Wind design for Mexico: A review of the period 1964-2003

Jorge Snchez-Sesmaa*, Alberto Lpez-Lpezb, Jorge Aguirre Romanob, Celso J. Muoz Blackb and J. Ivan Vilar Rojasb
a

Instituto Mexicano de Tecnologa del Agua, Paseo Cuahunahuac, Jiutepec, Morelos, Mxico b Instituto de Investigaciones Elctricas, Internado Palmira, Temixco, Morelos, Mxico.

ABSTRACT: Efforts since 1964 aimed at reducing strong wind damage in Mxico are reviewed. Up to 1980 wind studies produced Mxico Citys design codes of practice, and maximum wind zones maps of the country. After 1981, isotach maps were produced and updated (1993), incorporating up to date technology and including innovations in the analysis of raw data and their sources, in models developed to predict maximum wind velocities from historical reconstruction of hurricanes and in the separate statistical treatment of hurricane and other winds. These maps were used to design electrical transmission lines with specifically developed procedures, and incorporated in a wind design handbook, which has been used since 1993 for general structural design throughout the country. Recent endeavors included wind estimation for bridge construction, evaluation of hurricane winds in the Caribbean Sea and the solution of some aero-elastic problems. KEYWORDS: Wind, Codes, Hurricanes, Statistics, Aeroelasticity, Transmission lines.

1 INTRODUCTION Mexico is frequently exposed to strong winds including hurricanes from both the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico. This increases the risk of damage to important infrastructure through the country. Wind research aimed to mitigate this damage, started to gain interest when Rodriguez in 1964 [1], published a map of maximum wind speeds over Mexico. Although this work did not include aspects such as elaborate hurricane modeling or local wind measuring conditions, this was the first formal study to take into account topographic together with meteorological and hurricane data for the whole country. This work and the wind design section of Mexico Citys Building Code constituted the principal results of the wind engineering developments efforts which, up to that date were mainly conducted by the National University of Mexico. Hereafter the Comisin Federal de Electricidad (CFE), the national Mexican utility, has been the main support for the development of wind engineering data and design procedures applicable to the whole country. Thus, on the basis of the abovementioned wind map, the CFE published in 1969 [2] a simple table defining only three regions with different maximum winds, and in 1981 [3] another wind speed map indicating only a few mayor zones of seven regional values. Also supported by CFE, in 1981, the Instituto de Investigaciones Elctricas (IIE) initiated a research program aimed at providing more reliable information, for the design of electric transmission lines and towers against the effects of cyclonic and other winds [4-5]. This effort
*

Corresponding Author: P. Cuahunahuac 8532, Jiutepec, Morelos, MEXICO 62550,jsanchez@tlaloc.imta.mx

included: the visit to 63 pre-selected observatories, the revision and homogenization of wind data, the historical reconstruction of hurricane wind fields, a statistical process, the elaboration of wind maps, a review of existing design norms and the updating of design procedures [6]. Some of the actions taken during this effort were innovations or they were made for the first time in Mxico. On the basis of the previous work, in 1993 an update of the existing CFE Wind Design Handbook was conducted incorporating new data and reviewing all the formulations and procedures for the wind design [7]. This handbook has since been applied for the wind design of all types of structures throughout the entire country. Further contributions include: a review of the wind design section of Mxico Citys Building Code [8-9], an evaluation of hurricane maximum wind speeds over Caribbean and Gulf of Mxico[10] and development of data bases and formulations to deal with specific problems of transmission lines and bridges [11-13]. In what follows we will review the most important technical achievements of these efforts.

2 ACQUISITION AND HOMOGENIZATION OF WIND DATA In 1981, for the first time in Mxico, all observatories pre-selected as valid sources of wind data were visited, inspected and their characteristics and data analyzed., This was done: a) to identify differences in factors affecting the registered wind speeds through the history of each observatory such as: changes in location, anemometer heights and obstacles or terrain roughness affecting differently incident winds from different directions, or b) to detect anomalies such as erroneous treatment of units of measure, faulty apparatuses, operation discontinuities, etc. These actions were indispensable to build up a solid and homogeneous data base (constant terrain and height above ground). This would allow reliable predictions and extrapolation of wind characteristics to other locations, heights above ground and types of terrain. By 1993, data from 1940 to 1989 from about 60 meteorological stations were selected as valid data [14]. With the assistance of the Observatorio Mereorolgico Nacional of Mxico the data were revised and a computerized data base was created with monthly wind maxima and their directions for all observatories. In order to achieve the homogenization of the data for further statistical process and for its engineering use, terrain roughness and obstacles were considered in 16 cardinal directions from each location the anemometer might have had in the history of each observatory. With this besides the anemometers height above ground, the corresponding 16 gust velocity profiles were evaluated. According to the registered direction of each of the maximum wind data recorded, the appropriate velocity profile was used to evaluate the equivalent wind maximum at 10 meters above ground, that would have occurred if the terrain were flat (type 2).

3 RECONSTRUCTION OF HURRICANE WINDS The highest wind speeds in coastal areas of Mexico are associated with tropical cyclones (TC). To establish their probabilistic behavior it has been recommended to consider information from more than 85 years [15-16]. Inland measured records extend only to about 50 years in the best of cases, while historical hurricane information can be obtained from 1886 onwards. Besides,

directly measured data includes only a few TC maximum wind speeds, from each of the few existing coastal observatories, while statistical modeling and geographical extrapolation require considerably more than these data. A modeling procedure was developed to deal with the situation mentioned above [17] which on the basis of historical data, would permit the reconstruction of local TC wind speeds records in any coastal site of interest for statistical purposes.. This modeling procedure was verified by applying it along the coast of the United States [18], which gave results similar to those obtained in two previous research efforts, that employed more complex and costly probabilistic simulation of TC wind fields [19-20]. A short description of the data, models and the calibration procedure are presented in what follows. The most important TC data are the archives of paths and intensities collected initially in 1977 and updated yearly by the U.S. National Hurricane Center, over the North Atlantic and North-east pacific basins during more than 115 years (1886-2002) and 53 years (1949-2002), respectively The fluid dynamic model, which has been developed on the basis of previous studies [2123], can be described as follows. It uses the ratio of the gradient wind Vg outside the surface boundary layer to the wind speed at the surface, the radial balance of pressure and centrifugal forces, and the radius at which the maximum wind speed occurs. First the position, speed of travel and intensity for each hour of existence of each TC are calculated from recorded data, with interpolation using spline functions. The maximum gradient wind is then calculated using the translation speed and latitude of the cyclone. A set of equations can be solved iteratively for three unknowns R, Vg and pressure at the eye, p0, at the maximum wind point. The cyclostrophic wind velocity at any radius can now be calculated, and the gradient and surface winds. Later With this information the corresponding wind field is evaluated, and speed and direction in sites of interest are calculated and stored. The values of the annual maximum surface wind speeds for different directions can be obtained and also stored. Final cyclonic wind predictions were made based both in the reconstruction modeling and on the coastal registered information which was already influenced by topography and sea-land interface. After calibration and probabilistic modeling TC maximum wind speed distribution can be estimated and compared with previous works. In 1997 MAPF-RE supported an study devoted to estimate TC maximum wind speeds over Caribbean and Gulf of Mxico (CGM) regions. Applying the models and procedures described before we arrived to maps of TC maximum wind speeds associated to different return periods over the CGM region [10]. See Figure 1.

4 STATISTICAL PROCESS Statistical models were sought that would closely fit the recorded data and that would allow for reliable predictions of maximum winds given a return period. Five probability functions (Fisher-Tipped I, II and III, and Weibull I, II) and three sampling intervals(daily, monthly and yearly) were tried with the following results:

Figure 1. Caribbean and Gulf of Mxico TC maximum wind speeds (m/s) for 50 years return period.

a) For coastal sites, the statistics for hurricane and non-hurricane winds were found to be clearly different. Thus it was decided to deal with them separately and later join the two statistical models through a probabilistic conjunction that assumes independence of the events, to obtain each sites model to predict maximum winds independently of their origin. b) Probability functions (Fisher Tippet II and Weibull II), that would predict unrealistic values for extremely long return periods (infinite or supersonic winds) were discarded, because they tend to exaggerate the maxima and they make meaningless the relationship between long return period predictions and safety margins or probabilities of failure. c) After a visual inspection of statistical fittings and because it gave the best correlation factors, Fisher-Tippet III distribution function was used for most cases together with an algorithm developed to evaluate, from the wind data themselves, the functions non infinite upper (wind) limit. This gave physically reasonable values, thus increasing the reliability of the statistical models and predictions. d) The chosen sample interval was the monthly one because an analysis of the probabilistic curve fittings using it gave good results and because daily maxima would implied an unaffordable effort in the creation of the computerized data base. Yearly maxima would significantly reduce the number of data for non-hurricane winds; however, it was selected for hurricane wind modeling due to the relatively more scarce data in this case.

5 WIND MAPS

Isotach maps were drawn for each of the return periods used in structural design, with wind data normalized for 2 seconds gust at 10 m above the ground on type 2 terrain. To elaborate a map for a given return period, a maximum wind speed surface was fitted automatically over the area of the country, to the normalized maximum wind data from all observatories [24]. A reliability factor was used for each data point, which was calculated from the evaluation and analysis of the data sources taking into account: a) changes in the location and measuring units or procedures of the observatory b) an evaluation of equipment, procedures, and data records from each observatory c) record length (with different criteria for hurricane and non-hurricane winds) d) the required difference of influence between reliable and secondary data Secondary data included: geographical data, wind maximum from border locations in the US an Belize, and hurricane wind maximum calculated for nearby sea locations. See Figure 2.

Figure. 2. Isotach map for Mexico. Maximum wind gusts (3 s) for 200 year return period and type 2 terrain roughness.

6 REVIEW OF CODES OF PRACTICE 6.1 Terrain roughness and obstacles, wind gusts and profiles Terrain types and the corresponding average wind and gust velocity profiles (speed change with height) were updated taking into account recent research and the codes of practice of 10 different countries [25]. For the 1993 revision of the Design Wind Handbook moreover, terrain definitions, wind velocity, turbulence intensity and gust factor variations with height were

adjusted to satisfy the interrelations inherent to the selected dynamic response methodology [26], thus reducing errors intrinsic to empirical estimates when these are obtained from independent sources. 6.2 The wind design manual For different types of structures, static and dynamic procedures for the determination of wind pressures, as well as pressure and force coefficients were updated in the 1993 version of the Handbook. In particular, a sensitivity analysis was made of the parameters involved in the evaluation of dynamic, along wind response of structures [27], on the basis of Davenports methodology [28]. From the results of the sensitivity analysis it was pointed out that along wind dynamic effects on structures can be diminished if the natural frequencies are maintained over 0.5 Hz and the width to height ratio (b/H) as close to unity as possible. Also a strong influence of damping was identify. 6.3 Mexicos City building code In 2002 a revision of the wind design section of Mxico Citys Building Code was initiated which will include: structures of types not previously considered, a general revision of pressure and force coefficients and improvements to the dynamic loading procedure. This revision will consider the city divided into zones with different wind conditions which implies an update and detail analysis of wind data for Mexico City Valley and its surroundings [9-10].

7 SPECIFIC STUDIES FOR TRANSMISSION LINES AND BRIDGES Based on the response factor methodology [29] and considering previously developed procedures [30-31], an update was conducted of the methodology for transmission line wind design for Mexico [32]. This new methodology which included the isotach maps of 1993 was implemented as standard practice in CFE. A specific study [26] concluded that the resonant response factor term for towers had little influence in comparison with cable response. For this reason the methodology update focused on cable related parameters such as along span wind pressure distribution, turbulence intensity variation, upwind terrain characteristics and cable drag coefficients. Another specific study of the statistical analysis of the coincidence of maximum wind speeds and minimum temperatures was carried out [33], producing ice related maximum wind speed isotach maps to be used for a more rational design of transmission structures. Galloping problems have been detected in transmission lines located in the northern part of the country. For this reason, innovative criteria to estimate if one specific T.L. span would be affected by galloping were developed. These criteria considered whether the duration and velocity of sustained winds was enough to permit galloping build-up, through a dynamic model of the cable response. Galloping amplitudes were calculated using an energy based integration, for different initial vibration amplitudes [34]. It was found that local weather conditions can determine the vibration amplitudes build up, from few centimeters to several meters. To prevent galloping problems in other parts of the country, galloping risk maps were generated, based on the weather conditions of the country. During the last 10 years specific studies for bridges have been developed. These studies considered separately the contribution of different kind of winds (e.g.; Nortes, Tropical

Cyclones and Thunderstorm) [11-13]. Also monitoring and instrumentation has been used in important bridges for the new highway connecting Mexico and Acapulco cities as well as construction stage maximum wind speed in the north of the country. For bridges in the Sierra of the state of Durango it was considered additionally the presence of upper level winds measured by radiosondes.

8. CONCLUSION Important efforts have been made in the last 40 years to provide engineers with up-to-date data and design procedures that will reduce the damage due to high winds without incurring in exaggerated costs. These efforts are an important contribution to the development of wind engineering in Mxico, and include some innovations of general application.

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