Eddy Egan March 8, 2007

Tuliszewski Period ½
Chapter Outlines
11.4 Meiosis
I. Chromosome Number
A. Homologous - term used to refer to chromosomes that each have a
corresponding chromosome from the opposite-sex parent
Diploid - term used to refer to a cell that contains both sets of homologous
chromosomes
Haploid - term used to refer to a cell that contains only a single set of
chromosomes and therefore only a single set of genes

II. Phases of Meiosis - process by which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in
half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.
A. Interphase I - happens prior to meiosis - cells undergo a round of DNA
replication, forming duplicate chromosomes.
B. Meiosis I
1. Prophase I - Each chromosome pair with its corresponding homologous
chromosome to form a tetrad
a. Tetrad - structure containing 4 chromatids that forms during
meiosis
b. Crossing-Over - As homologous chromosomes pair up and
form tetrads in meiosis I, they exchange portions of their
chromatids in this process.
2. Metaphase I - Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes
3. Anaphase I - The fibers pull the homologous chromosomes toward
opposite ends of the cells
4. Telophase I And Cytokinesis - Nuclear membranes form. The cell
separates into two cells
C. Meiosis II - The two cells produced by meiosis I now enter a second meiotic
division.
1. Prophase II - Meiosis I results in two haploid (N) daughter cells, each
with half the number of chromosomes as the original half
2. Metaphase II - The chromosomes line up in a similar way to the
metaphase stage of mitosis
3. Anaphase II - The sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite
ends of the cell
4. Telophase II and Cytokinesis - Meiosis II results in four haploid (N)
daughter cells
D. Gamete Formation
1. Male Animals - Haploid gametes produced by meiosis are called sperm
(In some plants pollen grains contain haploid sperm cells)
2. Female Animals - Generally only one of the cells produced by meiosis
is involved in reproduction, known as egg in animals and an egg cell in
some plants
3. In many female animals, cell divisions are uneven, so that single cell,
which becomes and egg, receives most of the cytoplasm
4. The other three cells produced in the female during meiosis are known
as polar bodies and usually do not participate in reproduction.
E. Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis - Mitosis results in the production of two
genetically identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces four genetically
different haploid cells.
1. Mitosis - A diploid cell that divides by mitosis creates to diploid
daughter cells, these daughter cells have sets of chromosomes and
alleles identical to each other and the parent cell. Mitosis allows an
organism’s body to grow and replace cells. In asexual reproduction, a
new organism is produced by mitosis of the cell or cells of the parent
organism
2. Meiosis - Begins with diploid cell and produces four haploid cells that
are genetically different from the diploid cell and from one another.
Meiosis is how sexually reproducing organisms produce gametes
11.5 Linkage and Gene Maps
I. Gene Linkage
A. Each chromosome is actually a group of linked genes
B. Mendel’s principle of independent assortment still holds true.
C. It is the chromosomes that assort independently, not individual genes
II. Gene Maps - diagram showing the relative locations of each known gene on a
particular chromosome
A. Crossing-over during meiosis sometimes separates genes that had been on the
same chromosome onto homologous chromosomes. These events occasionally
separate and exchange linked genes and produce new combinations of alleles,
this is important since it helps generate genetic diversity.
B. The farther apart two genes are, the more likely they were to be separated by a
crossover in meiosis. The rate at which linked genes were separated and
recombined could then be used to produce a “map” of distances between genes.
C. Sturtevant’s method of using recombination rates, which measure the
frequencies of crossing-over between genes, has been used to construct genetic
maps, including maps of the human genome.