State shall give priority to research and development, invention, innovation, and their utilization; and to science and technology education, training, and services. It shall support indigenous, appropriate, and self- reliant scientific and technological capabilities, and their application to the country's productive systems and national life. Section 11. The Congress may provide for incentives, including tax deductions, to encourage private participation in programs of basic and applied scientific research. Scholarships, grants-in-aid, or other forms of incentives shall be provided to deserving science students, researchers, scientists, inventors, technologists, and specially gifted citizens. Section 12. The State shall regulate the transfer and promote the adaptation of technology from all sources for the national benefit. It shall encourage the widest participation of private groups, local governments, and communitybased organizations in the generation and utilization of science and technology. Section 13. The State shall protect and secure the exclusive rights of scientists, inventors, artists, and other gifted citizens to their intellectual property and creations, particularly when beneficial to the people, for such period as may be provided by law.

- 63 -

Arts: Section 14. The State shall foster the preservation, enrichment, and dynamic evolution of a Filipino national culture based on the principle of unity in diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expression. Section 15. Arts and letters shall enjoy the patronage of the State. The State shall conserve, promote, and popularize the nation's historical and cultural heritage and resources, as well as artistic creations. Section 16. All the country's artistic and historic wealth constitutes the cultural treasure of the nation and shall be under the protection of the State which may regulate its disposition. Section 17. The State shall recognize, respect, and protect the rights of indigenous cultural communities to preserve and develop their cultures, traditions, and institutions. It shall consider these rights in the formulation of national plans and policies. Section 18. 1. The State shall ensure equal access to cultural opportunities through the educational system, public or private cultural entities, scholarships, grants and other incentives, and community cultural centers, and other public venues. 2. The State shall encourage and support researches and studies on the arts and culture. Sports: Section 19. 1. The State shall promote physical education and encourage sports programs, league competitions, and amateur sports, including training for international competitions, to foster self-discipline, teamwork, and excellence for the development of a healthy and alert citizenry. 2. All educational institutions shall undertake regular sport activities throughout the country in cooperation with athletic clubs and other sectors.

- 64 -

B. Education Act of 1982

1. Provide for a broad general education of individuals the in the peculiar ecology of his own society. 2. Train the nations manpower in the middle-level skills required for national development 3. Develop the professions that will provide leadership for advancement of knowledge 4. Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through planning and evaluation. Rights of Schools. The Institution of higher learning have been granted by the Act to determine on academic grounds who shall be admitted to study, who may teach, and what the subjects of the study and research shall be. Maintenance of quality education. The Act has provided alternative to maintain quality education. One of them is voluntary accreditation for those institutions desiring to meet standards of quality over and above the minimum required for state-recognition. Assessment of performance report. Another safeguard to maintain quality education is the report mechanism which the Act requires of teachers and administrators. These reports provide a basis of assessment of performance. Free legal assistance to teachers. The Act also guarantees free legal assistance in the even that teachers are charged with civil, criminal or administrative cases for actions committed directly in the lawful discharge of professional duties. Additional compensation to teachers. The Act prohibits the giving of compulsory assignments not related to teachers duties as defined in employment contracts without the teachers being paid additional compensation under existing laws. It also prohibits involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own organizations. Government financial support. The Act also specifies government commitment to extend financial support and assistance to public and private schools. Rights of Teachers. The Act states that teachers and school administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the discharge of lawful duties and responsibilities and shall, therefore, be accorded due respect and protection.

C. The Magna Carta for Public School Teachers

REPUBLIC ACT No. 4670 June 18, 1966
Reference: http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1966/ra_4670_1966.html

- 65 -

I. DECLARATION OF POLICY COVERAGE Sec. 1. Declaration of Policy. It is hereby declared to be the policy of this Act to promote and improve the social and economic status of public school teachers, their living and working conditions, their terms of employment and career prospects in order that they may compare favorably with existing opportunities in other walks of life, attract and retain in the teaching profession more people with the proper qualifications, it being recognized that advance in education depends on the qualifications and ability of the teaching staff and that education is an essential factor in the economic growth of the nation as a productive investment of vital importance. Sec. 2. Title Definition. This Act shall be known as the "Magna Carta for Public School Teachers" and shall apply to all public school teachers except those in the professorial staff of state colleges and universities. As used in this Act, the term "teacher" shall mean all persons engaged in classroom teaching, in any level of instruction, on full-time basis, including guidance counselors, school librarians, industrial arts or vocational instructors, and all other persons performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all schools, colleges and universities operated by the Government or its political subdivisions; but shall not include school nurses, school physicians, school dentists, and other school employees. II. RECRUITMENT AND CAREER Sec. 3. Recruitment and Qualification. Recruitment policy with respect to the selection and appointment of teachers shall be clearly defined by the Department of Education: Provided, however, That effective upon the approval of this Act, the following shall constitute the minimum educational qualifications for teacher-applicants: (a) For teachers in the kindergarten and elementary grades, Bachelor's degree in Elementary Education (B.S.E.ED.); (b) For teachers of the secondary schools, Bachelor's degree in Education or its equivalent with a major and a minor; or a Bachelor's degree in Arts or Science with at least eighteen professional units in Education. (c) For teachers of secondary vocational and two years technical courses, Bachelor's degree in the field of specialization with at least eighteen professional units in education; (d) For teachers of courses on the collegiate level, other than vocational, master's degree with a specific area of specialization; Provided, further, That in the absence of applicants who possess the minimum educational qualifications as hereinabove provided, the school superintendent may appoint, under a temporary status, applicants who do not meet the minimum qualifications: Provided, further, That should teacher-applicants, - 66 -

whether they possess the minimum educational qualifications or not, be required to take competitive examinations, preference in making appointments shall be in the order of their respective ranks in said competitive examinations: And provided, finally, That the results of the examinations shall be made public and every applicant shall be furnished with his score and rank in said examinations. Sec. 4. Probationary Period. When recruitment takes place after adequate training and professional preparation in any school recognized by the Government, no probationary period preceding regular appointment shall be imposed if the teacher possesses the appropriate civil service eligibility: Provided, however, That where, due to the exigencies of the service, it is necessary to employ as teacher a person who possesses the minimum educational qualifications herein above set forth but lacks the appropriate civil service eligibility, such person shall be appointed on a provisional status and shall undergo a period of probation for not less than one year from and after the date of his provisional appointment. Sec. 5. Tenure of Office. Stability on employment and security of tenure shall be assured the teachers as provided under existing laws. Subject to the provisions of Section three hereof, teachers appointed on a provisional status for lack of necessary civil service eligibility shall be extended permanent appointment for the position he is holding after having rendered at least ten years of continuous, efficient and faithful service in such position. Sec. 6. Consent for Transfer Transportation Expenses. Except for cause and as herein otherwise provided, no teacher shall be transferred without his consent from one station to another. Where the exigencies of the service require the transfer of a teacher from one station to another, such transfer may be effected by the school superintendent who shall previously notify the teacher concerned of the transfer and the reason or reasons therefore. If the teacher believes there is no justification for the transfer, he may appeal his case to the Director of Public Schools or the Director of Vocational Education, as the case may be. Pending his appeal and the decision thereon, his transfer shall be held in abeyance: Provided, however, That no transfers whatever shall be made three months before any local or national election. Necessary transfer expenses of the teacher and his family shall be paid for by the Government if his transfer is finally approved. Sec. 7. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers. Within six months from the approval of this Act, the Secretary of Education shall formulate and prepare a Code of Professional Conduct for Public School Teachers. A copy of the Code shall be furnished each teacher: Provided, however, That where this is not - 67 -

possible by reason of inadequate fiscal resources of the Department of Education, at least three copies of the same Code shall be deposited with the office of the school principal or head teacher where they may be accessible for use by the teachers. Sec. 8. Safeguards in Disciplinary Procedure. Every teacher shall enjoy equitable safeguards at each stage of any disciplinary procedure and shall have: a. the right to be informed, in writing, of the charges; b. the right to full access to the evidence in the case; c. the right to defend himself and to be defended by a representative of his choice and/or by his organization, adequate time being given to the teacher for the preparation of his defense; and d. the right to appeal to clearly designated authorities. No publicity shall be given to any disciplinary action being taken against a teacher during the pendency of his case. Sec. 9. Administrative Charges. Administrative charges against a teacher shall be heard initially by a committee composed of the corresponding School Superintendent of the Division or a duly authorized representative who should at least have the rank of a division supervisor, where the teacher belongs, as chairman, a representative of the local or, in its absence, any existing provincial or national teacher's organization and a supervisor of the Division, the last two to be designated by the Director of Public Schools. The committee shall submit its findings and recommendations to the Director of Public Schools within thirty days from the termination of the hearings: Provided, however, That where the school superintendent is the complainant or an interested party, all the members of the committee shall be appointed by the Secretary of Education. Sec. 10. No Discrimination. There shall be no discrimination whatsoever in entrance to the teaching profession, or during its exercise, or in the termination of services, based on other than professional consideration. Sec. 11. Married Teachers. Whenever possible, the proper authorities shall take all steps to enable married couples, both of whom are public school teachers, to be employed in the same locality. Sec. 12. Academic Freedom. Teachers shall enjoy academic freedom in the discharge of their professional duties, particularly with regard to teaching and classroom methods. III. HOURS OF WORK AND REMUNERATION

- 68 -

Sec. 13. Teaching Hours. Any teacher engaged in actual classroom instruction shall not be required to render more than six hours of actual classroom teaching a day, which shall be so scheduled as to give him time for the preparation and correction of exercises and other work incidental to his normal teaching duties: Provided, however, That where the exigencies of the service so require, any teacher may be required to render more than six hours but not exceeding eight hours of actual classroom teaching a day upon payment of additional compensation at the same rate as his regular remuneration plus at least twenty-five per cent of his basic pay. Sec. 14. Additional Compensation. Notwithstanding any provision of existing law to the contrary, co-curricula and out of school activities and any other activities outside of what is defined as normal duties of any teacher shall be paid an additional compensation of at least twenty-five per cent of his regular remuneration after the teacher has completed at least six hours of actual classroom teaching a day. In the case of other teachers or school officials not engaged in actual classroom instruction, any work performed in excess of eight hours a day shall be paid an additional compensation of at least twenty-five per cent of their regular remuneration. The agencies utilizing the services of teachers shall pay the additional compensation required under this section. Education authorities shall refuse to allow the rendition of services of teachers for other government agencies without the assurance that the teachers shall be paid the remuneration provided for under this section. Sec. 15. Criteria for Salaries. Teacher's salaries shall correspond to the following criteria: (a) they shall compare favorably with those paid in other occupations requiring equivalent or similar qualifications, training and abilities; (b) they shall be such as to insure teachers a reasonable standard of life for themselves and their families; and c. they shall be properly graded so as to recognize the fact that certain positions require higher qualifications and greater responsibility than others: Provided, however, That the general salary scale shall be such that the relation between the lowest and highest salaries paid in the profession will be of reasonable order. Narrowing of the salary scale shall be achieved by raising the lower end of the salary scales relative to the upper end. Sec. 16. Salary Scale. Salary scales of teachers shall provide for a gradual progression from a minimum to a maximum salary by means of regular increments, granted automatically after three years: Provided, That the efficiency rating of the teacher concerned is at least satisfactory. The - 69 -

progression from the minimum to the maximum of the salary scale shall not extend over a period of ten years. Sec. 17. Equality in Salary Scales. The salary scales of teachers whose salaries are appropriated by a city, municipal, municipal district, or provincial government, shall not be less than those provided for teachers of the National Government. Sec. 18. Cost of Living Allowance. Teacher's salaries shall, at the very least, keep pace with the rise in the cost of living by the payment of a cost-of-living allowance which shall automatically follow changes in a cost-of-living index. The Secretary of Education shall, in consultation with the proper government entities, recommend to Congress, at least annually, the appropriation of the necessary funds for the cost-of-living allowances of teachers employed by the National Government. The determination of the cost-of-living allowances by the Secretary of Education shall, upon approval of the President of the Philippines, be binding on the city, municipal or provincial government, for the purposes of calculating the cost-of-living allowances of teachers under its employ. Sec. 19. Special Hardship Allowances. In areas in which teachers are exposed to hardship such as difficulty in commuting to the place of work or other hazards peculiar to the place of employment, as determined by the Secretary of Education, they shall be compensated special hardship allowances equivalent to at least twenty-five per cent of their monthly salary. Sec. 20. Salaries to be Paid in Legal Tender. Salaries of teachers shall be paid in legal tender of the Philippines or its equivalent in checks or treasury warrants. Provided, however, That such checks or treasury warrants shall be cashable in any national, provincial, city or municipal treasurer's office or any banking institutions operating under the laws of the Republic of the Philippines. Sec. 21. Deductions Prohibited. No person shall make any deduction whatsoever from the salaries of teachers except under specific authority of law authorizing such deductions: Provided, however, That upon written authority executed by the teacher concerned, (1) lawful dues and fees owing to the Philippine Public School Teachers Association, and (2) premiums properly due on insurance policies, shall be considered deductible. IV. HEALTH MEASURES AND INJURY BENEFITS Sec. 22. Medical Examination and Treatment. Compulsory medical examination shall be provided free of charge for all teachers before they take up teaching, and shall be repeated not less than once a year during the teacher's professional life. Where medical examination show that medical - 70 -

treatment and/or hospitalization is necessary, same shall be provided free by the government entity paying the salary of the teachers. In regions where there is scarcity of medical facilities, teachers may obtain elsewhere the necessary medical care with the right to be reimbursed for their traveling expenses by the government entity concerned in the first paragraph of this Section. Sec. 23. Compensation For Injuries. Teachers shall be protected against the consequences of employment injuries in accordance with existing laws. The effects of the physical and nervous strain on the teacher's health shall be recognized as a compensable occupational disease in accordance with existing laws. V. LEAVE AND RETIREMENT BENEFITS Sec. 24. Study Leave. In addition to the leave privileges now enjoyed by teachers in the public schools, they shall be entitled to study leave not exceeding one school year after seven years of service. Such leave shall be granted in accordance with a schedule set by the Department of Education. During the period of such leave, the teachers shall be entitled to at least sixty per cent of their monthly salary: Provided, however, That no teacher shall be allowed to accumulate more than one year study leave, unless he needs an additional semester to finish his thesis for a graduate study in education or allied courses: Provided, further, That no compensation shall be due the teacher after the first year of such leave. In all cases, the study leave period shall be counted for seniority and pension purposes. The compensation allowed for one year study leave as herein provided shall be subject to the condition that the teacher takes the regular study load and passes at least seventy-five per cent of his courses. Study leave of more than one year may be permitted by the Secretary of Education but without compensation. Sec. 25. Indefinite Leave. An indefinite sick leave of absence shall be granted to teachers when the nature of the illness demands a long treatment that will exceed one year at the least. Sec. 26. Salary Increase upon Retirement. Public school teachers having fulfilled the age and service requirements of the applicable retirement laws shall be given one range salary raise upon retirement, which shall be the basis of the computation of the lump sum of the retirement pay and the monthly benefits thereafter. VI. TEACHER'S ORGANIZATION

- 71 -

Sec. 27. Freedom to Organize. Public school teachers shall have the right to freely and without previous authorization both to establish and to join organizations of their choosing, whether local or national to further and defend their interests. Sec. 28. Discrimination Against Teachers Prohibited. The rights established in the immediately preceding Section shall be exercised without any interference or coercion. It shall be unlawful for any person to commit any acts of discrimination against teachers which are calculated to (a) make the employment of a teacher subject to the condition that he shall not join an organization, or shall relinquish membership in an organization, (b) to cause the dismissal of or otherwise prejudice a teacher by reason of his membership in an organization or because of participation in organization activities outside school hours, or with the consent of the proper school authorities, within school hours, and (c) to prevent him from carrying out the duties laid upon him by his position in the organization, or to penalize him for an action undertaken in that capacity. Sec. 29. National Teacher's Organizations. National teachers' organizations shall be consulted in the formulation of national educational policies and professional standards, and in the formulation of national policies governing the social security of the teachers. VII. ADMINISTRATION AND ENFORCEMENT Sec. 30. Rules and Regulations. The Secretary of Education shall formulate and prepare the necessary rules and regulations to implement the provisions of this Act. Rules and regulations issued pursuant to this Section shall take effect thirty days after publication in a newspaper of general circulation and by such other means as the Secretary of Education deems reasonably sufficient to give interested parties general notice of such issuance. Sec. 31. Budgetary Estimates. The Secretary of Education shall submit to Congress annually the necessary budgetary estimates to implement the provisions of the Act concerning the benefits herein granted to public school teachers under the employ of the National Government. Sec. 32. Penal Provision. A person who shall willfully interfere with, restrain or coerce any teacher in the exercise of his rights guaranteed by this Act or who shall in any other manner commit any act to defeat any of the provisions of this Act shall, upon conviction, be punished by a fine of not less than one hundred pesos nor more than one thousand pesos, or by imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. If the offender is a public official, the court shall order his dismissal from the Government service. - 72 -

Sec. 33. Repealing Clause. All Acts or parts of Acts, executive orders and their implementing rules inconsistent with the provisions of this Act are hereby repealed, amended or modified accordingly. Sec. 34. Separability Clause. If any provision of this Act is declared invalid, the remainder of this Act or any provisions not affected thereby shall remain in force and in effect. Sec. 35. This Act shall take effect upon its approval. Approved: June 18, 1966 Republic Act 7836 known as the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994

D. Basic Education Act of 2001/Republic Act 9155

The Governance of Basic Education of 2001 was enacted into law on August 10, 2001 and is now R.A. 9155. Principals are given wide latitude to decide on how to improve their schools in a way most beneficial to their students. They are granted administrative powers such as preparation of manpower and logistics, requirements, recommending of teacher applicants, deciding on appropriate textbooks for their students and formulating education programs suited to their needs. Functions, programs and activities related to sports be transferred to Philippines Sports Commission and the Bureau of Physical Education and Schools Sports (BPESS) will be abolished. However program for school sports and physical fitness remains part of the basic education curriculum. Cultural activities will be fully handled by the National Commission for Culture and Arts (NCAA). Culture will be taught as a humanities subject including music and literature. With this restructuring, the department will now be simply the Department of Education (DepEd). OTHER LAWS, ORDERS, POLICIES AND MEMOS Act No. 74 of the Laid the foundations of public school Philippine Commission system (Jan. 21, 1901 Made English the language of instruction Created the Department of Public

- 73 -

Instruction Provided the legal basis for the establishment of the Philippine Normal School and Trade School in Manila and an Agricultural School in Negros Act No. 1870 Establishment of the University of the Philippines in 1908 Commonwealth Act No. Compulsory military training in the schools 1 Commonwealth Act No. Provided the legal basis for six-year elementary 586 also known as course, double-single session, the school Education Act of 1940 entrance age, and the national support for elementary education. Commonwealth Act No. Provided legal basis for adult education 80 Republic Act No. 416 Converted the Philippine Normal School into a which was approved on teachers college. (Philippine Normal College) June 18, 1949 Presidential Decree 096 Required all teaches to pass the Professional issued on Sept. 22, 1976 Board for Teachers (PBET) R.A. 7168, Dec. 26, 1991 The Philippine Normal College became Philippine Normal University Republic Act No. 7836 Promotion, development and known as Philippine professionalization of teacher and the teaching Teachers profession; supervision and regulation of the Professionalization Act licensure examination for teachers. of 1994 RA 7784 Created the Centers for Excellence in Teacher Education R.A. 7791 Stretched the school year from 185 to 200 days R.A. 7743 Called for the establishment of city and municipal libraries. E.O. No. An act which includes courses or subjects on human rights in the curricula, in textbooks and in other reading materials P.D. No. 1096 Issued on September 22, 1976 requiring all teachers to pass the Professional Board Examination for Teachers (PBET)

- 74 -

Excerpts from the: GUIDELINES ON THE HIRING OF PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS DEPED ORDER No.2, S. 2002 http://www.deped.gov.ph 1. The school principal accepts application letters of teacher applicants. The following documents should be submitted together with the application letter: A photocopy of LET/Teachers Board Rating and PRC Registration License A photocopy of the transcript of records of his/her schooling Service record, if one has teaching experience Duly accomplished CS Form in 2 copies with the latest 2x2 ID picture 2. The ranking of the applicants with teaching the following factors: o LET/Teachers Board Rating o Teaching Experience o Interview o Education experience shall be based on 30 points 30 points 20 points 20 points

3. The ranking of the applicants without teaching experience shall be based on the following factors: o LET/Teachers Board Rating 30 points o Interview 30 points o Education 30 points o Work Experience 10 points The rating of each factor is as follows: a. LET/Teachers Board Rating 30 points A minimum of 15 points shall be given to LET passer or one with a PRC special permit to teach. Additional points will be given on the basis of the LET/Teachers Board Rating as follows: a.1 LET Rating 75 & 76 1 pt 85 & 86 6 pts. 94 11 pts. 77 & 78 2 pts. 87 & 88 7 pts. 95 12 pts. 79 & 80 3 pts. 89 & 90 8 pts. 96 13 pts. 81 & 82 4 pts. 91 & 92 9 pts. 97 14 pts. 83 & 84 5 pts. 93 10 pts 98 & 99 15 pts. a.2 Teachers Board Rating 70 & 71 1 pt 80 & 81 6 pts.

90 & 91 11 pts.

- 75 -

72 & 73 2 pts. 74 & 75 3 pts. 76 & 77 4 pts. 78 & 79 5 pts.

82 & 83 7 pts. 84 & 85 8 pts. 86 & 87 9 pts. 88 & 89 10 pts.

92 & 93 12 pts. 94 & 95 13 pts. 96 & 97 14 pts. 98 & 99 15 pts.

b. Work Experience 10 points The school committee should assess work experiences and/or training of the applicant which could be useful to teaching. Examples are computer training, graduate studies, participation in seminars/conferences as resource speaker or facilitator, etc. c. Interview Personality Professional Knowledge Spoken English Written English Potential Total 30 points 7 pts. 12 pts. 3 pts 3 pts. 5 pts. 30 pts

d. Education 30 points 1. Level of Accreditation of Teacher Education Program of School Graduated from or where the teacher education units were acquired (for non-education graduates). 15 points Private colleges and universities (accreditation undertaken by the Federation of Accrediting Agencies of the Philippines or FAAP) Level I 4 pts Level II 8 pts Level III 12 pts Level IV 15 pts State colleges and universities (accreditation undertaken by the Association of Accredited Colleges and Universities of the Philippines or AACUP) Level I 6 pts Level II 12 pts Level III 15 pts 2. Applicants Academic Performance - 15 points 2.1 Scholastic Achievement (Grades in academic courses) 8 points Average performance 3 pts. Above average performance/

- 76 -

Honors in some semesters Consistent honor student

6 pts. 8 pts.

2.2 Honors earned upon graduation - 7 points Cum Laude 3 pts. Magna Cum Laude 5 pts. Summa Cum Laude 7 pts.

ED 320 Educational Systems and Current Issues in Education

Lectures about ISSUES AND TRENDS IN PHILIPPINE EDUCATION

- 77 -

Lecture 1 Non Formal Education

VISION OF NONFORMAL EDUCATION To empower the learners through more responsive quality NFE programs. MISSION OF NONFORMAL EDUCATION Empowerment of the Filipino with the desirable knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that will enable him/her to think critically, innovatively and humanely in improving the quality of his/her life and that of his/her family, community, and country. Mandates of Nonformal Education 1. Implement literacy and continuing education programs in coordination with the GOs, Pos, CBOs, and SUCs who have similar programs/projects in NFE; 2. Intensify the implementation of different NFE programs/ projects specifically to the deprived, depressed and marginalized members of the community; 3. Provide programs/projects that will upgrade the quality of family and community life of the target learners; and 4. Empower and transform learners into productive, self reliant, responsible, humane, and upright citizens. Working Principles NFE Program is committed to: Attain a meaningful and effective NFE system. Uphold clienteles needs at all times. Cultivate professional competence and promote wholesome community image and relationship. Foster a work environment that enhances missionary zeal, team spirit and collaboration. Immediate Goals and Objectives 1. Improve the quality and effectiveness of functional and continuing education especially in marginalized communities. 2. Develop alternatives to NFE programs/ projects relevant to the needs of target clientele.

- 78 -

3. Reduce if not eradicate the existing number of unproductive or basically illiterate youth/adults. 4. Intensify Mobile Program, LSCS and LSDS implementation in marginalized barangays and tribal communities. 5. Revitalize/Strengthen the community-based outreach NFE programs/projects. 6. Upgrade competencies of NFE field implementers in handling and managing NFE programs/projects. 7. Develop appropriate literacy/instructional materials suited of different levels and group of clientele. Goals of Nonformal Education 1. Providing the Poor with a Route to Upward Mobility 2. National Incorporation 3. Training a Modern Work Force 4. Meeting Basic Needs 5. Revitalizing Traditional Systems 6. Encouraging Participation 7. Combating Inequalities Strategies to improve the quality of the delivery of NFE services to different ages and clientele groups include: Organizing a coordinated and efficient NFE mechanism at all levels Instituting active advocacy and social mobilization Organizing needs/community-based projects Curriculum upgrading for every level and group using indigenous materials Putting-up of NFE-MIS (barangay to division) Establishing NFE training center and community reading centers Training of Literacy Facilitators/ Instructional Managers Providing for On-the Job Trainings (OJT) Fund sourcing to implement special projects and acquire additional equipment/facilities Conducting district/division/ regional searches/contests Integrating positive virtues relevant to NFE activities Undertaking periodic/regular monitoring and evaluation of NFE programs/projects

- 79 -

Lecture 1

- 80 -