Biology Revision Guide B2 e-i

Respiration
Respiration is the process in which the chemical bonds of energy-rich molecules such as glucose are converted into energy usable for life processes.

Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to oxidise glucose and produce energy. The equation for the oxidation of glucose is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy released Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + water + Energy released
Most animals and plants use aerobic respiration as a primary source of energy. Also, aerobic respiration is an efficient process almost all the energy contained in glucose is released during the reaction. It is the complete breakdown of glucose. Mitochondria Mitochondria are cell organelles which float around in the cytoplasm and are found in both plant and animal cells. In cells, aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria. Here, the energy is made in the form of a compound called ATP. However, some of the energy made is lost as heat energy. The ATP drives chemical reactions and is used by the cells as a source of energy to do this.

Anaerobic respiration
When a person is doing very heavy exercise and the blood cannot supply enough oxygen another sort of respiration occurs. This converts glucose into energy WITHOUT the need for OXYGEN and is known as anaerobic respiration. In animals this respiration produces lactic acid. The reaction is:

Glucose Energy released + lactic acid

Anaerobic respiration releases LESS energy than aerobic respiration. This is inefficient and lactic acid still contains a lot of energy glucose breakdown is incomplete. Lactic acid build up during exercise causes muscle fatigue (raumen nusilpimas). High lactic acid concentrations are painful and felt as cramp. When exercise stops, the blood supply is able to provide enough oxygen to convert the lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water but this takes time and the muscle pain may continue after exercise until the lactic acid has been converted. The amount of Oxygen required to oxidize (breakdown) lactic acid that accumulates on muscles due to an aerobic respiration is known as the oxygen debt. Carbon dioxide and lactic acid both cause increases in breathing rate and heart rate to allow the body to repay

the oxygen debt. The oxygen debt is the reason why we continue to be out of breath even after exercise. If athletes are very fit their circulation can provide extra oxygen more rapidly and their recovery time, the time required to restore normal breathing and pulse, will be shorter than in people who are not fit. Anaerobic respiration is therefore considered reversible in animals.

Yeasts and anaerobic respiration

The direct conversion of glucose to energy without the use of oxygen occurs in many types of yeast and plants. In plants and yeast (miels) anaerobic respiration is irreversible. The ethanol that is used in alcoholic drinks is a result of anaerobic respiration in yeast, the reaction is:

Glucose Energy released + ethanol + carbon dioxide

Again, the process is inefficient and produces much less energy compared to aerobic respiration. This process is used in bread and alcohol production and is also called fermentation.

PLANTS
Nutrition
Photosynthesis
Like all living things, plants need food to live. This food is used for energy and to make new materials when plants grow. Plants are able to take two inorganic chemicals, carbon dioxide gas and water, to make an organic chemical, glucose. This simple food can be used as an energy source or converted into other useful organic molecules. The process by which plants make sugar from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide is called photosynthesis Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts: the proteins that participated in the reaction are located in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplast. Photosynthesis requires an input of energy. Plants have found a way to capture the energy from sunlight, using a pigment called chlorophyll. Once this light energy has been captured it can be used to create glucose, so converting the light energy into chemical energy. Oxygen gas is released as a waste chemical. The formula for photosynthesis is:

6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 Carbon dioxide + water + energy glucose + oxygen

Limiting Factors
Three factors can limit the speed of photosynthesis - light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature.

Light intensity Without enough light, a plant cannot photosynthesise very quickly, even if there is plenty of water and carbon dioxide. Increasing the light intensity will boost the speed of photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide concentration Sometimes photosynthesis is limited by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. Even if there is plenty of light, a plant cannot photosynthesise if there is insufficient carbon dioxide. Temperature If it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants cannot photosynthesise if it gets too hot. Enzymes denature at high temperature. As photosynthesis is controlled by enzymes then temperature will affect how quickly or how much a plant photosynthesises. Which factor is limiting? On a graph of rate of photosynthesis against a limiting factor we can tell what is limiting the rate by looking at the graph. For example: at point A its the CO2 concentration that is limiting the rate of photosynthesis. At point B, CO2 increase is having no effect; another factor (temperature or light) must be the limiting factor.

The Structure of a leaf Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of plants. The leaves have many adaptations to make sure that as much photosynthesis goes on as possible. The more a plant can photosynthesize, the more food it can make and the faster it can grow.

Leaves are adapted in several ways to help them perform their function. Features of leaves Adaption Purpose

Large surface area To absorb more light Thin Chlorophyll Network of veins Stomata Short distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse into leaf cells Absorbs sunlight to transfer energy into chemicals To support the leaf and transport water and carbohydrates Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf

Inside the leaf:

The internal structure of the leaf is also adapted to promote efficient photosynthesis: Structure of leaves Adaption Purpose

Epidermis is thin and transparent To allow more light to reach the palisade cells Thin cuticle made of wax Palisade cell layer at top of leaf Spongy layer To protect the leaf without blocking out light To absorb more light Air spaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through the leaf, and increase the surface area To absorb all the available light

Palisade cells contain many chloroplasts

Minerals Plants need a number of minerals for healthy growth. These are absorbed through the roots as mineral ions dissolved in the soil water. Two important mineral ions needed by plants are: nitrate - for making amino acids, which are needed to make proteins magnesium - for making chlorophyll

If a plant does not get enough minerals, its growth will be poor. It will suffer from deficiency symptoms: deficient in nitrate - it will suffer from stunted growth deficient in magnesium - its leaves will turn yellow

Testing a leaf for starch 1. Put the plants in the dark for 24 hours. 2. After 24 hours, set up these conditions: a leaf with no light, a leaf with no CO2 and a leaf in normal conditions. 3. A leaf is removed from each plant and placed into boiling water to burst the cell membrane releasing cell contents. 4. The leaf is then placed in boiling ethanol to remove chlorophyll. 5. Cover the leaves with some iodine solution and watch. If a leaf turns dark blue, it means that starch is present and photosynthesis has occurred. If it turns yellowish brownish, it shows us that starch is not present and photosynthesis hasnt occurred.

Gas Exchange
In order to carry on photosynthesis, green plants need a supply of carbon dioxide and a means of disposing of oxygen. In order to carry on cellular respiration, plant cells need oxygen and a means of disposing of carbon dioxide (just as animal cells do). Unlike animals, plants have no specialized organs for gas exchange. There are several reasons they can get along without them: Stomata on the underside of the leaf allow gases to enter and exit the leaf by diffusion. Guard cells control the opening and closing of the stomata. Spongy mesophyll layer air spaces provide a large surface are for gas exchange. The gasses required for photosynthesis (CO2) and respiration (O2) both enter the leaf through the stomata. They then diffuse into the leaf in the air spaces of the spongy mesophyll. The waste product of respiration (CO2 +H2O) and photosynthesises (O2) are excreted by the leaf through the stomata.

In Photosynthesis, plants use the sun's energy as light to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose. In cellular respiration, glucose is ultimately broken down to yield carbon dioxide and water, and the energy from this process is stored as ATP molecules.

Transport
Unicellular organisms such as bacteria + fungi dont require transport system to move nutrients + waste products. Their small size means that substances can diffuse in and out of the cell very quickly, meaning a transport system is unnecessary Larger multicellular organisms rely on transport systems to move nutrients and waste as areas that require them. This is much faster than diffusion through a large organism.

Plants
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the surfaces of plants, mostly in leaves via the stomata. Transpiration is the major driving force for the upward transport of water in a vascular plant. When water evaporates from a leaf, the hydrostatic pressure in the upper regions of the plant decreases. On the other hand the hydrostatic pressure in the lower parts of the plant is relatively higher. Water moves from an area of high to low hydrostatic pressure, thus the net effect is the upward flow of water. Xylem is tissue consisting of vessels which are like pipes connected end to end. Water moves within these vessels from the roots to the upper parts of the plant. There are four main factors affect the rate of transpiration: Light intensity The rate of transpiration increases in the light, because of the opening of the stomata in the leaves. Temperature High temperatures increase the rate of transpiration, by increasing the rate of evaporation of water from the mesophyll cells. Humidity When the air around the plant is humid, this reduces the diffusion gradient between the air spaces in the leaf and the external air. The rate of transpiration therefore decreases in humid air and speeds up in dry air. Wind speed The rate of transpiration increases with faster air movements across the surface of the leaf. The moving air removes any water vapour which might remain near the stomata. This moist air would otherwise reduce the diffusion gradient and slow down diffusion. It is easy to use a potometer to demonstrate these effects. For example, you can use a fan or a hair drier on a plant to show the effects of moving air, or put the plant under a bright light or in the dark to find the effect of light intensity.

How water is absorbed by root hair cells?

Plants get the water they need for photosynthesis through their roots. The roots have a type of cell called a root hair cell - these projects out from the root into the soil. Roots have a big surface area and thin walls, which allow water to pass into them easily. Note that root cells do not contain chloroplasts, as they are normally in the dark and cannot photosynthesise.

Water is taken up by root hairs of the plant epidermis and carried across the root cortex by a water potential gradient. It then enters the xylem and is transferred to all part of the plant. If a plant does not absorb enough water, it will wilt or go floppy. Without water it may also not photosynthesise quickly enough, and it may die. Root hair cells have a large surface area, which increases rate of water absorption from soil.

Excretion
Plants have no special organs for removal of wastes. The waste products of respiration and photosynthesis are used as raw materials for each other. Oxygen gas produced as a by-product of photosynthesis is used up during respiration and carbon dioxide produced during respiration is used up during photosynthesis. Excretion is carried out in the plants in the following ways: I. II. The gaseous wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed through stomata of leaves and lenticels of stems. Some waste products collect in the leaves and bark of trees. When the leaves and bark are shed, the wastes are eliminated.

III.

Some waste products are rendered harmless and then stored in the plant body as solid bodies. Tannins, resins, gum, rubber and essential oils are some such wastes.

Coordination and Response

Plant Responses to Stimulate
Tropism is a plant growth response caused by a stimulus. Phototropism is the growth a plant shoot towards a light source. This is caused by an unequal hormone (auxin) causing unequal growth. Higher auxin concentration causes more rapid growth on shaded side resulting in curve toward light. Growth proceeds in proportion to auxin concentration. Phototropism - towards light (stimulus). Think plants, flowers, leaves. They generally turn towards light. Geotropism - towards the earth. Go figure. Hydrotropism - towards water or towards moisture. Geotropism: Root grow downwards Stems grow upwards positive geotropism negative geotropism

HUMANS
Nutrition
Food Group
Carbohydrate

Elements
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Vitamin A Vitamin C Calcium Iron Water Fibre

Source of Food Group

Grains, pasta, rice, cereal, bread, fruit, vegetables, cakes, biscuits Meet, fish, nuts, eggs, chicken, beans, dairy products Dairy products, milk, butter, eggs, seeds, cooking oil Liver, butter, carrots Fruit and vegetables Dairy products, fish, bread, vegetables Liver, red meat, eggs Water Vegetables, bran

Function
Provide energy Broken down to amino acids used to build body protein e.g. Enzymes, hair Energy source Insulator Shock absorber Make a chemical in the retina; protect eye surface Helps to make connective tissue Makes teeth and bones Part of haemoglobin in red blood cells Maintain body water balance Keeps you regular, good movement

Protein

Lipids/fats

Vitamins Vitamins Minerals Minerals Water Fibre

Liver Anus Oesophagus Pancreas Salivary glands Gall Bladder Rectum

Kepenys Ieinamoji anga Stempl Kasa Seili liaukos Tulies psl Tiesioji arna

Ingestion is the consumption of a substance by an organism, in animals it normally is accomplished by taking in the substance through the mouth into the gastrointestinal tract. Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breaking down of food into smaller components to a form that can be absorbed into the blood stream. Absorption digested food passing into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine by diffusion. Assimilation is the chemical alteration of substances in the blood stream by the liver or cellular secretions. Egestion is the removal of undigested food as faeces.

Peristalsis
Contraction of circular muscles behind the food narrows the gut, pushing the food along. When the circular muscles are contracted, the longitudinal ones are relaxed and vice versa. Its because food in the gut doesnt depend on gravity, and it keeps moving along digestive system.

Role of Digestive Enzymes

The large insoluble food molecules that enter the digestive system must be broken down to small soluble molecules to pass through the cell membranes in the small intestine. Enzymes catalyse this break down reactions. This is called chemical digestion. Substrate Starch Maltose Protein Lipids (oil + fats) Enzyme Amylase Maltose Proteases Lipases Product Maltose (SAM) Glucose Amino acids Fatty acids + glycerol

Bile (tulis)
Bile is a chemical produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Its slightly alkaline and it helps to neutralise stomach acid as if is released into the small intestine. Bile also emulsifies lipids this means that it splits up large globules of fat into small droplets. This property o bile hugely increases the surface area of the lipid for digestion by lipases helping to speed up the breakdown of fat.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is a long tube made of smooth muscle. Its job is to: Continue with the digestive process Absorb essential nutrients through its wall The small intestine is 7 metres long and has a folded surface. Both of these features increase surface area for absorption of nutrients as do the villi.

Villi (gaureliai)
Villi are folded projections increasing the surface area for absorption of micronutrients. Two features which allow easy diffusion of nutrients across the villi membranes are: Thin epithelium lining, only one cell thick Microvilli and villi are folding projections which increase the surface area for absorption into the capillary network and lacteal.

(a) Trachea

Gas Exchange
(b) Ring of cartilage Structure of the Thorax (krtins lsta) (c) Bronchi (plural) Bronchus (single) (d) Pleural membranes

Wind pipe Support the airways and keep them open when we breathe in Differ air to each lung Make up a continuous envelope around the lungs forming an airtight seal Control the movement of the ribs. They move up and out when the muscles contract and they move down and in when the muscles relax Muscular sheet of tissue Protect lungs Air sacs, where gas exchange with the blood takes place Small tubes, which in the end have alveoli

(e) Intercostal muscles

(f) Diaphragm (g) Rib cage (j) Alveoli

Lung Ventilation

(h) Bronchioles

Diaphragm Intercostal muscles

Breathing in Contracts, flatters out, moves down Pull rib cage up and out

Breathing out Relaxes, moves up Pull rib cage down and in

When you breathe in the volume of your chest cavity increases, pressure decreases and air moves into your lungs. When you breathe out, the volume decreases and pressure increases and air is pushed out of your lungs.

Alveoli
Blood flows to the lungs. It has low oxygen content so is deoxygenated. Blood leaves the lungs. It has a high oxygen content so is oxygenated.

Why are the lungs so good at their job?

Large surface area, which gives a large number of alveoli Alveoli membrane walls are thin (one cell thick) Capillary walls are thin (one cell thick) Surface of the alveoli is moist (drgnas) to allow oxygen to dissolve

Thin membrane walls decease the distance gases have to move/diffuse between the lungs and the circulatory system as they are so close to each other. Having a moist surface in the alveoli allows oxygen to dissolve which increases the rate/speed that the blood diffuses into the capillaries.

Consequences of Smoking
Cigarette smoke contains the chemicals in the table below: Chemical Tar Effect Contains carcinogens. Damages the DNA of alveoli cells. This can lead to them reproducing faster than normal, which will cause a tumour to form. The tumour is the start of cancer. Speeds heart rate and damages arteries, causing furring of artery walls (atherosclerosis). This leads to heart disease and vascular diseases. It is also addictive. Attaches permanently to haemoglobin, reducing the ability of the blood to carry O2

Carcinogens

Nicotine

Carbon Monoxide

Experiment: the effect of exercise on breathing in humans

Take your own heart rate, breathing rate and skin temperature at rest Do some controlled exercise Take the same measurements again. All measurements should increase because your rate of respiration increases (to supply the muscles with extra energy for contraction). In order to get respiration to happen faster, you need more O2, so the breathing and heart rate increase.

Transport
Blood consists four main parts: Red blood cells (RBC) adopted to carry oxygen around the body. Oxygen attaches to haemoglobin which the RBCs are filled with. Plasma liquid part of the blood where all the blood cells are suspended. Used for transporting substances around the body. Platelets - help clot the blood. This stops blood loss and also prevents microorganisms from entering the body. White blood cells (WBC) part of the immune system. Theyre responsible for killing microorganisms.

Red blood cells do NOT contain a nucleus. This means that more haemoglobin can be packed into each RBC so more oxygen can be transported. Their biconcave shape allows efficient exchange of oxygen in and out of the cell. Each RBC has a high surface area to volume ratio, giving a large area for diffusion. The thinness of the cell gives a short diffusion distance to the centre of the cell. In addition, RBC has very thin cell surface membranes which allow oxygen to diffuse through easily White blood cells man role is to protect the body against invasion by disease causing microorganisms. They do this in 2 ways: Phagocytosis WBC can take in microorganism. This is called phagocytosis and the cells are phagocytes. They do this by changing their shape, producing extensions of their cytoplasm, called pseudopodia. It surrounds and encloses the microorganism in a vacuole. Once its inside the phagocyte secretes enzymes into the vacuole to break the microorganism down Antibody Production WBC are lymphocytes. Their function is to make chemicals called antibodies. Theyre soluble proteins that pass into the plasma. Pathogens have tell-tale chemical markers on their surfaces which the antibodies recognise (antigens). The antibodies stuck to the surface antigens and destroy the pathogen (ligos sukeljas).

The Heart
Pulmonary Artery Pulmonary Vein Semi-lunar valve

Tricuspid Valve

Bicuspid valve

1) Blood enters the atria whilst the heart relaxes 2) Both atria start to contract, pushing the blood into the ventricles through the open atria ventricular valves 3) When the ventricles are full they begin to contract 4) The atria ventricular valves shut to stop backflow 5) Blood is forced out of the heart into the circulatory system through the open semi-lunar valves 6) When the ventricles finish contracting the semi-lunar valves shut, stopping backflow. 7) Blood flows back into the heart Valves open and close because of the relative blood pressure differences either side of them. Blood has to pass through the heart twice to complete a full circuit of the body. This is called a double circulation. Our heart beat can increase because of: Exercising. Muscles must release more energy; they need to increase supply of oxygen for aerobic respiration. To deliver it heart rate and stroke volume increase. Stress. When we are stressed, the body releases a hormone called adrenaline. Adrenaline causes an increase in your heart rate to enable you to respond to a threat. This increase in heart rate delivers large concentrations of glucose + oxygen to the muscle, enabling us to fight off a threat, or run away from it.

During exercise adrenaline is released from the adrenal glands. Adrenaline has two effects of the heart: makes it beat faster and makes each beat harder. The combined effect is to massively increase the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute to supply the increased respiration in muscles with oxygen and glucose and to remove carbon dioxide.

Artery, Vein and Capillary

Artery 1) Arteries carry high pressure blood away from the heart. 2) Thick muscle layer to withstand high pressure blood 3) Elastic tissue allows artery to stretch when blood is forced into it and to recoil as heart relaxes to push blood along 4) Protective collagen layer 5) Relatively small lumen

Vein 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Veins carry low pressure blood towards the heart. Thin muscle layer (low pressure blood) Valve to stop backflow Protective collagen layer Large lumen (decreases effect of friction)

Capillary 1) Capillaries are adapted for exchange they are not connected directly to the heart. 2) Walls are one cell thick (cells are called endothelial cells) 3) Lumen is the same width as one RBC (therefore more of RBC in contact with wall, therefore smaller diffusion distance) 4) No muscle or elastic tissue 5) Tiny can fit between cells

The vessel taking blood to the kidneys is the renal artery The vessel taking blood away from the kidneys is the renal vein The vessel taking blood to the liver is the hepatic artery Blood also goes to the liver from the gut along the hepatic portal vein The vessel taking blood away from the liver is the hepatic vein

Circulation System
There are two distinct parts to a double circulation: The pulmonary circulation, in which blood is circulated through the lungs where it is oxygenated. The systematic circulation in which blood is circulated through all other parts of the body where it unloads its oxygen.

The human circulatory system comprises: The heart this is a pump. Blood vessels these carry the blood around the body; arteries carry blood away from the heart and towards other organs; veins carry blood towards the heart and away from the other organs; capillaries carry blood through organs. Blood the transport medium Blood vessel Artery Veins Capillaries Smooth muscle wall Thick Thin Very thin Central cavity Narrow Wide Very small Other features Elastic walls Valves (votuvas) One cell thick membranes

Excretion
Organs of excretion: Lungs. Waste products carbon dioxide Kidneys. Waste products urine Skin. Waste products sweat

Each kidney is supplied with blood through a short renal artery. This leads straight from the bodys main artery, the aorta, so the blood entering the kidney is at a high pressure. Inside each kidney the blood is filtered and the cleaned blood passes out through each renal vein to the main vein, or vena cava. The urine passes out of the kidneys through two tubes, the ureters and is stored in a muscular bag called the bladder. The bladder has a tube leading to the outside called the urethra.

Nephron
Inside each kidney there are millions of tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron filters the blood removing glucose, urea, water and salts. Anything which the body needs gets reabsorbed through the blood around the body. The fluid that passes into the Bowmans capsule is called the glomerular fibrate. This process where the filter (glomerulus + Bowmans capsule) separates different sized molecules under pressure is called ultrafication. Protein and RBC + WBC dont get filtered out. Glucose, salt, urea and water are filtered. Glucose and salt are reabsorbed from glomerulus in the proximal convoluted tubule and water is in loop of Henl. Urea made in liver by the breakdown of amino acids and then removed by the kidneys.

Parts and Function of Nephron

Glomerulus Bowmans capsule Blood capillaries Collecting duct filters blood surrounds glomerulus useful substances are reabsorbed collects urea and takes it to ureter (lapimtakis)

Renal artery Glomerulus where blood is filtered in high pressure. Glomerulus filtrate contains urea, glucose, salt and water. As glomural filtrate passes through all the kidney tubules, useful substances are reabsorbed. If you drink too much water concentration of blood rises. The hypothalamus detects this increase and in response produces ADH from the pituitary. Less ADH decreases the permeability of the kidney tribules and collecting duct. The kidney reabsorbs less water into the blood capillaries. This means that a large volume of very dilute urine is produced. This returns the blood concentration to normal. This is called negative feedback control. If you sweat too much or have too much salt then the water concentration falls and then the pituitary gland produces ADH. More ADH increase permeability so less water is lost in urine. This returns water tone to normal. Selective reabsorption when the body takes as much water as it needs.