Sociological Practice: A Journal of Clinical and Applied Sociology, Vol. 4, No.

2, June 2002 ( C 2002)

Ah Ha . . . Learning: Using Cases and Case Studies to Teach Sociological Insights and Skills
Josephine A. Ruggiero1

Grounded in a thorough review of the relevant sociological and crossdisciplinary literature, the author makes a case for the value of using cases (also known as decision cases) and case studies in teaching undergraduate sociology students. Her thesis is that cases and case studies are under utilized teaching-learning tools in sociology courses at all levels. Cases and case studies can be especially relevant in practice and application-oriented courses and classes. The literature indicates that students who use sociological insights and tools to frame and analyze real-life dilemmas and situations develop a clearer grasp of concepts, theories, and practice issues as well as learn/enhance critical thinking, analytical, and evaluation skills. Although this article focuses on students as the targeted audience, practitioners can also use both cases and case studies in training or working with clients.
KEY WORDS: cases; decision cases; case-study method; sociology; teaching tools.

INTRODUCTION What do you remember most from your undergraduate and graduate courses? If you were like me, you probably remember statements, ideas, points of view, and research decisions that you thought were surprising, perhaps outrageous, but, at the same time, challenging and enlightening. I am talking about the Ah ha, I get it kind of learning that happened when you were immersed in situations and experiences which were either similar to, or very different from, the ones you faced. Fast forward to the present. Where has lifes turns and twists brought you as a professional? Are you a full-time practitioner? A full-time academician?
1 Department of Sociology at Providence College, Providence, Rhode Island 02918-0001; e-mail:

jruggier@providence.edu. 113
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Or involved in both practice and teaching? Since many of us are engaged in a combination of teaching and applied or clinical work, the focus of this article is on using cases and case studies to teach, or train, others. The thesis explored here is that cases and case studies are potentially rich, but underutilized, teaching-learning tools in sociology courses at the undergraduate as well as the graduate levels. Cases and case studies can also be powerful aids in doing clinical or other practice work. Both can be used in training professionals in elds such as, for example, education, public administration, management, medicine, social work, and other helping occupations. Cases can also be an engaging way to help clients see issues and concerns in a different way and to imagine and evaluate the feasibility of possible solutions. Through verstehen, outsiders become insiders for a while. By learning how to suspend judgments and to recognize personal biases, insiders learn how to view situations as an outsider might. As converts to sociology have discovered, the excitement of studying issues sociologically lies in getting beneath the surface of what appears to be in order to nd out what is really is going on in a particular situation. The excitement of studying and using sociology is about adding to our stock of ah ha learning about our social world and our place in it. Exposure to cases and case studies is an engaging way for instructors to help students to develop ah ha learning.

CASES Imagine this . . . A student at an inner-city high school wants desperately to go to college but he feels pressured and trapped by the problems he encounters daily: drugs and the threat of escalating violence in his school and neighborhood. How can he stay on the right track when so much of what is going on around him is leading him in the other direction? A child in middle school is the object of bullying on the school bus. She is viewed as different because she is both foreign-born and adopted. What should she do about the bully? The two scenarios described above are examples of problems around which cases can be designed. In addition to posing a question about what the actors should or could do in each of these situations, instructors or practitioners who use cases need to focus the students or clients attention on raising and answering other important questions such as: How is the actors choice of actions linked to, or constrained by, the social structures of schools, of communities, and of the larger society? How are actions taken at different levels linked? That is, how might responses by others affect the success or failure of an individuals choice of actions?

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What Are Cases? Cases are short, realistic, action-oriented, . . . story-like accounts . . . designed to raise issues (Hutchings 1993, p. 14). The actor, or actors, in the case face a problem or conict which requires a solution. Possible solutions may require a response at one, or more, levelindividual, group, organizational, or communal. Because the dilemma which the actor faces does not have a simple, clear-cut solution, controversy arises as students or clients consider and discuss possibilities. Thus, cases should have enough ambiguity to generate lively discussion (Christensen and Hansen 1987). How Can Cases Be Used? Teaching Objectives Cases can be used to engage students in active learning about the complexities of relationships, about the various dimensions of a social situation, and about the diverse social, cultural, and other factors which may affect decision making. Students use course-relevant ideas and explanations to frame the case problem, to analyze it, and to explain its causes. In addition, they may be expected to develop feasible interventions and to evaluate the probable success of the interventions they propose, using contextual and other variables in a meaningful way. Versatility There are many ways in which cases can be used to encourage and promote a ha learning. For example, an instructor may organize a whole course around a series of cases. Or, she/he may introduce a few cases as one of several ways to generate student interest and stimulate greater student involvement in discussion. Cases may be assigned to individual students, two-person teams, or to small groups of students. Assigning cases to teams or small groups of students promotes opportunities for collaborative learning at more than one level. Through their interactions, students have an opportunity to bounce ideas off their partner(s) and to learn about the viewpoints of others. When teams or small groups are diverse in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, or social class, the interaction and learning become sociological on a deeper level. The instructor may ask students to develop a plausible scenario which illustrates a particular set of principles, theoretical perspectives, applications, or other learning objective. If a case includes different characters,

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the instructor may also ask students to role play the characters in the case. Instructors who develop their own repertoire of cases should expect to rene the cases they use through feedback from students. Cases can be used at all levels of student sophistication, from those taking a rst course in sociology to majors in advanced courses. Cases can work well in substantive as well as in theoretical and practice-oriented curricula and in both small and large classes.

In Which Disciplines and Courses Have Cases Been Used? Outside the Social Sciences Using cases as a teaching tool has a long history in the elds of teacher education (Kagan 1993) and in the training of business students (Merseth 1991). Cases are commonly used as a central instructional method in many other elds including education administration, social work, medicine, nursing, and engineering (Nilson 1998; Silverman and Welty 1995). Miller (1987) adds law to this list. Nilson (1998, p. 120) also points out that cases have been used in teaching pastoral studies, engineering, philosophy (e.g., ethics courses), music history, biology, chemistry, and ecology. Cases have been used in training faculty and Teaching Assistants how to trouble shoot problems which might arise in classes or with individual students (Nilson 1998).

In the Social Sciences Cases have been used in courses in political science, economics, and psychology (Nilson 1998). Political scientists have used the case method (Winston 2000) and case studies (Jensen and Rogers 2001) in teaching public administration, policy analysis, constitutional law, and in the senior seminar (Mason 2001). Psychologists have incorporated cases into courses in clinical psychology, abnormal behavior, and organizational behavior (Nilson 1998). Articles about using cases in sociology courses began to appear in Teaching Sociology in the early 1980s. A review of the periodical literature indicates that sociologists have used cases in teaching undergraduates about applied sociology as ethical practice (Green and Salem 1983), the family (LaRossa 1984), complex organizations (Miller 1987), political sociology (Miller 1987), industrial sociology (Baxter 1988), medical sociology (Pescosolido 1990), theoretical criminology (Quinn et al. 1992; Williams et al. 1995), and stratication (Shope and Singer 1996). Lurie and Ovrebo (1995) report using cases in teaching a graduate course in evaluation research.

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Sociologists have used cases to teach students in intermediate and advanced courses how to examine the logic and validity of sociological arguments (Fredericks and Miller 1985), understand the applied/practical relevance of sociological theories to intervention strategies, how grounded theory is derived, and as an aid in conceptual analysis and in developing critical thinking skills (Fredericks and Miller 1987). With the publication of Sociology in Action, Cases for Critical and Sociological Thinking (Hatchen 2001a), the use and availability of cases has expanded to the Introductory Sociology level. What Is the Consensus About the Value of Cases as a Teaching Tool? The cross-disciplinary literature indicates that instructors who have used cases consider them to be valuable mechanisms through which active, insightful learning can take place (Cornely 1998; Herreid 1994; Hutchings 1993; Kagan 1993; Merseth 1991; Pescosolido 1990; Shulman 1991; Silverman and Welty 1995; Wilkinson 1993). Cliff and Wright (1996, p. 19) state that cases help students to deepen and solidify their understanding of . . . specic facts, concepts and principles. Wilkinson (1993, p. 52) points out that cases allow students to immerse themselves in complex and challenging issues. Nilson (1998) views cases as providing opportunities for students to learn about issues and problems which they may not have personally experienced. Sociologists who have used cases concur with educators in other disciplines: Using cases as a teaching-learning tool produces positive learning outcomes. Although much of the evidence on which this conclusion is based appears to be anecdotal, Williams et al. (1995, p. 411) report obtaining evidence of both a qualitative and a quantitative nature in support of the conclusion that using cases produced successful results in their classes . Their qualitative indicators included informal comments from students about their higher level of interest, sustained attention, and enthusiasm. Their quantitative measure was a 21-item questionnaire designed to assess students understanding of criminology theory. Williams et al. (1995, p. 411) used the questionnaire on a matched sample of 54 students before and after they took the course and report nding . . . signicant increases in their knowledge of basic concepts of theoretical criminology. What Insights and Skills Can Cases Foster? Analyzing cases can be a powerful mechanism through which students can develop insights and skills which can be especially useful in the practice of sociology. It is clear to this author that cases can provide a context through

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which students learn to identify goals, set priorities, develop feasible strategies for change based on their analyses of situations and/or problems, trouble shoot the likelihood of high, moderate, or low success of the intervention(s) they propose, identify the major intended and unintended consequences which may ow from the proposed intervention(s). According to the literature, valuable insights and skills include using the sociological imagination to examine and understand issues (Pescosolido 1990), learning how to use structural rather than individualistic explanations to make sense of situations and relationships (Williams et al. 1995), learning how to solve problems within an uncertain, risk-laden environment (Nilson 1998, p. 119), developing higher-order critical thinking skills such as reection, analysis, synthesis, application, and evaluation (Pescosolido 1990; Williams et al. 1995), comparing and contrasting different theories, assessing each theorys strengths and weaknesses, applying theories to particular examples, understanding the relevance of theory to practice/policy efforts in an area, and learning how to think inductively, that is, gain experience in developing grounded theory, as well as deductively (Williams et al. 1995), integrating the connections among various social science disciplines in regard to theoretical and practical concerns (Shope and Singer 1996). Where Can One Find Examples of Cases and Sources of Case Ideas? Tested and rened examples are available, both in printed form and on-line. Some of the authors cited in this artricle include examples of cases in their articles. Shope and Singer (1996) provide three cases which deal with global inequality. Pescosolido (1990) identies examples of lms she uses as cases to teach students about various aspects related to illness, death, and dying. Silverman and Welty (1990) describe and discuss a case involving a student who challenges a grade. In addition to offering a detailed framework and rationale for using the case approach in teaching theoretical criminology, Quinn et al. (1992) illustrate how their framework can be used to analyze a

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case. The case example they discuss focuses on Charles Whitman, the serial killer. Hatchen (2001a) includes 18 decision cases and the sociological framework which he developed. His framework orients students to see the social connections which exist among the actors in the controversy or dilemma around which the case scenario centers, look at the situation or problem from multiple theoretical perspectives, decode the culture which is embedded in the situation so that they can understand each actors point of view, uncover the inequalities and power differentials based on class, race, and gender and examine how these variables inuence or constrain actors abilities to pursue their interests, consider social change by imagining futuresand identifying the driving forces behind different alternative futures (p. xviii). Hatchen (2001b, pp. 99101) also identies and annotates 11 web sites and case databases which are available on-line. Many of these sites are relevant across disciplines. Hatchen includes his own web site among them: http://www.nd.edu/dhatchen/cases/. Ideas for writing cases may come from a personal experience or from articles or a story in the news. Articles from popular sources can be adapted to provide scenarios about timely issues which are ripe for sociological analysis and a consideration of possible solutions. ISSUES IN DESIGNING CASES What Are the Characteristics of a Good Case? Educators who have developed and used cases across disciplines agree that a goodcase has certain important features. A good case tells a focused story, is based on reality, or is at least believable, contains specic contextual information including (some) background, characters, and a particular institutional setting (Silverman and Welty 1995), is brief and to the point (Hatchen 2001b, p. 18), has an element of uncertainty and risk (Nilson 1998, p. 120), ends with a need for a decision, engages the reader at both the intellectual and emotional levels (Hatchen 2001b).

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Good cases are usually prospective. However, Hatchen (2001b) indicates that they can also be retrospective. Hatchen (2001b) believes that cases are more likely to engage students if they regard the narrative as believable and can imagine the problem happening to them. I contend that a good case may also focus on a problem which readers have not experienced or could not even imagine experiencing themselves. They know, however, that, for someone else, this dilemma is very real. I am referring here to problems experienced by actors of a different social class, race, gender, or age. For example, what is it like to be a child living in an impoverished neighborhood and attending a deteriorated school which has few resources? What is it like to be a homeless person or a child in a family which has lost its home? Analyzing cases built around the experiences and dilemmas of marginal and powerless segments of society can help students to experience vicariously, to some degree, situations at both an intellectual and emotional level. Are There Any Common Components to Consider in Designing Good Cases? In discussing how cases should be structured, educational specialists Silverman and Welty (1995) claim that the two key components of a case are Analysis and Action. The Analysis portion includes: identifying the facts: Who are the characters? What is their relationship? What is the chronology of events? identifying the problems/issues: How can the reader look at the facts in a way or ways which help(s) him/her to understand the problem(s)? and taking a perspective on the problem(s)/issue(s). The Action component involves: proposing solutions: What are the range of possible actions? What should be done? and evaluating the solutions: What are the risks versus the benets of each proposed solution? What would happen if . . .? Hatchen (2001b) offers suggestions about how to create engaging cases. He advises beginning the case with action rather than description, using conversations between the main actor and others, not just action, helping readers imagine what they would experience if they were in the situation,

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creating vivid images of the setting as well as of the characters. What would readers see, feel, hear, or smell, if they were in the situation? having the actors express their reaction to the dilemma they face on an emotional level. Are they frightened, sad, amused, and so on? using a conding conversation between the principal actor and a condant as a way to show the actors thoughts, recollections, or ruminations about possible courses of action. Actors can also be engaged in a stream of consciousness or a conversation with themselves. What makes cases designed for sociology students unique, I believe, is that well-written cases provide enough background to enable students to (1) link the actors dilemma with the context in which a decision will be made and (2) take into account the social forces which affect actor(s) choices. Instructors can adapt the Analysis component described by Silverman and Welty (1995) to sociology by helping students to frame the actors problem by using the sociological perspective and the sociological imagination as lenses through which to analyze the actors problem. The Action component would then be geared toward getting students to identify and evaluate possible interventions.

What Are the Objectives in Using Cases? Instructors who design their own cases need to decide what they want the cases to illustrate and how they can best put together a case which will meet their objective(s). The questions below are offered as a guide. Relevance to Course Objectives? How does using one or more cases in this course t your course objectives? What concepts, theories, practice principle(s) and/or issue(s) do you expect students to learn about by analyzing and discussing a particular case? Level(s) of Analysis? At what level(s) of analysis will the case focus? Will it deal with a micro issue (e.g., a family problem), a meso issue (e.g., an organizational, community, or statewide dilemma), or a macro-level problem (e.g., an issue of societal or global importance)? Solutions may need to be proposed at more than one level. Real Versus Realistic? Will the case be based on a real situation or factual issue, be a composite of two or more real situations or experiences, or consist of an authentic-sounding but hypothetical situation or experience created to allow students to draw conclusions about specic issues and apply certain sociological principles?

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Presentation Format? What format will best meet your teaching objectives? Usually cases are presented in written form. However, they may also be visual: dramatized on videotape or in the form of a motion picture, or interactive, on CD-ROM (Nilson 1998). Length? How long will the case be? Cases may vary in length and amount of detail from a paragraph or two to a small monograph. Ethical Component? Will an ethical dimension be incorporated into cases and course content? That is, will students be given guidelines against which they will measure the appropriateness or impropriety of the actions and interventions they propose. I use the case scenario described below in my nal exam in Social Change. The problem which needs to be addressed might be the basis of either a case or a case study. The scenario places the student in the role of the principal actor who needs to solve a clients problem. My objective is to provide an opportunity for students to integrate and apply the principles and strategies they have learned in the last section of the course. The level of analysis is organizational but other levelsthe individual and the community, for example, need to also be considered. The scenario is realistic, brief, and encourages students to consider both practical and ethical constraints in developing their strategies. Consider the following scenario: The Vice President of Human Resources of a company of 250 employees contacts you about a problem the company is experiencing. She is interested in hiring you as a consultant to develop a strategy to improve workers morale. This company has a top-to-bottom ow of information and directives. Decisions are made without getting feedback from middle-level managers or from employees. You know that several upper-level managers will oppose any strategy which seems too radical or too costly. At the same time, they recognize that employees dissatisfaction has resulted in signicant turnover of talented employees and increased absenteeism among some of the employees who remain, leading to reduced efciency and loss of prots. Questions: How will you dene the scope (major aspects) of your role as a change agent in this situation? What strategies and variables would be best suited to promote change in this organization? What are the principal advantages and disadvantages of using particular strategies? How will you motivate the various constituencies in the organization to implement the changes you propose? What practical and ethical issues might arise in implementing the proposed changes?

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CASE STUDIES What if two researchers decide to study drug dealers and drug smugglers by becoming peripheral members of the dealers and smugglers social scene (Adler 1985). Questions: How far can, or should, they go in gathering their data? What are the personal, legal, and ethical risks in doing this type of study? What other options are available to researchers who want to gather valid and reliable data on drug dealers and smugglers or about members of other subcultures viewed as deviant by the dominant society? What Are Case Studies? Case studies are detailed accounts of actual experiences in doing sociology. Case Studies generally vary in length from articles to books. They are typically written by professional sociologists. Some case studies are written by researchers who describe details and unanticipated directions their project took. Others may be written by practitioners who discuss how they addressed a problem or concern experienced by some group, organization, or community. Case studies often contain a behind-the-scenes look at how the reality of what unfolded once the sociologist got involved differed from his/her original plan, why, and with what effect. Unfortunately, there are many valuable lessons which have not been written up for any outside (non-client) audience, often because of proprietary reasons. Sources of Case Studies and Ideas for Case Studies Case studies written by sociologists for professional colleagues have appeared in a number of books published between the mid 1960s and the early 1980s. Examples include: Sociologists at Work: Using a case study approach, Hammond (1964) chronicled the research experiences of a number of well-known sociologists. These narratives identied issues which emerged and lessons learned, or consequences which owed from, their research. The Uses of Sociology: Lazarsfeld et al. (1967) edited a comparable, but applied-oriented, book which focused on case examples/essays by sociologists who were actively using sociology in (1) professions such as the law, medicine, social welfare; (2) nonacademic settings including the military,

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educational, and public administration; and (3) addressing social problems and planning; and in directing change. Putting Sociology to Work: In this book, Shostak (1974) offers rst-hand accounts of how 24 application-oriented sociologists used sociological ideas in their work. Social Research for Policy Decisions: Finsterbush and Bender Motz (1980) provide an insightful look at the complex relationship between social research and social policy as the two connect, or do not connect, in the political arena of real-world decision making. The authors include several good case study examples to illustrate their points. Applied Sociology: Freeman et al. (1983) examined the status of applied sociology into the early 1980s in a book which also offered the reader a look at some of the roles and activities in which sociologists in various work settings engage. More recent examples of case studies and eld experiences can be found in this journal and in its predecessor, The Clinical Sociology Review. Other sources of case studies have appeared in The Journal of Applied Sociology, and in Social Insight. However, as with the examples typically included in the above books, case studies which appear in journals are written primarily for other sociologists, and perhaps graduate students, not for undergraduates. Case studies reported in journals are also not written with teaching objectives in mind. More needs to be done to broaden the range of available case studies so that they address not only issues in business and government but also matters of importance regarding health, family, religion, education, and so on. More effort also needs to be directed toward writing student-friendly case studies which can be used in undergraduate courses. Career proles/paths of sociologists may be used successfully in undergraduate sociology courses whose objective is to inform students about the range of possibilities which people with sociology training on various levelsfrom BA, to MA, to PhD, have chosen or created. Stephens work is one example of an available resource about careers (Stephens 1998). Sociologists can turn the experiences and insights they have gained from monitoring and advising student interns or service-learning volunteers into compelling case studies. For example, Carlson (2001) discusses how service learning can lead to social change on the grass-roots level. She notes that her involvement with students engaged in service learning has resulted in a bagful of stories to tell about the lives of the homeless people they have met. Material like this can be adapted for a student audience. Du Bois (2001a) shares some of the interesting experiences he has had in applying sociology to design effective social settings in nightclubs and bars. Du Bois (2001b)

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also describes how he used sociological insights to improve morale and build positive attitudes in a community following a crisis. These great examples can be condensed and adapted for use in applied courses or application-oriented segments of courses. Two Strategies for Using Case Studies as TeachingLearning Tools Case studies may be used in at least two ways. In the rst strategy, students read the case study or an excerpt from it. They describe the nature of the research, strategy, or intervention. Then they analyze and evaluate the case study content in context, bringing in the time period, political, social, and economic constraints, and so on. Finally, they decide whether and what alternative choices to the ones discussed in the case study were possible and what their likely consequences would be. This is the strategy I have used in assigning case study materials to students in the Introductory Sociology course. An excerpt from Adlers research account makes an excellent reading assignment and a controversial case study (Adler 1985). I use her work to raise questions about the ethical justication for studying individuals and groups engaged in deviant behavior by using a covert role as well as about methodological, legal, physical, and psychological risks involved in doing research like hers. Since participant observation research about deviant groups has typically been done by men, Adlers account is all the more interesting because it allows students to see how a researchers gender, or race, for example, may open or close doors to certain projects. Also reected in Adlers work is the serendipitous way in which research opportunities may arise. In the second strategy, the instructor orients students to the cases parameters by describing the problem(s) and constraints (time, budget, other resources, and so on) involved in a particular case study but not the specic choices the sociologist made. Students play the role of the social researcher or practitioner in this situation. They outline how they would approach solving the problem and dealing with budgetary limitations and with other constraints. Students can be asked to map out alternative scenarios for change and to identify likely consequences of each scenario, both intended and unintended. After students have presented and discussed their ideas in either a small-group or class-wide discussion, they read the actual case study, or excerpts from it, revealing what the researcher or practitioner actually did and with what effect(s). Using case studies in this way has several strengths: Students learn to sharpen their problem-solving skills, get practice in comparing and contrasting their ideas and proposed interventions with those developed by other students as well as with the choices made by the researcher or practitioner.

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CONCLUSION The cross-disciplinary literature on the use of cases as a teaching tool points to a variety of consistently positive learning outcomes. Personal interviews which I conducted with colleagues who use cases in their undergraduate courses in the elds of education, accounting, social work, and biochemistry at my institution also support this conclusion. Despite the positive outcomes reported in the literature, cases appear to be underutilized in many disciplines, including in sociology, relative to their educational potential. However, using cases in sociology classes can help students to frame issues using the sociological perspective, to design practical applications, and to develop and evaluate potential strategies for change. Cases can assist instructors in laying the foundation for critical thinking and application skills early in students undergraduate careers so that we can better prepare future majors to participate actively and at higher levels in advanced courses as well as to develop the kinds of thinking and problemsolving skills which employers seek. Case studies can also provide a context in which students practice thinking critically about decision making and about the likely impacts of different decisions. Through exposure to the experiences of professional sociologists, students can gain insights into the excitement and the challenges involved in doing sociology. What is it like to be a change agent who works with residents of an inner-city neighborhood to design a community center or who helps victims of a disaster to re-establish a sense of normalcy and rebuild their lives and communities? What are the challenges and constraints encountered by a program evaluator hired to look at the effectiveness of different early intervention programs for challenged children in a mid-sized city? What variables does an applied demographer take into account in order to design a potentially effective family planning strategy for poor women in a developing country? How does an applied criminologist come up with an effective strategy to help soon-tobe released, incarcerated women make an effective transition back into society? By introducing students to some classic and contemporary examples of sociologys uses, instructors can help them to understand where sociology has been inuential in policy issues, what variables, in addition to sociological research, affect decision making, and to be optimistic about potential for sociologists continuing involvement in change. Through using cases and case studies in creative teaching, not only will we enhance students ah ha learning but we may also be able to attract more and better students into the major and more nonmajors into our upper-level sociology courses.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express her appreciation to two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Thanks also go to Stan Capela, and to colleagues at Providence College, Junean Krajewski and Deborah Goessling (Education), Kathleen Cornely (Chemistry), Kathy Wilkicki (Accountancy), Marian Mattison and William Allen (Social Work), who shared ideas and/or examples of cases/case studies they have used in their courses. REFERENCES
Adler, Patricia A. 1985. Wheeling and Dealing: An Ethnography of An Upper-Level Drug Dealing and Smuggling Community. New York: Columbia University Press. Baxter, Vern. 1988. A Case-Study Method for Teaching Industrial Sociology. Teaching Sociology 16:2124. Carlson, Barbara A. 2001. Creating Grassroots Change Through Service Learning. Pp. 193 212 in Applying Sociology, edited by W. Du Bois and R. D. Wright. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Christensen, Roland C. and Abby J. Hansen. 1987. Teaching and the Case Method. Boston: Harvard Business School. Cliff, William H. and Anne W. Wright. 1996. Directed Case Method for Teaching Human Anatomy and Physiology. Advances in Physical Education 15:1928. Cornely, Kathleen. 1998. Use of Case Studies in an Undergraduate Biochemistry Course. Journal of Chemical Education 75:475478. Du Bois, William R. 2001a. Design and Human Behavior: The Sociology of Architecture. Pp. 30 45 in Applying Sociology, edited by W. R. DuBois and R. D. Wright. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Du Bois, William R. 2001b. Transforming Community Attitudes and Morale. Pp. 4656 in Applying Sociology, edited by W. R. DuBois and R. D. Wright. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Finsterbush, Kurt and Annabelle Bender Motz. 1980. Social Research for Policy Decisions. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Fredericks, Marcel and Steven I. Miller. 1985. Logic and Sociological Arguments: Applications to Undergraduate Teaching. Teaching Sociology 12:149175. Fredericks, Marcel and Steven I. Miller. 1987. The Use of Conceptual Analysis for Teaching Sociology Courses. Teaching Sociology 15:392398. Freeman, Howard E., Russell R. Dynes, Peter H. Rossi, and William F. Whyte, editors. 1983. Applied Sociology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Green, Charles S. III and Richard G. Salem. 1983. The Non-Sociologist as Applied Sociologist: Teaching Undergraduates Applied Sociology as Ethical Practice. Teaching Sociology 11:3246. Hammond, Phillip. 1964. Sociologists at Work. New York: Basic Books. Hatchen, David. 2001a. Sociology in Action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. Hatchen, David. 2001b. Instructors Manual to Accompany Sociology in Action. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press. Herreid, Clyde F. 1994. Case Studies in ScienceA Novel Method of Science Education. Journal of College Science Teaching 23:221229. Hutchings, Pat. 1993. Windows on Practice: Cases About Teaching and Learning. Change Nov./Dec.:1421. Jensen, Jason L. and Robert Rogers. 2001. Cumulating the Intellectual Gold of Case Study Research. Public Administration Review 61:235246.

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