CASCODE AMPLIFIER:

The cascade amplifier has two distinct advantages over the inverting amplifier. First, it provides higher output impedance similar to the cascade current mirror. Second, it reduces the effect of Miller capacitance on the input of the amplifier, which will be very important in designing the frequency behavior of the op-amp. The following shows a simple cascade amplifier consisting of transistors M1, M2, and M3. Except for M2, the cascade amplifier is identical to the current-source CMOS inverter. The primary function of M2 is to keep the smallsignal resistance at the drain of M1 low. The small-signal resistance looking back into the drain of M2 is approximately rds1gm2rds2 which is much larger than that seen looking into M3 which is rds3. The small-signal gain of the cascade amplifier is approximately twice that of the inverter because Rout has increased by roughly a factor of 2. Large Signal Characteristics: The large-signal voltage-transfer curve of the cascade amplifier is shown in following figure. The difference in the inverter amplifier and the cascade amplifier is the output characteristics of M1 and M2 are much flatter in the case of inverter amplifier. The operating region for M1 is found as,

Where we assumed that VGS1=VGS2=VIN. Note that the steepest region of the transfer curve is again where all transistors are in saturation (between VOUT equal to 2.7 and 3.0V). The figure also shows that the simple cascade amplifier is capable of switching to VDD like NMOSinput inverting amplifier, but cannot reach ground. The lower limit of VOUT, designated as VOUT (min), can be found as follows. First, assume that both M1 and M2 will be in the active region. If we reference all potentials to the negative power supply i.e. ground, we may express the current through each of the devices, M1 through M3, as

And

Where we have also assumed that both VDS1 and VOUT are small, and VIN=VDD. We may solve for VOUT by realizing that iD1=iD2=iD3 and 1= 2 to get,

MACROMODEL OF OP-AMP:
The macro model is a model that uses simulation primitives to capture the desired performance of a circuit without modeling every component of the circuit. The advantage of macro models is that simulation of large circuits or systems becomes quicker. Macro models suitable for op-amps will be presented in the following material. We will examine macro models for the op-amp that model 1. 2. 3. 4. Small-signal static. Small-signal dynamic. Large-signal static. Large-signal dynamic.

All models will work in the time domain. Most of the models are suitable for the frequency domain with one exception. Small-signal static: