Advance AC Drives 2009

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Advanced AC Drives Permanent Magnet Machine Drives

Dr. Chris Gerada
chris.gerada@nottingham.ac.uk

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Part II Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines Types, Geometry and Construction

PMSM Topologies Torque and Machine Size Pole Number Rotor Topologies Stator Windings Back EMF Armature Reaction Effects Torque and Torque Density

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PM Synchronous machine types

PMSM come in various forms. Whilst all machines can be represented by the same equivalent circuit and are governed by the same principles of operation, different machine topologies have different properties. Generally speaking PMSM construction fall into one of three categories (according to the flux direction) :

Radial

Radial most common form of PM machine type. They can either have an interior rotor structure or an outer rotor in applications such as wheel motors. Axial an attractive alternative due to its pancake shape, compact construction and high power density. Particularly suitable for electrical and hybrid vehicles and wind generators. They can be designed as double-sided or single sided machines with or without armature slots. Transverse this is when the velocity vector is transversal to the fluc path. This machine is ideal for low speed generators (high pole numbers)

Axial

Transverse

In this Course we will be looking at radial type PMSM

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PM machine construction basic definitions

Consider the 3 phase 2 pole motor shown. Construction details:

Interior rotor Laminated Stator with a stacking factor of 0.9 Solid Rotor Surface mount magnets Non-salient machine Ld=Lq Parallel magnetisation 2 poles (1 pole pair) 1mm air gap length 48 slots or 8 slots/pole/phase Single layer wound

magnet span

magnet span
No of conductors per slot = 26 Conductors per phase : 26*8*2 = 416 Turns per phase : 416/2 = 208 Slot fill = Copper area in slot / slot area

magnet thickness

air gap length

tooth pitch w

26 conductors per slot

tooth width t w

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PM machine basics of torque production

Diagram Construction details:

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Power Rating and Size

The most basic question one needs to answer when specifying a machine for a particular application is what rating need it be? And how big will it be? The most universal way to describe the output from a machine is via its power. Power :

P = T

Thus if we want more power from a given motor the simplest thing to do is to make it run faster! Having the machine running faster will imply a larger BEMF and thus an appropriate converter able to handle the voltage. There will be more iron losses in the machine and higher converter switching losses. The maximum speed a motor can reach is also limited by the mechanical integrity of the system. To match the motor speed to the application requirements mechanical gearing is used. Whilst mechanical gears are much more torque dense than electrical machines, the higher the gear ratio the lower will be the transmission efficiency and the reflected motor inertia will be proportional to the gear ratio squared. Increasing the torque implies a higher current supplied to the machine. The maximum continuous current is obviously limited by the maximum temperature the various machine components can withstand. Starting from basics, we will derive the torque and power produced by an electrical machine in terms of its geometry to define the relationship between torque produced and the main dimensions of a machine.

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Machine Loadings

We will derive the output torque equation in terms of the machine geometry. We will assume a sinusoidal winding and air gap flux distribution, in other words this analysis is valid for sinusoidally excited machines such as IM and PMSM. Magnetic Loading : Bpk

Defined as the peak radial flux density in the air-gap of the machine. This is for the fundamental, spatial flux density. Ie. harmonics neglected. This is typically around 0.8T. having a tooth width half the tooth pitch and a typical B in the teeth of 1.6T (limited by magnetic steel saturation)

Current Loading or Electric Loading : Arms

Defined to be the total rms current per unit length of the airgap periphery.

Arms =

D = air gap diameter

2 m N ph I

2mNphI = Nph turns per phase * m number of phases (3) * 2 conductors per turn * RMS current This is generally limited to 30-80kA/m, depending on machine size and cooling method.

Current Density : Jrms

Density of current in windings. This is typically limited to around 4-6A/mm2

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Torque Produced
T

From Lorentz equation, force on a current carrying conductor in an orthogonal field is :

I = Ar

F = BIL
And the torque produced at a radius r is :

T = BILr

Consider the figure shown :

T = BL I r

Assuming a sinusoidal distribution of flux density express them as :

Bg ( ) and current I ( ) we can

being the phase shift
between the flux and current waveforms

Bg ( ) = B pk sin

I ( ) = 2 Arms r sin ( + )
2

Then we can express the torque developed by the machine as :

Tm =

B ( ) I ( ) L r d
g 0
2 2 0

Tm = 2 Ams B pk L r sin ( + ) sin ( ) d

Tm = 2 Arms B pk r 2 L cos ( )

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Torque Produced

The torque equation can be written as :

Tm = 2 Arms B pk r 2 L cos ( )
Torque = k * Electrical Loading * Magnetic Loading * Rotor Volume

The torque per rotor volume (TRV) is thus :

TRV = 2 Arms B pk

assuming = 0

The TRV is related to the air gap shear stress . This is defined as the tangential (torque producing) force per unit swept rotor surface area. Thus, for a cylindrical rotor we can write:

Tm = ( D L) r = Vr 2

The air gap shear stress is measured in kN/m2 . It can be noted that the only way how to increase the TRV or the shear stress is by increasing either the current or magnetic loading. These are limited by the cooling capability and saturation of the magnetic material. Typical values are :

TRV =
thus

Tm = 2 V Arms B pk
2

= 22kN / m 2

TRV = 44kNm / m3

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Maximum TRV

The TRV can thus be improved by :

Increasing B

Flux density is limited by the magnetic material saturation. Magnetic saturation in the stator teeth limits the tooth flux density to approx 1.6T so that the air gap flux density doesnt exceed 0.8T independent of machine size. One way of increasing this is by using more exotic magnetic steels such as Cobalt Steel. This is only used in high performance motors such as those for aerospace. Saturation flux densities above 2.2T can be reached.

Increasing A

Increase the slot depth (for a given current density): increases slot leakage, increases tooth mmf drop, increases machine outside diameter Widen the slots (for a given current density): reduces slot leakage but reduces magnetic loading as the teeth become narrower Increase current density J increases I2R loss. Better cooling required.

Improving machine cooling by using forced convection or direct liquid cooling can considerably improve the TRV by 4 to 5 times The values given so far relate to continuous rating. The peak torques a machine can achieve can be considerably higher than these. This in general depends on the duty cycle involved. This is again related to the thermal limit of the machine. Other limitations might be magnet demagnetisation due to the armature reaction field if the current is very high, converter ratings or to the mechanical integrity of the machine itself.

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Pole number

With inverter driven PMSM machines the choice of the number of poles is not obvious as with other traditional machines and applications. Induction motors have generally low pole number due to the otherwise very low magnetising inductance, power factor and efficiency. This is not the case for PM machines as there is no need for an excitation current. High pole number machines are thus ideal for low speed, direct drive applications. Using a higher number of poles allows an increase in the air gap diameter for the same stator outer diameter since less space is needed for the stator yoke (Torque air gap diameter2) Consider a 2 and a 16 pole machine of same outer stator dimensions.

e =

P m 2

Higher torque (more force producing surface area acting on a larger radius) Less stator copper losses as end winding length is reduced. More iron losses (Hysteresis and Eddy) ~ Mass x f2 Higher inverter switching losses

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Producing a Sinusoidal Air gap Flux Density

Magnet Span

We have already described the ideal fundamental airgap flux density for a PM synchronous machine as : Bg ( ) = B pk sin and we have also mentioned at the beginning of the course that this is usually achieved by having the magnets spanning approximately 1200 The reason behind using this magnet span is that it gives us a relatively high fundamental flux density component (which is the toque converting component) with minimum other harmonic components (which induce torque ripple, current ripple, extra loss and saturation) as well as with minimum magnet material (which is comparatively very expensive) Considering a surface mount magnet spanning electrical degrees. We can approximate the magnet flux density as shown in the figure below. The fundamental airgap flux density is then given by :

1 Flux Density (T)

B pk =

Ba sin d =

Ba

Ba cos 2 4

4 = Ba sin 2

100

200

300

400 Electrical angle (deg)

-1

Note that as the magnet span increases from 1200 to 1800 the Magnetic loading increases by 15%, however, volume and cost increase proportionally to span (50%). Total flux also increases proportionally with span, which determines core back depth.

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Producing a Sinusoidal Air gap Flux Density

Rotor Types, Magnet Placement and Saliency

As indicated by the previous slide the purity of the magnet flux distribution depends on the magnet shape. This will in turn affect the purity of the back-emf which should be as near a sine wave as possible. Different rotor structures can be employed to enhance the shape of the air gap flux, produce different magnitudes of saliency as well as to protect the magnets from armature reaction effects. Various 4-pole rotor configurations.
a) Surface mount configuration - NS b) Inset configuration (small S) Ld<Lq c) Pole shoe rotor Ld<Lq d) Interior-magnet configuration Ld<Lq e) Spoke type, buried magnet configuration Ld<Lq

Whilst embedding the magnets offers a reluctance torque component, typically a quarter of the magnet flux is lost through leakage as discussed next.

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Comparing Surface and Buried Magnet rotors

Most of the leakage flux is lost in the rotor bridges as shown below. Having a high Lq a considerable amount of armature reaction occurs, weakening the characteristics of the machine, as we noted in the very beginning of this course. In general, the permanent magnet material is best utilised in surface mount PM machines. Consider a surface and a buried magnet rotor configuration :

Surface Mount Type

Buried Magnet Type

Large airgap better magnet utilisation, lower losses (especially rotor) Higher Torque density Low inductance Potential magnet Demagnetisation Needs a retaining sleeve

High Magnetic Inductance limits SC current and ideal for Field Weakening Saliency Torque Component Armature reaction effects can be quite high Higher Rotor Losses Robust construction

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Calculating the Induced Back EMF

The fundamental flux (only due to magnet) per pole can be expressed as :

p = L B pk sin
0

2 dx = B pk L

where , the polepitch is : =

D
P

The peak flux linked is :

pk = N ph p k w

or

( t ) = N ph p kw sin ( t )

(if we assume a concentrated coil spanning the whole pole pitch kw=1)

Then, the induced BEMF :

E (t ) =
or :

d ( t ) dt

= N ph p k w cos ( t )
Diagram Showing winding factor

Erms = 2 f N ph k w p

Substituting in the equations above :

Erms = 2 2 f k w N ph B pk L

D P

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Windings

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Armature Field and phase inductance

Apart from the magnet induced field we also have the armature induced flux. This has 2 components, a leakage and a magnetising component. The flux and flux linkage will have different values in the d- and q- axis due to saliency. Recall that :

Lq = Llq + Lmq
Ld = Lld + Lmd

Inductance is defined as : L =

We assumed that the Lld Llq. Magnetising flux crossing the airgap

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Armature Field and phase inductance

Apart from the magnet induced field we also have the armature induced flux. This has 2 components, a leakage and a magnetising component. q q

d
machine flux due to armature current aligned with the d-axis

machine flux due to magnets alone

d = Ld I
q q

d
machine flux due to armature current aligned with the q-axis alone machine flux due to magnet magnetic field and armature current aligned with the q-axis

r
q

q = Lq I

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Armature Field and phase inductance

If we consider a phase winding aligned with the d-axis, the peak fundamental MMF acting on the air gap is :

MMFpd _ pk =

N ph 4 kw 2 I ph P 2

The peak flux due to the above MMF (assuming no leakage) :

g d ' is the effective d-axis airgap this takes into account the physical airgap, magnet thickness, saturation and slotting. 2

pd _ pk =

MMFpd _ pk 2 ag

N ph 4 L = k w 2 I ph 0 P 2 gd ' 2

pd _ pk

N ph k w 2 0 L = 2 I ph ( P / 2) gd '

is the form factor. If saturation was to

be accounted for another value needs to be used

Following from the above, by dividing the peak value of the air gap flux linkage by the peak vale of the phase current we obtain the phase inductance : 2 2 N k w pd _ pk N ph k w pd 4 L = = 2 0 L pd = I ph gd ' ( P / 2) 2 I ph

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Armature Field and phase inductance

For an m=3 phase machine, the other windings also affect the flux linkage (mutual inductances) and thus the actual magnetising d-axis inductance is :

Lmd = L pd

m = 2

( N ph kw )
( P / 2)

2 m 0 L 2 gd '

Lq = Llq + Lmq

Lmq can be similarly calculated by employing g q ' as the air gap equivalent length.
g d ' = g d kc k sat + g q ' = g q kc k sat hM
g d , g q are the mechanical clearances in the d- and qaxis respectively, k c is the Carter's coefficient for the air gap ( 1.08) and k sat is the saturation coefficient k sat 1.

recoil

Relations for calculating the leakage inductances will not be discussed here as they are beyond the scope of this course. The flux leakage in the d- and q- axis is often assumed equal (as we did in patrt 1 of this course), although the length of the air gap also affects the flux leakage as a component of this crosses the air gap and links with the rotor. Generally speaking the flux leakage of the q-axis is lower than that of the d-axis for salient PMSM.

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Peak Torque and Magnet Demagnetisation

The maximum continuous (or under a reduced duty) torque a PMSM can produce is limited by thermal considerations. The maximum instantaneous current will however be limited by magnet demagnetisation. The limit on the iq demand must be below that which demagnetised the magnet. Consider the armature reaction MMF created by a q-axis current :
1

Flux density (T)

Flux density due to magnets

Flux density due to stator current

100

200

300

400 Electrical angle (deg)

-1

Increasing p increases the maximum current allowed Increasing the magnet depth also allows an increase in the max. allowed current. The maximum torque achieved without demagnetizing the magnet is independent of the magnet span. Burying the magnet protects from demagnetization

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Surface Mount Configuration

Surface mount machines are prone to demagnetisation

Flux density map of a 6pole surface mount pmsm at no load

Flux density map of a 6pole surface mount pmsm at max loading (Id=0, Iq=Imax)

Potential Demagnetization of the magnet trailing edge is evident when a high armature current is applied.

Leading edge

Trailing edge

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Buried Magnet Configuration

With a buried magnet configuration the peak torque can be considerably increased

Flux density map of a 6pole buried magnet pmsm at no load

Flux density map of a 6pole buried magnet pmsm at max loading (Id=0, Iq=Imax)

Note the heavily saturation on the rotor pole tips, this reduces the air gap flux. Also note that the phase inductance increases considerably.

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Conclusions

We looked at the derivation of the machine constantsd and construction aspects of pmsm