It is a instrument used to photograph the path of the ionizing particles and electromagnetic radiations, capable of producing ionization in gas

through which they pass. Construction: The Wilson Cloud Chamber consists of a closed chamber with glass top and moveable piston at tis bottom. A liquid which ahs low boiling point such as alcohol in placed in the chamber. The space above alcohol becomes saturated by its vapours. Two mica windows are provided on both sides of the chambers. A strong source of light is used to illuminate the chamber through one window while the particle ot be detected is sent through another window into the chamber. A camera is used to take the photograph of the path of ionizing particle passing through the vapours. Working: The piston is suddenly pulled down so that the vapours in the chamber are called a diabatically. The space which has saturated with vapours now becomes super saturated. Exactly at this tie, the particle to be detected is sent into the chamber. The particles produces negative and positive ions due to ionization of vapour, all along its path and tiny fog droplet condenses on each ion. This path can be photograph in presence of strong light. Tracks of ionizing particles: i) A. The a-particles are highly ionizing so they leave dense thick and continuous tracks. ii) The B-paricles are less ionizing, therefore ,they give thick and discontinuous tracks. \ iii) x-rays produce ionizing by photo electric effect distributed over a wide space. Someo f the ihghh energy photo electrons ejected by them give tiny line tracksin random directions. When a magnetic field is applied at the chamber eprpent dicular to the path of the particle sthen the particles are deflected from their original direction .by knowing the energy of the particle and measuring the rdius of curvature of the path, the charge to mass raio of the ionizing particle can be determined. By this method, a number of particles have been discovered. Geiger Counter: It is a deivce used to determine the ionizing power of the particles and hence to detect different types of radiations. Construction: It consists of a hollow thin walled metallic tube, one end of which is enclosed by an electric insulator through which a thin wire passes and ins held along the axis of the tube. This wire acts

as anode. The other end of tube is covered with a thin sheet of mica through which particles can enter into the tube. The metallic tube acts as cathode. A mixture of argon and alcohol is filled in the tube at a pressure of 50 to 100 mm of mercury. A strong electric field is produced by applying 1000 volts of potential difference between the tube and the anode wire through a series resistance R of about 109 ohms. Working: When an ionizing particle enters the tube through mica window, it produces ions and electrons . the electrons are accelerated by electric field towards wire anode and produce further ionization in the gas molecules. The positive ions move towards walls of the tube. This causes a current to flow through the tube and resister R. thus a Potential difference across R is developed which sis then amplified and recorded by a counter connected to R. Once a discharge passes, the counter becomes now conducting and readyt to record another particle. In this way, the number of counts registered by the counter measures the intensity or the ionizing power of the incident radiation. WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER: C.T.R. Wilson developed a condensation chamber for detecting and measuring moving charges paricles. Principle: A chamber contains a supersaturated vapours in a dust free atmosphere. When radiation passes through the chamber, a string of ions is formed. These serve as condensation nuclei and the sup0ersaturated vapours are condensed on them, so that the path shows up as a vapour trail. Construction: Wilson cloud chamber is a funnel shapped transparent vessel. It consists of : 1) A chamber: A closed (air-tight) chamber that contains a moveable piston at tis bottom and a glass top. It also contains windows for light and nuclear particles on each side. The chamber is well insulated. 2) Liquid: A mixture of alcohol (low b.p.) and water vapour is used. 3) Camera: A camera is used to take photographo fthe tracks o fthe particles. Working: The cloud chamber is filled with a mixture of alcohol and water. The air chamber formed between the moveable piston and a glass top contains saturated vapours. If the volume of chamber is increased (to about 1.38 times its original volume) suddenly moving the piston downwards, the adiabatic expansion causes cooling. The already saturated

vapours now becomes super-saturated, because the air now contains more vapours than is necessary for saturation at this temperature. If an ionizing particle enters the chamber immediately after the expansion, the ions left in its path act as condensation nuclei. Hence a close array of fine droplets (or track) is formed,. The track is the path taken by a particle. It appears like a white line on a black background. The tracks can be photo graphed. The length of the track is a measure of the penetrating power and whereas the thickness of the track is a measure of ionizing power of the incident radiation. Different particles produce different types of tracks. i) A-particle produce short, broad dense, and continuous tracks. ii) B-particles produce thin, tortuous (zig-zag) and discontinuous tracks. iii) Y-rays produce no ionization. But when y-rays pass through the chamber, they produce photo electrons. These particles produce irregular and beaded paths. A strong electric field inside the chamber removes the ions ( and hence the consdensed vapours) soon after they are formed. The piston is also returned to its original position. Thus the chamber is ready to register the next event Uses: Cloud chamber have been used: 1. For measuring the range and energy of particles, 2. To determine the sign of charge, 3. To determine the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of particles, 4. To distinguish particles by determining its specific ionization, 5. For studying collisions between particles, 6. For studying disintegration and nuclear reactions. Draw backs: i) It is not continuously sensitive ii) It has a relatively large recovery time. Importance: Cloud chamber has helped to discover many new particles. Improvement: The most recent form is the Bubble Chamber. In it, bubbles are formed on the ions as the particle passes through the superheated liquid (e.g.liquid hydrogen) This instrument was invented by D.M. Glaser in 1952. In 1959, spark chambers was developed computers are being used to expedite the process of analyzing millions of track photographs each year by the bubble chamber and the spark chamber.

GEIGER MULLER COUNTER: G.M. Counter is a very efficient device for counting individual particles and detecting nuclear radiations (a, B or y-rays). It was discovered by Gieger & Muller in 1928 in Germany. Construction: 1) A metal tube of Alumimium or copper. (It is 5-100 cm long and 1-5cm in diameter). One end of the tube is closed by an insulator. The other end is covfered with a thin foil of mica. It serves as an entrance window for particles. 2) A thin wire of tungsten. It lies along the axis of the metal cylinder (tue) it passes through the insulated end. It services as anode. 3) A mixture of Argon (90%) and alcohol (or halogen) gas (10%). It is filed at low pressure (5 to 10cm of Hg). 4) Potential difference of 600V to 1000V is applied across the metal cylinder and anode wire. 5) A high resistor of the order of 109 is applied across the metal cylinder and anode wire. 6) Amplifier: It amplifies small pulses of current. 7) Recorder: It is a scaler / rate meter / counter / laudspeaker to register particles. Geiger counter is a special type of ionization chamber. It is a based on the phenomenon of production f ions by the incident radiations. An avalanche of electrons, that reaches the anode, produces a current pulse whiochis recorded. Working: When an ionizing particle (a or B particle) enters the tube through the window, it ionizes the gaseous mixture. A few electrons and ions ar e produced. These positive and negative ions travel thourgh the tube towards the electrodes. The accelerated ions suffer collisions with the gas molecules. They produce further ionization. If voltage (V) is abogve the break down potential for the gas, the number of ions are multiplied enormously. The ions are accelerated towards their respective electrode. They collide wi the gas molecules. Thus an avalanche of electron ion pairs is produced. This gives rise to sa sudden discharge in the tubte. The, ktherefore, becomes conducting. The resulting current pulse is passes to a resistor proes a voltage pulse( 10 ) This pulse is aplised (upto 50V) and is fed to: i) ii) A loudspeaker to produce a loud click or A saler which give sa record of the total number of pulses reveived or a ratemeter which indicates the number of counts er second received (i.e. it measures the rate of the incident radiations). The argon-alcohol mixture not only provides large number of ion pairs but is used to quench the discharge quickly [by makingit non-conducting aftr registering the pulse for a certain time (called dead time). Alcohol is a quenching agent because its vapoours

absorb the energy of positive ions before they can acse secondary electron emission (since its ionization energy is 11.3 eV which is 4.4. eV lower than that of argon. Recording: Ionizing article are recorded. The y-rays, when strike the metal tube, ejects electrons (photo electric emission) and trigger the counter. The number of counts registered by the counter measures the intensity or ionizing power of the incident radiation. Advantage: It is sensitive to counting of electrons and y-rays. Disadvantage: i) It cannot distinguish among the particles. ii) It cannot measure energies of the incident particles. iii) It is not suitable for fast counting. Improvements: Geiger counter is less sensitive and gamma rays are difficult ot detect hence scintillation detectors are used. Uses: i) It is used to detect radioactivity. ii) It helps to measure intensityof radiation. iii) It has been used to investigate cosmic ray showers. Solid state detectors: It is a device that makes use of solid state semi-conductor diode to detect nuclear particles. Principle: When an energetic ionizing particle passes through a reverse biased PN Junction a reverse current pulse passes through the junction . this can be deected. Construction: 1) A semi conductor diode: the back of the detector consists of a thick layer of P-type material connected to the ve terminal of a battery. The front surface ism ade of thicn layer of N-type of material over which a very thin layer of Godl is coated. It serves as a +ve electrode. 2) A battery of low voltage .a diode is reverse biased with it. 3) A high resistor ( ) is connected in series with th ediode and the batter 4) Amplifier: it amplifies small pulses of current. 5) Recorder: A scaler or counter or laouspeaker is used to register particles.

Working: When a PN Junction is reverse biased, the thickness of the depletion layer (which has high resistance) increases. When an ionizing particle falls on the N-type side, it is absorbed in the depletion region (charge free region). Thus more electron hole pairs are created. These charges carries move under the influence of biasing potential. The electrons move towards the positive side of the battery and the holes are swept towards the negative side of the battery. The arrival of these charges at the two lasers produce a potential drop across the junction. This results in a current pulse of small magnitude and extremely short duration (of the order of a nanosecond). The current pulse is fed ot an amplifier. The amplified pulse is applied to a counter to register the partied. Advantages: 1. It is more accurate and efficient than the G.M.Counter. 2. No high voltage is used Hence no precaution of earthing for safety is required. 3. It gives a better chance of detecting weakly ionizing particles. 4. The size and cost of the detector is very much reduced. 5. It is suitable for fast counting. 6. It is utilized for measuring the energy distributionof the radiation. Disadvantages. It can detect particles having energy only a few electron volts. Importance: Solid state detectors can detect and B particles. A aspeciallly designed detector andn an amplifier can be used for y-rays. It is used in nuclear spectroscopy. X-rays (x-rays spectra) X-rays are electromagnetic radiations having short wave length range usually from 0.1 nm to 1nm which correcponded to photons of energies from 1kev to 100kev. x-rays were discovered by Roentgen in 1895. Production of x-rays: The apparatus used for the production fo x-rays consist of: i) A source of electrons: Direcetly heated cathode or a filament emits electrons. ii) An evacuated tube: An evacuated metallica or glass tube is used to accelerate the electrons. iii) A Target: A metallic target acts as anode on which the electrons srike to produce x-rays.

iv)

v)

Source of Potential differenece: A battery ( or a transformer from a.c.) of high potential difference is connected between cathode and anode. Photographic Plates: Photographic plate is used to obtain the specttttrum of xrays

The filament or directly heated cathode emits electrons by their mionic emission. The electrons are accelerated towards the metallic target (anode ) by the potential difference V supplied by the source of voltage, x-rays areproduced a few electrons lose their energy in the first collision with the target this gives the x-rays of minimum wavelenghth maximum frequnency max i.e. photons of maximum energy hVmax. K.E. of electron = K.e. = Energy of Photon hVmax

Kinetic energy of electron acquireees when it is ccelrated through a potential difference V is given by K.E=Veii Where e is the harge of electron. Comparing (1) and ii, we get

When electrons lose their energy in an number of collision then this gives rise of x-rays of larger wave length or smaller frequency. Properties of x-rays. 1. They are electromagnetic waves of very short wave length. 2. They arre not deflected by electric or magnetic fields, therefore, they are electrically neutral. 3. They travel in straight lines with speed of light. 4. They are highlyll penetrating. 5. They effect a photographic plate. 6. They are diffracted by crystals and they can produce photoelectric emission.

X-rays Spectra: The spectral analysis of x-rays shows that: 1) There is always a continuous spectrum (the x-ray bremstranlung) 2) And under certain conditions, there is in addition a line spectrum (the charaaacteristics spectrum). X-rays continuous spectra or x-ray Bresstranlung. Usually, a continuous spectrm of frequneces of x-rays is emitted. The study of continuous spectrum of x-rays shows that 1) The minimum wavelength (maximum frequency v max) is directly proportional to the accelerating potential difference v between the electrodes. 2) The minimum wave length (maximum frequency is dependent of nature of electrodes. Explanation of formation of continuous spectrum; i) From Classical Electromagnetic wave theory. According to classical electromagnetic theory when an electron is accelerated, it radiates out energy thus when electrons pass close to the nucleus, they are deflected and showed slowed down. Hence they emit electromagnetic radiation of all wave length called x-rays 2. From quantum theory:

According to quantum theory, when electrons suffer a number of collision with the atoms of target then their kinetic energy breaks on each incident which gives rise a quantum of light . As a result photons of all wave-lengths are emitted, hence continuous spectrum forms. Characteristics of x-rays spectra: X-rays consists of continuous spectrum upon which is super imposed a line speectrm. The oline spectrum is the characteristic of target i.e. anode. Explanation of formation of characteristic Spectra: The characteristic spectra i.e. line spectra in x-ray, can be explained from the principle of inner shell transitions. In the atoms,the electrons are distributed in different shells around the nucleus.These shells are labeled as K,L,M,N etc. The K-shell being closest to the nucleus, the L-shell next and so on. When the target (anode) is bombarded with a high energy electron from the cathode then it will remove the electrons of K-shell from an atom of the target which creats a vacancy in the

K-shell. This vacancy is filled by the transition of electron from L-shell to K-shell giving rise to characteristics x-ray called K-line. If the electron of the M and N shells fill the vacancy of Kshell, then the characteristics x-rays emitted are called K line and Kr line respecteivley. A series of lines is called K-series. When the accelerated electrons from the cathode knowck out the electron from the L-shell of the target atom creating vacancy in the L-shell. This vacancy is filled by the transitions of electrons from M, N O shells etc. we get L-series the first line of this series is L next is Lp and so on. The Laser: The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by stimulate emission of radiation. The laser is a device for produing a very narrow intense beam of coherent light by stimulated emission. Suppose an atom is excited to a state E2 by some means If a photon a energy equal to energy difference ( ) is incident on the excited atom, then the incident photon increased the probability that the electron in the excited atom will return to state E1 by emitting as a second photon having the same energy and exactly in phase with incident photon. These photons in their turn stimulate other atoms to emit photons ina chain of similar events.) 18.6 Laser The word laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation. Laser is a device for producing a very narrow intense beam of monochromatic coherent light. It possesses following special characteristics: i) It is highly monochromatic, i.e. consists of one wavelength only. ii) It is remarkably coherent, i.e.. all parts of the beams are in phase. iii) It is well collimated, i.e. all parts travel in the same direction iv) It is sharply focused, i.e. the long wave trains are extremely intense. 18.7 THE LASER PRINCIPLE The Laser is a light amplification of the stimulated emission process (which was first presented by Einstein in 1917). Theinteraction between matter and radiation involve three processs: abosrptin, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.

When a photon of energy is incident on an excited electron in a metastable (temporarily stable) state, the system is driven to its ground state with the emission of a second photon of the same energy , phase, direciotn and state of polarization. These two photons can cause another stimulated event, given a total of four photons which can cause additional stimulated emission, and so on. This chain reaction of similarly processes produce amplification. This produces laser. 18.8 THE LASER OPERATION: A laser beam can be obtained if all the atoms could be persuaded (or stimulated) to emit their waves together inphase. The Laser action (or lasing) involves. 1) Metastable state _____________this requires a lasing material. 2) Population inversion ______________ this is achieved by optical pumping. 3) Stimulated emission____________ this requires a triggering photon that produces two photons and so on. 4) Amplification _______________ this results due to a chain reactionof similar processes. 1) Metastable State: Normally an atom remains in an excited state only for a life time fo the order of . -3 however, certain excited states persist for a longer period of time, upto 10 s or even more. Such states are kknow as metastable state. In this state the transitions (i.e. deexcitations) take place by stimulated emission dn not by spontanueous emission. But this requires population inversion. 2) Population Inversion: Consider a lasing material that comprises a three level system for example chromium ions accounts for the lasing ability fo ruby crystal.

The rate of excitation of the atom is proportional to : i) The number of atoms available for excitation in the lower energy state, ii) The energy density of the incident radiation.

This results in an increased number of aaatoms in the state E2. (N2) as compared to the number in E1 (N1) Hence N2>N1. Thus population inversion is achieved. In the situation of inverted energy distribution, there will be emission of power instead of absorption. This is the basis of laser operation. a) Stimulated Emission: Let an electron be already in an excited state (E2) and a photon of energy hv (i.e. E2, E1 is incident) on it. This incident photon increased the probability that the electron will return to the ground state (E1) by emitting a second photon having the same energy (E2-E1), phasediretio and state of polarization. This process is called Stimulated emission or induced emission. If population inversion has already been achieved, then there will be more emission than absoprion of photons. 4. Amplification: The process of stimulated emission is enhanced by using mirrors at the end of the assembly of lasing material. The emitted photons move back and forth and thus suffer multiple reflections. They continue stimulating other atoms to emit photons. As the process continues, the number of photons are multiplied. This chain reaction of similar processes is called amplification.l the resulting radiation is much more intense and highly coherent. 18.9 WORKING OF LASER: RUBE LASER The first successful operation of Laser was achieved by T.H. Maiman in 1960 using ruby crystals. Construction: Ruby is crystal of aluminium oxide in which a few (1 to 3500) of the aluminium atoms are replaced by chromium atoms. The chromium absorbs green and yellow but transmits only red and blue light and acts as the lasing material. Ruby rod is generally 5cm long and 1 cm in diameter. The ruby rod is surrounded by a helical flash lamp of quartz containing Xenon. Thish provies pumping energy (yellow-green light). The lamp is connected to ahigh voltage. The ends of the rod are provided by two concave mirrors with their focal points nearly coinciding athte centre of the tube. One mirror (M1) is totally reflecting while the other mirror (M2) is.

(partial transmission) to form the useful beam (red laser light). The Ruby rod is cooled using liquid nitrogen as coolant. Working The flash tube provides necessary pumping energy. The chromium atoms absorb energy and are excited. The laser action begins. This results in the emission of a cascade of photons frojm the metal-stable under stimulate emission. Their amplification produces a powerful coherent beam of red light of wavelength 6943Ao. The output of a ruby laser is of the order of 20kW in milli second pulses. They are used for range finding, welding drilling and microcircuit fabrication. KINDS OF LASER Different types of laser are used according to wavelength and power level which range from milli watts to megawatts. 1. Solid Laser. Certain crystals (e.g. ruby, calcium fluoride-samarium, YAG, or semi-conductor (GaAs) are used as active substances for solid lasers. The semi-conductor laser (of the size of a pin head) has advantage of its smallness, stability and high power put. They are used in optical fibre communication systems. The large laser (of the size of a large building are used of fusion research with an immense power output of 1014 2. Liquid Laser: It makes use of a dye dissolved in methanol as active material for laser action. It can be operated at room temperature. 3. Gas Laser: Helium-Neon and carbon dioxide gas lasers are widely used. It gives a continuous operation. They are used in precision measurement of length, surveying, printing and holography. MASER & LASSER MASER stands for Microwave (or Molecular) Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Maser is a modified form of laser that uses microwaves instead of visible light. The operating frequency of laser is (visible region) Hence Laser is also called Optical Maser.

Maser was developed in 1953. Towns and Schawlow worked out the principle of Laser and it was constructed in 1960. 18.10 APPLICATIONS Laser has got widespread applications. (1) Medicine & Surgery: Laser is used in removing tumours and breaking stones in kidney and gall bladder. It is used as micro-surgical tool in welding detached retina and unclogging of diseased artery. 2) Industry It is used for precision cutting, welding and drilling fo tiny holes in various materials. It is used to vaporize certain substances that comes in its way. Hence it is used in machining and drilling. 3. Holography: It is used in the production of holograms (three dimensional images suspended in mid air). A laser show is one of the most spectular views to be watched. 4. Computer: It is used in printing and photographic recording of output data of a computer. 5. Audio-visual Display: It is used in compact disk audio and video system to achieve for reproducing a superb quality sound and picture. It is employed for obtaining images of moving objects. 6. Communication: It is used in telephone communication along optical fibre to transmit both sound and picture at the speed of light. It can be usede in T communication for having more number of channels (upto millions) 7. Space Laser can be usede as range finder over very long distances. e.g. lunar range, Laser gyroscopes are being used in modern aircraft for navigation. 8. Environment: It can be used as detector of pollutants in atmosphere.

9. Menstruation It is used for measuring speed of light to define standard metre. The precise measurement of a meter bar by interferometry has been made with an accuracy of 1 part in 10 million! 10. Research: Laser is used in precise fluid-flow velocity measurement using Doppler effect. If offers a means of exploring molecular structure. Efforts are being made to achieve controlled fusion and develop fusion power reactors using lasers.