A savanna, or savannah, is a grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently small or widely spaced so that the canopy

does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of C4 grasses. [1] Some classification systems[which?] also recognize a grassland savanna from which trees are absent.[2] This article deals only with savanna under the common definition of a grassy woodland with a significant woody plant component. It is often believed that savannas feature widely spaced, scattered trees. However, in many savannas, tree densities are higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forest. Savannas are also characterized by seasonal water availability, with the majority of rainfall confined to one season. Savannas are associated with several types of biomes. Savannas are frequently in a transitional zone between forest and desert or prairie. Savanna covers approximately 20% of the Earth's land area. The largest area of savanna is in Africa.

Etymology

San Rafae Gran Sabana, Venezuela. Although the term savanna is believed to have originally come from an Arawak word describing "land which is without trees but with muchgrass either tall or short" (Oviedo y Valdes, 1535), by the late 1800s it was used to mean "land with both grass and trees". It now refers to land with grass and either scattered trees or an open canopy of trees. Spanish explorers familiar with the term "sabana" called the grasslands they found around the Orinoco River "llanos", as well as calling Venezuelan and Colombian grasslands by that specific term. "Cerrado" was used on the higher savannas of the Brazilian Central Plateau.[3] Distribution Many grassy landscapes and mixed communities of trees, shrubs, and grasses were described as savanna before the middle of the 19th century,
1

when the concept of a tropical savanna climate became established. The Kppen climate classification system was strongly influenced by effects of temperature and precipitation upon tree growth, and his oversimplified assumptions resulted in a tropical savanna classification concept which resulted in it being considered as a "climatic climax" formation. The common usage meaning to describe vegetation now conflicts with a simplified yet widespread climatic concept meaning. The divergence has sometimes caused areas such as extensive savannas north and south of theCongo and Amazon Rivers to be excluded from mapped savanna categories.[3] "Barrens" has been used almost interchangeably with savanna in different parts of North America. Sometimes midwestern savanna were described as "grassland with trees". Different authors have defined the lower limits of savanna tree coverage as 5-10% and upper limits range from 25-80% of an area.[4] Two factors common to all savanna environments are rainfall variations from year to year, and dry season wildfires. Savannas around the world are also dominated by tropical grasses which use the C4 type of photosynthesis.[3] In the Americas, e.g. in Belize, Central America, savanna vegetation is similar from Mexico to South America and to the Caribbean.[5] InNorth America nearby trees are of subtropical types, ranging from southwestern Pinyon pine to southeastern Longleaf Pine and northern chestnut oak.[4] Threats Changes in fire management Savannas are subject to regular wildfires and the ecosystem appears to be the result of human use of fire. For example, Native Americans created the Pre-Columbian savannas of North America by periodically burning where fire-resistant plants were the dominant species.[6] Pine barrens in scattered locations from New Jersey to coastal New England are remnants of these savannas. Aboriginal burning appears to have been responsible for the widespread occurrence of savanna in tropical Australia and New Guinea,[7] and savannas in India are a result of human fire use. [8] The maquis shrub savannas of the Mediterranean region were likewise created and maintained by anthropogenic fire.[9]

Prescribed burn; Wisconsin bur oak savanna These fires are usually confined to the herbaceous layer and do little long term damage to mature trees. However, these fires either kill or suppress tree seedlings, thus preventing the establishment of a continuous tree canopy which would prevent further grass growth. Prior to European settlement aboriginal land use practices, including fire, influenced vegetation[10] and may have maintained and modified savanna flora.[1][7] It has been suggested by many authors[10][11] that aboriginal burning created a structurally more open savanna landscape. Aboriginal burning certainly created a habitat mosaic that probably increased biodiversity and changed the structure of woodlands and geographic range of numerous woodland species.[7][10] It has been suggested by many authors[11][12] that with the removal or alteration of traditional burning regimes many savannas are being replaced by forest and shrub thickets with little herbaceous layer. The consumption of herbage by introduced grazers in savanna woodlands has led to a reduction in the amount of fuel available for burning and resulted in fewer and cooler fires.[13] The introduction of exotic pasture legumes has also led to a reduction in the need to burn to produce a flush of green growth because legumes retain high nutrient levels throughout the year, and because fires can have a negative impact on legume populations which causes a reluctance to burn.[14] Grazing and browsing animals

Oak savanna, United States The closed forests types such as broadleaf forests and rainforests are usually not grazed owing to the closed structure precluding grass growth, and hence offering little opportunity for grazing.[15] In contrast the open structure of savannas allows the growth of a herbaceous layer and are commonly used for grazing domestic livestock.[16] As a result much of the world's savannas have undergone change as a result of grazing by sheep, goats and cattle, ranging from changes in pasture composition to woody weed encroachment.[17]

The removal of grass by grazing affects the woody plant component of woodland systems in two major ways. Grasses compete with woody plants for water in the topsoil and removal by grazing reduces this competitive effect, potentially boosting tree growth.[18] In addition to this effect the removal of fuel reduces both the intensity and the frequency of fires which may control woody plant species.[19]Grazing animals can have a more direct effect on woody plants by the browsing of palatable woody species. There is evidence that unpalatable woody plants have increased under grazing in savannas.[20] Grazing also promotes the spread of weeds in savannas by the removal or reduction of the plants which would normally compete with potential weeds and hinder establishment.[10] In addition to this, cattle and horses are implicated in the spread of the seeds of weed species such as Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica) and Stylo (Stylosanthes spp.).[21] Alterations in savanna species composition brought about by grazing can alter ecosystem function, and are exacerbated by overgrazing and poor land management practices. Introduced grazing animals can also affect soil condition through physical compaction and break-up of the soil caused by the hooves of animals and through the erosion effects caused by the removal of protective plant cover. Such effects are most likely to occur on land subjected to repeated and heavy grazing.[22] The effects of overstocking are often worst on soils of low fertility and in low rainfall areas below 500 mm, as most soil nutrients in these areas tend to be concentrated in the surface so any movement of soils can lead to severe degradation. Alteration in soil structure and nutrient levels affects the establishment, growth and survival of plant species and in turn can lead to a change in woodland structure and composition. Tree clearing Large areas of savanna have been cleared of trees, and this clearing is continuing today. For example until recently 480,000 ha of savanna were cleared annually in Australia alone primarily to improve pasture production.[10] Substantial savanna areas have been cleared of woody vegetation and much of the area that remains today is vegetation that has been disturbed by either clearing or thinning at some point in the past. Clearing is carried out by the grazing industry in an attempt to increase the quality and quantity of feed available for stock and to improve the management of livestock. The removal of trees from savanna land removes the competition for water from the grasses present, and can lead to a two to fourfold increase in pasture production, as well as improving the quality of the feed available.[23] Since stock carrying capacity is strongly correlated with herbage yield there can be major financial benefits from the removal of trees.[24] The removal of trees also assists grazing management. For example in sheep grazing regions of dense tree and shrub cover harbours predators, leading to increased stock losses[25] while woody plant cover hinders mustering in both sheep and cattle areas.[26]
4

A number of techniques have been employed to clear or kill woody plants in savannas. Early pastoralists used felling and girdling, the removal of a ring of bark and sapwood, as a means of clearing land.[27] In the 1950s arboricides suitable for stem injection were developed. War-surplus heavy machinery was made available, and these were used for either pushing timber, or for pulling using a chain and ball strung between two machines. These two new methods of timber control, along with the introduction and widespread adoption of several new pasture grasses and legumes promoted a resurgence in tree clearing. The 1980s also saw the release of soil-applied arboricides, notably tebuthiuron, that could be utilised without cutting and injecting each individual tree. In many ways "artificial" clearing, particularly pulling, mimics the effects of fire and, in savannas adapted to regeneration after fire as most Queensland savannas are, there is a similar response to that after fire. [28] Tree clearing in many savanna communities, although causing a dramatic reduction in basal area and canopy cover, often leaves a high percentage of woody plants alive either as seedlings too small to be affected or as plants capable of re-sprouting from lignotubers and broken stumps. A population of woody plants equal to half or more of the original number often remains following pulling of eucalypt communities, even if all the trees over 5 metres are uprooted completely. Exotic plant species A number of exotic plants species have been introduced to the savannas around the world. Amongst the woody plant species are serious environmental weeds such as Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica), Rubbervine (Cryptostegia grandiflora), Mesquite (Prosopis spp.), Lantana (Lantana camara and L. montevidensis) and Prickly Pear (Opuntia spp.) A range of herbaceous species have also been introduced to these woodlands, either deliberately or accidentally including Rhodes grass and other Chloris species, Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), Giant rat's tail grass (Sporobolus pyramidalis) parthenium (Parthenium hysteropherus) and stylos (Stylosanthes spp.) and other legumes. These introductions have the potential to significantly alter the structure and composition of savannas worldwide, and have already done so in many areas through a number of processes including altering the fire regime, increasing grazing pressure, competing with native vegetation and occupying previously vacant ecological niches. Other plant species include: white sage, spotted cactus, cotton seed, rosemary. Climate change There exists the possibility that human induced climate change in the form of the greenhouse effect may result in an alteration of the structure and function of savannas. Some autho]have suggested that savannas and grasslands may become even more susceptible to woody plant encroachment as a result of greenhouse induced climate change. However, a recent case described a savanna increasing its range at the expense of forest in response to climate variation, and potential exists for

similar rapid, dramatic shifts in vegetation distribution as a result of global climate change, particularly at ecotones such as savannas so often represent] THE EQUATORIAL REGION DISTRIBUTION The equatorial, hot, wet climate is found between 5 o north and 10 o south of the equator. Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies. Further away from the equator, the influence of the on-shore trade winds gives rise to a modified type of equatorial climate with monsoonal influences. Within the tropics, the equatorial highlands have a distinctly cooler climate, modified by altitude, examples Jos in Nigeria, Cameroun Highlands in Malaysia, etc. CLIMATE Temperature: the most significant feature of the equatorial climate is its great uniformity of temperature round the year. The mean monthly temperatures are around 27oC (80 oF) with very little variation. There is no winter, cloudiness and heavy rainfall help to moderate the daily temperature, so that even the equator itself cannot be unbearable. Also regular land and sea breezes help in keeping a truly equable climate. The temperature range within the equatorial region are around 2 C (4 F) or less for example Warri (Nigeria) has its hottest Month around 28 C (82 F) and its collest month around 26 C (78 F), therefore having its annual range around 2 C (4 F) Precipitation: precipitation in the equatorial region is heavy, between 60 inches and 106 inches and is well distributed throughout the year. There is no month without rain and there are two periods of maximum rainfall, July and September, which occur shortly after the equinoxes. Least rain falls at the January and December solstices. But this simple pattern may be altered or changed by local conditions. Below is a chart showing the annual precipitation of Ukpo town (Nigeria). Due to the great heat in the equatorial belt, mornings are bright and sunny and there is much evaporation and conventional air currents are set up, followed by heavy downpours of Convectional rain in the afternoons from the towering Cumulonbus cloud. Thunders and lightening often accompany the torrential showers. The amount of rainfall recorded in one afternoon may be as much as the deserts receive for the entire year. NATURAL VEGETATION

Equatorial regions support a luxuriant type of dense vegetation (the tropical rain forest) because of the very heavy rainfall (over 80 inches) and uniformly high temperature (27 C / 80 F). In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense and so complete in its vegetation extravagance. The growing season in equatorial region is not restricted by either drought or cold, planting is down throughout the year.

Temperate Grasslands

Introduction. Temperate grasslands are composed of a rich mix of grasses and forbs and underlain by some of the world's most fertile soils. Since the development of the steel plow most have been converted to agricultural lands. Climate: Semiarid, continental climates of the middle latitudes (Koeppen's BSk climate type) typically have between 10 and 20 inches of precipitation a year. Much of this falls as snow, serving as reservoir of moisture for the beginning of the growing season. Warm to hot summers are experienced, depending on latitude. Vegetation. Perennial grasses and perennial forbs [especially Compositae (or Asteraceae, depending on the taxonomic system used) and Leguminosae--the sunflower and pea families, respectively] are dominant growthforms. Two or more strata of grasses (erect grasses and recumbent species) are recognized in the more humid expressions of the biome. Grasses. Perennial grasses, with their growth buds at or just below the surface, are well-adapted to drought, fire, and cold. The tiller or narrow, upright stem reduces heat-gain in the hot summers; the intricate root systems trap moisture and nutrients. Two basic types are:
o

Turf- or sod-forming grasses, with rhizomes or underground stems from which new plants spring forth; associated with the more humid grasslands Bunch grasses, without rhizomes, that reproduce by seed; associated with the drier parts of the biome.

Major regional expressions.

North America: the prairies of the Central Lowlands and High Plains of the US and Canada. The Palouse Prairie of eastern Washington state, the California grasslands, and the desert grasslands of the Southwest are also temperate grasslands. Eurasia: the steppes from Ukraine eastward through Russia and Mongolia. South America: the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay Africa: the veld in the Republic of South Africa.

Soils. Calcification is the dominant soil-forming process in semiarid regions. Mild leaching, high organic content, and concentration of calcium carbonate in the B horizon typifies the dark brown mollisols developed under the temperate grasslands. When this process works on a loess that itself is rich in calcium, the world's most fertile soils are created, the chernozems (A Russian term meaning black soil). Loess and hence chernozem underlie the eastern prairies of the US, the pampas of South America, and the steppes of Ukraine and Russia. Fauna. The temperate grassland fauna is very low in diversity, especially in comparison with the tropical grasslands or savannas of Africa. In North America the dominant herbivores are bison Bison bison) and pronghorn (the sole member of the Nearctic endemic family, Antilocapridae). Rodent herbivores include the pocket gopher (another Nearctic endemic), ground squirrels, and the prairie dog. Carnivores include coyote (actually an omnivore), badger, and the federally endangered black-footed ferret, the last two members of the weasel family. On the Russian steppes the fauna formerly included wisent (Bison bonasus), tarpan or wild horse, and saiga antelope, among others. Mole rats, fossorial members of one of the two mammal families endemic to the Palearctic, are conspicuous by virtue their many mounds. Polecats and other members of the weasel family are among the larger, extant carnivores. Temperate coniferous forest is a terrestrial biome found in temperate regions of the world with warm summers and cool winters and adequate rainfallto sustain a forest. In most temperate
9

coniferous forests, evergreen conifers predominate, while some are a mix of conifers and broadleaf evergreentrees and/or broadleaf deciduous trees. Temperate evergreen forests are common in the coastal areas of regions that have mild winters and heavy rainfall, or inland in drier climates or mountain areas. Many species of trees inhabit these forests including cedar, cypress, douglasfir, fir, juniper, kauri,pine, podocarpus, spruce, redwood and yew. The understory also contains a wide variety of herbaceous and shrub species.

A pine forest is an example of a temperate coniferous forest Structurally, these forests are rather simple, generally consisting of two layers: an overstory and understory. Some forests may support an intermediate layer of shrubs. Pine forests support an herbaceous understory that is generally dominated by grasses and herbaceous perennials, and are often subject to ecologically important wildfires.

Carpathian montane conifer forest,Slovakia Temperate rain forests occur only in seven regions around the world: the Pacific temperate rain forests of thePacific Northwest, the Valdivian temperate rain forests of southwestern South America, the rain forests ofNew Zealand and Tasmania, northwest Europe (small pockets
10

in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Iceland and a somewhat larger area in Norway), southern Japan, and the eastern Black Sea-Caspian Sea region of Turkeyand Georgia to northern Iran. The moist conditions of temperate rain forests generally support an understory of mosses, ferns and some shrubs. Temperate rain forests can be temperate coniferous forests or temperate broadleaf and mixed forests. The temperate coniferous rain forests sustain the highest levels of biomass in any terrestrial ecosystem and are notable for trees of massive proportions, including Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron gigantea), Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis), Alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides) and Kauri (Agathis australis). These forests are quite rare, occurring in small areas of North America, southwestern South America and northern New Zealand. TheKlamath-Siskiyou forests of northwestern California and southwestern Oregon is known for its rich variety of plant and animal species, including many endemic species

The Coniferous Forest is a forest of Conifers (too much to handle, isn't it?). A Conifer is a tree that produces its seeds in cones. The Pine tree is the most common example. Conifer leaves conserve water with the thick, waxy layer that covers their leaves, also known as needles. The vegitation in the Coniferous forest is small in

11

size, but large enough to feed the vast herbivore population. Most of these animals survive the brutal winters by migrating or hibernating. Average Annual Rainfall- 14-29.5 in. Average Temperatures in the Summer- 57.2F Average Temperatures in the Winter- 14F PLANTS Many softwood trees such as fir, pine, spruce, and hemlock. ANIMALS Most animals are herbivores, however some carnivores and omnivores are thrown in. Animals in Coniferous Forests include the red fox, moose, snowshoe hare, great horned owl, and the crossbill. FUN FACTS The largest Carniferous forest exists in a ring in Alaska, Canada, northern Europe, and northern Asia, in a ring in the Northern Hemisphere. This forest is called the "Taiga". Most of the world's commercial softwood timber, used for paper, comes from the Taiga. Coniferous Forests are the largest land Biome of the World.

THUNDRA REGION In physical geography, tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian from the Kildin [1] Sami word tndr "uplands," "treeless mountain tract." There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra,[2] alpine tundra,[2] and Antarctic tundra.[3] In tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundra. The ecotone (or ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline. Arctic Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt. The word "tundra" usually refers only to the areas where the subsoil is permafrost, or permanently frozen soil. (It may also refer to the treeless plain in general, so that northernSpmi would be included.) Permafrost tundra includes vast areas of northern Russia and Canada. [2] The polar tundra is home to several peoples who are mostly nomadic reindeer herders, such as the Nganasan and Nenets in the permafrost area (and theSami in Spmi).

12

Arctic tundra contains areas of stark landscape and is frozen for much of the year. The soil there is frozen from 2590 cm (9.835.4 inches) down, and it is impossible for trees to grow. Instead, bare and sometimes rocky land can only support low growing plants such as moss, heath (Ericaceae varieties such as crowberry and black bearberry), and lichen. There are two main seasons, winter and summer, in the polar tundra areas. During the winter it is very cold and dark, with the average temperature around 28 C (18 F), sometimes dipping as low as 50 C (58 F). However, extreme cold temperatures on the tundra do not drop as low as those experienced in taiga areas further south (for example, Russia's and Canada's lowest temperatures were recorded in locations south of the tree line). During the summer, temperatures rise somewhat, and the top layer of the permafrost melts, leaving the ground very soggy. The tundra is covered in marshes, lakes, bogs and streams during the warm months. Generally daytime temperatures during the summer rise to about 12 C (54 F) but can often drop to 3 C (37 F) or even below freezing. Arctic tundras are sometimes the subject of habitat conservation programs. In Canada and Russia, many of these areas are protected through a national Biodiversity Action Plan.

Tundra in Alaska The tundra is a very windy area, with winds often blowing upwards of 48 97 km/h (3060 miles an hour). However, in terms of precipitation, it is desert-like, with only about 1525 cm (610 inches) falling per year (the summer is typically the season of maximum precipitation). Although precipitation is light, evaporation is also relatively minimal. During the summer, the permafrost thaws just enough to let plants grow and reproduce, but because the ground below this is frozen, the water cannot sink any lower, and so the water forms the lakes and marshes found during the summer months. There is a natural pattern of accumulation of fuel and wildfire which varies depending on the nature of vegetation and terrain. Research in Alaska has shown fire-event return intervals, (FRIs) that typically vary from 150 to 200 years with dryer lowland areas burning more frequently than wetter highland areas.[4] The biodiversity of the tundras is low: 1,700 species of vascular plants and only 48 land mammals can be found, although millions of birds migrate
13

there each year for the marshes.[5] There are also a few fish species such as the flatfish. There are few species with large populations. Notable animals in the Arctic tundra include caribou (reindeer), musk ox, arctic hare, arctic fox, snowy owl, lemmings, and polar bears (only the extreme north).[6] Tundra is largely devoid of poikilotherms such as frogs or lizards. Due to the harsh climate of the Arctic tundra, regions of this kind have seen little human activity, even though they are sometimes rich in natural resources such as oil and uranium. In recent times this has begun to change in Alaska, Russia, and some other parts of the world. Relationship with global warming A severe threat to the tundras, specifically to the permafrost, is global warming. The melting of the permafrost in a given area on human time scales (decades or centuries) could radically change which species can survive there.[7] Another concern is that about one third of the world's soil-bound carbon is in taiga and tundra areas. When the permafrost melts, it releases carbon in the form of carbon dioxide andmethane,[8] both of which are greenhouse gases. The effect has been observed in Alaska. In the 1970s the tundra was a carbon sink, but today, it is a carbon source. [9] Methane is produced when vegetation decays in lakes and wetlands.[10] The amount of greenhouse gases which will be released under projected scenarios for global warming have not been reliably quantified by scientific studies, although a few studies were reported to be underway in 2011. It is uncertain whether the impact of increased greenhouse gases from this source will be minimal or massive.[10] In locations where dead vegetation and peat has accumulated there is a risk of wildfire such as the 1,039 square kilometres (401 sq mi) of tundra which burned in 2007 on the north slope of the Brooks range. [10] Such events may both result from and contribute to global warming.[11] Antarctic

Tundra on the Pninsule Rallier du Baty, Kerguelen Islands.

14

Antarctic tundra occurs on Antarctica and on several Antarctic and subantarctic islands, including South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and the Kerguelen Islands. Most of Antarctica is too cold and dry to support vegetation, and most of the continent is covered by ice fields. However, some portions of the continent, particularly the Antarctic Peninsula, have areas of rocky soil that support plant life. The flora presently consists of around 300400 lichens, 100 mosses, 25 liverworts, and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algae species, which live on the areas of exposed rock and soil around the shore of the continent. Antarctica's two flowering plant species, the Antarctic hair grass(Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis), are found on the northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula.[12] In contrast with the Arctic tundra, the Antarctic tundra lacks a large mammal fauna, mostly due to its physical isolation from the other continents. Sea mammals and sea birds, including seals and penguins, inhabit areas near the shore, and some small mammals, like rabbitsand cats, have been introduced by humans to some of the subantarctic islands. The Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion includes the Bounty Islands, Auckland Islands, Antipodes Islands, the Campbell Island group, and Macquarie Island.[13] Species endemic to this ecoregion include Nematoceras dienemum and Nematoceras sulcatum, the only Subantarctic orchids; the royal penguin; and the Antipodean albatross.[13] The flora and fauna of Antarctica and the Antarctic Islands (south of 60 south latitude) are protected by the Antarctic Treaty.[14] Alpine

Hikers traversing the Franconia Ridge in the White Mountains, New Hampshire, United States, much of which is in the alpine zone. Main article: Alpine tundra Alpine tundra does not contain trees because it is at high altitude. Alpine tundra is distinguished from arctic tundra in that alpine tundra typically
15

does not have permafrost, and alpine soils are generally better drained than arctic soils. Alpine tundra transitions to subalpine forests below the tree line; stunted forests occurring at the forest-tundra ecotone are known as Krummholz. Alpine tundra occurs in mountains worldwide. The flora of the alpine tundra is characterized by dwarf shrubs close to the ground. The cold climate of the alpine tundra is caused by the low air pressure, and is similar to polar climate. Climatic classification

Tundra region with Kongsfjorden, Spitsbergen.

fjords,

glaciers

and

mountains.

Tundra climates ordinarily fit the Kppen climate classification ET, signifying a local climate in which at least one month has an average temperature high enough to melt snow (0C or 32F), but no month with an average temperature in excess of (10C/50F). The cold limit generally meets theEF climates of permanent ice and snows; the warm-summer limit generally corresponds with the poleward or altitudinal limit of trees, where they grade into the subarctic climates designated Dfd and Dwd (extreme winters as in parts of Siberia), Dfc typical in Alaska, Canada,European Russia, and Western Siberia (cold winters with months of freezing), or even Cfc (no month colder than -3C as in parts of Iceland and southernmost South America). Tundra climates as a rule are hostile to woody vegetation even where the winters are comparatively mild by polar standards, as in Iceland. Despite the potential diversity of climates in the ET category involving precipitation, extreme temperatures, and relative wet and dry seasons, this category is rarely subdivided. Rainfall and snowfall are generally slight due to the low vapor pressure of water in the chilly atmosphere, but as a rule potential evapotranspiration is extremely low, allowing soggy terrain of swamps and bogs even in places that get precipitation typical of deserts of lower and middle latitudes. The amount of native tundra

16

biomass depends more on the local temperature than the amount of precipitation. Economy Human economic activity has been scarce on tundras. Hunting, trapping and reindeer have provided food and hides to the local population. Occasional mineral resources, such as fossil fuel and ores occasionally appear in tundras. Difficultues of prospecting, mining and transportation have held back exploitation of these resources until modern tim DROUGHT Drought is a feature of climate that is defined as a period of belowaverage rainfall sufficiently long and intense to result in serious environmental and socioeconomic stresses, such as crop failures and water shortages, in the affected area. Droughts can occur in any climatic region, but their characteristics vary considerably among regions. What droughts in all climatic regions have in common is their gradual onset, whichin contrast to other natural hazardsmakes their beginning and end difficult to identify. Defined primarily as natural phenomena, droughts have not received much attention in the social sciences. Only since the 1990s, with the increasing appreciation of the linkages between the environment and society, have droughts begun to be viewed as an issue of interest also for the social sciences. Drought is caused by the sinking motion of air in a high-pressure cell, which results in decreasing relative humidity of the air and little or no precipitation. Most climatic regions are temporarily under the influence of high pressure; droughts occur only when atmospheric circulation patterns that cause the high pressure persist or recur persistently over an unusually long period of time. Because of the global nature of atmospheric circulation, explanations for anomalous circulation patterns extend far beyond the drought-affected area. Thus global patterns of atmospheric pressure systems and sea surface temperatures have been invoked to explain the occurrence of periodically recurring drought events in some parts of the globe. Most prominent among those global patterns is the El Nio Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a coupled ocean-atmosphere anomaly that originates in the Pacific basin but has repercussions on the climatic conditions in areas as far apart as southern Africa, India, and Brazil. Anthropogenic processes that lead to changes in land cover, such as deforestation and overgrazing, affect local-scale moisture recycling and can induce local reductions in rainfall. Although simulation models have shown the possibility of substantial reductions in rainfall resulting from land-cover change, anthropogenic disturbances large enough to explain more than local-scale reductions in rainfall have not been observed. TYPES OF DROUGHT

17

The effects of drought on environment, economy, and society are manifold. In order of the increasing severity and scope of their impacts, four types of drought are commonly distinguished: A meteorological droughtmanifests itself in a shortfall of precipitation or changes in precipitation intensity and timing, possibly aggravated by other climatic factors, such as high temperatures and winds. Risks associated with this type of drought include wildfire hazard and reduced water infiltration into the soil. If the drought persists long enough to result in significant soil water deficits and plant water stress, it crosses the threshold into anagricultural drought. Lower crop yields and quality, as well as increased soil erosion and dust emission, are possible impacts expected from this type of drought. Because various crops differ in their water demand, a farmers choice of crop type can either buffer or exacerbate the effects of an agricultural drought. A drought is classified as a hydrological drought once the precipitation shortfall affects surface and subsurface water supplies. Hydrological droughts usually lag behind the occurrence of meteorological droughts because of the time needed for precipitation deficits to reach the surface and groundwater levels of the water cycle. Their impacts, which consequently are also out of phase with those of a meteorological and agricultural drought, include reduced stream flow, below-normal reservoir and lake levels, loss of wetlands, and declining water quality. Although climate is the primary factor of a hydrological drought, humans contribute to its effects by changes in land and water use, such as urbanization and the construction of dams. Finally, a socioeconomic drought occurs when the supply of economic goods and services, including water, forage, food, and hydroelectric power, can no longer be met for drought-related causes. Farmers and ranchers, who depend on agricultural and pasture productivity, are the first to suffer losses. Then follow industries depending on agricultural production. As a result, consumers may have to pay more for their food and other weather-sensitive products and services. The socioeconomic effects of a drought vary not only in proportion to the severity of the climatological event but also depending on the vulnerability of the affected population. Monetary costs arise for any economy hit by drought, such as to cover for lost crops, crop insurance payouts, and fire damage; but only in the most vulnerable populations of the developing world are drought effectsfood insecurity, famine, health problems, and loss of life and livelihoodsoften paired with economic, social, and political difficulties. Subsistence farmers and pastoralists in particular suffer from crop and livestock losses, as well as from increased food prices. Droughts force many of them to migrate from rural to urban areas, increasing pressure on resources there. COPING WITH DROUGHT

18

Scientists and decision-makers have devised a number of ways to deal with drought, which can be grouped into drought monitoring, forecasting, and mitigation. Meteorologists around the world carefully monitor meteorological and hydrological variables (precipitation patterns, soil moisture, stream flow) over time to determine the onset and end of a drought. Satellite remote sensing technology has contributed immensely to quantitative monitoring over large geographic areas. Understanding the complex physical aspects leading to droughts is a prerequisite for making increasingly reliable and credible drought predictions. Empirical studies have shown that drought results from a complex interplay of different climatological factors, which makes forecasting difficult. In the tropics, where scientists have made significant advances in understanding the climate system, the potential for seasonal drought predictions is promising, particularly with respect to droughts related to ENSO. Multiyear droughts as well as droughts outside the tropics still cannot be predicted with a level of accuracy that is without risk for the users of those predictions. Knowing the frequency, duration, and spatial extent of past droughts, however, helps in determining the likelihood and potential severity of future droughts. In addition to the assessment of meteorological processes, drought mitigation also requires an understanding of the vulnerabilities of different population groups to drought. Mitigation tools range from early warning systems, which monitor both meteorological conditions and vulnerable populations (e.g., the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, operating in Africa, Central America, and Afghanistan), to various forms of weatherrelated crop insurance schemes (e.g., in the United States and Australia among others), emergency water supply augmentation (e.g., tapping new water resources), and water demand reduction (e.g., by means of economic incentives for water conservation, improvement of water use efficiencies, breeding for drought tolerance, diversification to less weather-dependent economic activities, and public water conservation awareness programs). As droughts are expected to become more frequent and more extreme with global warming, it is imperative to improve drought mitigation efforts and increase future drought preparedness. FLOOD A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. [1] The European Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water.[2] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries.[3] While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood unless such escapes of water endanger land areas used by man like a village, city or other inhabited area.
19

Floods can also occur in rivers, when flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are placed in natural flood plains of rivers. While flood damage can be virtually eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, since time out of mind, people have lived and worked by the water to seek sustenance and capitalize on the gains of cheap and easy travel and commerce by being near water. That humans continue to inhabit areas threatened by flood damage is evidence that the perceived value of living near the water exceeds the cost of repeated periodic flooding. The word "flood" comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float; also compare with Latin fluctus, flumen). Deluge myths are mythical stories of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution, and are featured in the mythology of many cultures. Below is a list of the deadliest floods worldwide, showing events with death tolls at or above 100,000 individuals. Death toll Event Location Date 2,500,000 3,700,000[21] 900,000 2,000,000 500,000 700,000 1931 China floods China 1931 1887 1938

1887 Yellow River (Huang China He) flood 1938 Yellow River (Huang China He) flood Banqiao Dam failure, result of Typhoon Nina. Approximately 86,000 China people died from flooding and another 145,000 died during subsequent disease. Indian Ocean tsunami 1935 Yangtze river flood Hanoi and Red Delta flood River Indonesia China

231,000

1975

230,000 145,000 100,000+ 100,000 100,000

2004 1935 1530

St. Felix's Flood, storm surge Netherlands

North Vietnam 1971 China 1911

1911 Yangtze river flood

20

21

22

How does Shakespeare present the two different worlds of Court life and the rural idyll of the 'Golden Age' in As You Like It? As You Like It is a pastoral piece of literature and this form of literature thrives on the contrast between life in the city and life in the country. Typically, it suggests that the oppression from the Court can be remedied by a trip into the country's therapeutic woods which in this case refers to the Forest of Arden and that a person's sense of balance and rightness can be restored by the uncorrupted shepherds and shepherdesses. This restored rightness enables one to return to the Court a better person. In this play the character of whom this affects is Oliver de Boys Although Shakespeare tests the bounds of these conventions, the shepherdess Audrey as an example, is neither articulate nor pure. He begins As You Like It by establishing the city/country dichotomy on which the pastoral mood depends. The play ends with Shakespeare reminding us that life in the country is solely a temporary affair. I have gathered this because as the characters prepare to return to life at court, they do not rank the country over Court or vice versa, but instead they suggest a delicate balance between the two as too much of one thing is seen as being negative. They give the impression that the simplicity of the forest provides shelter from the strains of Court life, but they also display the need for Court and the sophistication it brings. Life in the Court, and life in the country. These were two very different things during the 'Golden Age.' The 'Golden Age' is represented by the world of the country, but not the Court. It is the classical time of pastoral perfection where there was no natural decay, no passing of seasons, the world seemed timeless and was peopled by shepherds and shepherdesses along with their sheep. It has also been compared to The Garden of Eden in the Bible, hence, showing its idyllic qualities before 'Man' sinned. Life in the Court however was completely different in contrast. Life in the Court was a place of corruption and, sometimes anarchy as shown by the usurption of Duke Seniors throne by his younger brother Duke Frederick. Usurption of a throne shows a total disregard for all laws and therefore, can make people feel as though they

one of the major themes of As You Like It is the contrast between country and court life with debates focussing on different points of view.

the first of these comes when duke senior describes how, at Arden, he could see 'toungues in trees", "sermons in stones" and had no enemy except the harshness of the elements of nature- "churlish chiding of the winter's wind". the pastoral existence was devoid of the "painted pomp" back at court which shows the carefree, pleasurable lifestyle that the duke
23

was enjoying in Arden in contrast to the constant public haunt that he had to go through prior to his banishment. the words are romanticized and the mood is set for the rest of the play. Despite some natural perils, there was 'good in everything'. this tilts the argument in favor of pastoral existence. Shakespeare highlights the educational, edifying and enlightening nature of this foray into the woods.

The argument between Touchstone and corin is also crucial in this regard and although touchstone wins over and Corin chooses to back out, it is obvious that Touchstone's points of argument are merely farcical and domineering whereas Corin's simple but logical rationale leaves more of an impact. Even Corin's admission of defeat does not mean that courtly manners are superior in fact it only showcases Corins sensibility in acknowledging that both of these co-exist and there are some acceptable norms at court which may seem ridiculous in the forest while some forest customs could prove to be inappropriate for the city. Shakespeare also balances his showcasing of the advantages of pastoral verve by presenting some of its negative aspects and its ignorance for instance, the hauteur of the shepherdess Pheobe, Silvius blind and stupid affections and his unrealistic speech in verse.

24